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Executive functions: Insights into ways to help more children thrive

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Blair, C.,llc Raver, C. C. (20 12). Child d~dopment in the context of adversity: McClelland, M. M.,llc Cameron, C. E. (2012). Self-regulation in
Experiential canalization ofbrain and behavior.Ammcan Psychologist, 67, early childhood: lm proving conceptual clarity and developing
309-3 18. doi: 10.1 037/a0027493 ecologically valid measures. Child Developmenll'erspectives, 6, 136-142.
Blair, C., llc Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating dfunful control, executive function, doi:10.11111j.1750.8606.2011.00191.x
and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in
kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647-663.
McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L.,
Jewkes, A. M.,llc Morrison, F. J. (2007). Links between behavioral regulation
Executive Functions:
Bowlby,). (1988). A securr: base: Parr:nt-child attachment and healthy human
de/Jelopment. New York, NY: Basic Books.
and preschoolers' literacy, vocabulary and math skills. Developmental
Psychology, 43(4), 947-959. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.947
Insights Into Ways to Help More Children Thrive
McClelland, M. M., Ponirz, C. C., Messersmith, E.,& Tomincy, S. L. (2010).
Calkins, S.D. (2004). Early artachment processes and the d~dopment of
Self-regulation: The integration of cognition and emotion. In R. Lerner Adele Diamond
emotional sdf.regulation.ln R. F. Baumeister llc K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook
ofselfrr:gulahon: &search, theory, and applications (pp. 324-339). New York, NY: (Series Ed.) llc W. Overton (Vol. Ed.), Handbook oflife-span development University of British Columbia
Guilford Press. (pp. 509-553). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Diamond, A. (2002). Normal development of prefrontal cortex from birth Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N ., Hancox, R. J.,
to young adulthood: Cognitive functions, anatomy, and biochemisuy.ln Harrington, H., ... Cas pi, A. (20 11 ). A gradient of childhood self.control
D. T. Stussllc R. T. Knight (Eds.), Principles offtontallohefunction (pp. 466-503). predicu health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings ofthe National Academy
London, England: Oxford University Press. ofSciences, USA, 108,2693-2698. doi:IO.I073/pnas.IOI0076108 ABSTRACT
Diamond, A. (20 I0). The ~idence base for improving school ou~eomes by Obradovic, j. (201 0). Effortful control and adaptive functioning of homeless Executive functions enable children to pay attention, follow instructions, apply what they
children: Variable-focused and person-focused analyses.jouma/ ofApplied
addressing the whole child and by addressing skills and attitudes, not just
De~~elopmental Psychology, 31, 109-117. doi:IO.IOI6/j.appdev.2009.09.004 have learned, have those "aha i" moments in which they grasp how multiple facts interrelate,
content. Early Education & Development, 21, 780-793. doi: 10.1080110409289.20
10.514522 Rothbart, M. K., llc Bates,). E. (2006). Temperament. In W. Damon llc think of creative solutions, obey social norms such as waiting their turn and not butting in
R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.) llc N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook ofchild line or jumping out of their seat, mentally construct a plan, hold in mind what they did so
Dowsett, S. M., llc li\·esey, D.J. (2000). The development of inhibitory control
in preschool children: Effects of"cxecutive skills" training. De11elopmental psychology: Vol. 3: Social, emotional, and penonality development (6th ed., they can understand how that relates to later consequences, and much more. One would
Psyclwbiology,36, 161-174. pp. 99-166). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. be hard pressed to think of an aspect of life in which executive functions are not important.
Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C.,& Eggum, N.D. (2010). Self-regulation and school Rothbart, M. K., Posner, M. 1., llc Kieras,J. (2006). Temperament, attention, In this article, I define and explain executive functions and provide examples of how these
readiness. Early Education & De11elopment, 21,681-698. doi:IO.I080!10409289.2 and the development of self.regulation.ln K. McCartney llc D. Phillips (Eds.},
Blackwell handbook ofearly childhood development (pp. 338-357}. Malden, MA: sophisticated abilities manifestthemselves even in infants. Finally, I explore how to support,
010.497451
Blackwell. train, and improve these critical skills.
Evans, G. W.,llc Rosenbaum,j. (2008 ). Self-regulation and the income·
achievement gap. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23,504-514. Rueda, M. R., Posner, M.l.,llc Rothbart, M. K. (2005). The development
of executive attention: Contributions to the emergence of sclf.regulation.
Guon, N., Bryson, S. E.,& Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in Developmental Neuropsyclwlogy, 28, 573-594.
preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Buffetin,
134, 31-60. do1: 10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31 Ruc:da, M. R., Rothbart, M. K., McCandliss, B. D., Saccomanno, L.,llc xeculivefimctions are a set of mental processes needed 2013; Wiebe, Sheffield, &
Posner, M.l. (2005). Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the when you have to concentrate and pay attention-when Espy, 2012). Inhibitory control
Gathercolc, S. E. (2008). Working memory in the classroom. 171e Psyclwlogist, development of executive attention. Proceedings ofthe National Academy of
21,382-385. Sciences, USA, 102, 14931- 14936.doi:10.1073_pnas.0506897102 "going on automatic" or relying on instinct or intuition makes it possible for people
Heckman,J.J., Stixrud,J., llc Urzua,S. l2006). The effects of cognitive and Sanders, M. R.,llc Mazzucchelli, T. G. (2013). The promotion of self- would be ill-advised, insufficient, or impossible (Diamond, 2006, to resist acting on their first
noncognitive abilities on labor market outcomes and social behavior. journal of regulation through parenting interventions. Clinical Child and Family 2013; Hughes, 2005;Jacques & Marcovitch, 2010; E. K. MiJler & impulse so they do not do or
Labor Economics, 24, 411-482. Psychology Review,16, 1- 17.doi:10.1007/s10567.013.0129·z Cohen,2001). Executive functions are so critical for so many say something they would
Karrcman, A., van Tuijl, C., van Aken, M.A. G.,& Dekovic, M. [2006). Schmitt, S. A., McClelland, M. M., Tominey, S. L.,llc Acock, A. C. l2014).
Parenting and self-regulation in preschoolers: A meta-analysis. Infant and Child aspects oflife that it is no understatement to say that if you want regret. Inhibitory control also
Strr:ngthening school readiness for children at-risk: Evaluation ofa selfrr:gulation
Development,15,561 -579.doi:10.10021icd.478 intervention. Manuscript submitted for publication. Taylor to do well in school and in life, you need to care that makes it possible for you and
Kopp, C. B. (1 991 ). Young children's progression to sc:lf.regulation.Jn Sc:ktnan, M., McClelland, M. M., Acock,A. C.,& Morrison, F.J- {2010). Taylor develops healthy executive functions. Although executive I to screen out (i.e., inhibit)
M. Bullock (Ed.), 171e development ofintentional action: VoL 22: Cognitive, Relations between early family risk, children's behavioral regulation, and functions take more than 2 decades to fully develop (Gogtay what is irrelevant or distract·
motivational, a11d interactive processes (pp. 38- 54). Basel, Switzerland: Karger. academic achievement. Early Childhood &search Quarterly, ZS, 464-479. et al., 2004; Sowell, Thompson, Holmes, Jernigan, & Toga, 1999), ing, making it possible for us
Ladd, G. W.,llc Dinella, L. M. (2009). Continuity and change in early school doi:10.1 016/j.ecresq.201 0.02.005
engagement: Predictive of children's achievement trajectories from first to
even infants less than 1 year old are capable of demonstrating to sroy focused on the task at
Sroufe, L.A. ( 19971. Emotional development: The organization of emotional
eighth gradc?joumal ofEducationall'sychology,101, 190-206.doi:IO.I037/ life in the early years. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. executive functions to some extent, and with training and prac· hand. Se!fregulatioJt overlaps
a0013153 tice, they can improve on them- just as anyone can at any age. to a large extent (but not
Tomincy, S. L.,llc McClelland, M. M. (2011). Red light, purple light: Findings
Li·Grining, C. P., Votru ba-Drzal, E., Maldonado-Carreno, C.,llc Haas, K. (201 0). from a randomized trial using circle time games to improve behavioral self. completely) with inhibitory
Children's early approaches 10 learning and academic trajectories through liflh regulation in preschool. Early Educal1on & Development, 22,489- 519.doi:10.1 control (Diamond, 2013).
grade. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1062- 1077. doi:IO.I037/a0020066 080/10409289.2011.574258 What Are Executive Functions? A good synonym for much
McClelland, M. M., Acock, A. C.,& Morrison, F. J- (2006). The impact of of what inhibitory control
Ursache, A., Blair, C.,& Raver, C. C. (2012). The promotion of self-regulation A good synonym for much
kindergarten learning-related skills on academic trajectories at the end as a means of enhancing school readiness and early achievement in There is general agreement that there are three core executive involves is self-control-
of c:lementary school. Early Childhood &search Quarterly, 21,471-490. children at risk for school failure. Child De11elopment Perspecti11es, 6, 122- 128. functions: ;,hibitory co,tro/, working memory, and cognitive flex- of what inhibitory control resisting temptations and
doi: I0.1 016/j.ecrcsq.2006.09.003 doi:IO.I1I liJ.1750.8606.2011.00209.x involves is se!fcotttro/- not acting impulsively.
ibility (Diamond, 2013; Lehto,Juujarvi, Kooistra, & Pulkkinen,
McClelland, M. M., Acock, A. C., Piccinin, A., Rhea, S. A., llc Stallings, M. C. Zdazo, P. D., Carlson, S. M.,llc Kesek, A. f2008}. The development of 2003; Logue & Gould, 2014; Miyake et al., 2000). From these, resisting temptations and
(201J). Relations between preschool anention span· persistence and age executive function in childhood. In C. Nelson llc M. Luciana (Ed.), Handbook not acting impulsively. When
25 educational outcomes. Early Childhood &search Quarterly, 28,314-324. ofdevelopmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd cd., pp. 553- 574}. Cambridge, higher-order executive functions are built, such as reasoning,
doi:IO.IOI6/j.ecresq.2012.07.008 MA: MIT Press. problem solving, and planning (Collins & Koechlin, 2012; Lunt Shawn goes looking for his favorite toy and sees that Sally has
McClelland, M. M., llc Cameron, C. E. {2011 ). Sc:lf.regulation and academic et al., 2012). it, it will take inhibitory control for Shawn not to try to grab the
achievement in elementary school children. New Directionsfor Child and toy from Sally. IfJohnny has just said something that hurt Joey's
Adolescent Development, 2011, 29-44. doi: 10.1002/cd.302 feelings, it will roke inhibitory control for Joey not to strike back.
INHIBITORY CONTROL (OR INHIBITION)
Standing in front of the cookie jar, it will take inhibitory control
Inhibitory control involves being able to override a strong
for Jill to obey the prohibition on eating cookies just before a
internal predisposition or external lure to do one thing and
meal. For adults, it takes inhibitory control to wait until their ini·
instead do what is more appropriate or needed (Diamond, 2013;
tial annoyance has subsided before pressing "send" on an e-mail
Macdonald, Beauchamp, Crigan, & Anderson, 2014; Simpson
message. it takes inhibitory control to "bite one's tongue" and
et al., 2012; van den Wilden berg et al., 2010; Watson & Bell,

8 Zl!ro to 71Jrrc • November 20 14 Zero to Tbree • November 2014 9

not say the first thing that comes to mind when that would be yet nevertheless persist in sorting the cards incorrectly on every in view at the same time. It requires working memory to relate
something hurtful or inappropriate. A final aspect of self.control trial (see the last two items in Learn More box). Note that what you read earlier to what you are reading now.
is delaying gratification (Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989), although if you heard that they continued to sort the cards incor-
that is, having the discipline to forgo an immediate pleasure for a rectly despite knowing what they should do you might think the Working memory also allows people to consider their remem-
greater reward later. children were intentionally doing the wrong thing, when watch· bered past and future hopes in making plans and decisions.
ing the video it seems clear that the children want very much Reasoning, problem solving, and creative thinking would not be
Another aspect of inhibitory control is selective attelltioll- to sort the cards correctly. (These are excerpts from sessions in possible without working memory because they involve holding
inhibiting attention to things that are irrelevant, keeping your which children were taught both sorting rules at the outset, then information in mind, looking for connections often among
attention focused despite distractions (Gomes, Duff, Barnhardt, sorted six cards by one dimension and then were asked to sort six seemingly unconnected things, and recombining elements in
Barrett, & Ritter, 2007; Posner & DiGirolamo, 1998; Stevens & cards by the other dimension.) new ways- playing with facts and ideas in your head.
Bavelier, 2012; Theeuwes,
2010; Wendelken, Baym, Inhibitory control seems to be Working memory and inhibitory control are more strongly asso·
Gazzaley, & Bunge, 2011; the executive function most ciated with school readiness than are IQ or entry· level reading or
Zanto, Hennigan, Ostberg, predictive oflong·term out· math (Blair & Razza, 2007; Espy et al., 2004; Mc::Cielland et al.,
Clapp, & Gazzaley, 2010). This
Inhibitory control makes it possible c;:omes. For example, children 2007; F.J. Morrison, Ponitz, & McClelland, 2010). Working mem·
ability is needed, for example, for people to resist acting on their with better inhibitory control ory and inhibitory control each independently predict math and
if your spouse is calling to you (i.e., children who were more reading COI}lpetence from the earliest grades through university,
while you are on the phone,
first impulse so that they do not do or persistent, less impulsive, and sometimes even better than does IQ (Alloway & Alloway, 20 10;
but you want to focus on what say something they would regret. had better attention regu· Bull & Scerif, 2001; Dumomheil & Klingberg, 2012; Gathercole,
the person on the phone is lation) when they became Pickering, Knight, & Stegmann, 2004; McClelland & Cameron,
saying. It is needed at a cock- adolescents were less likely to 2011; Nicholson, 2007; Passolunghi, Vercelloni, & Schadee, 2007;
tail party when you want to smoke, have unplanned preg· Savage, Cornish, Manly, & Hollis, 2006; St Clair:fhompson &
Storytelling (listening to the oral telling of stories) is great
screen out all voices but one. nancies, or drop out of school, Gathercole, 2006; Swanson, 2014).
for challenging attention span.
Inhibitory control of attention enables you and I to selectively and as adults (30 years later) had better health, higher incomes
attend, focusing on what we choose and suppressing attention to and better jobs, fewer run-ins with the law, and a better quality COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY
Cognitive flexibility (the third core executive function ) involves, have grasped what I'm trying to teach"- you or I can exercise
other things whether those are distracting thoughts or distrac· oflife than those who as young children had worse inhibitory
in part, being able to creatively think outside the box to come cognitive flexibility and consider a different perspective: "What
tions in the environment. control- controlling for almost every variable imaginable.
up with fresh ways of attacking a problem and being able to see might I do differently? How can I present the material differently
Those results are based on a study of 1,000 children who were
Discipline and perseverance can be seen as aspects of inhibitory things from different angles and perspectives. For example, if or word the question differently so this student can succeed?"
born in the same city, in the same year, and who were followed
control because they involve inhibiting all the temptations not for 32 years with a 96% retention rate (Moffitt et al., 2011 ). The one way of solving a problem is not working, can you come up
How can you and I stop ourselves from getting really upset
to be disciplined or persevere. It takes inhibitory control to see authors of that study concluded that interventions that are able with a new way of attacking it or conceiving of it? Or, can you
when a child misbehaves? What we usually get upset about is
something through to completion despite having grown bored to improve inhibitory control in individuals- even just a little- empathize with someone by seeing things from that person's
the intent we think is behind an action. However, we might be
with it or frustrated with how difficult it has been, especially could shift the entire distribution of outcomes in a beneficial perspective?
wrong about the intent and need flexibility to see the behavior
when there are any number of other things you would rather be direction and yield large improvements in health, wealth, and
Cognitive flexibility also involves the flexibility to (a) quickly in a different light: A child might be acting in the most awful
doing. Staying on task and completing a task involves resisting crime rate for an entire nation.
change course when appropriate or needed, (b) adjust to manner bec;:ause he has been terribly hurt and is afraid of being
all the temptations to move on to something more interesting,
changed demands or priorities, or (c) admit you were wrong hurt again, so he will push you away before you have a chance
inhibiting distractions, and delaying gratification. WORKING MEMORY
when you get more information. Perhaps a sudden opportunity to reject him, or he will test you to see if you are really someone
Without inhibitory control you and I would be at the mercy Working memory involves holding information in mind and he can feel safe with. If you and I see the misbehavior as coming
has just arisen; do you have the flexibility to take advantage of
of impulse, old habits of thought or action, and stimuli in the mentally working with it (Baddeley, 1992; Baddeley & Hitch, from hurt, we can react completely differently.
serendipity? Perhaps you are encountering problems, obstacles,
environment that pull us this way or that. Thus, inhibitory 1994; D'Esposito et al., 1998, 1995; Smith &Jonides, 1999).
or challenges you had not expected; do you have the flexibility to
Working memory is not just holding information in mind, but It should come as no surprise that executive functions play
control makes it possible for you and I to change, and to choose make adjustments so you can still succeed? There is much over·
also mentally doing something with that information (e.g., men- critical roles in cognitive, social, and psychological development;
how we behave, rather than being "unthinking" creatures of lap between cognitive flexibility and creativity, task switching,
tally reordering a to-do list, doing mental math ("Did the store mental and physical health; and success in school and in life.
habit. It does not make it easy, but it makes it possible. Think of and set shifting. Cognitive flexibility is the opposite of rigidity.
clerk give me the correct change?"), incorporating new informa· Besides being critical for school readiness and school success
all the trouble you would get in if you did not have inhibitory Alexander Graham Bell provided an excellent example of poor
tion into your thinking or plans (updating}, translating vague (as noted earlier), executive functions play important roles
control- if you blurted out the first thing that came to mind; cognitive flexibility when he said the following: "When one
intentions into concrete action plans, considering alternatives, or in career success (Bailey, 2007), making and keeping friends
never said "no" to a tempting offer; took whatever you wanted door closes, another door opens; but we often look so long and
relating one piece of information to another). (Hughes & Dunn,1998), marital harmony (Eakin et al., 2004),
without asking or paying; or acted in other inappropriate, so regretfully upon the closed door, that we do not see the ones
and good health (Cserjesi, Luminet, Poncelet, & Schafer, 2009;
hurtful, or self-destructive ways. which open for us:'
Working memory is critical for making sense of anything that Hall, Crossley, & D'Arcy, 2010; H. V. Miller, Barnes, & Beaver,
Inhibitory control is a much greater challenge for young chil- unfolds over time, for that always requires holding in mind 2011; Moffitt et al., 2011; Perry et al., 2011 ). For example, poor
Cognitive flexibility builds on the other two core executive func·
dren than adults often realize (Davidson, Amso, Anderson, & what happened earlier and relating that to what is happening executive functions can contribute to obesity, overeating, poor
tions (Davidson et al., 2006; Diamond, 2013; Garon, Bryson, &
Diamond, 2006). Often an adult may think a child is intention· now. Thus, it is necessary for making sense of anything that food choices, substance abuse, and poor sustained adherence
Smith, 2008). For example, to c;:hange perspectives, you need to
ally misbehaving, when in fact the child really wants to do the involves language. That is obvious for oral language bec;:ause to doctors' orders (McAuley et al., 2011; Riggs, Spruijt-Metz,
inhibit your previous perspective and load into working memory
right thing but does not have the inhibitory control to be able after something has been said it is no longer physically present- Sakuma, Chou, & Pentz, 2010).1n a large sample of more than
a different perspective.
to do that. You can see videos of 3-year·old children who by all relating that to what you are hearing now must be done in your 14,000 teenagers, H. V. Miller et al. (2011) found that youths with
appearances would seem to know what they should do (because head using working memory. It is also true for written language When a student is not grasping a concept, instead of blaming poorer self.control were exponentially more likely to suffer from
they can state the correct sorting rule every time they are asked) because, even at the level of a sentence, all the words are rarely the student- "If only the student were brighter, he or she would nine of the 10 adverse health conditions they examined.

10 Zt'1V to Thrr!e • Novcmbcr2014 Zero to Thrr!e • November 2014 11

not say the first thing that comes to mind when that would be yet nevertheless persist in sorting the cards incorrectly on every in view at the same time. It requires working memory to relate
something hurtful or inappropriate. A final aspect of self-control trial (see the last two items in Learn More box). Note that what you read earlier to what you are reading now.
is delaying gratification (Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989), although if you heard that they continued to sort the cards incor-
that is, having the discipline to forgo an immediate pleasure for a rectly despite knowing what they should do you might think the Working memory also allows people to consider their remem-
greater reward later. children were intentionally doing the wrong thing, when watch- bered past and future hopes in making plans and decisions.
ing the video it seems clear that the children want very much Reasoning, problem solving, and creative thinking would not be
Another aspect of inhibitory control is selective attetttiou- to sort the cards correctly. (These are excerpts from sessions in possible without working memory because they involve holding
inhibiting attention to things that are irrelevant. keeping your which children were taught both sorting rules at the outset, then information in mind, looking for connections oR:en among
attention focused despite distractions (Gomes, Duff, Barnhardt, sorted six cards by one dimension and then were asked to sort six seemingly unconnected things, and recombining elements in
Barrett, & Ritter, 2007; Posner & DiGirolamo, 1998; Stevens & cards by the other dimension.) new ways-playing with facts and ideas in your head.
Bavelier, 2012; Theeuwes,
2010; Wendelken, Baym, Inhibitory control seems to be Working memory and inhibitory control are more strongly asso-
Gazzaley, & Bunge, 2011; the executive function most ciated with school readiness than are IQ or entry· level reading or
Zanto, Hennigan, Ostberg, predictive of long-term out· math (Blair & Razza, 2007; Espy et al., 2004; McClelland et al.,
Clapp, & Gazzaley, 2010). This
Inhibitory control makes it possible comes. For example, children 2007; F.J. Morrison, Ponitz, & McClelland, 2010). Working mem·
ability is needed, for example, for people to resist acting on their with better inhibitory control ory and inhibitory control each independently predict math and
if your spouse is calling to you (i.e., children who were more reading comp~tence from the earliest grades through university,
while you are on the phone,
first impulse so that they do not do or persistent, less impulsive, and sometimes even better than does IQ (Alloway & Alloway, 2010;
but you want to focus on what say something they would regret. had better attention regu· Bull & Scerif,2001; Dumontheil & Klingberg,2012; Gathercole,
the person on the phone is lation) when they became Pickering, Knight, & Stegmann, 2004; McClelland & Cameron,
saying. It is needed at a cock- adolescents were less likely to 2011; Nicholson, 2007; Passolunghi, Vercelloni, & Schadee, 2007;
tail party when you want to smoke, have unplanned preg· Savage, Cornish, Manly, & Hollis, 2006; St Clair:rhompson &
Storytelling (listening to the oral telling of stories) is great
screen out all voices but one. nancies, or drop out of school, Gathercole, 2006; Swanson, 2014).
for challenging attention span.
Inhibitory control of attention enables you and I to selectively and as adults (30 years later) had better health, higher incomes
attend, focusing on what we choose and suppressing attention to and better jobs, fewer run-ins with the law, and a better quality COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY
Cognitive Aexibility (the third core executive function} involves, have grasped what I'm trying to teach"- you or I can exercise
other things whether those are distracting thoughts or distrac· of life than those who as young children had worse inhibitory
in part, being able to creatively think outside the box to come cognitive flexibility and consider a different perspective: "What
tions in the environment. control- controlling for almost every variable imaginable.
up with fresh ways of attacking a problem and being able to see might I do differently? How can I present the material differently
Those results are based on a study of 1,000 children who were
Discipline and perseverance can be seen as aspects of inhibitory things from different angles and perspectives. For example, if or word the question differently so this student can succeed?"
born in the same city, in the same year, and who were followed
control because they involve inhibiting all the temptations not for 32 years with a 96% retention rate {Moffitt et al., 2011 ). The one way of solving a problem is not working, can you come up
How can you and I stop ourselves from getting really upset
to be disciplined or persevere. It takes inhibitory control to see authors of that study concluded that interventions that are able with a new way of attacking it or conceiving of it? Or, can you
when a child misbehaves? What we usually get upset about is
something through to completion despite having grown bored to improve inhibitory control in individuals- even just a little- empathize with someone by seeing things from that person's
the intent we think is behind an action. However, we might be
with it or frustrated with how difficult it has been, especially could shift: the entire distribution of outcomes in a beneficial perspective?
wrong about the intent and need Aexibility to see the behavior
when there are any number of other things you would rather be direction and yield large improvements in health, wealth, and
Cognitive Aexibility also involves the Aexibility to (a) quickly in a different light: A child might be acting in the most awful
doing. Staying on task and completing a task involves resisting crime rate for an entire nation.
change course when appropriate or needed, (b) adjust to manner because he has been terribly hurt and is afraid of being
all the temptations to move on to something more interesting,
changed demands or priorities, or (c) admit you were wrong hurt again, so he will push you away before you have a chance
inhibiting distractions, and delaying gratification. WORKING MEMORY
when you get more information. Perhaps a sudden opportunity to reject him, or he will test you to see if you are really someone
Without inhibitory control you and I would be at the mercy Working memory involves holding information in mind and he can feel safe with. If you and I see the misbehavior as coming
has just arisen; do you have the Aexibility to take advantage of
of impulse, old habits of thought or action, and stimuli in the mentally working with it (Baddeley, 1992; Baddeley & Hitch, from hurt, we can react completely differently.
serendipity? Perhaps you are encountering problems, obstacles,
environment that pull us this way or that. Thus, inhibitory 1994; D'Esposito et al., 1998, 1995; Smith &Jonides, 1999).
or challenges you had not expected; do you have the flexibility to
Working memory is not just holding information in mind, but It should come as no surprise that executive functions play
control makes it possible for you and I to change, and to choose make adjustments so you can still succeed? There is much over·
also mentally doing something with that information (e.g., men· critical roles in cognitive, social, and psychological development;
how we behave, rather than being "unthinking" creatures of lap between cognitive Aexibility and creativity, task switching,
tally reordering a to-do list, doing mental math ["Did the store mental and physical health; and success in school and in life.
habit. It does not make it easy, but it makes it possible. Think of and set shilling. Cognitive Aexibility is the opposite of rigidity.
clerk give me the correct change?"], incorporating new informa• Besides being critical for school readiness and school success
all the trouble you would get in if you did not have inhibitory Alexander Graham Bell provided an excellent example of poor
tion into your thinking or plans [updating], translating vague (as noted earlier), executive functions play important roles
control- if you blurted out the first thing that came to mind; cognitive Aexibility when he said the following: "When one
intentions into concrete action plans, considering alternatives, or in career success (Bailey, 2007), making and keeping friends
never said "no" to a tempting offer; took whatever you wanted door closes, another door opens; but we oR:en look so long and
relating one piece of information to another). (Hughes & Dunn, 1998), marital harmony (Eakin et al., 2004),
without asking or paying; or acted in other inappropriate, so regretfully upon the closed door, that we do not see the ones
and good health (Cserjesi, Luminet, Poncelet, & Schafer, 2009;
hurtful, or self. destructive ways. which open for us:'
Working memory is critical for making sense of anything that Hall, Crossley, & D'Arcy, 2010; H. V. Miller, Barnes, & Beaver,
Inhibitory control is a much greater challenge for young chil- unfolds over time, for that always requires holding in mind 2011; Moffitt et al., 2011; Perry et al., 2011). For example, poor
Cognitive Aexibility builds on the other two core executive func·
dren than adults of\en realize (Davidson, Amso, Anderson, & what happened earlier and relating that to what is happening executive functions can contribute to obesity, overeating, poor
tions (Davidson et al., 2006; Diamond, 2013; Garon, Bryson, &
Diamond, 2006). Of\en an adult may think a child is intention· now. Thus, it is necessary for making sense of anything that food choices, substance abuse, and poor sustained adherence
Smith, 2008). For example, to change perspectives, you need to
ally misbehaving, when in fact the child really wants m do the involves language. That is obvious for oral language because to doctors' orders (McAuley et al., 2011; Riggs, Spruijt-Metz,
inhibit your previous perspective and load into working memory
right thing but does not have the inhibitory control to be able aR:er something has been said it is no longer physically present- Sakuma, Chou, & Pentz, 2010).1n a large sample of more than
a different perspective.
to do that. You can see videos of3-year-old children who by all relating that to what you are hearing now must be done in your 14,000 teenagers, H. V. Miller et al. (2011) found that youths with
appearances would seem to know what they should do (because head using working memory. It is also true for written language When a student is not grasping a concept, instead of blaming poorer self. control were exponentially more likely to suffer from
they can state the correct sorting rule every time they are asked ) because, even at the level of a sentence, all the words are rarely the student- "lf only the student were brighter, he or she would nine of the 10 adverse health conditions they examined.

10 Zero to Thrre • November 2014 Zero to T11rce • November 2014 11

Examples of Executive Functions Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1992) typically do so by reducing Improving Executive Functions be mesmerized by a great storyteller, but you do not need a
the demand on their inhibitory control by looking away from professional; even parents can read from a book with the pages
in Infants Less Than 1 Year Old Executive functions need to be continually challenged to see turned toward them, reading with drama and enthusiasm if they
the luscious marshmallow or finding something else to occupy
improvements- not just used, but challenged. can, looking up often to maintain eye contact with their child. It
lnfunts 2-4 months old can show what is called stickyfixation, their attention.
in which they keep looking at something after their interest in is great exercise for executive functions. An added bonus is that it
The Providing Alternative THinking Strategies (PATHS) ACTIVITIESTO IMPROVE EXECUTIVE allows the child to imagine: what the characters and scenes in the
it has faded (Hood & Atkinson, 1993; Romero, 2007).1t is as if
program (Domitrovich, Greenberg, Cortes, & Kusche, 2005; FUNCTIONS IN THE EARLY YEARS story look like, so he can imagine that the brave knight looks like
their attention gets "stuck" or captured by what they are looking
at. Beginning at about 4-5 months, however, infants can inhibit Kusche & Greenberg, 2001; Riggs, Greenberg, Kusche, & Pentz, Storytelling (listening to the oral telling of stories) is great for him or she can imagine: that the beautiful princess looks like: her.
that and look away (Diamond, 1995; Romero, 2007). 2006) teaches a very clever and effective strategy to aid young challenging attention span. It requires sustained attention and
children in inhibiting lashing out at someone when they get concentration as well as working memory to keep track of what Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social pretend play
Infants 5-8 months old, who can see an object they want inside upset. Children are taught that when they get upset they should has already happened, relating that to what is or might hap· (e.g., playing doctor and patient) for the early development of
a transparent container, will try to reach through the side of the get into the "tunle" position (cross their arms and wrap them pen in the story, and remembering who is who in the story. It executive functions, and that is an important component of the
container they are looking through, despite around their body, hugging themselves tightly), taxes executive functions more than a video, which has visual Tools of the: Mind program (Bodrova & Leong, 2007), which has
repeatedly hitting a solid, impenetrable surface and take a deep breath before starting to plan images that grab the viewer's attention, or than reading with a been shown to improve executive functions (Diamond, Barnett,
(Diamond, 1990, 1991a). Over the period of how they will respond. This strategy is far more child when the child can look at the pictures. Youngsters can Thomas, & Munro, 2007). During social pretend play, children
8-12 months old, they go through a fascinating Inhibitory control effective than asking young children to wait
series of stages in being able to inhibit the pull seems to be the before responding. Young children are no good
Learn More
to reach directly for what they sec, flexibly con- at waiting; asking them to wait is asking them
sidering alternative routes, and using working executivefunction to do something that is beyond their develop- Articles Books
memory to hold in mind what they saw when that is most mental level. PATHS gives children something Is EF the New 107 Mind In the Making
they looked along the line of reach so they can to do while waiting (they get into the tunic W. Herbert (2008, June 10) Newsweek E. Galinsky (2010) NewYork, NY: William Morrow
integrate reaching through the open side of a predictive oflong- position). Doing this accomplishes two very www.newsweek.com/id/139885
NurtureShock: New Thinking About Children
transparent container while looking through term outcomes. imponant things: (a) it allows time to pass Beyond IQ:YoungstersWho Can Focus P. Bronson and A. Merryman (2009) NewYork, NY:Twelve
a dosed side (Diamond 1991a, 1991b). The between the upsetting moment and when the on the Task at Hand Do Better In Math
Videos
active, creative problem solving of infants on child responds, permitting the intensity of the C. Nicholson (2007, March 26) Scientific American
the task is a great joy to behold. annoyance to subside, and (b) what it asks chil- www.scientificamerican.com/article/beyond-iq-kids-who-can- lnBrief: Executive Function: Skills for Life and Learning
focus·on·task-do·better·math/ www.youtube.com/watch?v=efCq_vHUMqs&list=PLTMOncsWPs
dren to do happens to help reduce the intensity
qDAWUDtitolyokayUJ0-041
To uncover a hidden object, an infant needs to hold in mind of the child's emotions. Children, who have learned to do turtle Helping Kids Who Struggle With Executive Functions
what is hidden and where, over sometimes many seconds, and at school when they get upset, will call out to a parent when R. Ehmke (2012, August) Child Mind Institute What Are Executive Functions?
then act on the covering material to reveal the hidden reward. www.childmind.org/en/posts/articles/2012·8· 20·helping- kids· www.youtube.com/watch?v=BcCNhKqOXOM
they sc:e the parent getting progressively more upset at someone
When (a) there is distraction between seeing the hidden object executive-functions-organization
at home, "Do turtle!" Child Development and the Brain:
and when the infant can reach, (b) one or more covers that look Executive Function Skills Predict Children's Success Insights to Help Every Child Thrive
the same, and (c) the reward has sometimes been hidden under The Tools of the Mind preschool and kindc:rgancn curriculum In Life and In School A. Diamond (2012, June 12) Invited talk, Garrison Institute
one cover and sometimes under another, all three core executive E. Galinsky (2012, June) The Slog (Huffington Post) Board ofTrustees Luncheon, NewYork, NY
(Bodrova & Leong, 2007) uses a simple memory aid to help
www.huffingtonpost.com/ellen-galinsky/executive-funclion- www.youtube.com/watc h?v:MQ_j1 mj GLow
functions (inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive children remember to inhibit speaking and wait their turn. In
skills_1_b_1613422.html?utm_hp_ref=education
Rexibility) are needed to succeed (Bell, 1998; Cuevas, Swingler, an activity called "Buddy Reading~ the teacher instructs children AboutKidsHealth: Trusted Answers From The Hospital for Sick
Teaching Children to Train Their Minds Children (posted August 4, 2011)
Bell, Marcovitch, & Calkins, 2012; Diamond 19913, 1991 b). to each choose a picture book, pair up with another child, and
LearnNow.org website www.eboutkidshelllth.ca/En/NewsNideo/PsychologyVidaos/
take turns telling the story that goes with the pictures in their Pages/def11ult.aspx
www.learnnow.org/topics/attention/teaching-childran-train-
books. With everyone all excited to tell the story, no one wants
How to Scaffold and Improve thair·minds A set of six brief videos of Dr. Diamond on the website
to be the listener. The teacher gives one child in each pair a sim·
Executive Functions The following articles can be downloaded for free from .,. Early Childhood Support and Education
pie line drawing of an ear and explains that "ears don't talk; cars
www.devcogneuro.com/AdeleDiamond.htmi#Pubs .,. MultipleTypes of ADHD
Scaffolding executive functions enables children to practice: listen:' With that concrete: reminder, the child is able to listen.
.,. Want to Optimize Executive Functions and Academic .,. Babies and Abstract Reasoning
executive-function skills they are not yet able to exercise: on Without it, most 4- or S·year·olds would not be: able to listen.
Outcomes? Simple, Just Nourish the Human Spirit .,. The Importance of Child's Play
their own unaided. After a few months, the children do not need the scaffold of the A Diamond (2014) Minnesota Symposia on Child
picture of the ear anymore:; the children have internalized it. Psychology, 37, 203-230 .,. Prefrontal Cortex
You and I can support our own executive functions, reducing .,. The Psychology of Effective Education
.,. Executive Functions
the amount of effort that we have to exert to remember or If adults tell young children to try to exercise executive func- A Diamond (20131 Annual Review of Psychology, 64, Cultivating the Mind
inhibit by, for example, writing ourselves notes so we do not tions but do not provide supports (scaffolding), children fail, 135-168 A. Diamond (2013, May 10) Invited talk,
have to hold everything in mind and by keeping temptations feel embarrassed, and get reprimanded. If teachers or parents .,. Activities and Programs That Improve Heart-Mind Conference 2013: Helping ChildrenThrive,
out of sight. You and I can also do things that reduce the effort eliminate the need for children to exercise executive functions, Children's Executive Functions Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
children miss out on the practice: that helps their executive A Diamond (20121 Current Directions in Psychological http://dalailamacenter.org/heart·mind-2013-halping· children·
young children need to exert to exercise executive functions.
Science, 21,335-341 thrive/heart·mind-2013-presenterl/adele·dlamond
For the little: girl in front of the cookie jar trying to obey the: functions to improve. By providing scaffolds to help children
injunction not to eat sweets before dinner, the: cookies could exercise executive functions, children get practice, which helps .,. The Evidence Base for Improving School Outcomes Card Sorting-Switching to Sorting by Shape
their executive functions improve, and children have the pride by Addressing the Whole Child and by Addressing www.devcogneuro.com/video•/cardsort.mpg
be placed in an opaque: jar rather than a transparent one.
of having succeeded (of being a good listc:nc:r, for example) and Skills and Attitudes, Not Just Content
Preschoolers who succeed at Mischel's delay of gratification Card Sorting-Switching to Sorting by Color
A. Diamond (2010) Early Education and
task (waiting an undisclosed length of time to get two marsh- increased confidence that they will be able to do that in the www.davcogneuro.com/vldeos/cllrdsort_tailedswitch.wmv
Development, 21,780-793
mallows or getting only one marshmallow if they cannot wait; future.

12 Zero to 7brr:c • November 2014 Zero to 7b"c • November 2014 13

 Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1992) typically do so by reducing Improving Executive Functions be mesmerized by a great storyteller, but you do not need a
Examples of Executive Functions
the demand on their inhibitory control by looking away from professional; even parents can read from a book with the pages
in Infants Less Than 1 Year Old Executive functions need to be continually challenged to see turned toward them, reading with drama and enthusiasm if they
the luscious marshmallow or finding something else to occupy
improvements-not just used, but challenged. can, looking up often to maintain eye contact with their child. It
lnf:mts 2-4 months old can show what is called stickyfixation, their attention.
in which they keep looking at something after their interest in is great exercise for executive functions. An added bonus is that it
The Providing Alternative THinking Strategies (PATHS) ACTIVITIESTO IMPROVE EXECUTIVE allows the child to imagine: what the characters and scenes in the
it has faded (Hood & Atkinson, 1993; Romero, 2007).1t is as if
program (Domitrovich, Greenberg, Cones, & Kusche, 2005; FUNCTIONS INTHE EARLYYEARS story look like, so he: can imagine that the brave knight looks like
their attention gets "stuck" or captured by what they are looking
at. Beginning at about 4-5 months, however, infants can inhibit Kusche & Greenberg, 2001; Riggs, Greenberg, Kusche, & Pentz, Storytelling (listening to the oral telling of stories) is great for him or she can imagine that the beautiful princess looks like: her.
that and look away (Diamond, 1995; Romero, 2007). 2006) teaches a very clever and effective strategy to aid young challenging attention span. It requires sustained attention and
children in inhibiting lashing out at someone when they get concentration as well as working memory to keep track of what Vygotsky emphasized the importance of social pretend play
Infants 5-8 months old, who can sec an object they want inside upset. Children are taught that when they get upset they should has already happened, relating that to what is or might hap· (e.g., playing doctor and patient) for the early development of
a transparent container, will try to reach through the side of the get into the "tunic" position (cross their arms and wrap them pen in the story, and remembering who is who in the story. It executive functions, and that is an important component of the
container they are looking through, despite around their body, hugging themselves tightly), taxes executive functions more than a video, which has visual Tools of the Mind program (Bodrova & Leong, 2007), which has
repeatedly hitting a solid, impenetrable surface and take a deep breath before starting to plan images that grab the viewer's attention, or than reading with a been shown to improve executive functions (Diamond, Barnett,
(Diamond, 1990, 1991a). Over the period of how they will respond. This strategy is far more child when the child can look at the pictures. Youngsters can Thomas, & Munro, 2007). During social pretend play, children
8-12 months old, they go through a fascinating Inhibitory control effective than asking young children to wait
series of stages in being able to inhibit the pull seems to be the before responding. Young children are no good
to reach directly for what they see, flexibly con- at waiting; asking them to wait is asking them Learn More
sidering alternative routes, and using working executivefunction to do something that is beyond their develop- Articles Books
memory to hold in mind what they saw when that is most mental level. PATHS gives children something Is EF the New 107 Mind In the Milking
they looked along the line of reach so they can to do while waiting (they get into the tunic W. Herbert (2008, June 10) Newsweek E. Galinsky (2010) New York, NY: William Morrow
integrate reaching through the open side of a predictive oflong- position). Doing this accomplishes two very www.newsweek.com/id/139885
NurtureShock: New Thinking About Children
transparent container while looking through term outcomes. imponant things: (a) it allows time to pass Beyond IQ: Youngsters Who Can Focus P. Bronson and A. Merryman (2009) New York, NY:Twelve
a closed side (Diamond 1991a, 1991b). The between the upsetting moment and when the on theTask at Hand Do Better in Math
active, creative problem solving of infants on child responds, permitting the intensity of the C. Nicholson (2007, March 26) Scientific American Videos
the task is a great joy to behold. annoyance to subside, and (b) what it asks chil- www.scientiticamerican.com/article/bayond-iq·kids-who·can- lnBrlef: Executive Function: Skills for Life and Learning
tocus·on·task·do·better·math/ www.youtube.com/watch7v=efCq_vHUMqs&list=PLTMOncsWPs
dren to do happens to help reduce the intensity qOAWUDtitolyokayUJ0-041
To uncover a hidden object, an infant needs to hold in mind of the child's emotions. Children, who have teamed to do turtle Helping Kids Who Struggle With Executive Functions
what is hidden and where, over sometimes many seconds, and at school when they get upset, will call out to a parent when R. Ehmke (2012, August) Child Mind Institute What Are Executive Functions?
then act on the covering material to reveal the hidden reward. www.childmind.org/en/posts/articles/2012·B·2D·helping-kids· www.youtube.com/watch7v=BcCNhKqOXOM
they sc:e the parent getting progressively more upset at someone
When (a) there is distraction between seeing the hidden object executive-lunctions·organization Child Development and the Brain:
at home, "Do turtle!"
and when the infant can reach, (b) one or more covers that look Executive Function Skills Predict Children's Success Insights to Help Every Child Thrive
the same, and (c) the reward has sometimes been hidden under The Tools of the Mind preschool and kinderganen curriculum in Life and In School A. Diamond (2012, June 12)1nvited talk, Garrison Institute
one cover and sometimes under another, all three core executive (Bodrova & Leong, 2007) uses a simple memory aid to help E. Galinsky (2012, June) The Slog (Hufflngton Post} Board ofTrustees Luncheon, NewYork, NY
www.huHingtonpost.com/ellen-galinsky/executive-function· www.youtube.com/watch7v:MQ_j1 mj Glow
functions (inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive children remember to inhibit speaking and wait their turn. In ski lls_1_b_1613422.html?utm_hp_rel=education
flexibility) are needed to succeed (Bell, 1998; Cuevas, Swingler, an activity called "Buddy Reading~ the teacher instructs children AboutKidsHealth: Trusted Answers From The Hospital for Sick
Bell, Marcovitch, & Calkins, 2012; Diamond 199la, 1991 b). to each choose a picture book, pair up with another child, and Teaching Children to Train Their Minds Children (posted August 4, 2011)
LearnNow.org website www.aboutkidahealth.ca/En/NewaNideo/PsychologyVideos/
take turns telling the story that goes with the pictures in their www.learnnow.org/topics/attention/teaching-children-train· Pages/default.aspx
books. With everyone all excited to tell the story, no one wants their-minds
How to Scaffold and Improve A set of six brief videos of Dr. Diamond on the website
to be the listener. The teacher gives one child in each pair a sim·
Executive Functions The following articles can be downloaded for free from Ill> Early Childhood Support and Education
pie line drawing of an ear and explains that "ears don't talk; ears www.devcogne uro.com/Ad ale Diamond, htmiiPubs Ill> MultipleTypes of ADHD
Scaffolding executive functions enables children to practice: listen:' With that concrete reminder, the child is able to listen.
111> Want to Optimize Executive Functions and Academic 111> Babies and Abstract Reasoning
executive-function skills they are not yet able to exercise on Without it, most 4- or S·year·olds would not be able to listen.
Outcomes? Simple, Just Nourish the Human Spirit 111> The Importance of Child's Play
their own unaided. After a few months, the children do not need the scaffold of the A. Diamond (2014) Minnesota Symposia on Child
picture of the ear anymore; the children have internalized it. 111> Prefrontal Cortex
Psychology, 37, 203-230
You and I can suppon our own executive functions, reducing 111> Executive Functions
• The Psychology of Effective Education
the amount of effort that we have to exert to remember or If adults tell young children to try to exercise executive func· A. Diamond (20131 Annual Review of Psychology, 64, Cultivating the Mind
inhibit by, for example, writing ourselves notes so we do not tions but do not provide supports (scaffolding), children fail, 135-168 A. Diamond (2013, May 10llnvited talk,
have to hold everything in mind and by keeping temptations feel embarrassed, and get reprimanded. If teachers or parents • Activities and ProgramsThat Improve Heart-Mind Conference 2013: Helping ChildrenThrive,
out of sight. You and I can also do things that reduce the effort eliminate the need for children to exercise executive functions, Children's Executive Functions Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
children miss out on the practice that helps their executive A. Diamond (2012) Current Directions in Psychological http://dalailamecenter.org/heart· mlnd·2013·halping·childran·
young children need to exen to exercise executive functions.
functions to improve. By providing scaffolds to help children Science, 21,335-341 th ri ve/h aart· mind· 2013· prase ntera/a de Ie·dl amond
For the little: girl in front of the cookie jar trying to obey the
injunction not to eat sweets before dinner, the cookies could exercise executive functions, children get practice, which helps Ill> The Evidence Base for Improving School Outcomes Card Sorting-Switching to Sorting by Shape
their executive functions improve, and children have the pride by Addressing the Whole Child and by Addressing www.devcogneuro.com/videos/cardsort.mpg
be placed in an opaque: jar rather than a transparent one.
of having succeeded (of being a good listener, for example) and Skills and Attitudes, Not Just Content
Preschoolers who succeed at Mischel's delay of gratification Card Sorting- Switching to Sorting by Color
A. Diamond (20101 Early Education and
task (waiting an undisclosed length of time to get two marsh· increased confidence that they will be able to do that in the Development, 21,780-793
www.davcogneuro.com/vldeoa/cerdsort_lailedswitch.wmv
mallows or getting only one marshmallow if they cannot wait; future.

12 Zero to 7hrr:e • November 2014 Zero to 171rr:c • November 2014 13

 ACTIVITIESTO IMPROVE EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS training working memory improves working memory, but it Music, dance, positive sports, and programs such as El Sistema
IN OLDER CHILDREN AND ADULTS does not improve inhibitory control or cognitive Aexibility. Orchestra, National Dance Institute, Youth Circus, Free the
Many different activities have at least one published study Children, True Sport, and so many others should improve
showing that they can improve executive functions, including To see widespread benefits, individuals need to practice diverse executive functions because they have all the prerequisites.
computerized training, games, aerobic exercise, martial arts, skills. Because of that, real-world activities, such as martial arts and Certainly there are testimonials galore about how such activities
mindfulness, and certain school curricula (e.g., Tools of the school curricula (that train diverse executive-function skills), have have improved executive functions and academic performance
Mind, Montessori, PATHS, and the Chicago School Readiness shown more widespread cognitive benefits than targeted comput- and transformed children's lives. There are no studies that have
Program; for reviews, see Bryck & Fisher, 2012; Burke, 2010; erized training. Several review articles have touted the benefits of shown this, however-none. There are studies showing correla-
Diamond, 2012; Diamond & Lee, 2011; Howard-Jones, 2014; aerobic exercise for improving executive functions. The evidence tions (e.g., showing that children in band or sports do better in
Melby-Lervag & Hulme, 2012; A. B. Morrison & Chein, 2011; for that is actually quite weak. Just exercising (e.g., running, lifting school), but in those studies there is no way of knowing whether
Rabiner, Murray, Skinner, & Malone, 2010; Rabipour, & Raz, weights, or riding a stationary bicycle) without a cognitive com- children who chose band or sports already possessed qualities
2012; Riccio & Gomes, 2013; Sedlmeier et al., 2012; Spierer, ponent improves recall and recognition memory, but there is not for school success or would have developed them anyway. The
Chavan, & Manuel, 2013). much evidence that it improves executive functions. The evidence studies have not been done because of lack of interest in doing
is stronger for exercise-plus-character-development (e.g., tradi- them (my colleagues and I have applied more than once for such
Regardless of the method or approach to improving executive tional martial arts) or exercise-plus-mindfulness (e.g., yoga). funding) but rather because reviewers have been unwilling to
functions, the most fundamental principle is that whether approve funding for rigorous studies on these less traditional
executive-function gains are seen depends on the amount of time I predict that many activities not yet studied might; well
topics (whereas our grant applications on traditional research
Repeated practice allows skills to become second nature spent practicing, working on these skills, and pushing oneself to improve executive functions. The activities should require
or automatic. topics easily sail through funding review). It is rime to broaden
improve. if participants are not challenged to keep improving, executive functions and keep challenging those skills at ever
the scope of research to more fully understand what most helps
but simply continue doing what is easy, minimal benefit is seen. greater levels of difficulty. The activity should be something
different children to thrive and why.
must inhibit acting out of character, hold in mind the role they This principle has been known for a very long time and applies the child really wants to do so she will spend a lot of time at
have chosen and those of their friends, and flexibly adjust in real to all skills at all ages. Ericsson spent his career studying what it, pushing to improve. Those activities that most successfully
time as their friends take the play scenario in directions they makes an expert across all manner of fields and endeavors. He improve executive functions, I predict, will be those that not Adele Diamond, PhD, FRSC, is the 1ier 1Canada Research Chair Professor
never imagined. Thus, social pretend play exercises and chal- found the answer was always the same: many thousands of hours only directly train and challenge executive functions but those of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Br"tish
lenges all three core executive functions. of practice trying to master what is just beyond your current that also indirectly support executive functions by providing Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia. Canada. She is one of the
level of competence and comfort (Ericsson, Nandagopal, & joy and pride, a sense of belonging and social support, and founders of the field of developmenta I cognitive neuroscience, a leader in
Many traditional games-such as Simon Says; Red Light, Green Raring, 2009), what Vygotsky (1978} termed the zone of proxi· physical exercise. What activities do that? Some of the activities two fields (psychology and neuroscience). and at the forefront of research
Light; and Mother May !- challenge and thus help to develop mal development. that do that best are precisely the ones being cut back in so on executive functions. Her lab specializes in examining fundamenta I
inhibitory control. Children can practice motor control and many schools- activities such as music-making, dance, and questions about how executive functions are affected by biological factors
focused attention by walking on a line (an activity in Montessori Repeated practice enables skills to become second nature or positive sports. They address people's cognitive, emotional, (e.g., genes and neurochemistry) and by environmental factors (e g., stress
classrooms, another curriculum shown to improve executive automatic. A child may know intellectually that he should not social, and physical needs. They challenge executive functions or creative interventions). Her work has improved med'cal treatment for
functions; Lillard & Else-Quest, 2006).It is as difficult for a hit another, but in the heat of the moment if that knowledge (requiring focused concentration, quickly adjusting to two disorders (phenylketonuria and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder)
young child to walk on a line on the ground as it is for an adult has not become automatic, the child will hit another (though changed circumstances, etc.); require hard work, discipline, and has impacted early education. Recently, Dr. Diamond has turned her
to walk on a balance beam. As children improve, it can be made if asked, he knows perfectly well he should not do that). lt is and perseverance; build self-confidence and engender joy and attention to the possible roles of traditional activities, such as music
more difficult by, for example, walking faster, carrying something the difference between knowing something at an intellectual feelings of pride; involve working together toward a shared goal; and dance, in improving executive functions. Her many awards inc ude
are oflen characterized by close mentoring relationships with election to the Royal Society of Canada, being named one of the "2,000
on their head, or carrying an egg in a spoon. To make it into a level and having it be second nature or automatic. The only
caring adults; and whip the body into shape. Outstanding Women of the 20th Century,· and being named one of the 15
game that is in essence a form of walking meditation, one only way something becomes automatic is through repeated action;
most influential neuroscienf sts ar ve today.
needs old-fashioned bells with a handle. Each game participant nothing else will do. When you are struggling to exercise an
gets one (adults included). in the game, everyone follows a leader, executive function, you are using prefrontal cortex, but when it
trying to stay on the line with the goal of having no bell make a has become easy and second nature (and you are much better at REFERENCES
sound. This is terrific for settling children down after recess or it) you are not using prefrontal cortex as much or at all (Chein & Alloway, T. P~ & Alloway, R. G. (2010). 1nvestig;uing the predictive roles of Bodrova, E., & Leong, D.J. (2007). Tools ofthe Mind: The \Ygotskian approach
before bedtime. Schneider, 2005; Diamond, 2013; Garavan, Kelley, Rosen, Rao, & working memory and IQ in aodcmic attainmcnt.joumPI of&p~rimmtPI to early childhood eduClltion (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Prentice Hall.
Stein, 2000). Years ago, a book called Zen in tbe Art ofArchery Cl11ld Psychology, 106,20-29.
Bryck. R. L., & Fisher, P. A. (2012). Training the brain: Practiol appliotions
It is terribly important to realize that if a child is stressed; sad; (Herrigel, 1999) captured what I am talking about here. Baddeley, A. (1 992,January J l). Working memory. Sctence, 2SS, 55(,.559. of neural plasticity from the intersection of cognitive neuroscience,
lonely; or not getting enough sleep, exercise, or proper nutrition doi:IO.II26/science.l736359 developmental psychology, and prevention science. AmeriClln PsychologiJt, 67,
81-100.
that child will show impaired executive-function performance. A second important principle is that people improve on the Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G.J.(1994). Developments in the concept of
working memory. N~uroprychology, 8, 485-493. Bull, R., & Scerif. G. (2001 ). Executive functioning :15 a predictor of
The child will appear to have an executive-function disorder executive-function skills they practice and that improvement children's mathematics abilicy: Inhibition, switching, and working memory.
(e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]) when that transfers to other contexts in which those same skills are needed Bailey, C. E. (2001). Cognitive accuracy and intelligent executive function in
the brain and in business. AnnPis ofthe New York ltCildemy ofSciencer, 1118, DevtlopmentJz/ NeuropS)"hology, 19,273- 293.
is not the case. The child will not be doing nearly as well as pos- (that is called 7larrow tra7lsjer); however, people only improve 122- 141. Burke, C. A. (2010). Mindfulness-based approaches with children and
sible in school as he could- not because the child is not bright on the skills they practice. Consistently across all intervention adolescents: A preliminary review of cum:nt research in an emergent field.
Baltes, 1'. B., & Lindenberger, U. (19881. On the range of cognitive plasticicy in
approaches and executive functions targeted, the benefits from Journal ofChild and FPmil] Studies, 19,133-144.
or is incapable of excellent executive functions-but because the old ;age as a function of experience: I 5 years of intervention rcse;arch. &luzvior
child is not able to show what he is capable of because of unmet any approach are narrow and focused. Wide transfer does not Therapy,19, 283-JOO. Chein, J. M., & Schneider, W. (2005). Neuroi maging studies of practice·
Bell, M. (1998). Frontal lobe function during infancy: lmpliotions for the related change: fMRI and meta-analytic evidence of a domain-general control
emotional, social, or physical needs (Diamond, 2010,2013, 2014). occur; on the rare occasions when it has been found, those network for learning. Cognitivt Brain Research, 25,607-623
development of cognition and attention. In J. E. Richards (Ed.), Cognitivt
Because executive functions are critical for academic achieve- findings have not been replicated (reviews include Baltes & 11euroscience ofPtlention (pp. 287-316). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Collins, A., & Koechlin, E. (2012). Reasoning, learning, and creativicy: Frontal
ment, a society that wants its children to excel needs to take seri- Lindenberger, 1988; Diamond & Lee, 2011; Melby·Lervag & Blair, C., & Raua, R. P. {200n. Relating effortful comrol, executive function, lobe function and human decision-making. PLoS Biology, 10, el001293.
ously that the different parts of the human being are inextricably Hulme, 2012; Noack, Lovden, Schmiedek, & Lindenberger, 2009; and false-belief understanding to emerging math and literacy abilicy in Cserjbi, R., Luminet, 0 ., Poncclet, A. S., & Schafi:r,J. (2009}. Altered
interrelated (Diamond, 2007). Park, Gutchess, Meade, & Seine-Morrow, 2007}. For example, kindergarten. Child Devtlopment, 18,641- 663. executive function in obesicy: Exploration of the role of affective states on
cognitive abilities. Appttite, S2, 535-539.

14 Zero to 711T-ec • November 2014 Zero to Three • November 2014 1&

 ACTIVITIESTO IMPROVE EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS training working memory improves working memory, but it Music, dance, positive sports, and programs such as El Sistema
IN OLDER CHILDREN AND ADULTS does not improve inhibitory control or cognitive Aexibility. Orchestra, National Dance Institute, Youth Circus, Free the
Many different activities have at least one published study Children, True Sport, and so many others should improve
showing that they can improve executive functions, including To see widespread benefits, individuals need to practice diverse executive functions because they have all the prerequisites.
computerized training, games, aerobic exercise, martial arts, skills. Because of that, real-world activities, such as martial arts and Certainly there are testimonials galore about how such activities
mindfulness, and certain school curricula (e.g., Tools of the school curricula (that train diverse executive-function skills), have have improved executive functions and academic performance
Mind, Montessori, PATHS, and the Chicago School Readiness shown more widespread cognitive benefits than targeted comput• and transformed children's lives. There are no studies that have
Program; for reviews, see Bryck Be Fisher, 20 12; Burke, 201 0; erized training. Several review articles have touted the benefits of shown this, however-none. There are studies showing correla·
-a
lii Diamond, 2012; Diamond Be Lee, 2011; Howard-Jones, 2014; aerobic exercise for improving executive functions. The evidence dons (e.g., showing that children in band or sports do better in
for that is actually quite weak. Just exercising (e.g., running, lifting
1 Melby-Lervag Be Hulme, 2012; A. B. Morrison Be Chein, 2011;
Rabiner, Murray, Skinner, Be Malone, 2010; Rabipour, Be Raz, weights, or riding a stationary bicycle) without a cognitive com·
school), but in those studies there is no way of knowing whether
children who chose band or sports already possessed qualities
I 2012; Riccio Be Gomes, 2013; Sedlmeier et al., 2012; Spierer,
Chavan, Be Manuel, 2013).
ponent improves recall and recognition memory, but there is not
much evidence that it improves executive functions. The evidence
for school success or would have developed them anyway. The
studies have not been done because oflack of interest in doing
J
g
is stronger for exercise-plus-character-development (e.g., tradi· them (my colleagues and I have applied more than once for such
0 Regardless of the method or approach to improving executive tional martial arts) or exercise-plus-mindfulness (e.g., yoga). funding) but rather because reviewers have been unwilling to
~ ~----------------~
functions, the most fundamental principle is that whether approve funding for rigorous studies on these less traditional
executive-function gains are seen depends on the amount of time I predict th~t many activities not yet studied might-well
topics (whereas our grant applications on traditional research
Repeated practice allows skills to become second nature spent practicing, working on these skills, and pushing oneself to improve executive functions. The activities should require
or automatic. topics easily sail through funding review). It is rime to broaden
improve. If participants are not challenged to keep improving, executive functions and keep challenging those skills at ever
the scope of research to more fully understand what most helps
but simply continue doing what is easy, minimal benefit is seen. greater levels of difficulty. The activity should be something
different children to thrive and why.
muse inhibit acting out of character, hold in mind the role they This principle has been known for a very long time and applies the child really wants to do so she will spend a lot of time at
have chosen and those of their friends, and Aexibly adjust in real to all skills at all ages. Ericsson spent his career studying what it, pushing to improve. Those activities that most successfully
time as their friends take the play scenario in directions they makes an expert across all manner of fields and endeavors. He improve executive functions, I predict, will be those that not Adele Diamond, PhD. FRSC, is the 1ier 1Canada Research Chair Professor
never imagined. Thus, social pretend play exercises and chal- found the answer was always the same: many thousands of hours only directly train and challenge executive functions but those of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Br' tish
lenges all three core executive functions. of practice trying to master what is just beyond your current that also indirectly support executive functions by providing Columbia in Vancouver. British Columbia, Canada. She is one of the
level of competence and comfort (Ericsson, Nandagopal,Bc joy and pride, a sense of belonging and social support, and founders of the field of developmenta I cognitive neuroscience, a leader in
Many traditional games- such as Simon Says; Red Light, Green Roring, 2009), what Vygotsky (1978) termed the zone of proxi· physical exercise. What activities do that? Some of the activities two fields !psychology and neuroscience). and at the forefront of research
Light; and Mother May !- challenge and thus help to develop mal development. that do that best are precisely the ones being cue back in so on executive functions. Her lab specializes in examining fundamental
inhibitory control. Children can practice motor control and many schools-activities such as music-making, dance, and questions about how executive functions are affected by biological factors
focused attention by walking on a line (an activity in Montessori Repeated practice enables skills to become second nature or positive sports. They address people's cognitive, emotional, !e.g.. genes and neurochemistry) and by environmental factors (e g., stress
classrooms, another curriculum shown to improve executive automatic. A child may know intellectually that he should not social, and physical needs. They challenge executive functions or creative interventions). Her work has improved med·cal treatment for
functions; Lillard Be Else-Quest, 2006).1t is as difficult for a hit another, but in the heat of the moment if that knowledge (requiring focused concentration, quickly adjusting to two disorders (phenylketonuria and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder)
young child to walk on a line on the ground as it is for an adult has not become automatic, the child will hit another (though changed circumstances, etc.); require hard work, disci pi inc, and has impacted early education Recently, Or. Diamond has tumed her
to walk on a balance beam. As children improve, it can be made if asked, he knows perfectly well he should not do that).lt is and perseverance; build self.confidence and engender joy and attention to the possible roles of trad tionaI activities. such as music
more difficult by, for example; walking faster, carrying something the difference between knowing something at an intellectual feelings of pride; involve working together toward a shared goal; and dance, in improving executive funcf ons. Her many awards include
are often characterized by close mentoring relationships with election to the Royal Society of Canada. being named one of the "2,000
on their head, or carrying an egg in a spoon. To make it into a level and having it be second nature or automatic. The only
caring adults; and whip the body into shape. Outstanding Women of the 20th Century," and being named one of the 15
game that is in essence a form of walking meditation, one only way something becomes automatic is through repeated action;
most influential neuroscient sts arve today.
needs old·fashioned bells with a handle. Each game participant nothing else will do. When you are struggling to exercise an
gets one (adults included). In the game, everyone follows a leader, executive function, you are using prefrontal cortex, but when it
trying to stay on the line with the goal of having no bell make a has become easy and second nature (and you are much better at REFERENCES
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The child will appear to have an executive-function disorder executive-function skills they practice and that improvement children's mathematics ability: Inhibition, switching, and working memory.
(e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]) when that transfers to other contexts in which those same skills are needed Bailey, C. E. {2007). Cognitive accuracy and intelligent executive function in
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age. Science, 333, 959- 964. doi:I0.1126/science. I 204529 Xc:nitidis, K., & David, A. S. (2012}. Prefrontal co"ex dysfunction and Rabiner, D. L., Murray, D. W.,Skinnc:r, A. T., & Malone, P. S. ( 2010). A indices of improved artentional modulation ovc:r middle: childhood.
KJumping to Conclusions": Bias or deficit?jouma/ ofNeuropsycbology, 6, 65-78. randomized trial of two promising computc:r-basc:d interventions for students Developmental Cog11itive Neurosdmce, 1, 175- 186.
Domitrovich, C. E., Greenberg, M. T., Co"cs, R., & Kuschc!, C. A. (2005). 77JC with attention di fficulties.jounra/ ofAbnonnal Cftild Psycbology, 38, 131-142.
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Dumontheil, 1., & Klingberg, T. ( 20 12). Brain activiry during a visuospatial Agc:-rela1c:d differences in inhibitory control in the: early school years. Child
Neuroprydtology, 20,509- 526. and behavioral remediation. Brai11 a11d Cognitio11, 79, 159- 179. Developmml, 83, 1245- 1261.
working memory task predicts arithmetical performance 2 years later. Cerebral
Cortex, 22(5), 1078-108S.doi: IO.I093/cercorlbhrl75 McAuley, E., Mullen, S. P., Szabo, A. N., White:, S.M., W6jcicki, T. R., Riccio, C. A., & Gomes, H. (2013).1merventions for executive function Zan to, T. P., Hennigan, K., Ostberg, M., Clapp, W. C., & Gazzalc:y, A. (20101.
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Eakin, L, Mindc:, K., Hechtman, L., Ochs, E., Krane:, E., Bouffard, R., •.• suppression of irrelevant information in older adults. Cortex, 46,564-574.
Looper, K. (2004). The: marital and family functioning of adults with ADHD adhen:ncc: in older adults: Executive function and self-efficacy effects. Riggs, N. R., Greenberg, M. T., Kusche, C. A., & Pentz, M.A. (2006). The
and their spousc:s.jouma/ ofAttenti011 Disorrien, 8,1-10. America11]oumal ofPreuenlive Medici1re, 41,284-290. mediational role: of nc:urocognition in the behavioral outcomes of a
Ericsson, K. A., Nandagopal, K., & Raring, R. W. (2009). Toward a science of McClelland, M. M., & Cameron, C. E. {20 11 ). Sc:lf.regulation in
excc:plional achievement: Anaining superior performance: through deliberate early childhood: Improving conceptual clariry and developing
practice:. Annals ofthe New York Academy ofSciences, 1172, 199-217. ecologically valid measures. Cbild Developmml Pmpetliues, 6, 136-142.
doi:IO.l111/ j.1 750.8606.2011.00191.x
Espy, K. A., McDiarmid, M. D., Cwilc, M. F., Stalcts, M. M., Hamby, A., &
Sc:nn, T. E. f2004 ). The: contribution of executive: functions to c:mc:rgent McClc:Jiand, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L.,
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l'sj~hology, 43,947-959.
Caravan, H., Kc:llc:y, D., Rosen, A., Rao, S.M., & Stein, E. A. (2000), Praclicc:-
Mc:lby·Lervag, M., & Hulme:, C. {2012}.1s working memory training effective:?
relatc:d functional activation changes in a working memory task. Microscopy
Research and Techniq11e, 51,54-63. A meta·analyric review.Developmtlllal Psychology, 49,270-291.

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and their spouses.journal of Attmtion Disorders, 8, 1-10. Ameni:a11 Journal cifPrcventivt Medicine, 41, 284-290. mediational role of neurocognition in the behavioral outcomes of a
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doi:10.1111/j.1750.8606.2011.00191.x
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Senn, T. E. (2004). The contribution of executive functions to emergent McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L.,
mathematic skills in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsycbology, 26, Jewkes, A. M.,llc Morrison, F. J. (2007). Links between behavioral regulation
465-486. and preschoolers' literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental
Psycboloi!J', 43,947-959.
Garavan, H., Kelley, D., Rosen, A., Rao, S.M., & Stein, E. A. (2000). Practice·
related functional activation changes in a working memory task. Microscopy Melby·Lervag, M., & Hulme:, C. (2012). Is working memory training effective?
Researr:h mtd Tecbnique, 51, 54-63. A meta-analytic review. Developrnmtal Psychology, 49, 270-291.

16 Zero to 1111-re • November 2014 Zero to Three • November 2014 17

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