A-Hydraulics 2 7-12-05 (Rev 2-06) .Pps

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Hydraulics
Pressure
Viscosity
Friction losses
Vapour pressure
Priming
Cavitation
NPSH
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Pressure
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The pressure is the ratio of a force F on a surface area A
In International units, the basic pressure equation is :
F (Pounds) F (Newton)
P (psi) = P (pascal) =
A (in )
2 A (m2)
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Pressure
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Definition of different types of pressure :
Atmospheric pressure : (This is the pressure due to

the weight of air above the Earth’s surface). It varies
depending on altitude, latitude, and weather conditions.
As a convention, it considered as being equal to
14.6923 psi at sea level.
For practical purposes, we will consider that it is equal
to 14.7 psi, except for high altitude applications.
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Gauge pressure : This is the pressure measured

taking the atmospheric pressure as a Zero reference.
14.7 psi
Atm. P psig
0 absolute psia
Absolute pressure : This is the gauge pressure added

to the atmospheric pressure. Absolute zero is then the
total lack of pressure.
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Head pressure (PH): This is the pressure at the base of
a liquid column, resulting from the specific gravity of this
liquid and gravity action.
This pressure (in psi) is equal to :
(Column height (ft.) (0.4328) x specific gravity
This pressure is independent of liquid volume
If height is equal,
P1 P2 then P1 = P2
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Differential pressure : This is the difference between

two pressures. The most common cause of differential
pressure is the Friction loss
P1 P2
ΔP = P1 - P2
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Pressure measurement units

International system unit : Pascal (Pa)
Other units (small sample list):
bar. 1 bar = 105 Pa = 14.5 psi

Pounds per square inch (psi). 1 psi = 6894.7 Pa
Water column meter (mCE). 1 mCE = 104 Pa
mm of mercury (mmHg). 1 mmHg =133.322 Pa
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Pressure
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Pumps and pressure
Centrifugal pump against pressure

The flow rate of a centrifugal pump decreases as the
discharge pressure increases.
Pressure
Flow
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Pumps and pressure

Positive Displacement pump against pressure
Unlike a centrifugal pump, the flow rate of a PD pump
stays almost constant whatever the discharge pressure is.
Pressure
Flow
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Pumps and pressure

This leads us to an essential law :
A PD pump does not make pressure.
It overcomes several pressures created by liquid flow and
installation :
Atmospheric pressure
Head pressure
Differential pressure
Residual pressure
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We have not dealt with the residual pressure yet :

Residual pressure (PR) : This is the pressure at the
end of discharge piping from the pump. It can be equal
to zero gauge (gravity unloading,...) or set a certain
value (pulverisation, pressurised filling, spraying…)
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CAUTION ! Frequently, the residual pressure is the value

given by the customer as it is the one he needs for his
process. But it does not take into account the pressures
losses between the pump and the point of discharge.
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Pump discharge pressure will then be the addition of

the residual pressure, the friction loss, and the head
pressure.
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Viscosity
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Take two pots. One filled with water, the other one with
honey
Put a spoon in each, and stir !
You see (you probably expected so !) that honey

requires a much higher effort than water to be stirred
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Honey « resists » stirring more than water.
The viscosity is a measure of this resistance against

stirring.
The shear rate represents the speed of stirring
The shear force is the force necessary to produce this

stirring
For practical purposes, we will use viscosity and shear rate.

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We will meet two major types of viscosity :
Absolute or dynamic viscosity : This is the ratio of the

shear force on the shear rate. It is generally the value
given by the customer.
International unit is Pascal Second (Pa.s)
But the most common unit is centipoise (cps or cPo)
1 cps = 1 mPa.s
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We will meet two major types of viscosity :
Kinematic viscosity : This is the ratio of the dynamic

viscosity as a function of the specific gravity (SG) of the
product.
International unit is m2/ s
But the most common unit is Centistoke (cst)
1 cst = 106 m2/ s ou 1 mm2/ s
1 cst = 1/SG cps
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Many other units exist. Some are specific to certain types

of industry.
Refer to viscosity measurement units conversion table.
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Viscosity measurement units :

Some examples of viscosity :
Water at 68°F : 1 cps
Vegetable oil at 68°F : 80 cps
Heavy fuel at 86°F : 1000 cps
Honey at 68°F : 5000 cps
Tooth paste at 68°F : 23000 cps
Any solid : Infinite viscosity
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Environmental parameters which can change viscosity
There are two :
Temperature
Stirring / Shear
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Temperature
Take back your pot with honey and heat it.

Then stir it again : You will see that
required effort is much lower.
Nothing surprising. From 68 to 122°F,

its viscosity has been divided by 10 !
(500 cPs instead of 5000 cPs)
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Temperature
Take back your pot with honey and heat it.

Conclusion
Then: stir
Generally,
it again :the
Youviscosity
will see that
required
of a effort is much
liquid decreases lower.
when
temperature increases
Nothing suprising. From 20 to 50°C, its
viscosity has been divided by 10 !
(500 cPs instead of 5000 cPs)
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Stirring / Shear
In contrast to the temperature, shear will not have the

same consequences on all liquids.
If you move some oil violently or during a long time, its

viscosity will not change.
Do the same with fruit jam or nail polish : the effort will
decrease.
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Stirring / Shear
Therefore,
In oppositionittois absolutely
the temperature,necessary
shear will nottohave
knowthe the
reaction of the pumped
same consequences product as a function of
on all liquids.
shear as, obviously, the pump will shear this liquid.
If you move some oil violently or during a long time, its
viscosity will not change.
Do the same with fruit jam or nail varnish : the effort will
decrease.
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1st case: Liquids of which viscosity (at constant
temperature) is independent from shear . They are called
Newtonian
Examples :
Water
Oil Viscosity
Milk
Bitumen Shear rate
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2nd case : Liquids of which viscosity decreases with
shear rate. They are called Pseudoplastic. There are
numerous examples in all kind of industries
Examples :
Tooth paste
Mustard Viscosity
Cream
Paint Shear rate
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3rd case : Liquids of which viscosity increases with shear
rate. They are called Dilatant.
Examples :
Some sludge
Some sauces Viscosity
Lime slurries
Isocyanates Shear rate
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4th case : Liquids in which viscosity decreases with
shear time. They are called Thixotropic.
Examples :
Tooth paste
Cheese pastes Viscosity
Cosmetics products
Shear time
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5th case : Liquids of which viscosity increases with shear
time. They are called Anti-thixotropic.
Examples :
Some honeys
Some chemical Viscosity
products
Shear time
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6th case : Liquids of which viscosity is solid-like below a
certain shear rate. They are called Plastics.
Examples : 
Some yoghurts
Some chemical Viscosity
products
Shear rate
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It is very important to avoid confusion between these
different types of behaviour. A product can be
pseudoplastic without being thixotropic...
For instance, if we move some kind of chocolate with a

constant shear, viscosity will first decrease (pseudoplastic
behaviour) and will then remain constant, whatever the
shear time is.
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Practical use of viscosity

We have had the theory, now let’s practice !
An installation
In the pump, shear rate will increase again. Liquid’s viscosity
will be modified once more. We will call it V3
In the pipe, the circulation shears the liquid. If it is not

newtonian, its viscosity will change. We will call it V2
In the tank, the liquid is at his rest viscosity. We will call it V1

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The viscosity given by the customer generally corresponds to V1.
V1 V3
V2
But if the product is not newtonian, we already know that this data
will be useless when trying to calculate the friction loss in the
pipework and furthermore, to select the best pump.
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It is therefore, necessary to know how the product
behaves against shear. Is it newtonian, pseudoplastic,
thixotropic,… ?
To understand its behaviour, it is necessary to test it.

Blackmer has an extensive database of test data. Any
new product can also be tested.
Now let’s examine the typical result of such a test.

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The test result includes two curves : viscosity vs shear

rate curve, viscosity vs. shear time curve.
Let’s look at the viscosity vs. shear rate curve of a milk

chocolate. This will be the most useful in calculating the
piping friction loss, and selecting the pump.
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Vertically viscosity, horizontally shear rate.
Essai de visco N°: TV603 We can see that the
Mobile 3 viscosity decreases
Client : ALPECO (pour CADBURYS)
Produit : CHOCOLAT AU LAIT as the shear rate
Temp, en c°: 45° increase. The product
12,000
is, therefore,
10,000 pseudoplastic
8,000
Viscosité (Pa.s-1)
6,000
4,000
2,000
0,000
0,0 50,0 100,0 150,0 200,0
Taux de cisaillement (s-1)

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Essai de visco N°: TV603 To exploit this curve,
Mobile 3
Client : ALPECO (pour CADBURYS) we must determine
Produit : CHOCOLAT AU LAIT the shear rate :
Temp, en c°: 45°
12,000
10,000 In the pipe
8,000 In the pump

Viscosité (Pa.s-1)
6,000
4,000
2,000
0,000
0,0 50,0 100,0 150,0 200,0

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Shear rate in the pipe
Shear rate in s-1 = (0.908x Q) / (3600 x п x (0.0245r)3
Q : Flow rate in gpm
r : Pipe radius in inches

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Example : Flow rate 5 m3/h in a DN 50 pipe.
The shear rate will be 113,18 s-1
FRICTION LOSS CALCULATION
Q v d L L+Acc D P V Shear
Flow Visco Diam Length Flow type Loss Power Velocity Rate
m3/h (cst) (mm) (m) (m) (bar) (kW) (m/s) s-1
5 100 50,0 10 10,00 Laminaire 0,09 0,01 0,71 113,18

To friction loss
SG: 1,00
ACCESSORIES Qté Prefilters 2 grids Qté Prefilters 1 grid Qté
program
Bend 90° small radius flanged PF25-(4+1) PF25-(4)
Bend 90° small radius threaded PF40-(4+1) PF40-(4)
Bend 90° large radius flanged PF50-(4+1) PF50-(4)
Bend 90° large radius threaded PF70-(4+1) PF70-(4)
Bend 45° flanged PF80-(4+1) PF80-(4)
Bend 45° threaded 125-(4+1) PF125-(4)
T Junction straight crossing flanged PF150-(4+1) PF150-(4)
T Junction straight crossing threaded PFP25-(4+1) PF.P25-(4)
T junction 90° crossing threaded PFP40(4+1) PF.P40-(4)
T junction 90° crossing flanged PFP60(4+1) PF.P60-(4)
Bend 180° threaded PFP100(4+1) PF.P100(4)
Bend 180° flanged PF60CC8-(4+1) PF60CC8-(4)
Seat valve threaded PF80CC8-(4+1) PF80CC8-(4)
Seat valve flanged PF100CC8-(4+1) PF100CC8-(4)
Sliding valve threaded FA60(été) FA60(hiv)
Sliding valve flanged FA80(été) FA80(hiv)
90° valve threaded FA5A(été) FA5A(hiv)
90° valve flanged
Check valve threaded
Check valve flanged
Nipple threaded
Conic reducer
Straight reducer
Nested pipe
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TV603
Essai de visco N°:
Put back this data
Mobile
Client : ALPECO (pour CADBURYS)
3 on the curve
Produit : CHOCOLAT AU LAIT We see that with this
Temp, en c°: 45° shear rate, the V2
12,000
viscosity will be 2800
cps. It is this data,
10,000
and not the 10000
8,000
cps at rest given by
customer that we
Viscosité (Pa.s-1)
6,000
will use to calculate
friction losses.
4,000
2,000
0,000
0,0 50,0 100,0 150,0 200,0

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Shear rate in the pump
Depending on its technology, each type of pump produces a different shear rate.
To find it, go to the training chapter corresponding to the selected pump
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In conclusion, we must always remember that the viscosity
of a liquid (except if it is newtonian), will be different in each
part of the process and for each pump technology.
Viscosity Tank
Piping
Peristaltic : Abaque
Eccentric Disk A, S and C
Vane : Pump
Other Technologies
Shear
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Friction losses
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A fluid flowing in a pipe will experience resistance to

flow within the fluid layers and and the wall of the
pipe.
These frictions are opposite to fluid motion.
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Obstacles in the pipe will also create resistance to the flow of fluid.
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Friction losses
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To overcome this resistance, the pressure at the

beginning of a piping must be higher than the
pressure at the end of it.
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Friction losses
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This pressure difference is called

THE FRICTION LOSS
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Friction losses
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The friction loss being a differential pressure, has

the same measurement units :
Bar
Psi
Pa
Etc.
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Friction losses
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Friction loss is influenced by :
Installation characteristics
Fluid characteristics
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influencing Friction loss
Pipe diameter
Considering a 4.5 gpm flow rate and a ¾” internal diameter pipe.
Fluid speed will be approximately 3.3 ft/sec

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Friction losses
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Pipe diameter
Keeping this 4.5 gpm flow rate but in a 1.06”. internal diameter
pipe
Fluid speed drops to 1.64 ft/sec

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Friction losses
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Pipe diameter
This lower speed reduces the energy absorbed by friction.
Thus, differential pressure to overcome this friction, can also be

reduced.
Conclusion :
With equal flow rate, the smaller the pipe diameter, the higher
the friction loss
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Friction losses
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Pipe length
It is easy to understand that two yards of pipe will create more

friction than one !
Also, it will take more energy, and thus differential pressure, to
overcome this friction.
Conclusion :
With equal flow rate, the longer the pipe, the higher the
friction loss.
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Friction losses
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Pipe roughness and accessories :
elbows, T-junctions, connections,…
Once again, we can imagine how these factors generate
resistance to fluid motion.
Conclusion :
With equal flow rate, the higher the number piping
accessories, the higher the friction loss.
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Friction losses
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Flow rate
It is the same phenomenon as for pipe diameter.

Instead of reducing pipe diameter, increase flow rate : speed
increases, friction also… and energy losses too !
Conclusion :
With equal pipe diameter, the bigger the flow rate, the higher
the friction loss.
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Friction losses
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Hydraulic accessories : filters, valves,
check valves, meters,...
Once again, facing such obstacles, the fluid will have the same
need : increased differential pressure to pass it
Conclusion :
The more numerous the hydraulic accessories, the higher the
friction loss.
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Friction losses
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Liquid characteristics influencing

Friction loss
Specific gravity
Logic ! A heavier object requires more energy to be pushed.
Same thing for a liquid with higher specific gravity therefore

“heavier”. A higher differential pressure will be necessary to move
it into a pipe.
Conclusion :
With constant dynamic viscosity, and equal installation, the
higher the specific gravity, the higher the friction loss.
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Friction losses
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Friction loss
The viscosity
Take two funnels and fill them, one with honey, the other one with
water
The liquids are submitted to a differential pressure corresponding

to the funnel filling height
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Friction losses
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Friction loss
The viscosity
This differential pressure makes water flowing immediately
But if we want honey to flow as quick as water, we will have to put

pressure on it, i.e increase differential pressure.
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Friction losses
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friction loss
The viscosity
Conclusion :
With equals pipe diameter and flow rate, the more viscous
the liquid, the higher the friction loss.
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Friction losses
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Flow characteristics
There are two possible flow characteristics
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
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Friction losses
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Laminar flow
The fluid moves in concentric layers with the maximum

velocity in the centre of the pipe, decreasing to zero at the
pipe wall
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Turbulent flow
Liquid particles movement is not necessarily parallel to the

pipe. Velocity at pipe wall is close to the one in the centre
of pipe
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Flow characteristics determination is done with a number

called Reynolds Number , written Re.
This number is without measurement unit
v*D v*D
Re = Re =
v v
v : velocity in ft/s v : velocity in m/s
D : pipe diameter in ft. D : pipe diameter in m.
v : viscosity in v : viscosity in
ft2/s m2/s
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If Re < 2000, flow is laminar
If Re > 2000, flow is turbulent

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Practical friction losses
For other accessories such as meters, filters,… the

corresponding pressure drop has to be given by the
manufacturer.
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Vapour pressure
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The vapour pressure of a fluid is the

pressure (at a given temperature) at which a
fluid will change to a vapour.
It is written Pvp
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Vapour pressure
Frontiers...
Let’s examine a very well known liquid :

Water
Every body know that water boils at 212°F…
212°F
At least in a pan at home where
water is at atmospheric
pressure : 14.7 psi absolute.
14.7 psi is therefore the vapour pressure of

water at 212°F
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Vapour pressure
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But climb on top of Mont-Blanc mountain !

If we do the experience
again in this cold place,
we will see the water
194°F boiling at 194°F.
Looking at a barometer we will

also see that atmospheric
pressure is only 10.15 psi
absolute.
10.15 psi therefore is the vapour pressure of

water at 194°F
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Vapour pressure
Frontiers...
The conclusion is obvious:
The vapour pressure of a liquid is linked to its

temperature.
It increases along with temperature.
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Vapour pressure
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Therefore we can have:
Under the condition of having

Boiling water at 122°F it at a gauge pressure of
- 12.76 psig (or 1.74 psia) !
Vapour pressure of water at 122°F is therefore 1.74 psia
Under the condition of having it

Liquid water at 392°F at a gauge pressure of at least
217.56 psi (or 232.1 psia) !
Vapour pressure of water at 392°F is therefore 232 psia

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Vapour pressure
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Some vapour pressure examples:
Water at 68°F : Pvp = 0.29 psia

Gasoline at 68°F : Pvp = 4.35 psia
Ether at 68°F : Pvp = 8.7 psia
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An example of vapour pressure curve

Unleaded gasoline 98
0,9
0,8
Unleaded gasoline bar
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Temperature °C
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Vapour pressure
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Influence of installation and environment
If we pump a high vapour pressure product

like gasoline, ambient temperature and
installation design will become very important
parameters.
A tank or outdoor pipe heated by summer sun, can thus

become a cause of major problems.
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Why must we take vapour pressure into

consideration when selecting a pump ?
A pump will provide optimal performance and life time if

the pumped product is totally liquid.
Vaporisation, even partial, will lead to noises and pump
damage along with significant loss of flow rate.
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Vapour pressure
Frontiers...

We also saw that when creating vacuum, we could get

close to and even reach liquid vapour pressure
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Vapour pressure
Frontiers...

A pump is designed to create a vacuum. A pump can

therefore partially vaporise the liquid, especially if it has a
high vapour pressure.
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Vapour pressure
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It is, therefore, very important to take the vapour

pressure of a liquid into account when selecting a pump.
To ensure good priming, accurately calculate NPSH
available and avoid cavitation
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PrimingFrontiers...
The priming of an installation is the total filling of the suction

pipe and the pump by the pumped product.
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To prime, it is necessary to remove all the air in the suction

line, and replace it with liquid.
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Blackmer pumps A, C, S Series, Vane and Abaque pumps

are self priming. It means that they are able to move air
from the suction line to the discharge line, until a vacuum is
created which induces the liquid into the pump.
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CAUTION ! It does not mean that they can prime whatever

the conditions are.
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3 factors have to be considered:
The product
The installation
The pump
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The product
2 parameters to be considered:
The specific gravity
The vapour pressure

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The product
A “heavier” liquid will, obviously, need more vacuum to be “lifted”.

Take a liquid with SG = 1 A 10 ft. suction height, and a pump providing a -5.8 psig vacuum.
With this height and vacuum, we will need a -4.328 psig vacuum to prime.
The pump provides a -5.8 psig vacuum : priming occurs.
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The product
A “heavier” liquid will, obviously, need more vacuum to be “lifted”.

Take now a heavier product with SG = 1.4, other parameters remaining unchanged.
Considering SG and height, we will need a -6.06 psig vacuum to prime.
The pump provides a -5.8 psig vacuum : priming does not occurs.
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The product
The vapour pressure
If the vapour pressure of the liquid is high, the pump
vacuum may vaporise this liquid.
Take water at 68°F, vapour pressure is 0.29 psia, with same installation as previously shown
The pump provides a -5.8 psig vacuum i.e. 8.7 psia.

Vacuum created by the pump is far from liquid vapour pressure. The product remain under
liquid form : priming occurs
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The product
The vapour pressure
If the vapour pressure of the liquid is high, the pump
vacuum may vaporise this liquid.
Heat this water at 194°F, Its vapour pressure becomes 10.15 psia
The pump provides a -5.8 psig vacuum i.e. 8.7 psia.
Vacuum created by the pump is below vapour pressure of the product. The liquid vaporises
before reaching the pump, it boils: priming does not occurs.
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The installation
2 parameters to be considered:
The suction height
The pressure on surface of the liquid and on discharge

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PrimingFrontiers...
The installation
The suction height
Greater suction height will lead to more difficult priming.
Take a liquid, SG =1, a suction height of 10 ft. and a pump generating a – 5.8 psig vacuum.

Pump provides a – 5.8 psig vacuum : priming occurs.
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The installation
The suction height
Greater suction height will lead to more difficult priming.
Take a similar installation but with a suction height increased to 20 ft.
Pump provides a – 5.8 psig vacuum. Liquid will lift up to 13.4 ft. and then will stabilise :
Priming does not occur.
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The installation
The suction height
Suction height tricks of the trade !
On the installation below, the pump is at H1 height above the tank.
But the suction pipe has an upper H2 height section.
It is H2 that must be taken into account for priming check, as it is this one that pump vacuum
will have to meet and not H1.
Principle : the suction height is the maximal height between liquid surface into the tank
and the highest point of the suction pipe.
H2
H1
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The installation
The suction height
Using this principle, the suction height of the installation below will be H1 and not H2
It therefore essential to know the lowest level of liquid when priming.
H1
H2
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The installation
The pressure on liquid surface
The higher the pressure on liquid surface, the easier the priming.
Take a liquid, SG = 1, a 20 ft. suction height, in a tank at atmospheric pressure and a pump
providing a – 5.8 psi vacuum.
Considering SG, height, and pressure on liquid surface, we will need a -8.7 psi vacuum to prime.
As pump creates a -5.8 psi vacuum, liquid will lift up to 13 ft. and will then stabilise :
priming does not occur
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PrimingFrontiers...
The installation
The pressure on liquid surface
The higher the pressure on liquid surface, the easier the
priming.
Keep the same parameters but with a closed tank and 7.25 psi pressurised tank.
Considering SG, height, and pressure on liquid surface, we will need a -1.45 psi to prime.
Pump provides a -5.8 psi vacuum: priming occurs.

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The installation
The pressure on discharge
The higher the discharge pressure, the harder the priming.
Even discharge installation can influence priming.
If the air flow on the discharge side of the pump is not free, the pump will compress this air.
This compression will generate a big air return by pump’s internal clearances and, therefore,
reduce the pump vacuum. This will make it harder to create vacuum on the suction side of the
pump.
Succeeding in all
PrimingFrontiers...
The pump
3 parameters to be considered :
The pump technology
The pump speed

The pump status : wet or dry
Succeeding in all
PrimingFrontiers...
The pump
The pump technology
We already saw that, to prime, a pump transfers air

volumes at each rotation, from the suction side to the
discharge side of the pump.
But in the mean time, some air will also go back to the
suction side by the internal pump clearances.
Succeeding in all
PrimingFrontiers...
The pump
The pump technology
These two air flows will eventually balance at a certain vacuum

point on the suction side, the excess air flow totally going back to
the suction side: This is defined as the dry vacuum of the pump.
This vacuum will obviously be influenced by the pump design. The

closer the internal clearances , the higher the vacuum.
Succeeding in all
PrimingFrontiers...
The pump
The pump technology

The best technology for this is the peristaltic pump. Transfer
by elastomer hose compression provides an almost perfect
internal tightness.
Succeeding in all
PrimingFrontiers...
The pump
The pump technology
The eccentric disk principle also provides excellent priming

performances thanks to permanent cylinder/disk contact,
reducing clearances to a minimum.
Succeeding in all
PrimingFrontiers...
The pump
The pump technology
Vane pumps are also self priming but with lesser

performance due to larger clearances.
Succeeding in all
PrimingFrontiers...
The pump
The pump speed
We already saw that either peristaltic, eccentric disk

principle or vane pumps transfer a certain volume of air at
each rotation.
If the speed increases, the volume of air transferred will also
increase.
If the volume of air transferred increase, vacuum on suction

side will also.
Succeeding in all
PrimingFrontiers...
The pump
At first priming or after a long rest period, the pump is

generally dry (no product inside)
The pump will then create a vacuum according to the way

described before. This is the dry vacuum of the pump.
Succeeding in all
PrimingFrontiers...
The pump
In contrast, when priming while the pump is still full of liquid,

the vacuum will be higher as this liquid tend to restrict
internal clearances.
This is the wet vacuum of the pump, which obviously leads

to a much easier priming.
Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...
Definition : Cavitation is the generation of vapour bubbles

in a liquid, immediately followed by their implosion.
Cavitation can be met in any hydraulic application: ship

propellers, mixer blades, and, of course, pumps !
Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...
The transformation from liquid to vapour is not destructive.

On the opposite, the return to liquid form is.
In the case of water, pressure can reach more than
175,000 psi during 1/10 000 second !
Furthermore, this force is concentrated in very small areas.
The surfaces are thus rapidly damaged by material
chunking, and even pulverisation.
Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...
Here is a slow motion simulation of this phenomenon
Imagine this phenomenon occurring thousands of times a

second, and you will easily imagine what will be left of the
pump internals after a few days, or even a few hours.
Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...
Furthermore, this phenomenon produces a typical noise.
Just as if the pump was pumping gravel !

Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...
Cavitation = Destruction + Noise !
Do we have to confirm that cavitation

must be avoided at all costs ?!
Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...
Why does a pump cavitate ?
Let’s examine the pressure profile of a liquid as it passes thought

a pump
Succeeding in all
Cavitation Frontiers...
Point A, is the pressure available on the suction port of the pump
Point B is the pressure at the inlet of pumping chamber
Point C is the pressure at the outlet of pumping chamber
Point D is the pressure at the inlet of discharge chamber
Point E is the pressure at the discharge port
D E
A
C
B
Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...

As long as none of those pressures goes below the vapour
pressure of the liquid, all goes well
D E
A
C
B
Tv
Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...

But if the pressure drops below the vapour pressure, cavitation
will occur.
D E
A
Tv C
B
Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...

In the example below, bubbles or cavities will appear at point B
(lowest pressure) and will implode before C.
D E
A
Tv C
B
Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...

Cavitation can thus result from :
Vapour pressure of the liquid
Pressure drop coming from both suction height and pump vacuum
Pressure drop coming from both Friction losses on suction and

pump vacuum
Total or partial combination of these parameters

Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...
These are therefore the parameters to check to avoid cavitation
This will be done by NPSH calculation

Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH means Net Positive Suction Head

Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH is always in absolute pressure
There are two types of NPSH

Available NPSH written NPSHA
Required NPSH written NPSHR

Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
Available NPSH
Available NPSH corresponds to the available pressure
at pump suction port.
It depends on :
Pressure on liquid surface (P)
Pressure generated by liquid column height (PH)
Friction losses in suction pipe system (Fl)
Vapour pressure of liquid at pumping temperature (Pvp)
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
Available NPSH
NPSHA Formula
NPSHA = P + PH - Fl - Pvp
If suction is flooded, the If pump has to lift liquid, the

pressure generated by pressure generated by liquid
liquid column height is column height is subtracted
added to NPSHA from NPSHA
Succeeding in all
Frontiers...
Examples of Suction Head &
Suction Lift
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
Required NPSH
Required NPSH corresponds to the friction loss in the
pump suction chamber.
It is function of the construction data of the pump as flow

rate or pressure.
NPSHR is generally given by the pump selection program.

Succeeding in all
Cavitation
Frontiers...

As long as none of those pressures goes below the vapour
pressure of the liquid, all goes well
D E
A
C
Tv B
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
Required NPSH
NPSHR being a friction loss, is influenced by the same
parameters :
It increases with pump flow rate
It increases with liquid viscosity

Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
We must always have :
NPSHA > NPSHR

Succeeding in all
Frontiers...
NPSHr VS NPSHa
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
What happens if we do not follow this equation ?
Example : A liquid with SG = 1, a 2.9 psi vapour pressure, on a

6.6 ft. suction height, and an installation creating a 1.45 psi
friction loss with an tank at atmospheric pressure
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
Calculate NPSHA :
NPSHA = P - Pvp - PH - Fl
NPSHA = 14.7 psi – 2.9 psi – 2.9 psi – 1.45 psi = 7.25 psi
14.5 psia Pressure on liquid surface
Suction height
7.25 psia Friction loss on suction
0 psia
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
Imagine that the pump selection indicates a 8.12 NPSHR

Suction height
0 psia
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
The two values therefore indicate a pump friction loss of (8.12 psi) is
Higher than the available pressure at pump suction port (7.25 psi).
We should expect some caviation!

Suction height
0 psia
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
Let’s physically examine the problem.
If we want the product to pass thought the pump, we theoretically
need a 8.12 psi differential pressure corresponding to the pump
NPSHR / pump friction loss.
14.5 paia Pressure on liquid surface

Suction height
0 psia
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
But we only have 7.25 psi at the pump inlet. It means theoretically
we would only have 7.25 psi – 8.12 psi = - 0.87 psia in the
pumping chamber, more than an absolute vacuum !

Suction height
0 psia
?!
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
This is obviously not the case as compression on discharge will

increase pressure.
14.5 psia
7.25 psia
0 psia
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
However in the pump suction chamber, the liquid is submitted to a

strong vacuum and will therefore reach and even pass under its
vapour pressure and will hence vaporise.
14.5 psia
7.25 psia
Tv
0 psia
Vaporising
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
The compression on discharge will lead to the vapour bubbles

imploding violently and the product going back to liquid form.
14.5 psia
7.25 psia Implosion

Tv
0 psia
Vaporising
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
NPSH EQUATION
This is a typical cavitation case. In addition to noise and damage,

it will also lead to a drop in flow performance.
14.5 psia
7.25 psia Implosion

Tv
0 psia
Vaporising
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
CAUTION !
Do not confuse priming and NPSH !
A pump can have an very good priming capacity and a poor

NPSHR … and vice versa.
Succeeding in all
NPSH Frontiers...
CAUTION !
Do not confuse priming and NPSH !
A pump which has not been properly selected can prime

perfectly… and then start to cavitate because of an excessive
NPSHR.

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Succeeding in all

The pressure is the ratio of a force F on a surface area A

In International units, the basic pressure equation is :

Definition of different types of pressure :

Atmospheric pressure : (This is the pressure due to

Definition of different types of pressure :

Gauge pressure : This is the pressure measured

Absolute pressure : This is the gauge pressure added

Definition of different types of pressure :

Definition of different types of pressure :

Differential pressure : This is the difference between

Pressure measurement units

bar. 1 bar = 105 Pa = 14.5 psi

Pumps and pressure

Centrifugal pump against pressure

Pumps and pressure

Pumps and pressure

We have not dealt with the residual pressure yet :

CAUTION ! Frequently, the residual pressure is the value

Pump discharge pressure will then be the addition of

You see (you probably expected so !) that honey

Honey « resists » stirring more than water.

The viscosity is a measure of this resistance against

The shear force is the force necessary to produce this

For practical purposes, we will use viscosity and shear rate.

We will meet two major types of viscosity :

Absolute or dynamic viscosity : This is the ratio of the

We will meet two major types of viscosity :

Kinematic viscosity : This is the ratio of the dynamic

Many other units exist. Some are specific to certain types

Viscosity measurement units :

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

There are two :

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

Take back your pot with honey and heat it.

Nothing surprising. From 68 to 122°F,

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

Take back your pot with honey and heat it.

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

In contrast to the temperature, shear will not have the

If you move some oil violently or during a long time, its

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

Environmental parameters which can change viscosity

For instance, if we move some kind of chocolate with a

Practical use of viscosity

In the pipe, the circulation shears the liquid. If it is not

In the tank, the liquid is at his rest viscosity. We will call it V1

Practical use of viscosity

Practical use of viscosity

To understand its behaviour, it is necessary to test it.

Now let’s examine the typical result of such a test.

Practical use of viscosity

The test result includes two curves : viscosity vs shear