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Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics (/ˌhɜːrməˈnjuːtɪks/)[1] is the theory and
methodology of interpretation,[2][3] especially the
interpretation of biblical texts, wisdom literature, and
philosophical texts.[4][5] Hermeneutics is more than
interpretive principles or methods we resort to when
immediate comprehension fails. Rather, hermeneutics is
the art of understanding and of making oneself Friedrich Wilhelm Hans-Georg
understood.[6] Schleiermacher Dilthey Gadamer

Modern hermeneutics includes both verbal and non-verbal

communication[7][8] as well as semiotics, presuppositions, and pre-understandings. Hermeneutics
has been broadly applied in the humanities, especially in law, history and theology.

Hermeneutics was initially applied to the interpretation, or exegesis, of scripture, and has been later
broadened to questions of general interpretation.[9] The terms hermeneutics and exegesis are
sometimes (incorrectly) used interchangeably. Hermeneutics is a wider discipline which includes
written, verbal, and non-verbal[7][8] communication. Exegesis focuses primarily upon the word and
grammar of texts.

Hermeneutic, as a count noun in the singular, refers to some particular method of interpretation (see,
in contrast, double hermeneutic).

Contents
Etymology
Folk etymology
In religious traditions
Mesopotamian hermeneutics
Islamic hermeneutics
Talmudic hermeneutics
Vedic hermeneutics
Buddhist hermeneutics
Biblical hermeneutics
Literal
Moral
Allegorical
Anagogical
Philosophical hermeneutics
Ancient and medieval hermeneutics
Modern hermeneutics
Dilthey (1833–1911)
Heidegger (1889–1976)
Gadamer (1900–2002)
New hermeneutic
Hermenêutica marxista
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Hermenêutica objetiva
Outros desenvolvimentos recentes
Aplicações
Arqueologia
Arquitetura
Ambiente
Relações internacionais
Direito
Fenomenologia
Filosofia política
Psicanálise
Psicologia
Religião e teologia
Ciência da segurança
Sociologia
Crítica
Veja também
Precursores notáveis
Referências
Bibliografia
Links externos

Etimologia
A hermenêutica é derivada da palavra grega ἑρμηνεύω ( hermēneuō , "traduzir, interpretar"), [10] de
ἑρμηνεύς ( hermeneus , "tradutor, intérprete"), de etimologia incerta ( RSP Beekes (2009) sugere
uma origem pré-grega ). [11] O termo técnico ἑρμηνεία ( hermeneia "interpretação, explicação") foi
introduzido na filosofia principalmente através do título de Aristóteles trabalho de Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας (
'Peri Hermeneias'), comumente referido pelo seu título em latim De Interpretationee traduzido em
inglês como On Interpretation . É uma das primeiras obras filosóficas existentes na tradição
ocidental (c. 360 AEC ) a lidar com a relação entre linguagem e lógica de uma maneira abrangente,
explícita e formal:

:
O uso precoce da "hermenêutica" coloca-a dentro dos limites do sagrado . [12] 21 Uma
mensagem divina deve ser recebida com incerteza implícita a respeito de sua verdade.
Essa ambiguidade é uma irracionalidade; é um tipo de loucura infligida ao receptor da
mensagem. Somente alguém que possui um método racional de interpretação (isto é, uma
:
hermenêutica) pode determinar a verdade ou falsidade da mensagem. [12] 21–22.

Etimologia popular

A etimologia popular dá origem a Hermes , a divindade mitológica grega que era o "mensageiro dos
deuses". [13] Além de ser um mediador entre os deuses e entre os deuses e os homens, ele levou almas
ao submundo após a morte.

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Hermes também foi considerado o inventor da linguagem e

da fala, um intérprete, um mentiroso, um ladrão e um
trapaceiro. [13] Esses múltiplos papéis fizeram de Hermes
uma figura representativa ideal para a hermenêutica. Como
Sócrates observou, as palavras têm o poder de revelar ou
ocultar e podem transmitir mensagens de maneira ambígua.
[13] A visão grega da linguagem como consistindo de sinais
que poderiam levar à verdade ou à falsidade era a essência de
Hermes, que se dizia apreciar a inquietação daqueles que
recebiam as mensagens que ele entregava.

Nas tradições religiosas

Hermenêutica da Mesopotâmia

Hermenêutica islâmicos

Hermenêutica talmúdicas

Os resumos dos princípios pelos quais a Torá pode ser

interpretada datam de, pelo menos, Hillel , o Velho , embora
os treze princípios estabelecidos na Baraita do Rabino Ismael
sejam talvez os mais conhecidos. Esses princípios variaram
de regras padrão da lógica (por exemplo, um argumento
fortiori [conhecido em hebraico como ‫ קל וחומר‬- kal v'chomer Hermes , mensageiro dos deuses.
]) a princípios mais amplos, como a regra de que uma
passagem poderia ser interpretada com referência a outra
passagem na qual a mesma palavra aparece ( Gezerah Shavah ). Os rabinos não atribuíram igual
poder de persuasão aos vários princípios. [14]

A hermenêutica judaica tradicional diferia do método grego, pois os rabinos consideravam o Tanakh
(o cânon bíblico judaico) sem erros. Quaisquer inconsistências aparentes tinham que ser entendidas
por meio de um exame cuidadoso de um determinado texto dentro do contexto de outros textos.
Havia diferentes níveis de interpretação: alguns foram usados para chegar ao significado claro do
texto, outros expuseram a lei dada no texto e outros encontraram níveis secretos ou místicos de
entendimento.

Hermenêutica védicos

A hermenêutica védica envolve a exegese dos Vedas , os primeiros textos sagrados do hinduísmo . O
Mimamsa era a principal escola hermenêutica e seu objetivo principal era entender o que o Dharma
(vida justa) envolvia por um estudo hermenêutico detalhado dos Vedas. Eles também derivaram as
regras para os vários rituais que precisavam ser executados com precisão.

O texto fundamental é o Sutra Mimamsa de Jaimini (ca. do século 3 ao 1 aC), com um grande
comentário de Śabara (ca. do século 5 ou 6 dC). O simara de Mimamsa resumiu as regras básicas para
a interpretação védica.

Hermenêutica budistas

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A hermenêutica budista lida com a interpretação da vasta literatura budista , particularmente os

textos que são ditos como falados pelo Buda ( Buddhavacana ) e outros seres iluminados. A
hermenêutica budista está profundamente ligada à prática espiritual budista e seu objetivo final é
extrair meios hábeis de alcançar a iluminação espiritual ou o nirvana . Uma questão central na
hermenêutica budista é quais ensinamentos budistas são explícitos, representando a verdade
suprema e quais ensinamentos são meramente convencionais ou relativos.

Hermenêutica bíblica

A hermenêutica bíblica é o estudo dos princípios de interpretação da Bíblia. Embora a hermenêutica

bíblica judaica e cristã tenha alguma sobreposição, elas têm tradições interpretativas distintamente
diferentes.

As primeiras tradições patrísticas da exegese bíblica tinham poucas características unificadoras no

começo, mas tendiam à unificação nas escolas posteriores de hermenêutica bíblica.

Agostinho oferece hermenêutica e homilética em sua De doctrina christiana . Ele enfatiza a

importância da humildade no estudo das Escrituras. Ele também considera o mandamento dúplex do
amor em Mateus 22 como o coração da fé cristã. Na hermenêutica de Agostinho, os sinais têm um
papel importante. Deus pode se comunicar com o crente através dos sinais das Escrituras. Assim,
humildade, amor e conhecimento dos sinais são um pressuposto hermenêutico essencial para uma
boa interpretação das Escrituras. Embora Agostinho endossa alguns ensinamentos do platonismode
seu tempo, ele a reformula de acordo com uma doutrina teocêntrica da Bíblia. Da mesma forma, em
uma disciplina prática, ele modifica a teoria clássica da oratória de maneira cristã. Ele ressalta o
significado do estudo diligente da Bíblia e da oração como mais do que mero conhecimento humano e
habilidades oratórias. Como observação final, Agostinho incentiva o intérprete e pregador da Bíblia a
procurar um bom modo de vida e, acima de tudo, amar a Deus e ao próximo. [15]

Tradicionalmente, há um quadruplicado senso de hermenêutica bíblica: literal, moral, alegórica

(espiritual) e anagógica. [16]

Literal

Encyclopædia Britannica states that literal analysis means “a biblical text is to be deciphered
according to the ‘plain meaning’ expressed by its linguistic construction and historical context.” The
intention of the authors is believed to correspond to the literal meaning. Literal hermeneutics is often
associated with the verbal inspiration of the Bible.[17]

Moral

Moral interpretation searches for moral lessons which can be understood from writings within the
Bible. Allegories are often placed in this category.[17]

Allegorical

Allegorical interpretation states that biblical narratives have a second level of reference that is more
than the people, events and things that are explicitly mentioned. One type of allegorical
interpretation is known as typological, where the key figures, events, and establishments of the Old
Testament are viewed as “types” (patterns). In the New Testament this can also include
foreshadowing of people, objects, and events. According to this theory, readings like Noah’s Ark could
be understood by using the Ark as a “type” of the Christian church that God designed from the
start.[17]

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Anagogical

This type of interpretation is more often known as mystical interpretation. It claims to explain the
events of the Bible and how they relate to or predict what the future holds. This is evident in the
Jewish Kabbalah, which attempts to reveal the mystical significance of the numerical values of
Hebrew words and letters.

In Judaism, anagogical interpretation is also evident in the medieval Zohar. In Christianity, it can be
seen in Mariology.[17]

Philosophical hermeneutics

Ancient and medieval hermeneutics

Modern hermeneutics

The discipline of hermeneutics emerged with the new humanist education of the 15th century as a
historical and critical methodology for analyzing texts. In a triumph of early modern hermeneutics,
the Italian humanist Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery.
This was done through intrinsic evidence of the text itself. Thus hermeneutics expanded from its
medieval role of explaining the true meaning of the Bible.

However, biblical hermeneutics did not die off. For example, the Protestant Reformation brought
about a renewed interest in the interpretation of the Bible, which took a step away from the
interpretive tradition developed during the Middle Ages back to the texts themselves. Martin Luther
and John Calvin emphasized scriptura sui ipsius interpres (scripture interprets itself). Calvin used
brevitas et facilitas as an aspect of theological hermeneutics.[18]

The rationalist Enlightenment led hermeneutists, especially Protestant exegetists, to view Scriptural
texts as secular classical texts. They interpreted Scripture as responses to historical or social forces so
that, for example, apparent contradictions and difficult passages in the New Testament might be
clarified by comparing their possible meanings with contemporary Christian practices.

Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) explored the nature of understanding in relation not just to
the problem of deciphering sacred texts but to all human texts and modes of communication.

The interpretation of a text must proceed by framing its content in terms of the overall organization
of the work. Schleiermacher distinguished between grammatical interpretation and psychological
interpretation. The former studies how a work is composed from general ideas; the latter studies the
peculiar combinations that characterize the work as a whole. He said that every problem of
interpretation is a problem of understanding and even defined hermeneutics as the art of avoiding
misunderstanding. Misunderstanding was to be avoided by means of knowledge of grammatical and
psychological laws.

During Schleiermacher's time, a fundamental shift occurred from understanding not merely the exact
words and their objective meaning, to an understanding of the writer's distinctive character and point
of view.[19]

Nineteenth- and twentieth-century hermeneutics emerged as a theory of understanding (Verstehen)

through the work of Friedrich Schleiermacher (Romantic hermeneutics[20] and
methodological hermeneutics),[21] August Böckh (methodological hermeneutics),[22] Wilhelm
Dilthey (epistemological hermeneutics),[23] Martin Heidegger (ontological
hermeneutics,[24] hermeneutic phenomenology,[25][26][27] and transcendental hermeneutic
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phenomenology),[28] Hans-Georg Gadamer (ontological hermeneutics),[29] Leo Strauss (Straussian

hermeneutics),[30] Paul Ricœur (hermeneutic phenomenology),[31] Walter Benjamin (Marxist
hermeneutics),[32] Ernst Bloch (Marxist hermeneutics),[33][32] Jacques Derrida (radical
hermeneutics, namely deconstruction),[34][35] Richard Kearney (diacritical hermeneutics), Fredric
Jameson (Marxist hermeneutics),[36] and John Thompson (critical hermeneutics).

Regarding the relation of hermeneutics with problems of analytic philosophy, there has been,
particularly among analytic Heideggerians and those working on Heidegger’s philosophy of science,
an attempt to try and situate Heidegger's hermeneutic project in debates concerning realism and
anti-realism: arguments have been presented both for Heidegger's hermeneutic idealism (the
thesis that meaning determines reference or, equivalently, that our understanding of the being of
entities is what determines entities as entities)[37] and for Heidegger's hermeneutic realism[38]
(the thesis that (a) there is a nature in itself and science can give us an explanation of how that nature
works, and (b) that (a) is compatible with the ontological implications of our everyday practices).[39]

Philosophers that worked to combine analytic philosophy with hermeneutics include Georg Henrik
von Wright and Peter Winch. Roy J. Howard termed this approach analytic hermeneutics.[40]

Other contemporary philosophers influenced by the hermeneutic tradition include Charles Taylor[19]
(engaged hermeneutics)[41] and Dagfinn Føllesdal.[19]

Dilthey (1833–1911)

Wilhelm Dilthey broadened hermeneutics even more by relating interpretation to historical

objectification. Understanding moves from the outer manifestations of human action and
productivity to the exploration of their inner meaning. In his last important essay, "The
Understanding of Other Persons and Their Manifestations of Life" (1910), Dilthey made clear that
this move from outer to inner, from expression to what is expressed, is not based on empathy.
Empathy involves a direct identification with the Other. Interpretation involves an indirect or
mediated understanding that can only be attained by placing human expressions in their historical
context. Thus, understanding is not a process of reconstructing the state of mind of the author, but
one of articulating what is expressed in his work.

Dilthey divided sciences of the mind (human sciences) into three structural levels: experience,
expression, and comprehension.

Experience means to feel a situation or thing personally. Dilthey suggested that we can always
grasp the meaning of unknown thought when we try to experience it. His understanding of
experience is very similar to that of phenomenologist Edmund Husserl.
Expression converts experience into meaning because the discourse has an appeal to someone
outside of oneself. Every saying is an expression. Dilthey suggested that one can always return
to an expression, especially to its written form, and this practice has the same objective value as
an experiment in science. The possibility of returning makes scientific analysis possible, and
therefore the humanities may be labeled as science. Moreover, he assumed that an expression
may be "saying" more than the speaker intends because the expression brings forward meanings
which the individual consciousness may not fully understand.
The last structural level of the science of the mind, according to Dilthey, is comprehension, which
is a level that contains both comprehension and incomprehension. Incomprehension means,
more or less, wrong understanding. He assumed that comprehension produces coexistence: "he
who understands, understands others; he who does not understand stays alone."

Heidegger (1889–1976)

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In the 20th century, Martin Heidegger's philosophical hermeneutics shifted the focus from
interpretation to existential understanding as rooted in fundamental ontology, which was treated
more as a direct—and thus more authentic—way of being-in-the-world (In-der-Welt-sein) than
merely as "a way of knowing."[42] For example, he called for a "special hermeneutic of empathy" to
dissolve the classic philosophic issue of "other minds" by putting the issue in the context of the being-
with of human relatedness. (Heidegger himself did not complete this inquiry.)[43]

Advocates of this approach claim that some texts, and the people who produce them, cannot be
studied by means of using the same scientific methods that are used in the natural sciences, thus
drawing upon arguments similar to those of antipositivism. Moreover, they claim that such texts are
conventionalized expressions of the experience of the author. Thus, the interpretation of such texts
will reveal something about the social context in which they were formed, and, more significantly, will
provide the reader with a means of sharing the experiences of the author.

The reciprocity between text and context is part of what Heidegger called the hermeneutic circle.
Among the key thinkers who elaborated this idea was the sociologist Max Weber.

Gadamer (1900–2002)

Hans-Georg Gadamer's hermeneutics is a development of the hermeneutics of his teacher, Heidegger.

Gadamer asserted that methodical contemplation is opposite to experience and reflection. We can
reach the truth only by understanding or mastering our experience. According to Gadamer, our
understanding is not fixed but rather is changing and always indicating new perspectives. The most
important thing is to unfold the nature of individual understanding.

Gadamer pointed out that prejudice is an element of our understanding and is not per se without
value. Indeed, prejudices, in the sense of pre-judgements of the thing we want to understand, are
unavoidable. Being alien to a particular tradition is a condition of our understanding. He said that we
can never step outside of our tradition—all we can do is try to understand it. This further elaborates
the idea of the hermeneutic circle.

New hermeneutic

New hermeneutic is the theory and methodology of interpretation to understand Biblical texts
through existentialism. The essence of new hermeneutic emphasizes not only the existence of
language but also the fact that language is eventualized in the history of individual life.[44] This is
called the event of language. Ernst Fuchs,[45] Gerhard Ebeling, and James M. Robinson are the
scholars who represent the new hermeneutics.

Marxist hermeneutics

The method of Marxist hermeneutics has been developed by the work of, primarily, Walter
Benjamin and Fredric Jameson. Benjamin outlines his theory of the allegory in his study Ursprung
des deutschen Trauerspiels[32] ("Trauerspiel" literally means "mourning play" but is often translated
as "tragic drama").[46] Fredric Jameson draws on Biblical hermeneutics, Ernst Bloch,[47] and the
work of Northrop Frye, to advance his theory of Marxist hermeneutics in his influential The Political
Unconscious. Jameson's Marxist hermeneutics is outlined in the first chapter of the book, titled "On
Interpretation"[48] Jameson re-interprets (and secularizes) the fourfold system (or four levels) of
Biblical exegesis (literal; moral; allegorical; anagogical) to relate interpretation to the Mode of
Production, and eventually, history.[49]

Objective hermeneutics

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Karl Popper first used the term "objective hermeneutics" in his Objective Knowledge (1972).[50]

In 1992, the Association for Objective Hermeneutics (AGOH) was founded in Frankfurt am Main by
scholars of various disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. Its goal is to provide all scholars
who use the methodology of objective hermeneutics with a means of exchanging information.[51]

In one of the few translated texts of this German school of hermeneutics, its founders declared:

Our approach has grown out of the empirical study of family interactions as well as
reflection upon the procedures of interpretation employed in our research. For the time
being we shall refer to it as objective hermeneutics in order to distinguish it clearly from
traditional hermeneutic techniques and orientations. The general significance for
sociological analysis of objective hermeneutics issues from the fact that, in the social
sciences, interpretive methods constitute the fundamental procedures of measurement
and of the generation of research data relevant to theory. From our perspective, the
standard, nonhermeneutic methods of quantitative social research can only be justified
because they permit a shortcut in generating data (and research "economy" comes about
under specific conditions). Whereas the conventional methodological attitude in the
social sciences justifies qualitative approaches as exploratory or preparatory activities, to
be succeeded by standardized approaches and techniques as the actual scientific
procedures (assuring precision, validity, and objectivity), we regard hermeneutic
procedures as the basic method for gaining precise and valid knowledge in the social
sciences. However, we do not simply reject alternative approaches dogmatically. They are
in fact useful wherever the loss in precision and objectivity necessitated by the
requirement of research economy can be condoned and tolerated in the light of prior
hermeneutically elucidated research experiences.[52]

Other recent developments

Bernard Lonergan's (1904–1984) hermeneutics is less well known, but a case for considering his
work as the culmination of the postmodern hermeneutical revolution that began with Heidegger was
made in several articles by Lonergan specialist Frederick G. Lawrence.[53]

Paul Ricœur (1913–2005) developed a hermeneutics that is based upon Heidegger's concepts. His
work differs in many ways from that of Gadamer.

Karl-Otto Apel (b. 1922) elaborated a hermeneutics based on American semiotics. He applied his
model to discourse ethics with political motivations akin to those of critical theory.

Jürgen Habermas (b. 1929) criticized the conservatism of previous hermeneutists, especially
Gadamer, because their focus on tradition seemed to undermine possibilities for social criticism and
transformation. He also criticized Marxism and previous members of the Frankfurt School for
missing the hermeneutical dimension of critical theory.

Habermas incorporated the notion of the lifeworld and emphasized the importance for social theory
of interaction, communication, labor, and production. He viewed hermeneutics as a dimension of
critical social theory.

Rudolf Makkreel (b. 1939) has proposed an orientational hermeneutics that brings out the
contextualizing function of reflective judgment. It extends ideas of Kant and Dilthey to supplement
the dialogical approach of Gadamer with a diagnostic approach that can deal with an ever-changing
and multicultural world.

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Andrés Ortiz-Osés (b. 1943) has developed his symbolic hermeneutics as the Mediterranean response
to Northern European hermeneutics. His main statement regarding symbolic understanding of the
world is that meaning is a symbolic healing of injury.

Two other important hermeneutic scholars are Jean Grondin (b. 1955) and Maurizio Ferraris (b.
1956).

Mauricio Beuchot coined the term and discipline of analogic hermeneutics, which is a type of
hermeneutics that is based upon interpretation and takes into account the plurality of aspects of
meaning. He drew categories both from analytic and continental philosophy, as well as from the
history of thought.

Two scholars who have published criticism of Gadamer's hermeneutics are the Italian jurist Emilio
Betti and the American literary theorist E. D. Hirsch.

Applications

Archaeology

In archaeology, hermeneutics means the interpretation and understanding of material through

analysis of possible meanings and social uses.

Proponents argue that interpretation of artifacts is unavoidably hermeneutic because we cannot know
for certain the meaning behind them. We can only apply modern values when interpreting. This is
most commonly seen in stone tools, where descriptions such as "scraper" can be highly subjective and
actually unproven until the development of microwear analysis some thirty years ago.

Opponents argue that a hermeneutic approach is too relativist and that their own interpretations are
based on common-sense evaluation.[54]

Architecture

There are several traditions of architectural scholarship that draw upon the hermeneutics of
Heidegger and Gadamer, such as Christian Norberg-Schulz, and Nader El-Bizri in the circles of
phenomenology. Lindsay Jones examines the way architecture is received and how that reception
changes with time and context (e.g., how a building is interpreted by critics, users, and historians).[55]
Dalibor Vesely situates hermeneutics within a critique of the application of overly scientific thinking
to architecture.[56] This tradition fits within a critique of the Enlightenment[57] and has also informed
design-studio teaching. Adrian Snodgrass sees the study of history and Asian cultures by architects as
a hermeneutical encounter with otherness.[58] He also deploys arguments from hermeneutics to
explain design as a process of interpretation.[59] Along with Richard Coyne, he extends the argument
to the nature of architectural education and design.[60]

Environment

Environmental hermeneutics applies hermeneutics to environmental issues conceived broadly to

subjects including "nature" and "wilderness" (both terms are matters of hermeneutical contention),
landscapes, ecosystems, built environments (where it overlaps architectural hermeneutics[61][62] ),
inter-species relationships, the relationship of the body to the world, and more.

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International relations

Insofar as hermeneutics is a basis of both critical theory and constitutive theory (both of which have
made important inroads into the postpositivist branch of international relations theory and political
science), it has been applied to international relations.

Steve Smith refers to hermeneutics as the principal way of grounding a foundationalist yet
postpositivist theory of international relations.

Radical postmodernism is an example of a postpositivist yet anti-foundationalist paradigm of

international relations.

Law

Some scholars argue that law and theology are particular forms of hermeneutics because of their need
to interpret legal tradition or scriptural texts. Moreover, the problem of interpretation has been
central to legal theory since at least the 11th century.

In the Middle Ages and Italian Renaissance, the schools of glossatores, commentatores, and usus
modernus distinguished themselves by their approach to the interpretation of "laws" (mainly
Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis). The University of Bologna gave birth to a "legal Renaissance" in the
11th century, when the Corpus Juris Civilis was rediscovered and systematically studied by men such
as Irnerius and Johannes Gratian. It was an interpretative Renaissance. Subsequently, these were
fully developed by Thomas Aquinas and Alberico Gentili.

Since then, interpretation has always been at the center of legal thought. Friedrich Carl von Savigny
and Emilio Betti, among others, made significant contributions to general hermeneutics. Legal
interpretivism, most famously Ronald Dworkin's, may be seen as a branch of philosophical
hermeneutics.

Phenomenology

In qualitative research, the beginnings of phenomenology stem from German philosopher and
researcher Edmund Husserl.[63]In his early days, Husserl studied mathematics, but over time his
disinterest with empirical methods led him to philosophy and eventually phenomenology. Husserl’s
phenomenology inquires on the specifics of a certain experience or experiences and attempts to
unfold the meaning of experience in everyday life.[63]Phenomenology started as philosophy and then
developed into methodology over time. American researcher Don Ihde contributed to
phenomenological research methodology through what he described as experimental
phenomenology: “Phenomenology, in the first instance, is like an investigative science, an essential
component of which is an experiment.”[64]His work contributed heavily to the implementation of
phenomenology as a methodology.[64][65]

The beginnings of hermeneutic phenomenology stem from a German researcher and student of
Husserl, Martin Heidegger.[63]Both researchers attempted to pull out the lived experiences of others
through philosophical concepts, but Heidegger’s main difference from Husserl was his belief that
consciousness was not separate from the world but a formation of who we are as living
individuals.[63]Hermeneutic phenomenology stresses that every event or encounter involves some
type of interpretation from an individual’s background, and that we cannot separate this from an
individual’s development through life.[63]Ihde also focuses on hermeneutic phenomenology within
his early work, and draws connections between Husserl and French philosopher Paul Ricoeur’s work

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in the field.[65]Ricoeur focuses on the importance of symbols and linguistics within hermeneutic
phenomenology.[65]Overall, hermeneutic phenomenological research focuses on historical meanings
and experiences, and their developmental and social effects on individuals.[66]

Political philosophy

Italian philosopher Gianni Vattimo and Spanish philosopher Santiago Zabala in their book
Hermeneutic Communism, when discussing contemporary capitalist regimes, stated that, "A politics
of descriptions does not impose power in order to dominate as a philosophy; rather, it is functional
for the continued existence of a society of dominion, which pursues truth in the form of imposition
(violence), conservation (realism), and triumph (history)."[67]

Vattimo and Zabala also stated that they view interpretation as anarchy and affirmed that "existence
is interpretation" and that "hermeneutics is weak thought."

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysts have made ample use of hermeneutics since Sigmund Freud first gave birth to their
discipline. In 1900 Freud wrote that the title he chose for The Interpretation of Dreams 'makes plain
which of the traditional approaches to the problem of dreams I am inclined to follow...[i.e.]
"interpreting" a dream implies assigning a "meaning" to it.'[68]

The French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan later extended Freudian hermeneutics into other psychical
realms. His early work from the 1930s–50s is particularly influenced by Heidegger, and Maurice
Merleau-Ponty's hermeneutical phenomenology.[69]

Psychology

Psychologists and computer scientists have recently become interested in hermeneutics, especially as
an alternative to cognitivism.

Hubert Dreyfus's critique of conventional artificial intelligence has been influential among
psychologists who are interested in hermeneutic approaches to meaning and interpretation, as
discussed by philosophers such as Martin Heidegger (cf. Embodied cognition) and Ludwig
Wittgenstein (cf. Discursive psychology).

Hermeneutics is also influential in humanistic psychology.[70]

Religion and theology

The understanding of a theological text depends upon the reader's particular hermeneutical
viewpoint. Some theorists, such as Paul Ricœur, have applied modern philosophical hermeneutics to
theological texts (in Ricœur's case, the Bible).

Mircea Eliade, as a hermeneutist, understands religion as 'experience of the sacred', and interprets
the sacred in relation to the profane.[71] The Romanian scholar underlines that the relation between
the sacred and the profane is not of opposition, but of complementarity, having interpreted the
profane as a hierophany.[72] The hermeneutics of the myth is a part of the hermeneutics of religion.
Myth should not be interpreted as an illusion or a lie, because there is truth in myth to be
rediscovered.[73] Myth is interpreted by Mircea Eliade as 'sacred history'. He introduces the concept
of 'total hermeneutics'.[74]

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Safety science

In the field of safety science, and especially in the study of human reliability, scientists have become
increasingly interested in hermeneutic approaches.

It has been proposed by ergonomist Donald Taylor that mechanist models of human behaviour will
only take us so far in terms of accident reduction, and that safety science must look at the meaning of
accidents for human beings.[75]

Other scholars in the field have attempted to create safety taxonomies that make use of hermeneutic
concepts in terms of their categorisation of qualitative data.[76]

Sociology

In sociology, hermeneutics is the interpretation and understanding of social events through analysis
of their meanings for the human participants in the events. It enjoyed prominence during the 1960s
and 1970s, and differs from other interpretive schools of sociology in that it emphasizes the
importance of both context[77] and form within any given social behaviour.

The central principle of sociological hermeneutics is that it is only possible to know the meaning of an
act or statement within the context of the discourse or world view from which it originates. Context is
critical to comprehension; an action or event that carries substantial weight to one person or culture
may be viewed as meaningless or entirely different to another. For example, giving the "thumbs-up"
gesture is widely accepted as a sign of a job well done in the United States, while other cultures view it
as an insult.[78] Similarly, putting a piece of paper into a box might be considered a meaningless act
unless it is put into the context of democratic elections (the act of putting a ballot paper into a box).

Friedrich Schleiermacher, widely regarded as the father of sociological hermeneutics believed that, in
order for an interpreter to understand the work of another author, they must familiarize themselves
with the historical context in which the author published their thoughts. His work led to the
inspiration of Heidegger's "hermeneutic circle" a frequently referenced model that claims one's
understanding of individual parts of a text is based on their understanding of the whole text, while
the understanding of the whole text is dependent on the understanding of each individual part.[79]
Hermeneutics in sociology was also heavily influenced by German philosopher Hans-Georg
Gadamer.[80]

Criticism
Jürgen Habermas criticizes Gadamer's hermeneutics as being unsuitable for understanding society
because it is unable to account for questions of social reality, like labor and domination.[81]

Murray Rothbard and Hans Hermann-Hoppe, both economists of the Austrian school, have criticized
the hermeneutical approach to economics.[82][83]

See also
Allegorical interpretations of Plato
Authorial intentionalism
Biblical law in Christianity
Close reading
Gymnobiblism
Hermeneutics of suspicion

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Historical poetics
Narrative inquiry
Parallelomania
Pesher
Philology
Quranic hermeneutics
Reader-response criticism
Structuration theory
Symbolic anthropology
Tafsir
Talmudical hermeneutics
Text criticism
Theosophy
Truth theory

Notable precursors
Johann August Ernesti[84]
Johann Gottfried Herder[85]
Friedrich August Wolf[86]
Georg Anton Friedrich Ast[86]

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External links
Abductive Inference and Literary theory – Pragmatism, Hermeneutics and Semiotics (http://www.
digitalpeirce.fee.unicamp.br/p-infwir.htm) written by Uwe Wirth (http://www.digitalpeirce.fee.unica
mp.br/wirth.htm).

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Meta: Research in Hermeneutics, Phenomenology, and Practical Philosophy (http://www.metajour

nal.org/display_page.php?title=home) International peer-reviewed journal.
Objective Hermeneutics Bibliographic Database (https://archive.is/20130411141156/http://www.ob
jective-hermeneutics.com/bibliography/bibliographic-database.html) provided by the Association
for Objective Hermeneutics (http://www.objective-hermeneutics.com).
de Berg, Henk: Gadamer's Hermeneutics: An Introduction (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YT
tiTgStBYE) (2015)
de Berg, Henk: Ricoeur's Hermeneutics: An Introduction (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hME
FAAEm0IE) (2015)
Palmer, Richard E. (http://www.mac.edu/faculty/richardpalmer/), "The Liminality of Hermes and
the Meaning of Hermeneutics"
Palmer, Richard E., "The Relevance of Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics to Thirty-Six
Topics or Fields of Human Activity", Lecture Delivered at the Department of Philosophy, Southern
Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, 1 April 1999, Eprint (https://web.archive.org/web/20070928141
532/http://www.mac.edu/faculty/richardpalmer/relevance.html).
Plato, Ion, Paul Woodruff (trans.) in Plato, Complete Works, ed. John M. Cooper. Indianapolis:
Hackett Publishing Company, 1997, pp. 937–949.
Quintana Paz, Miguel Ángel, "On Hermeneutical Ethics and Education" (http://www.uned.es/dpto
_fil/revista/polemos/articulos/MA_Quintana_On%20Hermeneutical%20Ethics%20&%20Educatio
n%20(Internet)2.doc), a paper on the relevance of Gadamer's Hermeneutics for our
understanding of Music, Ethics and our Education in both.
Szesnat, Holger, "Philosophical Hermeneutics", Webpage (http://biblicalhermeneutics.wordpress.
com/hermeneutics-links/philosophical-hermeneutics/).

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