Jim Blythe Marketing Essentials PDF

Marketing Essentials
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Marketing Essentials
Jim Blythe
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10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
CHAPTER 1 The nature and scope of marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

What is a marketer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ... 2
The evolution of marketing orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ... 3
The contribution of marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ... 7
Aspects of the market-oriented approach . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 10
Difficulties in developing a marketing orientation . . . . . ..... . . 14
Marketing’s cross-functional role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 18
Internal marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 21
The impact of marketing on society, consumers
and environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 23
Relationship marketing versus transactional marketing . ..... .. 27
Segmentation, targeting and positioning. . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 32
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 34
Self-check questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 35
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 36
Journal articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 36
Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .. 37
CHAPTER 2 Planning within the marketing context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Setting objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 39
Internal and external influences on objectives. . . . .... ..... .. 46
Categories of objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 50
Using the marketing plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 54
Stages of the planning process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 56
The marketing audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 57
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 62
Self-test questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 62
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 63
Journal articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 63
Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 64
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ..... .. 64
v
vi Contents
CHAPTER 3 The marketing mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . . 69
The product life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . . 72
Portfolio management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . . 76
New product development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . . 78
Adoption of innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . . 82
Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . . 87
Pricing methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . . 92
Distribution channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . . 95
Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . 101
Media decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . 110
Measuring the success of promotions . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . 113
Services marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . 115
Measuring the success of marketing activities. . . ..... .... . . 120
Putting it all together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . 123
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . 125
Self-test questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . 125
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . 127
Journal articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . 127
Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... .... . . 127
H O W T O P A S S T H E C I M E XA M S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 9
A P PE N D IX A N S WE R S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 7
IN D E X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 9
CHAPTER 1
The Nature and Scope of Marketing
Learning objectives
After working through this module and reading around the subject, you
should be able to:
& Explain the evolution of marketing orientation.
& Describe the contribution of marketing as a means of creating customer value
and competitive advantage.
& Describe the factors which contribute to a marketing-oriented approach to run
the organisation.
& Be aware of the difficulties which might be encountered in developing a
marketing orientation within the firm.
& Explain the cross-functional role of marketing.
& Explain the impact of marketing activities on consumers, society and the
environment: marketing ethics.
& Be aware of the role of relationship marketing.
1
2 CHAPTER 1: The Nature and Scope of Marketing
STUDY TIP
This section accounts for 25% of the whole course, so it develop the habit of asking yourself ‘What would I have
should take around 10 hours of study time for the average done in those circumstances?’ Do not assume that the
student. Some of this will consist of reading through this marketers involved came up with the perfect answer
course book and working the examples and case studies, simply because they are working for a large company.
some will consist of reading around the subject and some It is a good idea to give yourself plenty of time away
may be class time with a tutor or with a correspondence from studying, so that your subconscious can absorb the
course. Clearly, though, if you have studied for less than materials better. Cramming at the last minute might get
10 hours, you either are exceptionally bright or have you through the exam, but remember you are doing this
missed something – experience shows that it is often the course because the knowledge and thought patterns you
latter case. At this level, the examiner will be expecting gain from it will help you in your career – the piece of
you to be able to apply your learning, not just quote it: paper is of no use if your boss finds out you actually do
when you are reading case studies or examples, try to not know anything!
WHAT IS A MARKETER?
Marketers tend to think differently from other people in the organisation.
This is because they are much more concerned with people, and especially
people outside the organisation, than are (say) the finance manager or the
production manager. Marketers tend to be risk-takers: they are more pre-
pared to try something new, because this is usually the only way to establish
a competitive advantage over other firms – following a standard, tried-and-
tested approach means simply copying what other people have done, which
will not generate any advantage. For this reason, marketers tend to be
creative and innovative.
Marketers often think of themselves as having common sense: after all, if
the company does not look after its customers, the customers will soon find
someone who will and will spend their money elsewhere. To a marketer, this
seems obvious, yet to many managers from other disciplines, it does not –
they see the marketers as someone who is paid to go out and find customers
for products which the company already supplies.
If the finance managers of two companies in the same industry were
exchanged, they would almost certainly be able to carry on with their jobs
without pause: the same would be true of company lawyers or administra-
tors. If the marketers were exchanged, though, they would be completely lost
in each others’ firms because each marketer should be following a comple-
tely different programme of new product development, promotion, pricing
and so forth. This is because each marketer seeks to differentiate his or her
company from all the others in the market, as a way of reducing (or at least
circumventing) the competition.
The Evolution of Marketing Orientation 3
THE EVOLUTION OF MARKETING ORIENTATION

Marketing is a relatively young discipline and is thought to have evolved
from previous business paradigms as follows:
1. Production orientation. In this paradigm, the key to success in
business is to produce as cheaply as possible and keep prices low. This
paradigm was typical in the 19th century, when mechanised
production could out-compete hand production in cost terms. The
basis of production orientation is that people will buy anything as long
as it is cheap enough. The drawback, of course, is that consumers are
expected to accept a standardised product which is unlikely to meet
their needs exactly: only a very few products are acceptable on a one-
size-fits-all basis. Many firms still operate this way, but people have
come to expect (and can afford) more customised products, and global
production runs mean that economies of scale can still be generated.
The drawback from a manufacturing viewpoint is that the company is
competing on price, which invariably cuts profit margins: there is
always someone somewhere in the world who is able to produce more
cheaply or is desperate enough (or naı̈ve enough) to sell below the
costs of production.
2. Product orientation. In order to compete effectively, the product needs
to have features which appeal to individual consumers. In a product-
oriented firm, the products are designed to incorporate a large number
of features in order to meet the needs of a large number of consumers.
Such products can become extremely complex, since people’s needs
vary considerably, even for basic, everyday products such as biscuits
and cleaning materials. Unfortunately, the cost of a ‘state of the art,
all the bells and whistles’ product becomes too high for most people,
and of course consumers do not want to pay for features which they
are unlikely ever to use.
3. Sales orientation. As mass production developed to the point where

there was an over-supply of goods, firms supposedly switched to a
sales orientation. Sales-oriented firms believe that people will only
buy if they are subjected to a high-pressure sales pitch: the
assumption is that people do not want to buy things and will only do
so if persuaded. Furthermore, sales orientation assumes that people
will not mind being persuaded and will be happy for the salesperson to
call again: from the producer’s viewpoint, success is thought to come
through using aggressive promotional techniques. In effect, sales
orientation aims to change customers in order to meet the needs of
the organisation. The major problem from a producer’s viewpoint is
that salespeople are an expensive item, so much so that it is almost

always cheaper simply to produce things that people want to buy.
Sales orientation has little or nothing to do with the practice of selling,
of course: high-pressure techniques simply result in cancelled orders
once the sales rep has left.
4. Market orientation. Here the firm looks at what the market (i.e.
consumers) actually needs and acts accordingly. For the market-
oriented firm, the customer’s needs and wants are at the centre of
everything the firm seeks to achieve, and the aim of the firm is to fit
the firm to the customers rather than try to fit the customers to the
firm. One key element in market orientation is that consumers can be
grouped according to their needs, so that quite large subsections (or
segments) of the market can be identified and targeted accordingly.
Different products can be offered to each group, which enables the
firm to compete by differentiation rather than competing on price:
provided the cost of making changes is less than the additional
premium people are prepared to pay for a more ‘customised’ product,
the firm will make a greater profit and will also shut out competition,
at least for a while. Market orientation means that customer needs
become the driving force throughout the supplying organisation: a
truly market-oriented firm will use customer need as the ‘touchstone’
for setting policy, for resolving differences between different
departments within the firm and for considering competitive
responses. Customer orientation is the degree to which the company
understands its customers: the better understanding the firm has of
their needs, the better it will be able to make more attractive offers, for
which the firm can charge a premium price. Competitor orientation is
the degree to which the firm understands the other offers in the
marketplace: other firms may offer radically different solutions to the
customer’s needs, but each firm needs to consider whether the
alternatives represent better value from the customer’s viewpoint.
Identifying who the competition is can be a major problem in itself –
bus companies compete not only with each other, but also with trains,
cars, bicycles, aeroplanes and even, in some cases, with the Internet.
Some people have managed to cut out commuting by working from
home, but most bus companies would not recognise this as
competition.
The Evolution of Marketing Orientation 5
STUDY TIP
These business paradigms need to be learned by heart, using. Although they are often presented as stages of an
unfortunately! There is a strong possibility that you might evolutionary process, examples of each of them are easy
have to list them and explain them in an exam question, to find in any country and you are likely to see examples in
as well as identify which one a particular company is examinations.
A more recent addition to the evolution of marketing debate is the concept of

societal marketing. This is the view that marketers should take some
responsibility for the welfare of society as a whole and for the long-term
sustainability of their activities. This need not necessarily conflict with
meeting the everyday needs of consumers, but it does add another dimen-
sion of decision-making. For example, Kotler et al. (2001) have developed a
classification of products according to their immediate satisfaction potential
and their long-term benefits or disadvantages. Products which are highly
satisfying and also have high long-term benefits are classified as desirable
products: a natural fruit juice which is high in vitamins and also tastes good
would fit this category. Products which are not immediately satisfying but
which have high long-term benefits (such as a household smoke alarm) are
categorised as salutary products. Products which are bad for people in the
long run, but are satisfying in the short term (such as alcohol or confection-
ery) are called pleasing products. Finally, products which are neither good for
people nor satisfying are called deficient products: for example, slimming
products which do not work or toys which have no educational value and are
boring to play with. In theory, firms should aim to produce desirable pro-
ducts, but consumers often choose pleasing products instead, for example,
eating unhealthy foods when they feel unhappy (Garg et al. 2006).
There is considerable academic debate about whether the marketing
concept actually evolved in a linear manner. In other words, there may not
have been the kind of orderly move from production orientation to market
orientation that is implied by the model: however, there is little doubt that
the different orientations do exist and companies do operate under the
various paradigms to this day. In fact, the company you work for may well
not be market oriented – you may want to consider the implications of this.
The orientations themselves can still be seen in daily life: some compa-
nies are sales-orientated, employing high-pressure salespeople to persuade
people to buy. This might be typical of a home improvements company,
because there is unlikely to be much repeat business: selling someone a new
kitchen or a fitted bedroom is usually a one-off process, as is selling time-
share properties or even cars. Production orientation exists in many Far
Eastern countries, where, for example, T-shirts or baseball caps are produced
in their millions, with only a few sizes being available. Product orientation is
staging something of a renaissance with the advent of iPhones: people are

moving towards the idea of one piece of equipment that functions as a GPS
set, as a camera, as Internet access, as a word processor, as a music system
and so forth. Many teenagers no longer wear watches, because their tele-
phones will tell them the time.
MARKETING IN PRACTICE:
The Kirby Cleaner
This example shows how a company with a product orien- cleaner. Second, it is complex to use, and most people
tation (and, to some extent, a sales orientation) can still be soon get tired of fitting each different attachment – once
successful. However, we might ask ourselves whether the the novelty has worn off, most people only use it for basic
company would do better if it were customer oriented. carpet cleaning. Third, some people do not like the sales
Jim Kirby produced his first cleaning system in 1906, pitch. The salesperson comes to the customer’s house
using water to separate the dirt from carpets and soft and vacuums various items (the bed being one – people
furnishings. This product was not a great success, since it are amazed at how much dirt comes out of their mat-
left everything wet and also required the owner to clean out tresses). Almost everybody finds this embarrassing, and
dirty water from the machine. In 1907, Kirby produced the many find it intrusive – but equally, many find it hard then
first of his vacuum cleaners, using air to force the dirt into a not to buy the cleaner, when this appears to be an
cloth bag, but it was in 1925 that he launched the first admission that they do not mind living in a dirty house
multi-attachment vacuum cleaner. and sleeping in a dirty bed.
Right from the start Kirby used door-to-door salespeo- The Kirby Cleaner provides us with a prime example of
ple to sell the vacuum cleaners. As time went on, the a product-oriented company and, to a large extent, a sales-
product became steadily more sophisticated, with special oriented company. The product has all the features anyone
attachments for cleaning bedding, curtains, linoleum, sofas could want, but of course most people will only want two or
and chairs and indeed almost anything else in the house three of the features and will not want to pay 1200-plus for
which needed a clean now and then. The Kirby Cleaner a lot of features they do not need and will never use. Since
could even be configured either as a cylinder model or as the product would be unlikely to sell in a normal electrical
an upright model, as these competing designs came into retail outlet, the company has resorted to home demonstra-
the market in the 1930s and 1940s. The latest version has tions and powerful sales pitches – to be fair, the cleaner’s
a multi-speed motor allowing it to be used to buff floors, and amazing cleaning power would not be evident without a
it has a carpet shampooing function, a special pet-hair demonstration, but the cost of sending sales people out to
removing attachment, and even a headlight for cleaning people’s homes is obviously extremely high.
under furniture. The company has been selling vacuum cleaners for
In fact, the Kirby Cleaner solves all the cleaning pro- over 90 years now and operates in 70 countries with mil-
blems any normal householder will ever encounter, and lions of satisfied customers. They must be doing something
does it extraordinarily well. So how come it is not the biggest right! The question remains: Does Kirby’s approach to the
selling vacuum cleaner in the world? competitive world of vacuum cleaner marketing remain
First is the price. With all the attachments, it costs effective in the 21st century?
over 1200 – which is quite a lot of money for a vacuum
The Contribution of Marketing 7
Equally, many companies are not truly marketing oriented. Some only
say that they are customer-centred, without actually having a very clear idea
of their customers’ needs: it is very common for managers to guess what
their customers might need rather than find out through market research or
by careful analysis of the market.
EXAM HINT
It is not unusual for a case study to concern a company suggestions for bringing the company closer to a market
which is not market oriented, and in fact of the last five orientation.
case studies used in the Chartered Institute of Marketing Remember, too, that marketing orientation and cus-
(CIM) exams, only two were about customer-oriented tomer centrality do not mean that we simply give the
companies. If you think the company is operating customer everything he or she wants – what we aim to
under one of the other business paradigms, say so – do, as marketers, is SELL the customer everything he or
you will gain marks. You might also be able to make she wants, for the best price we can get.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF MARKETING

Marketing operates on the basis of adding value for customers. Marketers
always begin by considering customer needs, whatever the business pro-
blem: customers are at the centre of everything they do, whether developing
a new product which will make life easier and more convenient for consu-
mers or designing an advertising campaign that will entertain, inform and
catch the attention of the target audience. Creating customer value means
that people are more likely to be prepared to give them their money, and they
are more likely to return to them when they need something new: it has been
said that marketing is about selling products that do not come back to
customers that do.
EXAM HINT
In any question of marketing, always begin with the cus- Many candidates lose sight of this basic consideration
tomer. If you are asked to develop a marketing commu- and only think about problems from the company’s view-
nications campaign, always relate it to the target point: in addition, there is a tendency to talk about ‘the
audience: What media do they use? What type of com- consumer’ as if referring to one person. People differ in
munication will appeal to them most? What do they want their needs and wants, as companies differ in their cap-
from the product, and from the advertisement? Likewise, abilities to meet those needs and wants.
if you are discussing new product development, you need This is basic to marketing thinking: if you take nothing
to consider: What needs the product is intended to else away from the course, take this!
address? What price range will consumers be prepared
to pay? Which type of person will the product appeal to?
Customer value is a key concept in marketing because it gives impor-

tance to the idea that we should always be looking for ways to improve the
customers’ experience of dealing with us and with our products. Customer
value can be increased by adding something that our competitors do not
have – although care should be taken not to slide into product orientation by
providing everything that any customer could possibly want. The value
should only be added if either it costs us nothing to do it or the cost will
add less to the price we sell for than the value gained by the customer. If this
were not the case, the customer would not see the product as continuing to
offer value for money and would simply shop elsewhere. Customer value
should not be confused with customer lifetime value, which is the value of
the customer to the firm and is a key concept in relationship marketing.
Of course, marketers are not looking after the customer out of altruism.
Meeting customer need effectively is the easiest way of creating an exchange
(usually financial) and therefore is the most effective way for the firm to meet
its own objectives. Marketing is not, therefore, about persuasion or fooling
people: it is about providing useful, desirable products and services at a price
that people regard as reasonable (or good) value for money.
If we are better at recruiting and retaining customers than our competi-
tors, it seems likely that we will be able to compete more effectively in
general. Customer retention has become even more important in recent
years, and this has led to the development of relationship marketing, in
which long-term relationships are established with customers so that an
income stream is generated rather than a one-off transaction. There is a
great deal more about relationship marketing throughout the course, since it
is seen as the logical next stage in customer centrality.
CASE STUDY: Tesco
This case study shows how customer orientation works in Stockwell. Stockwell’s initials plus the first part of Cohen’s
practice. Tesco supermarkets are to be seen in every town name provided Tesco with its brand name.
throughout the United Kingdom and have become hugely In 1929, Cohen opened his first grocery shop in Burnt
successful through considering the needs of customers Oak, Edgware. His motto was always ‘Pile it high, sell it
first. In less than 100 years, the company has gone from cheap’ and during the depression-hit 1930s this proved to
a market stall to a giant retailer, meeting the needs of widely be a winning formula. During the 1930s, Cohen opened
differing groups of customers, despite strong competition many more stores, but it was not until after the Second
from other supermarket chains. World War that supermarket methods came to Britain.
In 1919, a young Londoner called Jack Cohen used his Tesco’s first self-service store was opened in 1948, and
First World War Army gratuity to start a business selling their first true supermarket was opened in 1956, in a con-
groceries from a market stall in the East End of London. His verted cinema in Maldon. Because staff costs are much
fledgling business went well enough for him to start his own lower in supermarkets, and because Cohen was able to buy
tea company, in partnership with a man by the name of T.E. in bulk, prices should have been much lower at Tesco
The Contribution of Marketing 9
stores than in other stores, but until 1964 manufacturers In 1995, Tesco was the first retailer to offer a loyalty
were allowed by law to fix the retail prices of their goods. In card. Customers present the card at the checkout, and the
other words, all retailers had to sell at the same price, so Tesco central computer records their purchases. Every 3
price competition was impossible. Tesco attacked this pro- months the customer receives a mailing containing vou-
blem in two ways – first, the company gave out trading chers which are redeemable at Tesco stores for groceries or
stamps which loyal customers could collect and redeem other products; customers also receive special discount
against gifts of household goods, and second, Jack Cohen vouchers for specific products. Other retailers followed
was active in lobbying Parliament for a change in the law. In suit, offering their own loyalty cards, but by then Tesco
1964, the Resale Price Maintenance law was repealed and had already seized a substantial market share. A spin-off
Cohen was able to pursue a vigorous price-cutting from the loyalty scheme was that Tesco now had very
approach to business (although trading stamps continued detailed information about each customer’s purchasing
until 1977). behaviour – how often they shop, where they live and what
During the 1960s the United Kingdom experienced a products they buy. This has proved invaluable for future
rapid rise in prosperity. More people owned cars, more planning and for fine-tuning the service to meet customer
people owned freezers (and so were able to bulk-buy their needs more effectively and was reported as having been
food) and credit cards were just beginning to be used. In used to thwart Wal-Mart’s entry into the UK supermarket
1967, Tesco introduced the concept of the edge-of-town business through its Asda subsidiary.
superstore when the company opened a 90,000-square- Tesco’s customer focus has moved ahead of Jack
foot store at Westbury in Wiltshire. This store was intended Cohen’s ‘Pile it high, sell it cheap’ price competition
to be used by car drivers – ample parking, large trolleys for focus. Being cheap is no longer enough – because every
bulk-buying and a much greater range of goods in the store other supermarket chain operates on the same basis.
meant that car owners could shop much more easily. The Tesco found that most people object to queuing in super-
edge-of-town location meant lower costs for the store, markets – so they introduced the ‘one in front’ system. If the
which could be passed on to customers. This policy proved queue is such that there is more than one person in front of
hugely successful, so through the 1970s Tesco gradually the customer, the store opens more tills until either all the
closed down its town-centre stores (with their high over- tills are open or the queue has subsided. The system is
heads) and concentrated on out-of-town superstores. In monitored centrally – every 15 minutes the tills freeze and
1974, the company began selling petrol at discounted can only be released by the cashier entering the number of
prices, again encouraging motorists to come to the store. people in the queue. The figure is fed through to Tesco’s
By 1991 Tesco was Britain’s biggest independent petrol main computer, and if there are more than two people in
retailer. the queues for more than 5% of the times the number is
In the 1990s Tesco returned to the city centre by open- entered, the store manager is asked for an explanation.
ing Tesco Metro stores, smaller supermarkets with a smal- Tesco has three own-brand ranges: the ‘Value’ range,
ler range of goods and smaller pack sizes, designed to meet which consists of cheap basic products; the ‘Tesco’ range,
the needs of the local community and inner city dwellers. In which aims to compete head-on with mainstream brands;
1997, the first Tesco’s Extra superstore was opened, offer- and the ‘Tesco’s Finest’ range of upmarket, luxurious pro-
ing a range of non-food goods, household appliances and ducts. Each brand meets the needs of a different group of
clothing, as well as the traditional groceries available in all Tesco customers. These now represent about half of all
Tesco’s stores. Altogether, Tesco operates six different Tesco sales. The company also offers a range of organic
store formats: Tesco Extra, Tesco Superstore (standard- products and is now Britain’s biggest retailer of organic
sized supermarkets), Tesco Metro, Tesco Express (neigh- products. In 2000 the company launched Tesco.com, its
bourhood convenience stores, mainly stocking high-value online retailing system, which is the biggest online grocery
convenience products) and One Stop, which is a hangover outlet in the world. The online system owes its success to
from the company’s purchase of T&S Stores in 2002. This the fact that it is based in the stores themselves, not in a
is the only format without Tesco in the title and will probably central warehouse, so that staff have local knowledge and
be incorporated into the Tesco Express format eventually. the delivery routes are shorter.
Tesco’s advertising uses the strapline ‘Every little helps’ Tesco’s customer orientation has certainly paid off. It is
and usually consists of products photographed against a now the United Kingdom’s leading supermarket chain with
white background, with a voice-over explaining the latest 17% of the market. It operates in 10 countries overseas
offers. The voice-overs use various well-known British and is the market leader in 6 of those: 45% of the com-
actors such as Jane Horrocks, Martin Clunes, Terry pany’s retail space is outside the United Kingdom. The
Wogan and Dawn French: in 2007, the company’s Christ- company now offers personal finance products (insurance,
mas campaign featured The Spice Girls. Tesco also takes credit cards, loans) at the checkout and has many other
the lead in new product development: in 2009, they innovations on the way – customer champions, innovative
announced that they had developed a new type of tomato buying policies and so forth.
which is less juicy, so that it does not make sandwiches All of which is a very far cry from a market stall in the
soggy. The company has also extended the brand hugely, East End.
offering mobile phones (using the O2 network), financial
services such as insurance and savings accounts and even
Questions
loans and credit cards. On the PR front, Tesco sponsors
The Tesco Cup, a football competition for young players 1. Having low costs coupled with high prices must have
throughout the United Kingdom, and continues to offer its made Tesco very profitable in the 1950s and the early
Computers for Schools programme, in which shoppers can 1960s. Why would Jack Cohen have lobbied for the
collect vouchers to give to local schools which can redeem abolition of Resale Price Maintenance?
them against computer equipment. This scheme has been 2. Presumably Tesco’s various customer-focused
hugely successful: it encourages a sense that Tesco cares innovations cost money. Why not simply cut prices
about the local community, while giving customers the even further?
chance to be generous towards local schools. It encourages 3. Why have three separate own-brand labels?
people to shop in the stores rather than elsewhere, of
4. What is the difference between the trading-stamp
course, but it also has a less obvious spin-off: Tesco has
system and the loyalty-card system? What advantages
created a generation of computer literate people who feel
do loyalty cards have for customers and for Tesco’s?
positive towards the company and would make good
employees. 5. Why stock a range of organic products as well as
ordinary products?
ASPECTS OF THE MARKET-ORIENTED APPROACH
STUDY TIP
Consider the organisation you work for (or one you are The purpose of doing this is to help you practise
familiar with in some other way) and decide which of relating theory to real-world situations. Examiners will
these aspects of the market-oriented approach come often ask you to comment on your own firm, and even if
into play. Consider how you might be able to change they do not, you will be expected to carry out this type of
things, if you were put in charge. thinking on a case study.
Aspects of the Market-Oriented Approach 11
Marketing can be viewed in several different ways, according to its role

and status within the organisation:
1. As a process of managing exchange. Many academics define
marketing as the process of managing exchange, and from a
practitioner viewpoint this is not at all a bad definition. Managing the
exchange process means that each party will be better off than they
were before: if this were not the case, trade would be impossible. One
of the problems with the definition is that many exchanges would not,
by most observers, be regarded as marketing: an offer to help a friend
with his car maintenance in exchange for help with the garden is
certainly an exchange, but most people would not regard it as
marketing. The key issues with this definition are that it is the
marketers who manage the exchange process, and the exchange itself
makes both parties better off – therefore, marketers seek to make it as
easy as possible for the exchanges to happen (e.g. by ensuring that the
products are readily available or that financing packages are available).
The more exchanges that happen, the better off will the company be.
2. As a driving philosophy of the business. This means that the firm
devotes all its efforts to meet customer needs, and every decision at
every level of the firm is taken with the customer in mind. Note
that customers and consumers might not be the same people – the
purchase may be a gift or it may be a family purchase where one
person makes the buying decision, with the needs of the other
family members in mind. In such cases, the customer (the person
doing the buying) has needs even if the product is for someone else,
for example, a need for a convenient location from where to buy the
product or perhaps for sales assistance in choosing the most
appropriate product. Customers may be professional buyers buying
on behalf of a company, in which case they will have very specific
needs in terms of career aspirations and so forth. Astute marketers
consider the needs of everyone involved in buying and consuming
their products. If marketing is the driving philosophy, it acts as a
coordinating force within the firm: everyone in the company will be
aiming for the same end goal, customer satisfaction, and the
marketers will have the role of ensuring that everyone is aware of
customer needs and their own role in meeting those needs.
3. As a managerial function. If marketing is viewed as a managerial

function only, the company will take marketing decisions on the basis
that they will move the company nearer to its objectives, which may
be shareholder value, growth, survival, profit or any one of many
possible objectives. This moves marketing to a somewhat lower
position than it would otherwise occupy if it were regarded as the

driving philosophy of the business, but marketers will still occupy a
position of importance with regard to the other business functions of
production, finance and personnel management. This role is probably
typical of many successful companies – it is certainly possible to be
successful without being entirely customer-centred.
4. As a dynamic operation, requiring analysis, planning and action.
This view of marketing implies that marketers need to think on their
feet and be prepared to change course very rapidly as circumstances
dictate. Because customer needs change, and of course new customers
are recruited and old ones defect to the competition, marketers will
need to be dynamic in their approaches to markets. Equally,
competitive responses can force changes on marketers: whatever one
firm does, others will either follow or retaliate, so the dynamics of the
game are constantly shifting.
5. As a catalyst for change. Because marketers operate at the interface
between the company and its customers, they frequently act as
advocates of the customer’s viewpoint, thus making changes within
the firm based on customer needs. This means that marketers are
expected to be working on behalf of customers to improve the firm’s
offer and will often find themselves in the position of advising (or
seeking to influence) changes within the organisation. Much
depends on the position of marketing within the organisation: if
marketing is seen as a managerial function rather than the driving
force within the organisation, marketers will be one voice among
several, supporting the needs of one group of stakeholders
(customers) in negotiations with representatives of other groups of
stakeholders (employees, shareholders, management and so forth).
Internal marketing (the use of marketing techniques to change
attitudes and behaviour within the organisation) is linked to this
view of marketers as advocates for the customers.
These ways of looking at marketing are not necessarily mutually exclu-
sive. It is possible to view marketing as both an exchange management
process and a catalyst for change, for example. Change is managed (for
marketers) through a process of advocating an improvement in what is
being offered for exchange with customers. Having said that, the idea of
marketing as the driving philosophy of the organisation does not sit well
with the idea of it being only a managerial function – the ‘driving philoso-
phy’ view moves marketing to a strategic level, rather than simply a
tactical level.
Aspects of the Market-Oriented Approach 13
ACTIVITY
Obtain a copy of your company’s mission statement or If possible, ask some non-marketing colleagues
corporate strategy statement. Where do you think market- about their views on this – Are we all marketers now or is
ing fits into the overall picture? How well does this coin- marketing still a separate function?
cide with your view of where marketing sits within the
firm?
EXAM TIP
CIM exams (and indeed many other exams) are usually problems (in which case you should think in terms of
based on case studies. Questions are likely to emphasise exchange management, managerial function or dynamic
one or other of the above aspects, even if the examiner processes) or whether the question is geared more
does not specifically say so: it is worthwhile considering towards strategic issues such as where the company is
which aspect is likely to be uppermost in the examiner’s going in the long term or what objectives are being set (in
mind and ensure that your answer relates to it. Many which case you will be considering the question from the
candidates seem to expect that the case studies are marketing philosophy or catalyst for change aspects).
always about companies which are customer-centred, or As you progress through the CIM programmes, you
where marketing occupies a central position, but this is will be expected to take a more strategic approach. You
not always the case by any means. should be aware of this, and be ready to ‘change gear’,
The way to do this is to read the case study carefully since a very similar question might require a completely
first, then decide whether you are being asked to com- different answer at a higher level.
ment on the day-to-day aspects of handling marketing
Another view of the development of marketing has been offered by Kotler

(2003). This is shown in Figure 1.1.
In Figure 1.1, marketing starts out as being only one of the main four
business functions, having equal status. It then moves up to being a more
important business function than the others, later evolving to being the
most important function and having control over the other functions.
This is not, however, the whole story. In a truly customer-oriented
business, the customer will be the driving force for all the business func-
tions: in the final stage of Kotler’s view of marketing, the customer becomes
central, with marketing acting as the coordinating and integrative function,
operating between the customer and the firm.
There is no evidence that this model represents an evolutionary process,
but (rather like the evolution of marketing model) it is certainly possible to
identify firms which put marketing into those roles.
(A) Marketing as an equal function (B) Marketing as the most important function
Production Finance
Production Finance
Marketing Personnel
Personnel
Marketing
(C) Marketing as the major function

(D) The customer as the controlling function
Production
Production Finance
Finance
Marketing
Customers
Personnel
Marketing Personnel
(E) The customers as the controlling function

and marketing as the integrative function
Marketing
Production Finance
Customers
Personnel
FIGURE 1.1 Evolution of the role of marketing.
DIFFICULTIES IN DEVELOPING A MARKETING

ORIENTATION
Even though marketers might feel that a market orientation is the obvious
way for the firm to go, in practice there are likely to be barriers to developing
such an orientation. Some of these come from senior management, some
Difficulties in Developing a Marketing Orientation 15
come from colleagues and some are simply the result of organisational
inertia. Possible barriers are as follows (See Figure 1.2):
& Lack of committed leadership and vision. If the senior management
are not on board, it is unlikely that the company can become market-
oriented. In some cases, Boards of Directors can be obstructive: partly
this is because they have a legal obligation to put shareholders’
interests first and may not see the connection between customer
orientation and shareholder value, and partly it may arise from
ignorance of what marketing is actually about.
& Lack of customer knowledge. Clearly it is difficult for firms to become
customer oriented if they lack knowledge of their customers. For
example, a retailer may not be able to keep good, detailed records of
every customer who comes into the shop and may lack the necessary
skills or finance to carry out effective market research. In other cases,
the customers might be scattered throughout the world, making their
purchases via the Internet. In still other cases, customers may not be
prepared to tell the marketers about themselves or (worse) may
deliberately supply false information – this is not unusual on the
Internet where people become worried that information might be
misused. Good customer knowledge is basic to establishing a
relationship marketing approach.
& Lack of infrastructure (e.g. the technology necessary to record and
track customer behaviour). This does not necessarily mean that the
company cannot be customer oriented, but it may mean that the good
Lack of committed leadership and

vision
Lack of customer knowledge

Successful
marketing
Attempts to Lack of infrastructure
orientation:
establish a decisions driven
marketing Autocratic leadership by customer
orientation need, not by
Conflict between marketing and other internal
functions corporate
agendas
Preference for a sales or production
focus
Transactional approach to business
FIGURE 1.2 Barriers to establishing a marketing orientation.

intentions are difficult to carry out in practice. The company may also
lack the infrastructure to be able to meet customer needs, even when
these have been identified: for example, if customers need a rapid
delivery service but the road infrastructure of the country does not
permit this, the need cannot be met.
& Autocratic leadership. A manager who is autocratic is one who
wants to make all the decisions himself or herself, based on
experience and (of course) power in the organisation. This often acts
as a barrier to customer orientation because the market-oriented
firm will take its lead from what the customers need, not from what
the manager believes is the best way to do things. In other words,
the manager is unlikely to be prepared to listen to customers
sufficiently.
& Conflict between marketing and other functions. In most cases,
adopting a market-oriented approach creates problems for other
departments. For example, engineering departments are often
unwilling to redesign products to suit customer needs, because they
believe that it is the job of the marketers to find customers who want
to buy the product (‘sell what we can make’ rather than ‘make what we
can sell’ philosophy). Equally, company finance managers will tend to
see customer-based initiatives such as innovative communication
campaigns as a cost rather than an investment.
& Preference for a production or sales focus. Both these approaches are
likely to create quick results: customer orientation takes time to
develop and show results, whereas a good salesperson gets results
within a few days, and production orientation makes cost savings
almost immediately. These approaches are much more easily
measured than market orientation, so are often seen as preferable.
& Transactional approach to business. If the firm takes the attitude
that the sale is the end of the process, a true customer orientation will
not happen. For example, very few car dealers ever follow up on a sale
once the customer leaves the forecourt, yet a truly customer-oriented
dealer would call the customer a couple of months after the car has
been sold to check everything is still working properly and would
probably also call 2 years or so later to see if the customer is ready
to trade the car in. There is more later on about relationship
marketing.
Although most firms try to look after their customers, many firms conduct
business as if the customers were of no importance except as sources of
money: the next section ‘Marketing in Practice’ provides some examples.
Difficulties in Developing a Marketing Orientation 17
ACTIVITY
In your own firm, make a list of the people who reasons justified? How could you overcome their
would be most likely to create barriers to the accep- resistance?
tance of a marketing orientation in the firm. What rea- Seeing the problem from the other person’s viewpoint
sons might they have for blocking marketing? Are those is something all marketers need to become good at.
The Marketing in Practice box above tells us how NOT to be customer

oriented: in the short term, these firms have obviously been fairly successful
by using questionable tactics, but in the longer run they will suffer from poor
word-of-mouth and customer defection. This is in addition to any penalties
or restrictions imposed by the regulators.
Intervention by Regulators
This example shows how some firms exploit customers. in fact offering the products for sale, but instead were seek-
Even without the Government regulators, these companies ing to sell subscriptions to their health newsletter.
are unlikely to succeed in the long run – customers soon In the same week, the ASA found that an escort agency
pass the word that they are bad firms to do business with. had breached the regulations by failing to mention that
In August 2007, the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) there would be an up-front fee for becoming an escort.
announced that it had reached an agreement with an air- The agency concerned mentioned some fees, but not the
line regarding price fixing in the long-haul flights market. crucial 350 initial fee: one of the recruits complained after
The airline was to pay a total of 121.5 million as a penalty: he was not offered any work, despite having paid the fee.
the other party to the price fixing was not penalised, Not all the adjudications went against the advertiser,
because it had come forward to report the price fixing to though. DIY giant Homebase was cleared of misleading
the OFT. This procedure ensures that it is strongly in the advertising when it claimed that prices for garden furniture
interests of colluding firms to blow the whistle – the other had been reduced: the complaint had been made by arch-
party will be fined, whereas the reporting firm will not and rival B&Q, but was not upheld. A complaint about National
will also have benefitted from the price-fixing arrangement. Express trains regarding the availability of fares between
In September 2009, the OFT imposed fines on six recruit- London and York ‘from 13’ was also rejected by the ASA,
ment agencies for price fixing in the construction industry: who accepted that the word ‘from’ would be unlikely to make
in 2008 the OFT fined several supermarkets and tobacco passengers think that all the tickets would be available at
manufacturers for price fixing. 13.
Meanwhile, in the voluntary sector, the Advertising Stan- The ASA, unlike the OFT, has no statutory powers. It
dards Authority (ASA) was also busy. Advanced Hair Studios cannot force advertisers to comply, and in some cases
were told to withdraw an advertisement which implied that advertisers have been known to ignore the ASA adjudica-
their products would grow new hair on balding men, when in tions. However, the industry as a whole is aware that Govern-
fact the effects were merely cosmetic. Agora Lifestyles Ltd. ment regulation is never far away, so media owners such as
were told to remove an advertisement which implied that newspapers, TV and radio stations and Internet sites comply
their herbal remedies for serious problems such as heart with ASA rulings, which means that an advertiser who
failure and cataracts were being withheld by the medical ignores the ASA may well find that there is nowhere for the
profession. The ASA ruled that the advertisements could ads to appear. So far, this sanction has proved very effective
lead people to withdraw from conventional medical treat- and provided everyone acts in a gentlemanly manner; there
ments – even though Agora pointed out that they were not is no reason why it should not continue to do so.
EXAM HINT
Some of the case studies you will be given may well depict will often describe the theory and then recommend the
firms which lack a customer orientation in some way. You company to consider the implications. This is not a suffi-
may want to consider, in each case, what the firm might cient answer: you are supposed to do the thinking, not
do to become more customer oriented: this will often give pass the buck to a senior manager! You should always
you a clue as to how to answer the question. relate your answer directly to the case study: someone
Students frequently lose marks because they do not working for the firm should, on reading your recommen-
go beyond the immediately obvious: when asked to out- dations, have a clear set of instructions to follow.
line a particular theory and apply it to the case study, they
MARKETING’S CROSS-FUNCTIONAL ROLE
STUDY TIP
Candidates often fail to acknowledge the degree to which of course, everyone is clear about what the customers
marketing acts as a coordinating force within the firm. If need and want.
the firm is market-orientated and customer-centred, This is where the marketers come in as the coordina-
everyone in the firm should be looking for ways to improve tors of the firm’s activities around customer need. Of
the customer experience. This means that their activities course, not every firm is truly customer oriented, so this
will coordinate around customer satisfaction – provided, may not always work out, but you will be expected to think
like this in the exam.
Provided the firm does develop a marketing orientation, marketing will

have a role in coordinating all the activities of the firm at every level. Each
department, and indeed each individual, should be carrying out his or her
role with the customer’s welfare in mind. The coordinating role manifests
itself in the following ways:
& Information is shared between departments, and interdepartmental
relationships are facilitated. For example, market-oriented firms often
have a single customer database which contains all the information
about any given customer. Non-market-oriented firms often have a
separate database for the salesforce, another for the invoicing
department, another for the shipping department and so forth.
Integrating the databases improves the level of customer service
dramatically.
& Common goal setting. Since everything is driven by customer need,
the firm can set goals which are measured according to customer-
based outcomes. For example, the firm might decide that it needs to
reduce customer complaints by 90% and ensure that complaints are
Marketing’s Cross-Functional Role 19
satisfactorily dealt with within 48 hours. Since any department in the

firm might be subject to a complaint, this type of target will be applied
universally.
& Clear company policies can be established regarding products,
branding, production, delivery and so forth. All of these impinge on
customer satisfaction, and all of them cut across every department in
the organisation.
& Marketing becomes a service provider. The marketing department
should be offering services to all departments, for example, providing
information about the market to engineers developing new products,
advising the finance department on the best way to approach slow
payers, talking to the delivery people about providing a better service
for customers and so forth.
& Marketing contributes to strategic planning. Strategy in business is
about developing competitive advantage. Marketing offers the
opportunity to develop competitive advantage through superior
customer value, and although there may be other ways of developing
advantage (e.g. by reducing costs dramatically), a good understanding
of customer need is difficult to copy: customers are almost always
prepared to pay more for a better product or service.
& Internal marketing becomes an important aspect of the marketing
function.
ACTIVITY
List the people from other departments who are affected jobs and as individuals, and also bearing in mind the need
by what the marketing people in your firm do. Which for marketing to achieve its own objectives? How might
people are adversely affected by marketing activities? you win them over to your cause?
Which are affected positively by what marketing does?
How might you lessen the impact on those adversely
affected, bearing in mind their own needs both in their
CASE STUDY: Legoland
This case study illustrates how customer orientation acts as Fifty years ago, the children’s toy market was invaded
a coordinating theme for a company’s activities and as a by a little plastic brick with eight studs on it. The studs
central focus. It also shows how resistance to marketing (in enabled the bricks to stick together, and soon millions of
this case, the resistance comes from retailers) can be children were playing with Lego – the old wooden building
addressed.
bricks that children had played with for centuries were Finally, the Lego store has impressive giant Lego mod-
doomed to remain at the bottom of the toy cupboard. els in the window area, which, according to Lego’s retail
Lego has moved on from strength to strength – the boss Paul Denham, creates the ‘wow’ factor. Kalcher
Legoland theme park in Denmark was followed by another believes that, in creating the store, he is setting a standard
one in the United Kingdom, at Windsor, to the west of of innovation that retailers alone would be unable to aspire
London. Lego brand was extending beyond its core busi- to. He believes that it is up to the brand owners to invest
ness – and the man in charge of licensing the Lego brand, time and trouble in extending the brand into new areas
Karl Kalcher, had even bigger ideas in store. such as retailing: traditional retailers are, in effect, unable
In 1999, Kalcher opened the first Lego store in Britain, to achieve these standards.
at the Bluewater shopping complex in Kent, not far from the Not unnaturally, retailers in the area objected strongly
Channel Tunnel. Kalcher is a champion of innovative think- to the establishment of the Lego store. As long-term Lego
ing in marketing, something which has led to his becoming stockists, they felt that their loyalty had been betrayed, and
a Fellow of the United Kindom’s Chartered Institute of they feared that Lego would also undercut them on price. In
Marketing. He is famous for saying ‘There’s no such thing fact, these fears proved groundless. Kalcher explains why:
as children. It doesn’t mean anything.’ ‘The Lego store is essentially about creating a superior
This statement sounds a little odd from a man whose standard for our brand, in the eyes of the consumer. This
company targets the 0–16 age group, but in fact what he will promote the esteem of our products for all retail custo-
says makes perfect sense: there is a vast difference mers.’ Kalcher could be confident in making this state-
between a 3-year-old and a 12-year-old, and even between ment – sales were actually boosted in retailers near Lego’s
a 3-year-old and a 5-year-old. Kalcher says that there are Minneapolis store and near Legoland Windsor. And as
only consumers – each with a separate personality and regards price cutting, the Lego stores are stand-alone fran-
separate needs. chised outlets – they operate under the same constraints as
Lego Licensing licenses watches, clothing, the Lego any other retailer, so they have to show a profit, which
Island CD-ROM and of course the Legoland theme parks. means no price-cutting.
The Lego group plans to become the leading brand among Lego has come a long way in 50 years, but it has a
families and children, which means doing a lot more than reputation for quality and for getting it right – so much so
moulding eight-stud plastic bricks. The Lego store is set to that, even before there was any hint of Lego opening a store
help in this bold ambition. The store is designed to be as at Bluewater, the developers had used Legoland Windsor
user-friendly as possible for its diminutive customers – the as a benchmark for designing the entire shopping centre.
store adheres to the ‘Lego values’, and these were referred Lego now has 80% of the world’s construction toy market
to throughout the design and construction of the store. and expects to build even further successes around the
Beginning with the store front, Lego decided that the com- other elements of the brand.
pany’s heritage lay in design and construction – so the store
front is designed around the colours and proportions of the
Questions
Lego bricks. Lego is a toy, so the interior of the store is a
high-touch environment – customers are actively encour- 1. What is Lego doing that most of its competitors are not
aged to touch things and play with things, but since Lego doing?
is also an educational toy, much of what happens in the
2. Lego’s consumers are children, but the customers are
store is also educational. For example, there is a ‘rocket-
the parents. How does Lego address this?
race’ game in which children have to memorise a number
in order to make the rocket fly. Many of the displays are at 3. What is the coordinating role of Lego’s approach?
children’s eye level, so that children can use the store 4. How is Lego using its marketing philosophy to expand
without adult intervention (until it comes time to pay, of the business?
course).
Internal Marketing 21
INTERNAL MARKETING
Internal marketing is the use of the tools of marketing to create a suitable
organisational culture, usually one which places the customer at the centre
of what the firm does. Internal marketing should aim to achieve the follow-
ing outcomes:
1. Encourage an atmosphere of pride. This might involve highlighting

the achievements of individuals (perhaps as Employee of the Month)
and publicising these to others in the organisation, or perhaps
empowering innovative staff to become agents of change.
2. Provide suitable vehicles for innovation. Communication channels

should be established which enable innovative ideas to be
disseminated and discussed across departmental boundaries.
Weblogs, discussion forums and newsletters can be powerful in
achieving this type of outcome.
3. Improve lateral communication. Encouraging joint project teams and
working groups, encouraging interdepartmental social events and
exchanging people between departments on temporary secondments
wherever possible will help here.
4. Cut down layers of hierarchy. Empowering staff at ‘grass roots’ level

will mean that customer needs will be met more efficiently, especially
in the case of complaint handling. Employees tend to feel more
motivated if they have more control over what happens in the firm.
5. Increase the available information about company plans and projects.

Obviously there will be some plans which will be commercially
sensitive, and of use to competitors, so not everything can be
publicised to staff. However, it is clearly beneficial if staff understand
how the company plans to achieve its strategic objectives, and
internal marketing will help in ensuring that everyone knows which
direction the firm is going in. This will reduce errors and duplication
of effort as well as ensure that everyone is aware of what they should
be doing at any given time.
6. Ensure that the leadership is aware of its limited perspective. Senior

managers can easily lose touch with the day-to-day reality of work at
the ‘grass roots’ level. Even though most of them will have worked
their way up from the lower ranks, they may be unaware of how the
environment has changed. Internal marketing should help to
facilitate communications between people working with customers
and senior managers at the top of the firm.
Internal marketing uses similar tools to customer-based marketing. It

begins by recognising that the exchange between employer and employee
goes far beyond simply exchanging hours or work for money: there is
considerable emotional labour involved in the workplace. People talk
about their work when they go home, feel involved with the organisa-
tion, feel proud when their organisation does something they approve of
and feel ashamed when their organisation does something they do not
approve of.
Typical internal marketing tools are as follows:
1. Internal newsletters. These can take the form of notice boards, e-

mail attachments or even a simple A4 sheet of paper with the latest
company information on them.
2. Staff magazines. These can be glossy magazines with articles about

employees, articles of general interest and even advertising –
employees who want to sell unwanted goods, invite people to a social
event or even publicise their out-of-office hobbies might want to
advertise. Often these advertisements will be the main reason for staff
reading the magazine, so these can be a powerful addition to the staff
magazine.
3. Staff meetings. Meetings can often be extremely boring, but a

meeting between staff members and senior managers to raise issues,
hand out praise or simply communicate new policies can be a
powerful tool. Such meetings can be conducted in an informal
manner – the organisation might provide a buffet or arrange for the
meeting to be held in a conference room away from the firm. Both
these techniques reduce the barriers between senior managers and
staff.
4. Team-building exercises. These can be particularly important when

inducting new people into the organisation. The company can set
up games or challenges to encourage people to understand each
others’ approach to problem-solving or can form groups such as
quality circles across departmental boundaries to work on specific
projects.
5. Awards for employees. Employee of the Month awards are often

used, but small prizes or gifts for exceptional performance can be
offered at any time, particularly if a staff member has facilitated a
successful new idea. Some firms have suggestion schemes which
pay cash rewards for successful ideas – many motor manufacturers
The Impact of Marketing on Society, Consumers and Environment 23
do this, as it is often the case that a production line worker will

recognise a recurring problem much faster than a design engineer
who rarely works on the line.
Internal marketing is an important, and sometimes neglected, aspect of

marketing. Helping to build a successful, dynamic corporate culture is a
key factor in creating a successful, dynamic corporation.
THE IMPACT OF MARKETING ON SOCIETY, CONSUMERS

AND ENVIRONMENT
EXAM HINT
You are likely to be asked a specific question on ethics or Since you will have at least some questions with a
societal marketing (see below) and it is likely that you will global element in them, you will need to consider ethics in
gain marks by bearing in mind any ethical issues raised a global sense, not just in terms of your own country’s
within case studies. In particular, you should consider the morality.
ethical issues implied by any recommendations you make
in your answers.
Anybody who works in marketing has had the annoying experience of

being accused of creating needs, persuading people to buy things they do not
need or want and of being anti-environmentalist. Business generally has a
bad reputation in some quarters, and marketers often bear the brunt of
people’s complaints about the system.
In recent years, the concept of corporate social responsibility has come
to the forefront of business thinking, particularly for marketers since they
are at the interface between the firm and its customers. Corporate social
responsibility implies that firms should behave ethically and responsibly,
avoiding damage to the environment or to the society at large. For
marketers, this view has become encapsulated in the concept of societal
marketing. Societal marketing questions whether the marketing concept
is sufficient in a world of resource shortages, pollution problems and
poverty.
Societal marketing aims to balance the needs of consumers, society and
the company so as to meet the corporate and consumer needs without
damaging the interests of society at large. The balance is difficult to main-
tain – as the Marketing in Practice example below shows.
MARKETING IN PRACTICE: been affected, but since the original $470 million was
Bhopal paid to the Indian Government to administer rather than

go directly to the victims, this insurance was paid for
from the money Union Carbide had already paid out.
This example illustrates the complexity of dealing with
The Indian Government did not release the remainder of
ethical issues at a practical level. At first sight, this is a
the funds until 2005, over 20 years after the accident
clear case of corporate negligence – but identifying the
happened.
culprit, and possibly even the victims, is not so simple.
In 1998, the Madhya Pradesh State Government took
On 2 December 1984, over 40 tons of lethal chemical
over responsibility for cleaning up the site, but there is
gas was released into the air from the Union Carbide che-
some doubt that any actual clean-up has happened
mical factory in Bhopal, India. The accident was caused by
since. Union Carbide’s investigators concluded that the
water entering a tank containing chemicals: the resulting
original accident was no accident – they found that it
chemical reaction generated great heat and vented the
could only have been caused by deliberate sabotage.
poisonous gases into the atmosphere. As a result, thou-
According to Union Carbide, this finding was backed up
sands of people in the area were killed – estimates vary
by independent Indian Government inspectors.
between 3,800 and 8,000 – and hundreds of thousands
The case has since become even more complicated: in
have suffered ill health ever since.
2001, Dow Chemical bought Union Carbide. Dow, under-
Union Carbide was held accountable by the world’s
standably, do not feel any responsibility whatever for Bho-
press, and the company was widely criticised by environ-
pal and are refusing to consider any further claims.
mental groups. Union Carbide was seen as being slow to
Meanwhile, campaigners have persuaded an Indian court
pay compensation, slow to make reparations at the plant
to issue a warrant for the arrest of Union Carbide’s former
and slow to implement a clean-up operation. Often, the
CEO, Warren Anderson, on charges of culpable homicide.
American parent company was accused of not caring sim-
Anderson is unlikely to be extradited from the United
ply because the victims were Indians.
States, but probably should not visit India any time soon.
Union Carbide have pointed out that only 51% of
According to campaigners, Union Carbide kept potentially
the plant was owned by the company, the rest being
life-saving information about the effects of the gases secret,
owned by the Indian Government (26%) and private
since it was ‘commercially sensitive’, and they also accuse
shareholders (23%). The Bhopal plant was staffed and
the company of leaving sacks of damaging chemicals at the
managed entirely by Indians. In 1989, an Indian court
factory site.
ordered Union Carbide to pay $470 million in damages,
While this high-level wrangling goes on, the survivors
in full and final settlement, and the company did so, but
of Bhopal wait. The case has dragged on for a quarter of
the trouble has not gone away: campaigners say that
a century: the compensation worked out to only $500
birth defects in the area are caused by chemicals from
each, which may be a lot of money to someone who only
the plant. This is denied by Union Carbide, who say that
earns $2 a day, but still will not cover the medical bills.
soil contamination is caused by chemicals which were
Union Carbide (India) is now owned by an entirely differ-
never used at the plant and that close interbreeding (a
ent company, which (like Dow in the United States) feels
feature of marriages in the Bhopal area) is what is
no responsibility for the disaster. The campaigning con-
causing the birth defects. The US company denies any
tinues, however, presumably until the last of the survivors
liability whatsoever and has the backing of the Second
has died – in 2007, a case was filed in the United States
Circuit Court of Appeals in Manhattan, which ruled in
holding Union Carbide and Warren Anderson liable for
1987 that the case belongs solely in India and the US
pollution of neighbouring properties, but like the other
company has no liability whatsoever. The Indian Govern-
claims against the US company, this is unlikely to
ment was held partly liable and has bought health insur-
succeed.
ance for the 100,000 people who are thought to have
The Impact of Marketing on Society, Consumers and Environment 25
As the case shows, Union Carbide has paid out substantial compensa-
tion, as has the Indian Government. For Union Carbide (and now Dow
Chemical), paying out any more would be a violation of the trust their
shareholders have placed in the company: after all, it is not the Board of
Directors’ own money, but belongs to the shareholders. Legally and morally,
the company believes itself to be in the right – but this does not help the
people who have suffered, and continue to suffer, as a result of the accident.
The societal marketing concept remains an issue which excites considerable
academic and practitioner debate, since it expands the role of marketing to
include everybody in the world, not just customers and consumers. There is a
question about whether companies are justified in using shareholders’ money
for social purposes and a question about where to draw the line: should compa-
nies simply stay within the law and rely on government to set the appropriate
rules, should companies and trade organisations (such as the CIM) set codes of
practice or should managers and directors obey some higher moral code?
CASE STUDY: Bribery and Big

Business
This case study is about bribery and the conflict between Program to finance the sale of aircraft engines to Israel and
managing shareholders’ money to best effect on the one in 2000 Boeing were fined for exporting arms to Turkey. It
hand and taking a moral stance on the other. Bribery is clearly seems that the only way to do business in some countries is to
endemic in some business cultures, while in others it is pay ‘commissions’ or to ‘grease the wheels’ even if this does
regarded as seriously immoral, which adds to the problem. violate the law. In fact, the US Government even ignores its
Lockheed is one of the world’s largest aircraft manu- own policies on the issue of corruption by continuing to give
facturers and therefore conducts business throughout the contracts to these companies – but of course they have little
world. Though primarily a military aircraft manufacturer choice in practice, unless they took the bizarre step of placing
(producing the F1-11 fighter and the Galaxy transport defence contracts with foreign suppliers.
plane), Lockheed also produced the TriStar commercial Ultimately, the morality of bribery is not in question, even
aircraft, until 1983 when the company left the commercial in countries where it is rife. Bribery is immoral and in most
aircraft business permanently. cases illegal. It is damaging to the business, to the countries
In 1976, Lockheed revealed that it had paid out over where it happens and to the people who give and accept the
$22 million in ‘sales commissions’ to foreign Government bribes. Yet it still goes on, because immediate gain often
officials, including $1 million to Prince Bernhard of the outweighs long-term disadvantages – especially when the
Netherlands in exchange for doing business with Lock- stakes are as high as they are in the aircraft industry.
heed. Although there was some doubt at the time as to
whether these were bribes or payments extorted by the
Questions
officials under threat of cancelling orders, several senior
Lockheed executives were forced to resign, and a shocked 1. Why should not Lockheed continue to offer bribes in
US Government passed legislation outlawing such prac- countries where this is normal business practice?
tices even when they occurred outside the United States. 2. How might governments stop bribery from happening?
Unfortunately, the legislation seems to have done little to 3. Is bribery an appropriate use of shareholders’ money?
prevent bribery from happening. Lockheed have been fined
4. Why is bribery damaging?
(in 1995) for bribing the Egyptian government, General Elec-
tric were fined for diverting funds from the Military Aid
STUDY TIP
If you are using an American textbook, or one of the not always coincide with what you would regard as impor-
adaptations of American textbooks which are around, tant ethical issues – this is a demonstration that ethics
you will usually find that there is a separate chapter on may have different emphases in different cultures.
ethics. You may notice that the ethical issues raised do
Business morality is driven by three main influences (See Figure 1.3):

1. Codes of practice such as the CIM code. These are voluntary sets of
rules drawn up by trade bodies and are policed by the trade bodies
themselves. They do not usually have a legal status, but they would
certainly be taken into account in the event of any legal action taken
by an outside party. Sanctions against violators can include having
membership of the trade body cancelled, which may or may not have
serious effects but would certainly be embarrassing.
2. Legal constraints. Corporate citizenship involves upholding the law
and behaving responsibly, so firms need to be aware of the legal
implications of their actions. This can be complex for companies
operating globally, since they not only have to take account of different
laws in different countries, but also have to work within different legal
systems (e.g. the American system and the Japanese system are entirely
different, so that contracts have an entirely different status and
meaning in each country). For this reason, international contracts
usually specify which jurisdiction will be used for settling any disputes.
3. Local morals and customs. This is, again, a minefield for the global
company, since morality is not universal (as the Lockheed case study
shows). What is moral does not necessarily equate to what is legal,
further complicating the issue – this is yet another potential source of
Codes of practice
Legal constraints Ethical behaviour

within the organisation
Local morals and

customs
FIGURE 1.3 Drivers of business morality.

Relationship Marketing Versus Transactional Marketing 27
conflict within the firm, as the legal department concentrates on

legality while the marketers consider wider moral and cultural issues.
STUDY TIP
You will be expected to understand the social issues sur- you to understand their point of view – but remember that
rounding business activities, so you should read some of the websites only ever give one side of the story!
anti-business, anti-global, anti-marketing literature. You A general point here is that you are studying for a
should also be aware of the activities of pressure groups vocational qualification: you should always be applying
such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth: since these what you have learned to what you read in the news-
are regularly reported in the news, you should try to stay papers or online.
abreast of developments. Visiting their websites will allow
ACTIVITY
Obtain copies of some trade codes of practice. If you have conflicts, that is, points at which following one code would
one for your own industry, compare it with the CIM code bring you into conflict with another?
of practice or with other codes of practice. What are the To what extent do you think codes of practice are
similarities? What are the differences? What sanctions can actually followed in the real world?
be applied to violators?
In the case of comparing the CIM code with the
industry code, are there any areas where there might be
RELATIONSHIP MARKETING VERSUS TRANSACTIONAL

MARKETING
EXAM HINT
Because relationship marketing is so important in market- make should be made in the light of trying to establish
ing thinking, it is likely to pervade any exam question even customer loyalty.
if this is not specifically stated. Any recommendations you
The concept of relationship marketing has been at the forefront of

marketing debate for the last 20 years or more. The basis of relation-
ship marketing is the concept that it is cheaper, easier and more profit-
able to retain existing customers than it is to recruit new ones, so the
general aim of relationship marketing is to minimise customer ‘churn’
(the rate at which customers are lost to competitors and replaced by

new ones) and to establish a long-term business relationship with
customers.
ACTIVITY
Anybody working in marketing quickly becomes aware (if any) between customers who are worth recovering and
that some customers just are not worth keeping. They those who should be allowed to go because retaining
are troublesome, are expensive to deal with or simply do them would be too expensive or troublesome? If there is
not spend enough money to be worth the effort. no system for retention, what could be done to develop
Find out what your company does to retain custo- such a system? How would you discriminate between
mers. Are there mechanisms in place for recovering customers who are worth retaining and those who are
defecting customers? If so, what discrimination is made not?
Relationship marketing has the following drivers:

& Retaining customers is cheaper than recruiting new ones. This is
debatable: much depends on the relative costs of retention and
acquisition, but for firms where acquisition costs are high this would
certainly be true. Usually, this will be the case if the value of goods is
high, or in the case of business-to-business transactions.
& Customer defection is damaging to the company. If customers leave,
they may do so as a result of dissatisfaction, in which case they are
likely to generate negative word-of-mouth. Also, if they continue to
buy similar products to our own, they will be helping to fund a
competitor.
& Customer loyalty leads to long-term stability and growth. If we have a
core of loyal customers, it is much easier to predict revenues, and
recruiting new customers will lead to growth.
& Technological advances allow firms to keep much more detailed
information about customers and enable marketers to determine (and
meet) customer needs more effectively. For example, in Victorian
times shopkeepers would know their customers personally, but for a
modern supermarket chain this would be impossible without using
computers and loyalty cards.
& Customers should be judged on their lifetime value, not just on the
value of the individual transaction. The danger here, especially in
business to consumer markets, is that the firm will tend to target
younger people, ignoring older consumers who probably have more
money. Lifetime value is a key concept in relationship marketing: a
customer who spends relatively little but remains loyal for many years
is likely to generate a great deal more revenue and profit for the
company than a customer who spends a large amount, but quickly
defects to a competitor.
& Small changes in retention rates have large effects of future revenues.
The research evidence for this is strong – quite a minor improvement
in retention, as little as 1%, has been shown to increase a firm’s value
by around 5% (Gupta et al. 2004). Other studies have shown similar
benefits – a study undertaken by the Cumberland Bank in the United
States showed that a 5% improvement in retention of the bank’s top
customers added 4% to the bank’s profitability.
Having said that, not every customer is worth retaining, and not every firm
finds that the benefits outweigh the costs of building the relationship.
STUDY TIP
It is worthwhile familiarising yourself with the arguments both parties need to be prepared to adapt: many firms
against relationship marketing: the jury is still out on the are unable or unwilling to do this, and certainly few con-
effectiveness of the approach, especially in terms of busi- sumers are prepared to.
ness-to-consumer situations. For relationships to work,
In practice, establishing and managing relationships require a different

mindset from that used in a traditional, transactional approach. Table 1
makes the comparison between relationship marketing and transactional
marketing.
Table 1.1 Transactional marketing vs. relationship marketing
Transactional marketing Relationship marketing
Focus on single sale Focus on customer retention

Orientation on product features Orientation on product benefits
Short timescale Long timescale
Little emphasis on customer service High emphasis on customer service
Limited customer commitment High customer commitment
Moderate customer contact High customer contact
Quality is the concern of the production department Quality is the concern of all
Source: Christopher, M., Ballantyne, D. and Payne, A. (1991) Relationship Marketing, Oxford: Butter-
worth-Heinemann.
Relationship marketing has generally been more successful in business-

to-business markets than in business-to-consumer markets. There may be
several reasons for this. Some are as follows:
1. Business needs change a great deal more slowly than consumer needs.
A consumer who is loyal to a baby product such as Pampers will not
need the product once the baby is out of nappies, so the maximum
lifetime value of the customer is probably around 2 years.
2. Consumers see little benefit in establishing a relationship with a

supplier, whereas a business buyer gains a great deal from establishing
a good working relationship with suppliers.
3. Good relationships depend on goodwill and trust, and consumers tend

not to trust businesses.
CASE STUDY: Unia ~o Digital

ricos LTDA
Perife
This case study illustrates the difficulty of maintaining good among the largest distributors of electronic components in
customer relationships over long distances and in condi- South America, distributing throughout the Mercosul
tions where the infrastructure might be poor. This company countries.
has needed to be innovative in its approach to relationship ~o Digital supplies a complete range of products for
Unia
marketing. LAN and WAN and (given the rapid growth of computer-
In 1989, Brazil opened its doors to trade liberalisation. based systems in Brazil over the last 15 years or so) now
Until then, many imports had been so heavily taxed that supplies, or has supplied, virtually every major company in
they were effectively excluded from the ailing Brazilian Brazil. The company always adds value to its products – it
economy: in the case of computer imports, this restriction supplies training, system design and after-sales technical
almost proved fatal. When American and Japanese com- assistance. This level of service is important in a country
puter systems arrived in Brazil, the country’s own systems where computer literacy has only recently been on the
were so far behind the times that the economy was severely agenda.
affected. Brazil is the largest country in South America – as large
In the intervening years, however, Brazil has made as the United States or Australia, with a population of 140
incredible progress in catching up with computer technol- million, Brazil is also the industrial powerhouse of the con-
ogy. This has opened up a huge market for components tinent, particularly in the South. This means that Unia~o
and software – and Unia ricos LTDA has taken
~o Digital Perife Digital has a problem retaining its relationships with custo-
full advantage of the rapid growth in demand. The company mers who may be thousands of miles from the company’s
concluded distribution agreements with Compaq, Flextro- Sa~o Paulo base. To help solve the problem, Unia~o Digital
nics Semiconductors, OPTi Inc. and many other multi- called in international business consultants BearingPoint to
national and global firms. In 2000, the company set up a revamp the company’s website with the express purpose of
joint venture with Nokia to establish a seamless remote improving customer retention and relationships.
connection system providing secure connections between BearingPoint reconstructed the already-effective Unia ~o
the Internet, intranets and extranets: the system operates Digital website in order to increase the personalisation and
nationwide for remote business, and the solution was one-to-one marketing capability of the site. The site allows
expected to cost around $20 million. Unia~o Digital is now customers access to news and information which is tailored
to the customer’s precise profile – this eliminates the need its network to develop a creative and effective solution
for customers to plough through masses of irrelevant infor- for Unia~o Digital.
mation in order to find the particular information they need. In a society where personal relationships are important,
BearingPoint used its alliance with Cisco Systems to carry Unia~o Digital has managed to create an impressive set of
out the project. business relationships. The company is able to use its
As one of the key features of the solution, Unia ~o Digital website to support and even build on those relationships –
has incorporated its new price policy, whereby pricing var- the key to its long-term success in a growing market.
ies by client and is based on individual purchasing
volumes, future opportunities, technical certification and
Questions
reseller’s performance. In addition, resellers will have the
ability to publish their own marketing information through 1. Why are relationships so important for Unia
~o Digital?
the Unia~o Digital website. The website will also be integrated 2. Why would the company use the impersonal medium of
with Cisco Systems’ website to allow clients to purchase a website to improve its relationships rather than spend
and configure Cisco products from the Unia~o Digital more effort and money on personal contacts via
website. salespeople?
BearingPoint was originally KPMG Consulting, but 3. What role did BearingPoint’s relationship marketing
after acquiring the Andersen consultancy business, the have in the process?
name was changed and the new company was formed.
4. How might Unia
~o Digital further improve its relationship
The company’s worldwide perspective, and its ability to
marketing?
bring numerous international alliances to bear, was cru-
cial in its thinking on Unia~o Digital. BearingPoint has a 5. What are the specific advantages for Unia~o Digital in
large network of suppliers and customers (some of retaining customers?
whom are both at different times) and was able to use
Undoubtedly, relationship marketing has a great deal to offer, and the gen-
eral thinking behind it is the basis for key account management, database
marketing and much of the direct marketing that you will learn about later
in the course. Making it work in practice is, however, somewhat more
problematical.
Many marketers think that providing a good product and a good back-up
service is enough to create customer loyalty, whereas in fact this is far from
being the case. The purpose of relationship marketing is to establish a true
dialogue with customers so that they become ‘locked into’ the supplier. On a
small scale, restaurants and some retailers such as family butchers establish
relationships with regular customers. This has nothing to do with offering
lower prices or better food than competitors, but it has everything to do with
knowing the customer’s name, knowing their individual tastes and preferences
and knowing their likely spending power. A butcher who can greet a customer
by name, tell him or her that a special cut of meat will be available and
sometimes do a special deal for a customer will create loyalty. Likewise, a
restaurateur who can offer a customer ‘the usual, Mr. and Mrs. Smith?’ will
generate a sense of being ‘a friend in the business’ rather than someone who is
simply looking to show a profit.
The difficulty for relationship marketers is to translate this small-busi-

ness capability into a large-business scenario. Major supermarkets create
this sense of dialogue by offering loyalty cards. At first, the data collected
from loyalty card records were used to promote products that the customer
currently was not buying. This proved counter-productive, because people
have many reasons for not buying something, but it usually boils down to
one overwhelmingly obvious reason – they do not want the product. Super-
markets then went on to analysing customer purchases and offering items
which were specifically tailored to the individual; for example, promoting
home-baking products to someone who has shown, by his or her purchasing
pattern, to be keen on baking at home.
Small gifts can be helpful, but in general firms do well to show that
they have a sympathy for the customer and are looking for ways to make
life easier. For example, before Christmas 2009, Tesco sent out the
Clubcard rewards early: instead of them coming out at the end of Jan-
uary, the supermarket sent them out so that people could take advantage
of them at Christmas, which is of course an expensive time of year
for most people. Having the vouchers virtually ensured that people
would do their Christmas shopping in Tesco’s rather than at any other
supermarket.
ACTIVITY
Make a list of your best customers. This should be about Finally, think about what you would need to do to
20% of your customers overall (if you work in a B2C ensure that each of these customers remains with your
company this may be difficult to assess, of course). firm. What can you do for each of them, individually or
Approximately how much of your firm’s sales do these collectively, that would tend to lock them into your
customers account for? company?
Now calculate what would happen if they defected to
your competitors. How would your company survive?
Could it survive?
SEGMENTATION, TARGETING AND POSITIONING

Although segmentation, targeting and positioning are not part of the Market-
ing Essentials syllabus, and you will not be expected to answer questions
about these aspects of marketing, it may be helpful to have a brief outline of
what they are since they are fundamental to the concept of meeting custo-
mer need.
Segmentation is the process of dividing the overall market into groups
of people with similar needs. For example, the car market comprises a
very large number of different types of people: in Western Europe and the
Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning 33
United States it might be considered to be the entire population. Within

that overall market, however, there are many subgroups: people who
need a small, economical car for city driving, people who need a luxury
car, people who need a car for long-distance driving (sales people, for
example), people who need a car with off-road capability and so forth. It
would be impossible to produce one car that would suit all these different
people, so manufacturers divide the market into segments, each with
similar needs and wants.
Segments are typically defined by demographic factors (age, wealth,
family life stage, etc.), by geographical factors (climate, terrain, country
of residence), by behavioural factors (the way they use the product,
purchase behaviour, etc.) or by psychographic factors (attitudes to the
company and product category, specific fears or desires, personal motiva-
tions). No single segmentation factor is adequate, though – for example,
segmenting a market by age is extremely unreliable since people do not
always ‘act their age’, whereas segmenting by age and by attitude can be
extremely revealing.
Having decided how the market breaks down, marketers are in a position
to choose which segment or segments the company can serve best. This
decision, the targeting decision, is made by matching up what the company
is capable of doing, against the needs and wants of the segment. In many
cases, a segment which would be very profitable (or which would be strate-
gically important) has to be passed up because the company cannot meet the
needs of the segment. In other cases, segments which have been ignored by
other, perhaps larger, firms are easily served by the company. In general, the
more tightly defined the segment is, the more their needs converge and the
more likely it is that they will be prepared to pay a premium price for the
‘ideal’ product.
Finally, positioning is the process of communicating the brand to the
target customers in such a way that they can easily recognise where it fits
with competing products. Positioning may be achieved in terms of price,
quality, reliability, availability, exclusiveness or any of several hundred fac-
tors. Sometimes brands are positioned in psychological terms: whether a
particular brand of trainers is ‘cool’ or not will determine its position, and
some people are certainly loyal to particular motor manufacturers, switching
between different models as their needs change.
In Figure 1.4, the overall vehicle market is shown as breaking down
into a number of product categories. A company with a particular cap-
ability in producing off-road vehicles might segment its market as land-
owners (farmers, etc.), recreational drivers such as mountain climbers or
canoeists who may need to drive their equipment and friends to remote
locations, and fashionable city dwellers who like to drive a big four-wheel
drive vehicle. The respective positions for the product are shown: note
Product Categoriess Market Segments Possible Positions
Commercial
vehicles
Family cars Practical, reliable,

Motor
Landowners, comfortable, reasonably-
vehicle
market farmers priced
Sports cars
Recreational
Off-road cars Rugged, powerful,
drivers: climbers,
capacious for equipment
mountaineers
Economy cars
Fashionable City- Powerful, comfortable,
Luxury cars dwellers smart-looking, solid.
FIGURE 1.4 Segmentation, targeting and positioning.
that each end user will have a different idea of what is a desirable position
for their purchase.
ACTIVITY
Thinking about your firm’s customers, how would you product on? Are they in high-tech industries, low-tech
describe the typical customer? If your customers are industries, or a mixture? Importantly, do the buyers you
consumers, are they male or female, old or young, rich deal with have something in common?
or poor? – or are there other characteristics that would If you can answer these questions, and develop a
best describe your typical customer? picture of your typical ‘best customer’, you have a great
If you are in a business-to-business environment, is deal more chance of recognising similar characteristics
your typical customer a large firm, a small firm, an end when you are looking for new customers.
user of the product, an intermediary who sells your
SUMMARY
Marketing is a young discipline: it has its roots in economics, psychology,
sociology, salesmanship and many other areas, but it has gone through a
rapid evolution to reach the current state of the art. As a dynamic process of
continual re-invention, academic marketing has paralleled developments in
day-to-day practice, moving the profession from a somewhat dubious com-
mercial practice to a means by which people meet their daily needs and life
aspirations.
Self-Check Questions 35
The key points from this section are as follows:

& Marketing has gone through a number of stages to reach its present
place as the primary means of managing exchange.
& Marketing creates competitive advantage by first creating customer
value.
& Marketing orientation can only be developed with the co-operation of
all members of the organisation.
& Marketing orientation can be met with resistance from people within
the firm.
& True marketing orientation cuts across departments within the firm.
& Marketing has a role in maintaining ethical standards, and marketers
need to be aware of the effects of marketing activities on the well-being
of the society as a whole.
& Relationship marketing is concerned with establishing long-term
exchange patterns with appropriate customers.
SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following is true?
A In a transactional marketing environment, quality is the

responsibility of everyone in the firm.
B In a relationship marketing environment, there is a high emphasis

on customer service.
C In a transactional marketing environment, the focus is on the long

term.
2. Which of the following is a stage in marketing evolution?
A Product orientation.
B Orientation on product benefits.
C Quality control.
A Product orientation came before production orientation and after

sales orientation.
B Sales orientation came after production orientation but before

marketing orientation.
C Production orientation came after product orientation and before
sales orientation.
4. Lack of committed leadership:

A Creates production orientation.
B Hinders marketing orientation.

C Promotes sales orientation.
5. Common goal setting is an example of:

A Marketing’s ability to generate cross-functional coordination.
B Production orientation.
C Relationship marketing.
FURTHER READING
Chapter 1 of Essentials of Marketing (Blythe, J., 4th Edition: Harlow, Pearson).
Alternatively, Chapter 1 of Principles of Marketing (Blythe, J., 2nd Edition:
Andover, Cengage), Chapter 1 of Principles of Marketing (Brassington, F., and
Pettitt, S., 4th Edition: Harlow, FT Prentice Hall), Chapter 1 of Principles
of Marketing (Kotler et al.), Principles and Practice of Marketing (Jobber, D.,
6th Edition: Maidenhead, McGraw Hill). Jobber approaches the question in a
somewhat different way which does not fit the CIM syllabus.
The CIM Code of Practice.
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Anderson, E.W., Fornell, C. and Mazvancheryl, S.K. (2004): Customer satisfaction
and shareholder value. Journal of Marketing, 68(4), 172–185.
Avlonitis, G. et al., (1997): Marketing orientation and company performance:
industrial vs. consumer goods companies. Industrial Marketing Management,
26(5): 385–402.
Homburg, C., Koschate, N. and Hoyer, W.D. (2005): Do satisfied customers really
pay more? A study of the relationship between customer satisfaction and will-
ingness to pay. Journal of Marketing, 69(2): 84–96.
Narver, J.C. and Slater, S.F. (1990): The effects of a market orientation on business
profitability. Journal of Marketing, 54(October): 20–55.
Websites 37
WEBSITES
www.cim.co.uk (for CIM code of practice)
http://www.btplc.com/Thegroup/Regulatoryinformation/Codeofpractice/Consu
mercodeofpractice/ConsumerCodeofPractice.htm (example of a code of
practice)
http://www.imc.co.uk/news/professional_consultancy_article.php?item_
id=427&issue=13 (articles on how marketing can be integrated into the
business philosophy)
CHAPTER 2
Planning within the Marketing Context
Learning objectives
After working through this module and reading around the subject, you
should be able to
& Explain the importance of objectives, the processes for setting them and the
influences upon them.
& Identify the various possible organisational objectives.
& Show how marketing planning is crucial in a market-oriented organisation.
& Describe the stages of the marketing planning process.
& Explain the concept of the marketing audit.
STUDY TIP
This section accounts for 25% of the marks for the mod- will lose marks! You need to read around the subject, read
ule, so (like Unit 1) it should account for about 10 hours of the course textbook and think about what you are read-
study time in total for the average student. If you do less ing – what you learn is not only about passing the exams,
than this, you will need to be exceptionally bright, or you it also prepares you for a successful career in marketing.
SETTING OBJECTIVES
First, we need to distinguish between an aim and an objective. An aim is
simply a statement of something we would like to do, for example, the firm
might aim to be the best-respected in the industry, or we might aim for our
39
40 CHAPTER 2: Planning within the Marketing Context
promotional campaigns to be more memorable. These are not objectives. An

objective is an aim which is measurable, that is, we have some means of
knowing that we achieved the objective. Statements such as ‘we wish to sell
as much as possible’ are aims, not objectives, because we have no real way of
knowing how much ‘as much as possible’ actually is.
Objectives are the building blocks of strategy. They are the basis for
determining future direction, consistency, motivation and measurement of
performance.
EXAM TIP
You will often be asked to make recommendations for A recommendation would include an objective such as
future action for a firm. You will gain marks if you think ‘the firm should commission a local agency to report on
in terms of setting objectives for your recommendations, the acceptability of the firm’s products, the report to be
because this will make them more concrete. completed within 3 months. The report should also indi-
For example, if you are asked to suggest ways in which cate the size of the potential market, stated as a percen-
a firm might enter an overseas market, it is of no help to tage of the population’. Put this way, the senior managers
say ‘the firm should investigate the local culture further’. have a solid course of action to follow.
An objective should be SMART, that is, it should be:
1. Specific. This means that it should be possible to state it in precise

terms, in such a way that it cannot be confused with any other action.
If an objective is not clearly stated, it becomes open to interpretation
by those who have to carry out the necessary actions to achieve it. In
some cases this simply leads to misunderstanding and wasted effort,
but in more serious cases it can leave the way open for people to work
to their own agendas, using the objective as a way of justifying their
actions.
2. Measurable. There should be some kind of numerical or other
measure to quantify the objective. Without this, we cannot know
whether the objective has been achieved. Over-achievement can be as
serious as under-achievement: sometimes over-achieving a sales
objective leads to problems in meeting demand, which can result in a
loss of goodwill towards the firm. For example, a flying school which
over-achieves its objectives for attracting new customers might find
that it does not have enough aircraft and instructors to meet the
demand, leading to disappointment among the would-be aviators.
3. Achievable. If an objective cannot be achieved, there is little point in
setting it. Objectives which are perceived by employees and others to
be unachievable will simply be ignored: worse, employees will have
Setting Objectives 41
less respect for management as a result and be less likely to believe in

future objectives.
4. Realistic. Following on from the criterion of being achievable, an
objective needs to make sense within the context of the firm’s
situation and strategy. If the objective does not connect with other
objectives in the strategy, it is unlikely to be achieved, and even if it is
achieved it will not contribute anything to the firm’s success.
5. Timebound. There should always be a point at which the managers

can say that the objective has not been achieved. If there is no
timescale, people can continue to try for the objective indefinitely,
which is of course a pointless state of affairs.
For example, if we have an aim that our promotional campaigns should be
more memorable, this can only become an objective if we are able to map it
against SMART, perhaps as follows:
& Specific. We would like 30% of respondents to name our brand in an
unaided recall test.
& Measurable. We will be commissioning a market research
organisation to carry out the recall test.
& Achievable. Our campaign last year resulted in 20% unaided recall, so
this campaign should be able to improve on that.
& Realistic. 30% unaided recall is well within what other brands in our
portfolio have achieved, and we would expect this brand to achieve this
if it is to remain in the portfolio.
& Timebound. We are allowing a 3-month time frame for the campaign
to have its effect.
Obviously, there will be a degree of overlap between the various

SMART factors, but if even one of them is not present the objective
is not viable.
STUDY TIP
Within your own work environment or working day, try are asked to comment on your own company in an
analysing your day’s objectives against SMART fac- exam.
tors. This will help you remember them more clearly You will almost certainly be expected to know the SMART
and will also provide you with suitable examples if you factors by heart, so learning them by rote is a good idea!
Without objectives there can be no strategy. Objectives determine the overall

direction of the firm and also determine tactics since they are the guidelines
by which junior managers make decisions. Each decision has to be made on
the basis of whether it brings the firm (or the brand, or the department)
nearer to achieving the stated objective.
CASE STUDY: J. Sainsbury PLC
This case study looks at the effects of objective setting in 1. To grow sales by £2.5 billion (excluding fuel sales).
turning round a major corporation. The coordinating effects Groceries would contribute £1.4 billion of this, non-
of setting appropriate objectives, derived from a clear foods £700 million and convenience stores would
vision, are illustrated. contribute the rest.
Sainsbury’s is one of the United Kingdom’s largest 2. To invest at least £400 million in improving product
grocery chains, with its beginnings in the mid-19th century. quality and price.
John James Sainsbury and his wife Mary opened their first
3. To find annual buying synergies equivalent to between 1
store in London’s Drury Lane, and by 1882 had four shops.
and 1.5%.
Rapid expansion during the remainder of the century
meant that by 1900 the firm had 48 shops, mainly in the 4. To generate cost efficiencies of at least £400 million.
London area. 5. To deliver neutral underlying cash flow for 2005/2006
Nowadays, the chain comprises 455 supermarkets and positive cash flow thereafter.
and 301 convenience stores throughout the United King-
In the company’s 2007 Annual Report, the Board reported
dom and employs 148,000 people. In October 2004, after
the following achievements:
losing ground substantially to other supermarket chains
such as Tesco, the Sainsbury Board developed a recovery 1. Sales had increased by £1 billion during 2006/2007,
plan. Part of this plan was a restatement of the corporate making a total increase of £1.8 billion over the first 2
vision, aimed at (in the Chairman’s words) Making Sains- years of the recovery plan – well on target.
bury’s Great Again (MSGA). The restated vision was as 2. The £400 million of investment was completed in
follows: December 2006 and additional investments had been
made since.
‘We are here to serve customers well with a choice
of great food at fair prices and, by so doing, to 3. The cost savings target was increased to £440 million,
provide shareholders with strong, sustainable following the installation of new IT systems.
financial returns’. 4. The underlying cash flow became positive in 2005/
2006, somewhat early, so the objective for 2006/2007
This vision drove everything Sainsbury’s did and thus
was restated as achieving a neutral cash flow, allowing
was the coordinating force for the company. The recovery
for substantial capital expenditures – this objective was
plan spanned 3 years, to March 2008, and involved making
also exceeded.
literally hundreds of changes, with major changes in pro-
duct availability, updating the IT systems, better manage- This success led Sainsbury’s to establish a new 3-year plan,
ment of the supply chain and better price competition. Over with an overlap with the existing plan: this plan would run
the 3-year period, the company set the following key objec- until 2010 with the following objectives:
tives:
1. Growth of £3.5 billion in sales, split two-thirds food, one- the company expects to be able to build on their reputation
third non-food. for high-quality, healthy food rather than compete exclu-
2. Extend 75 stores to increase their selling area. sively on price – at the same time, there is a recognition that
there is a place for price competitiveness.
3. Continue to aim for supply chain efficiencies of 1–1.5%
Overall, Sainsbury’s are positioning themselves well for
per annum, the savings to be invested in improving the
MSGA and fighting back against strong competition.
customer offer.
4. Open 30 new supermarkets and 100 convenience stores.
Questions
5. Increase the number of stores offering home delivery
from just over 100 to 200. 1. Why might Sainsbury’s have revised the cost savings
objective?
6. Make capital expenditures of £2.5 billion, funded from
improved cash flow. 2. How do the objectives relate to the vision statement?
The company recognises that people are aiming to eat 3. How might Sainsbury’s management have arrived at the
more healthily and also to eat more ‘ethical’ foods: the stated objectives?
Sainsbury brand is well placed to meet these criteria, and 4. How realistic is the new Sainsbury’s 3-year plan?
According to McKay (1972) there are only three basic marketing objec-
tives: to enlarge the market, to increase share of the existing market or to
improve profitability within the existing market share. This somewhat
simplistic view of objectives can be expanded to provide more concrete
objectives: for example, enlarging the market can be carried out by bringing
out new products aimed at a new group of customers, or by developing the
existing products in order to reach new customers. These objectives can
themselves be broken down further into developing existing end-use mar-
kets, or opening up new end-use markets. In each case, new objectives can
be set.
In some cases, complexity in the problems facing the firm will lead to
difficulties in setting objectives, because each possible solution to the pro-
blem simply creates another problem. Such complex problems are called
wicked problems, because they have no definitive solutions.
ACTIVITY
The matrix below shows some current world problems. Place a tick in each box where you think the problems impinge
on each other.
Peace Energy Starvation Civil rights Population Balance of payments
Peace
Energy
Starvation
Civil rights
Population
Balance of payments
Source: Mason, R. and Mitroff, I.: (1981) Challenging Strategic Planning Assumptions, New York: Wiley.
You should have few, if any, empty boxes at the end of this exercise. Now try putting the titles of typical business problems
as the headings for the boxes. Usually you will find that the same thing happens – every problem impinges on every other,
until there is no solution that will not result in a worsening situation somewhere else in the firm.
CASE STUDY: Procter and

Gamble
This case study illustrates how strategy is developed and At the beginning of 1999, however, P&G was facing
how a multinational is able to maintain flexibility across a something of a crisis. The bureaucracy had become over-
wide range of markets by devolving strategic decision- whelming, the hierarchical organisation structure was
making to local managers. It also illustrates some of the threatening to slow down innovation and the sales were
risks attached to making radical changes. stagnating. The new chief executive, Durk Jager, vowed to
Procter and Gamble (P&G) owns what are among the take radical measures to turn the company round. A vision-
world’s best-known brands: Bold, Dreft, Pantene, Pringles, ary leader, Jager wanted to transform P&G through his
Sunny Delight and Febreze are among them. The company Organisation 2005 programme, a 6-year plan to improve
was founded in 1837 in Cincinnati, Ohio, by William Procter sales and become a truly global (as opposed to multina-
and James Gamble, a candle maker and a soap maker, tional) company.
respectively. The new company produced soap, washing Organisation 2005 looked at re-organising the com-
powders and food products, but quickly diversified into pro- pany around a matrix structure. Global business units
ducing a wide range of household goods, including foodstuffs. (GBUs) were set up to oversee the various brand categories
In 1930 the company expanded by acquisition into the such as family care, skin care, hair care and feminine care.
United Kingdom, buying out Thomas Hedley and Co., and Coupled with this, the world was split up into market devel-
in 1954 P&G established itself in Continental Europe. The opment organisations (MDOs) to implement brand strate-
company’s commitment to developing new products and gies locally. Such a radical approach meant that virtually
its commitment to staff development and promotion from every senior manager changed jobs, systems throughout
within, led to P&G becoming one of the world’s largest and the company were overhauled and redesigned, and the
corporate focus shifted away from the consumer and
most solid blue-chip companies, with a corporate culture to
towards the internal business of who was doing what.
match.
UK managing director Chris de Lapuente said of the and building market share – either of which will deliver
changes, ‘What we tried to do was change the whole orga- shareholder value in the long run.
nisation back to front, with a promise of record earnings. DeLapuente says that the similarities between the
Virtually everybody changed jobs. And we were excited and various global markets are much greater than the differ-
inspired by the new vision and direction. It was very intox- ences, which helps when trying to implement a global
icating. This was a winning culture and everybody signed strategy on a local basis. P&G do not (in general) have
up for it.’ Unfortunately, the early promise of Organisation local brands, so Pampers disposable nappies are the
2005 was not fulfilled – in fact, it was an almost total same product in every Western European country, as are
disaster. Pringles crisps. There are exceptions – Daz washing pow-
Costs were slashed, but growth did not materialise and der is one example, since washing powders need to be
many loyal and experienced managers were alienated by adapted to suit local washing practices and washing
the changes. Many middle managers departed, disillu- machines, but in general brands are global. The fine-tuning
sioned by the arbitrary job shifts. The company lost sight of the strategy is evident in areas such as targeting for
of its customer focus and may have alienated some custo- volume, for turnover, for market share, for running costs
mers and damaged some brand values. Innovation or for any of several other possible variables.
dropped dramatically as development programmes were The key to balancing these different objectives is to be
disrupted by the changes, and eventually Jager himself clear about which manager owns which part of the pro-
became a casualty of his own change programme. blem. ‘If someone is saying their immediate priority is to
The new CEO, A.G. Lafley, returned to basics and drive the bottom-line profit, and someone else is saying no,
steadied down the rate of change. The rallying cry for we need to maximise volume, then you try and resolve that
P&G became, ‘the consumer is boss’, thus putting the by moving to more “and” situations, in we want to maximise
consumer back at the core of everything the firm does. profit and volume,’ DeLapuente says. What this means is
The implementation of this has been patchy, of course – that the marketing effort for the MDOs is geared towards
de Lapuente himself says that targets are often expressed implementation. This means devising the right marketing
in terms of shareholder value or profit-and-loss rather than programmes: DeLapuente’s MDO represents the second
in market share terms. This in itself can cause conflicts. biggest market for P&G outside the United States and one
The organisation structure has remained the same which accounts for almost a quarter of all European sales.
under Lafley as it was under Jager: GBUs have profit and ‘You can have the most wonderful strategies in the world’,
loss responsibility on a global basis for the different cate- he says, ‘but if the execution is flawed you have nothing’.
gories they oversee. GBUs have broad responsibility for the In the United Kingdom, the supermarkets have a stran-
vision, strategies and innovation in their own categories of glehold on food retailing, so dealing with individual custo-
brands, so they create marketing initiatives and templates mers requires a great deal of imagination and
which the MDOs then adapt for their local marketing pro- customisation. The supermarkets want things done their
grammes, geared to the local market wherever in the world way – which means that the corporate strategy may need to
they happen to be operating. This ‘think global – act local’ be adapted considerably in practice. Price pressure from
approach seems to be effective and de Lapuente believes the supermarkets means that margins can be squeezed,
that it is the way that all global companies will need to which means there is less money available for innovation:
organise themselves in the long run – the potential rewards this means that P&G now work closely with the retailers to
are outstanding. Overall objectives come from the top, with develop compelling ideas to showcase P&G brands.
the CEO discussing with each of the GBU presidents the DeLapuente believes that P&G are the market leaders in
targets they will reach in terms of profits and shareholder virtually every market they compete in, largely because of
value. MDO managers are then given the task of reaching the corporate culture. The company promotes from within
those targets within their own regions. The fundamental and is obsessed with winning; so many managers feel
measure for all the managers is shareholder value, but deeply upset if they are not winning. Interestingly, the
the focus might shift between focusing on profit and loss company also places great emphasis on learning – people
are encouraged to fail, in the sense that they are encour- have been the sharp shock administered by Organisation
aged to take risks and failure is accepted as part of the 2005 that reminded P&G of its fundamental strengths and
price for innovation. Lessons learned are rapidly dissemi- brought the company back to concentrating on the
nated throughout the company. customer.
Innovation is also the key to the company’s creative
approach to promotion. Although P&G do not ignore TV,
Case study questions
they are involved in a wide range of activities, from provid-
ing educational materials for children, to hospital pro- 1. What is the role of corporate culture in P&G’s objective
grammes for mothers with new babies, to sampling, to CD setting?
audio magazines, to interactive TV. 2. Why did the Organisation 2005 initiative fail?
The results of the steadier approach to change man-
3. What does the case study tell us about visionary
agement, and the commitment of P&G’s employees and
leadership?
managers, are that the tide has now turned in the com-
pany’s favour. For the fiscal year ended 2002 sales rose 3% 4. Why is P&G following a formal planning approach?
overall to $40.2 billion, with net earnings up 49% to 5. How might P&G resolve the inevitable conflicts between
$4.4 billion. Ironically, industry experts believe that it may GBUs and MDOs?
Obviously, the vast majority of problems are ‘tame’ ones which have a fairly
straightforward set of solutions. Only occasionally do managers have to tackle
wicked problems, and they are usually solved at high levels in the organisation.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON

OBJECTIVES
Objectives cannot be set in a vacuum. Any manager needs to take account of
the environment within which the firm operates. We have already seen that
objectives that are perceived by staff as impossible or unrealistic will simply
not be attempted, but equally an objective that does not take account of the
realities of the external environment will not be achievable.
Internal influences include the following:
1. Corporate culture. This is the set of beliefs and behaviours shared by
the members of the organisation. Corporate culture can only partly be
influenced by management: typically it builds up from grass-roots
level. Internal marketing has some role in developing an appropriate
corporate culture.
2. Resource constraints. This is not only about money: resources also

include staff knowledge and experience, and company assets such as
patents, plant and equipment, premises and so forth. No company
operates with infinite resources, so there will always be constraints and
limitations, no matter how urgent or tempting the objective might be.
Internal and External Influences on Objectives 47
Corporate culture
Internal
influence
influences
Staff aspirations Resource constraints
FIGURE 2.1 Internal influences.
3. Aspirations of staff members. Internal politics and career structures

may affect the feasibility of corporate objectives. Employees primarily
consider their own agendas – no one is going to damage his or her
career simply to meet a corporate objective set by senior management.
As a general rule, staff members need to buy into any changes management
tries to make to the corporate culture: in part, this is a problem for human
resources departments (who may be able to recruit people who are already
sympathetic to the culture) and in part it is a function of internal marketing,
which will be covered in more detail in other modules (Figure 2.1).
Aer Lingus
This example illustrates the importance of getting employ- Although these advertisements were ostensibly aimed
ees ‘on side’ and developing an appropriate corporate at the travelling public, their effect on the staff themselves
culture. was considerable. Aer Lingus staff (especially those with
During late 1999, Aer Lingus ran a series of maga- direct contact with passengers) felt rewarded for their
zine advertisements in which they emphasised the friend- efforts in being friendly to customers and felt encouraged
liness of their staff. Much was said in the advertising to continue to do so: for an employee, the acknowledge-
about the warm welcome that Irish people traditionally ment in the advertising was a clear indicator of expected
give to strangers, but the most telling point was the behaviour. As a way of encouraging an appropriate corpo-
headline: ‘we don’t spend money teaching people to rate culture, as well as promoting a unique selling proposi-
smile at our customers. We just hire nice people to tion in an industry which has few differentiators, the
begin with’. advertisements were a great success.
The Aer Lingus Marketing in Practice box demonstrates how a firm can
develop an appropriate corporate culture by using a suitable recruitment
policy.
External influences include the following:
1. Competitors. Any objective needs to take account of possible competitor

responses, as well as current competitor behaviour. Competitors are not
always predictable, but it is important to remember that they will always
respond to any major changes in your own firm’s marketing, so planners
need to consider what possible retaliation might be in store and have
responses ready. In some cases plans might be adapted or dropped
altogether in order to minimise or negate competitive retaliation.
2. Customers. As in any question of marketing, objective setting should
start with the customers. Knowing what customers want, knowing
what they might want in future and knowing what they will find less
interesting in future are of course crucial issues, but for objective
setting it can be equally important to identify new groups of
customers who might benefit from the company’s product offerings.
3. Government and legislation. Objectives obviously need to be legal,

but they should also be ethical, within the cultural context of the
society in which the firm operates. For large firms, some objectives
might provoke a Government response, even if the action is currently
within the law.
4. Technological advances. This means more than just IT and

communications – a technological advance could also mean a new
drug on the market, a new way of making concrete, a new genetically
modified crop or any number of other technical breakthroughs. The
Marketing in Practice box about the Atkins diet illustrates a technical
change which affected several industries.
The Atkins Diet
This example illustrates how an environmental change – in published in 1972, the diet received a tremendous publicity
this case a fashionable diet – can affect firms dramatically. boost after actress Jennifer Aniston and former Spice Girl
During 2003, the revolutionary Atkins diet suddenly Victoria Beckham both claimed to have used it success-
became the ‘diet of choice’ of over 4 million British people. fully. Meat sales grew by 11% and sales of some fruits (the
Despite warnings from some quarters that the diet was ones allowed by Atkins such as watermelons and raspber-
actually dangerous, its proven ability to help weight loss ries) also soared by as much as 64%. The Waitrose super-
ensured its popularity among the large numbers of obese market, mainly based in wealthy southern England, saw a
Britons raised on fish and chips and Mum’s treacle 16% increase in meat sales, which a spokeswoman for the
pudding. firm attributed to Atkins.
The Atkins diet advocates eating large amounts of On the other hand, sales of bread and potatoes showed
protein foods and very little carbohydrate. Originally corresponding declines. The decline was steady – of the
Internal and External Influences on Objectives 49
order of 1–2% per annum, but it was enough to have the horizon in the form of the South Beach Diet. Perhaps a new
bakers worrying. John White, the director of the Federation diet fad would replace Atkins in the public consciousness
of Master Bakers, said, ‘one can speculate as to the rea- and save the carbohydrate industry.
sons, but personally I have no doubt that Atkins has had an Since 2004, the South Beach Diet has also gone the
impact. We can only hope that it’s a fad that will pass’. way of all fad diets, and although carbohydrates still have a
The Flour Advisory Bureau signed up model Denise bad name, people are beginning to realise that more exer-
van Outen to star in commercials promoting flour products. cise and less eating is probably the main way we have of
The British Potato Council spent £1 million on a makeover losing weight. Dr. Atkins died in April 2003 from a head
for the humble spud, and plans were laid for the potato, injury sustained when he slipped on an icy street: 2 years
rice and flour industries to band together to meet the threat later his company filed for bankruptcy protection under the
of Atkins. United States’ Chapter 11 legislation. By that time less than
Other diet products also felt the pinch. Roche’s anti- 2% of Americans were on the Atkins diet, down from a
obesity drug, Xenical, suffered a 16% drop in sales and peak of 11% in 2003. The global food industry may have
Slim-Fast (a Unilever product) also showed a sharp breathed a sigh of relief – but sooner or later another dietary
decline. As 2004 started, however, some relief was on the idea will come along!
The Marketing in Practice box on Benidorm shows how planning can go

wrong, even when carried out carefully: a failure to recognise the conse-
quences of short-termism, allowing any and all developments, is a major
contributor to the failed dream. The planners also failed to take sufficient
account of the market environment, which was rapidly changing as the
Northern European economies became wealthy enough for most people to
afford foreign holidays.
Benidorm
This example illustrates the potential problems which can resources apart from fairly constant sunshine all the year
arise even when everything is well-planned. External factors round. In 1958, the village mayor decided to hold a song
can easily disrupt the best-laid plans. contest to establish the town’s reputation and to encourage
During the 1960s, town planners in Spain had the idea the kind of respectable, middle-class arts lovers the town
of creating a quiet respectable resort for the wealthier mid- needed to feed its fledgling tourist trade and fill its hotels.
dle classes of Europe, foreseeing (correctly) that these The contest was a runaway success, mainly because the
people would have large disposable incomes and would first contest spawned a major hit, over 70 versions of which
be prepared to spend increasing amounts of their money were recorded worldwide. The resultant publicity would
on leisure, particularly as air travel became more widely have put the town on the map even if the contest had
available. The intended image of the resort was that of a never run again.
peaceful town with an old quarter at its heart and upmar- Unfortunately, although the publicity put the town on
ket, comfortable hotels around it. the map and started the developments rolling, the image of
The chosen area for the new resort was a small fishing a quiet resort for the wealthy never materialised. The result
village of 2,000 people, located about half an hour from the of the careful planning was Benidorm – now widely
nearest airport, in an area with little in the way of natural regarded as the epitome of rampant overdevelopment and
used as a byword for appalling resorts even by people who like from all over Europe, and the resort is capable of
have never been there. The existing beach is excellent, but coping with 5 million visitors a year. Maybe the original
is now topped up with sand shipped in from the Sahara: planners of Benidorm are not unhappy with the outcome –
acres of high-rise hotel and apartment development run for the town is nothing if not prosperous – but as a demonstra-
several miles along this seafront, and the original village is tion of the way things can turn out unexpectedly, Benidorm
almost invisible. The original 2000 inhabitants have been takes some beating!
supplanted by hotel workers, waiters, bar-owners and the
ACTIVITY
Consider the internal and external environment of the firm Often objectives which are going to be unpopular
you work for. What company objectives can you identify with staff have come about because of overwhelming
which are unpopular with staff? Which can you identify external issues. In some cases these external factors
which are popular? What do you think will happen when are not known to the staff concerned, which of course
these objectives are attempted? makes the introduction of unpopular policies
What external factors might have led to these objec- incomprehensible.
tives being set in the first place?
ACTIVITY
Most people talk to their colleagues about work and To what extent do these match with the ‘official’
where they think the organisation is going. Make a list beliefs stated in the corporate mission statement? How
of what you think are the shared beliefs of your might you change the actual beliefs within the firm?
company, based on conversations with your Which beliefs would you need to change in order to
colleagues. improve the performance of the organisation?
CATEGORIES OF OBJECTIVES
Marketing objectives are usually derived from the wider corporate objectives.
In the case of a truly marketing-orientated firm, corporate objectives and
marketing objectives should be almost identical: but most firms are not as
marketing orientated as this, by any means.
Corporate objectives are strategic statements of where the organisation’s
senior management thinks the organisation should be. Objectives can be
grouped as follows:
& Financial objectives. These relate to sales, profits, return on
investment, balance sheet issues and so forth.
Categories of Objectives 51
& Philosophical objectives. These might encompass such factors as the

core values of the organisation, a desire to be the biggest or the best or
the most caring or (of course) customer orientation.
& Qualitative objectives. These are to do with service levels, the desire to
be innovative or perhaps the desire to be respected as a good employer.
There will often be trade-offs in corporate objectives, since all organisations
have limited resources and therefore cannot do everything they might want.
The following is a list of possible conflicts in setting objectives (Weinberg,
1969):
1. Short-term profit versus long-term growth. Going for a quick profit
is likely to sabotage longer-term steady growth, because the firm will
launch products too soon, over-pressure customers to place orders
now rather than later and cut back on long-term investments in
research and brand building.
2. Profit margin versus market positioning. Investment in brand
building and positioning the brand is likely to cost money, which of
course affects the profit margin: likewise, some positions (e.g. a low-
price position) will involve reducing margins so as to offer low prices.
3. Direct sales effort versus market development. Making quick sales
may well involve tactics such as strong sales promotions which will
affect people’s perception of the brand in the longer term.
4. Penetrating existing markets versus developing new ones. Gaining

greater sales from existing markets will take resources away from
moving into new markets and vice versa. Penetrating existing markets
is likely to require brand extensions or new products aimed at existing
customers, whereas developing new markets (e.g. export markets) will
require companies to promote heavily in those markets.
5. Profit versus non-profit goals. Almost all non-profit goals (e.g.
becoming the best employer) will impinge badly on profit goals.
6. Growth versus stability. Following a growth strategy will inevitably
result in disruptions within the firm as new management jobs are
created and new responsibilities emerge. Stability has the advantage of
being less risky, at least in the short term.
7. Change versus stability. As with growth, any other change will
destabilise the company. On the other hand, firms which do not
change in response to changes in their environment will eventually
become obsolete.
8. Low-risk versus high-risk environments. Firms choosing a low-risk

environment are likely to find that they earn relatively low returns:
likewise firms in a high-risk environment may earn more if
everything goes well, but could equally lose a great deal more if things
go wrong.
Objectives will generate a set of sub-objectives in most cases: these are often
tactical, which means that they can be changed relatively easily. Building up
the strategic objectives by reaching the tactical objectives is the way in which
firms progress.
Firms are not necessarily entirely profit maximising. Objectives may
encompass many other outcomes (although firms will usually need to
show a profit if they are to survive in the long term). The following are
possible other objectives, but this list is not of course exhaustive.
& Sales/revenue maximisation. Firms may decide that maximising sales
and revenue is a good way of shutting out competition and
maintaining a strong presence in a competitive market. This may
mean reducing profit: a firm which competes on price may sell more,
but will certainly reduce profitability per unit sold and the extra sales
may not compensate for this, so overall net profit may very well
reduce.
& Marketing objectives. Some managers like to achieve high customer
loyalty levels, or high levels of word-of-mouth recommendations.
While these may not maximise profits, they do ensure survival:
customer loyalty comes at a price, but does make the company more
resistant to competitive pressure since loyal customers are (by
definition) difficult to lure away. There are three generic marketing
objectives: to increase market share, to increase profitability or to
enlarge the existing market (McKay, 1972). Enlarging the existing
market is usually only available to very large firms, and to be
worthwhile the firm has to have a large enough share of the market not
to have to worry about helping competitors (since competitors will
gain from an overall enlargement).
& Growth. Often firms aim for growth rather than profit, since this again
ensures survival. A growing firm will be investing more in marketing
than one which is in a steady state, but the larger a firm is the less
likely it is to have to go bankrupt if business drops off – it is relatively
easy to find ways of cutting back.
& Technological innovation. Firms such as Sony and 3M pride
themselves on their technical strengths. They are very much driven by
engineering talent: in the case of Sony, the company was founded by
Categories of Objectives 53
two engineers and appears to exist mainly for engineers to enjoy

creating novel electronic devices. Profit is simply a way of funding their
inventiveness, rather than the other way round.
& Ethical and social responsibility. Body Shop is frequently quoted as
a firm which has aimed for, and achieved, ethical trading as its
prime objective. Fair Trade companies also exist purely as vehicles
for social change and for whom profit is a necessary, but secondary,
outcome.
As a general rule, most firms want to grow. This is for the following reasons:
1. Protection against competition. If the firm becomes one of the
largest in the industry, competitors find it harder to enter the market.
Growing firms are able to apply more resources to the market and take
away market share from their competitors.
2. Improved economies of scale. Greater size means greater efficiency
in almost everything: employees’ time and skill is used more
efficiently, the firm has greater purchasing power for raw materials
and corporate resources (such as patents, designs and so forth) are
used more intensively.
3. Better control of the distribution networks. A growing firm

represents a more attractive proposition for suppliers and distributors
because it is likely to generate more business for all concerned in the
future. Growing firms thus have a negotiating advantage over others
in the industry.
4. More opportunities for career advancement. Managers and

employees of a growing firm have more opportunities for promotion,
which means greater motivation and productivity. Also, having
worked for a company which has grown is something which looks
good on the managers’ CV.
Growth is therefore a common aim, even if it is not quantified as an
objective.
Clearly firms need to survive, but in most cases companies have
many objectives other than profit maximisation. Sometimes these are
enshrined in the company’s mission statement. It is worth remembering
that companies are run by people, each of whom has his or her own
agenda, so in most cases profit is only a means to an end, not an end in
itself.
In some cases, organisations are entirely non-profit-making. This does
not preclude them from marketing, but it does mean that they may have
multiple objectives and a wide range of ‘customers’ since they tend to
manage exchanges with a wide range of stakeholders. This obviously com-

plicates the marketing effort, since there may well be conflicts of interest
between the stakeholders.
Typical objectives for non-profit organisations might be:
& Charitable objectives such as helping needy people or funding
research into a disease. This would be a typical objective of a registered
charity such as Oxfam or Médecins Sans Frontières.
& Persuasive objectives such as changing attitudes towards minority
groups, promoting environmentalism or supporting a political party.
Organisations such as Greenpeace, CND or the Labour Party fall into
this category.
& Financial objectives such as fund-raising. This would be a typical
objective for any non-profit group, since they all require a surplus of
income over outgoings if they are to survive.
Sometimes non-profit organisations have a long-term survival need, but

some may only exist for a short period to achieve a specific objective
(e.g. lobbying Government for a single outcome such as preventing a
hospital closure or raising money for an operation for a sick child).
EXAM HINT
When dealing with case study questions, do not assume aim of marketing is to look after customer needs because
that the company is profit maximising. On the other hand, this is the best way of getting their money off them. A
you need to remember that customer centrality does not great many marketers, both academic and practitioner,
mean simply giving everything away to customers – we miss this point.
still need to show a profit to stay in business and the
USING THE MARKETING PLAN

The marketing plan, once it is in place, can be used in the following ways:
& Delivering strategies and achieving objectives. If the plan is well
drawn, it should provide a clear blueprint for everyone in the firm.
People should be able to know exactly what to do when they read the
plan and (more importantly, perhaps) should know what everyone else
is supposed to be doing.
& Implement a marketing project. The plan should help people make
day-to-day decisions based on the overall direction of the plan. In other
Using the Marketing Plan 55
words, people should be able to make adjustments to the plan as

circumstances dictate, without having to refer back to the senior
managers.
& Monitoring of progress. The plan should contain enough
information to enable staff to know whether they are meeting the
objectives and staying on course to meet the overall strategic
outcome. Corrections to the plan can be made in the light of new
information: this may mean restating the objectives (see the
Sainsbury’s case study).
& Managing implementation. Staff should be aware of what needs to be
done and when, and of course what other people will be doing and
when. Deviations from plan should be obvious, and it should be
straightforward for staff to make adjustments: clearly, someone will
need to be in overall control, at least from a monitoring viewpoint, to
remind people of target dates and deadlines.
& Resource management. The plan should enable managers to direct
people, money and materials towards achieving the objectives. It
should also enable planners to obtain resources which the organisation
does not currently have.
& Financial management. The plan should enable long-term financial
planning, in terms of both incoming revenues and outgoing
expenditure.
& Measurement of success. The plan should enable managers to
celebrate over-achievement or analyse under-achievement.
Achieving objectives is satisfying and motivating for all concerned,
which is another reason for ensuring that objectives are
attainable: persistent failure to reach objectives is damaging to
staff morale.
EXAM HINT
If you are asked to draw up a marketing plan, or even to Many students lose marks by not making solid
outline some recommendations, be clear about exactly recommendations. You should be specific in what
what you want people to do. You should also include you are telling people to do – if you are asked for
monitoring and evaluation systems, with timescales, so recommendations, say something that people can act
that people can see what went wrong if the plan is not on.
achieved. Remember that planning is one thing – achiev-
ing outcomes is another.
STAGES OF THE PLANNING PROCESS

Planning goes through distinct stages, as follows:
& Corporate objectives are set. These are the overall strategic objectives
set by the directors of the firm. They may or may not be customer
oriented, depending on the orientation of the firm, but almost all
corporate objectives will rely on marketing to a greater or lesser extent.
The corporate objectives may be very long term or relatively short term.
& Marketing audit. This is a snapshot of the company’s current
situation: there is more on this later in the module. Essentially, it
covers everything the marketing managers need to know about the
firm’s internal and external environments, including competitors,
customers, available resources and current activities and
commitments. The marketing audit enables the planners to
understand where the company is now, an important piece of
information when deciding how to get to where we want to be.
& Setting business and marketing objectives. These objectives are set in
terms of meeting the overall corporate objectives, so they might be seen as
sub-objectives (i.e. tactical rather than strategic). This breaks down the
overall objectives into manageable chunks for each department to handle.
& Marketing strategies. Strategy is about where we are going rather than
about how we get there. Strategy is therefore concerned with determining
where we should be as a firm and is usually (though not always)
considered in terms of competitive position. The marketing strategy is
aimed at meeting corporate objectives: in a completely market-oriented
firm there will be little or no difference between corporate strategy and
marketing strategy, but in most firms there is a distinction.
& Marketing tactics/mix decisions. Tactical decisions revolve around
choosing the appropriate combination of marketing tools to achieve
the overall strategic outcome. Tactical decisions are usually much
easier to reverse or fine-tune than strategic decisions, since strategic
decisions usually involve a lot of people doing diverse thing towards
the strategy. There is more in Unit 3 about using the marketing mix to
achieve tactical outcomes.
& Implementation. To an extent this is the moment of truth: putting the
plan into action often reveals its flaws very quickly. Implementation is
often carried out by more junior staff: it is helpful if they can be given the
whole picture, in terms of the strategic plan, so that they are able to
understand the purpose and intent of their part of it.
The Marketing Audit 57
& Monitoring and control. Having systems in place to check whether

we are deviating from the plan is essential: having feedback systems
which will allow us to make adjustments easily are also important.
The systems should, ideally, enable managers to correct problems
before they become too large.
STUDY TIP
You should learn this process by heart. There is a strong end up (corporate objectives). Then you need to know
chance that you will at least be asked to repeat it and where you are starting from (audit). Next you decide how
explain it, but you will in any case be asked to apply it. you are going to get there (marketing strategies and tac-
Forgetting a stage is a quick way to lose marks. tics). Next is to go on the journey (implementation) and
A good way to remember the process is to think of it finally check that you are still on the right course (mon-
as going on a journey. First decision is where you want to itoring and control).
THE MARKETING AUDIT

The marketing audit provides us with a quick overview of what the current
situation is in terms of our marketing. The audit is shown in Table 2.1: you
should note that this version of the audit is probably not exhaustive, but it
does provide the main headings and can be used as a checklist.
ACTIVITY
Carry out a marketing audit of your own firm. This will time frame and encourage people within your firm to
probably take some time and you will need to ask a lot of cooperate with the process? What information systems
people a lot of questions: you may even find that some are already in place, or could easily be adapted, to gen-
information is confidential and therefore not available to you. erate the information more quickly for you?
You will note that the process is time consuming and
often meets with obstruction: How could you reduce the
EXAM HINT
You will not be expected to remember the entire to bring in other aspects of the audit in your answers
audit, but you will be expected to understand its whenever you can, to demonstrate a wider
importance and know how it is used. Many students, understanding.
when asked to discuss the audit, only use (and quote) The most obvious aspect of the audit to keep in mind
a SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportu- is that it is comprehensive: very few of the organisation’s
nities and threats). Although this is part of the audit, activities are omitted and it covers all the relevant external
it is by no means sufficient for setting objectives. Try factors.
Table 2.1 The marketing audit
Main areas Subsections Issues to be addressed
Marketing environment audit Economic–demographic Inflation, materials supply and shortages, unemployment, credit availability, forecast
Macro-environment trends in population structure.
Technological Changes in product and process technology, generic substitutes to replace products.
Political–legal Proposed laws, national and local government actions.
Cultural Attitude changes in the population as a whole, changes in lifestyles and values.
Ecological Cost and availability of natural resources, public concerns about pollution and
conservation.
Task environment Markets Market size, growth, geographical distribution, profits; changes in market segment sizes
and opportunities.
Customers Attitudes towards the company and competitors, decision-making processes, evolving
needs and wants.
Competitors Objectives and strategies of competitors, identifying competitors, trends in future
competition.
Distribution and dealers Main trade channels, efficiency levels of trade channels.
Suppliers Availability of key resources, trends in patterns of selling.
Facilitators and Cost and availability of transport, finance and warehousing; effectiveness of advertising
marketing firms (and other) agencies.
Publics Opportunity areas, effectiveness of PR activities.
Marketing strategy audit Business mission Clear focus, attainability.
Marketing objectives Corporate and marketing objectives clearly stated, appropriateness of marketing
and goals objectives.
Strategy Core marketing strategy, budgeting of resources, allocation of resources.
Marketing organisation audit Formal structure Seniority of marketing management, structure of responsibilities.
Functional efficiency Communications systems, product management systems, training of personnel.
Interface efficiency Connections between marketing and other business functions.
Marketing systems audit Marketing information Accuracy and sufficiency of information, generation and use of market research.
system
Marketing planning Effectiveness, forecasting, setting of targets.
system
Marketing control Control procedures, periodic analysis of profitability and costs.
system
New product Gathering and screening of ideas, business analysis, pre-launch product and market
development system testing.
Marketing productivity audit Profitability analysis Profitability of each product, market, territory and distribution channel. Entry and exit of
segments.
Cost-effectiveness Costs and benefits of marketing activities.
analysis
Marketing function audits Products Product portfolio; what to keep, what to drop, what to add, what to improve.
Price Pricing objectives, policies and strategies. Customer attitudes. Price promotions.
Distribution Adequacy of market coverage. Effectiveness of channel members. Switching channels.
Advertising, sales Suitability of objectives. Effectiveness of execution format. Method of determining the
promotion, PR budget. Media selection. Staffing levels and abilities.
Sales force Adequate size to achieve objectives. Territory organisation. Remuneration methods and
levels. Morale. Setting quotas and targets.
Source: Adapted from Kotler, P. (2003) Marketing Management, 11th edition, reprinted by permission of Pearson Education Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
The Marketing Audit

59
Basically, the audit is used to appraise the following aspects of the firm:
& The internal and external environment. This means determining
what resources we have at our disposal and what is out there in the
external environment for us to deal with.
& Organisational SWOT. This is necessary but not sufficient: SWOT
analysis is only the beginning of the process and is in any case a
subjective and inaccurate tool.
& Organisational competencies and capabilities. This is about what
are able to do, in terms of our skills and internal resources: SWOT
analysis looks at our strongest capabilities, but we also need to
consider everything that we can do competently. We do not have to be
the best at everything to be able to do things competently, in other
words.
& Organisational resource versus capacity to deliver. Our resources are
a large part of our capacity to do what we say we are going to do –
although the effectiveness with which we use those resources is also
crucial. The main issue here is that we should not promise anything
we cannot deliver, since this destroys good will and creates negative
word of mouth.
& Competitor analysis. We always need to remember that our
competitors are not standing still. They have their own plans which
will affect us, and they are very likely to respond to anything we do,
especially, if it threatens their own plans.
The audit does have some ‘health warnings’ attached to it. First, it only
provides a snapshot: by the time the full audit has been carried out, the
situation may well have changed anyway, so it only provides a backward
view. Second, it is not an objective tool. It does require judgement and even
guesswork. Third, it will not make the decisions for you – it is only a way of
generating and organising information, and to an extent focusing on the
managers’ thinking.
Having said all that, the audit is an excellent starting point for objective
setting and also (if carried out regularly) a good way to monitor progress. It
also has the major advantage of focusing management thinking – conscien-
tiously carried out, the marketing audit provides managers with an unri-
valled opportunity to consider every aspect of the firm’s situation before
making decisions.
The Marketing Audit 61
CASE STUDY: Amway and the

Internet
This case shows how companies need to adapt their level marketing a bad name, putting off many people who
objectives and behaviours in the light of changing might otherwise have had successful careers with Amway.
circumstances, whether externally generated The second problem arose because of a rash of schemes
(technological change like the Internet) or internally which looked like multi-level marketing but in fact were not.
generated (such as rapid growth). These schemes paid commission for recruiting people, so
In 1959, Rich DeVos and Jay Van Andel founded that the main activity for a member was finding unsuspecting
Amway, operating out of the basements of their homes. victims to offload over-priced goods onto. These pyramid
The partners were ex-servicemen who believed in the schemes, as they are known, had little or no intention of
American way – hence the name of the firm. Amway selling products to end consumers. Recruits were encour-
operated then, and operates now, by encouraging aged to pay for large stocks of product, and the only way they
people to found their own businesses to sell Amway could recoup their losses was to find someone else to sell the
products. stock to. Many people lost their life savings in such schemes,
The products range from household cleaning materials which provoked governments worldwide to introduce strict
through to cosmetics and all are sold by individuals operating legislation regarding all schemes involving individuals recruit-
from their own homes. Amway products are not available in ing other individuals. This meant that Amway had to adapt its
retail shops and most of the individuals selling them deal only systems to respond to Government restrictions in all the
with their friends, work colleagues and families. countries within which it operates.
The system is relatively straightforward. Amway sells A third problem became apparent in the late 1990s, with
the products to individuals (called Independent Business the rapid growth of the Internet worldwide. The main advan-
Owners or IBOs) who then have two responsibilities. First, tage (for consumers) of buying from Amway is the conveni-
they sell products on to final consumers and, second, they ence of obtaining the products directly from a friend,
recruit more people to become IBOs. Recruiting more IBOs neighbour or work colleague, thus avoiding a trip to the
means that the recruiter moves up the Amway hierarchy shops. The Internet represented both an opportunity and a
and earns commission based on the new recruit’s sales threat for Amway, since online purchasing operates 24 hours
levels. This system, known as multi-level marketing, means a day 7 days a week, but on the other hand the company was
that Amway has automatic growth built into it, and so by well placed to take advantage of e-commerce, since it already
1980 the firm’s turnover passed the billion-dollar mark – no had worldwide distribution systems in place.
mean achievement in only 20 years. For Amway, constant growth was therefore going hand-
By 2004 the company had 3.3 million IBOs in 80 in-hand with a constant need to adapt to the trading
countries worldwide, with little sign of the growth slowing environment.
down. However, several changes in the company’s market- Amway needed to overcome the slightly seedy reputa-
ing environment were apparent. tion that MLM had acquired. To do this, the firm put in
First, many other multi-level marketing operations had place an unprecedented support programme for its IBOs.
come into existence since 1959. These included several Group leaders go on paid training programmes in various
hundred companies marketing ‘miracle cure’ products of parts of the world; they are invited to spend a day at one or
dubious efficacy. Reputable and honest multi-level marketing other of the Amway centres, to see how the company
companies represented competition for Amway, not for pro- operates. Amway IBOs are not required to keep stocks of
ducts but for recruits. The dishonest and disreputable com- the products: they only have a small stock of samples,
panies represented a more insidious threat – they gave multi- which is in fact the only financial commitment they have
to the firm. IBOs attend regular meetings at which their competition in China. Overall, Amway seeks to establish its
enthusiasm is pumped up – sometimes in an almost cult- credentials as a corporate good citizen and respond to the
like manner, though this is not a million miles away from environmental shifts in its business world.
sales meetings held throughout the business world.
Amway also has a strictly enforced code of conduct
Questions
regarding ethical practices in the business – and those who
break the code are ejected from the company. The com- What were the objectives of DeVos and Van Andel in setting
pany has also been instrumental in agreeing an interna- up Amway?
tional ethical code for all multi-level marketing companies 1. How are objectives communicated to the workforce?
and in setting up procedures for punishing those who
2. How have technological influences affected Amway?
violate the code.
The company sponsors events and contributes to com- 3. What have been the cultural and social influences on
munity development programmes in many parts of the Amway’s business practices?
world – everything from a clean-up campaign in Latin 4. How has legislation affected the firm?
American slums through to sponsoring a youth basketball
SUMMARY
This section has introduced the main aspects of marketing planning. You
will be covering all of this in more detail later in the course, but it is useful at
this stage to have a good grasp of how planning works in order to understand
the marketing mix decisions introduced in the next section.
Basically, managers set a wide variety of objectives, not all of which are
concerned with profit. They set these objectives within a context of the
firm’s internal and external environments, and they can use the marketing
audit to assess (a) environmental issues and (b) what the firm is currently
doing about them.
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. What does SMART stand for?
A Specific, memorable, actionable, repeatable and timely.
B Specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timebound.

C Specific, meaningful, active, reliable and teachable.
2. Which of these is correct?

A Enlarging the market can be carried out by increasing profitability.
B Increasing profitability will increase market share.

C Enlarging the market and increasing profitability are basic
categories of marketing objective.
Journal Articles 63
A Aspirations of staff members are part of the external environment.

B Corporate culture is dependent on staff ‘buying in’.
C Resource constraints are irrelevant to the internal environment.
4. Technological breakthroughs are examples of:

A External influences.
B Resource constraints.
C Competitive forces.

A Corporate objectives come before the marketing audit but after
setting the objectives.
B Objectives are set after the marketing audit but before the
marketing strategies are decided.
C Marketing strategies are set before the objectives and after the
marketing audit.
FURTHER READING
Chapter 10 of Essentials of Marketing (Blythe). Alternatively, Chapters 2 and 10 of
Principles of Marketing (Blythe), Chapter 21 of Principles of Marketing (Brassington
and Pettitt), Chapter 3 of Principles of Marketing (Kotler et al.) and Chapter 2 of
Principles and Practice of Marketing (Jobber).
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Chimhanzi, J. (2004): The impact of integration mechanisms on marketing/HR
dynamics, Journal of Marketing Management, 20(7/8), September: 713–740.
Porter, M.E. (1990): How competitive forces shape strategy, Harvard Business Review
57(2) 137–145.
WEBSITES
http://www.businessballs.com/freebusinessplansandmarketingtemplates.htm
This site gives advice and a template for planning.
http://www.websitemarketingplan.com/marketing_plan2.htm
This website offers a wide range of articles on improving your marketing
planning.
http://www.bplans.co.uk/sample_plans/marketingplans.cfm
This site has a large number of templates for all kinds of businesses:
unfortunately, it is American, which means that the plans would need
considerable adaptation, but they do offer ‘worked examples’.
REFERENCE
McKay, E.S. (1972) The Marketing Mystique, New York: American Management
Association.
CHAPTER 3
The Marketing Mix
Learning objectives
After working through this section, and carrying out the associated
reading, you should be able to:
& Explain the principles of product planning.
& Explain the product life cycle.
& Explain the importance of introducing new products and services.
& Explain the new product development (NPD) process.
& Explain the effect of price on the other elements of the marketing mix.
& Describe the different pricing methods.
& Define the different components of distribution channels and show how they
work together to create a distribution strategy.
& Explain the factors that influence channel and distribution decisions.
& Evaluate the range of marketing communication tools and consider their
usefulness in different circumstances.
& Evaluate the range of communications media and consider their impact in
different circumstances.
& Explain the contribution of people, process and physical evidence to the
marketing mix.
& Describe the different methods for measuring marketing outcomes.
& Explain the adoption of services and products in terms of customer characteristics.
& Show how a coordinated marketing mix contributes to customer satisfaction and
competitive advantage.
65
66 CHAPTER 3: The Marketing Mix
STUDY TIP
This section is the largest in the unit, accounting for 50% their day-to-day work. It is important to have a good grasp
of the overall marks. It should therefore take you about 20 of it if you are going to succeed in your marketing career,
hours to study, including reading around the subject and and of course it is certain to come up at least once in the
carrying out the various exercises and tests. You may be exam. The likelihood is that it will be relevant to more than
studying alone or you may be part of a class: either way, one question, so it is worth understanding the concept as
you do need to put in about that much time! well as learning the elements of it.
The marketing mix is about the tactical tools market-
ers have at their disposal, so it is central to what they do in
The marketing mix is the basic set of tools marketers have available to carry
out tactical marketing. The mix is generally thought of as being like the
ingredients in a recipe – they need to be combined in the correct proportions
and at the correct time if the overall result is to be a success. As in a recipe,
one ingredient cannot substitute for another – they all work together to
produce a result. The proportions of the mix necessarily need to be different
according to the product type, corporate resources and of course the con-
sumers’ characteristics.
The basic mix elements were originally thought to be as follows:
1. Product. This is the bundle of benefits the firm offers to the
customer, and is the element which is intended to meet people’s
needs. The product is not necessarily physical – it could be a service,
and indeed most products contain elements of both service and
physical
2. Price. This is the total of what the firm expects the customer to do in
return. Price goes beyond the amount the company receives – it also
includes other costs the consumer has to pay, such as the cost of
learning to use the product, the cost of switching from their existing
product, the cost of installation and so forth.
3. Place. This is the location where the exchange takes place – the retail
store, through the mail, in cyberspace, etc. Place decisions involve
thinking about physical distribution (shipping and delivery) as well as
about finding the most convenient location for customers to buy the
product.
The Marketing Mix 67
4. Promotion. This is the subgroup of mix elements which the marketer

uses to communicate the total offer to the customer. Promotion is
itself divided into a promotional mix, and new ways of
communicating are being added almost daily.
This categorisation of mix elements proved to be inadequate, since it has

only limited application to service products: since services now comprise the
bulk of marketing in the developed world, extra mix elements need to be
considered. They are as follows:
5. People. These are the ‘front-line’ staff who deliver the service benefits
to the customer, for example, the chef, waiters and waitresses in
restaurants or the legal personnel in a law firm. For the customer,
these people are perceived as the suppliers: their attitudes, behaviour
and skill are the products the customer is buying.
6. Process. This is the system by which the product benefits are

delivered. A self-service restaurant differs in process from an a la carte
restaurant, for example. Process not only defines part of the product,
but also has implications for the cost base of the supplying company.
In many businesses, ordering online has streamlined the purchase
process, and many service companies operate online booking systems
(airlines, hotels, some restaurants, ferry companies and so forth).
7. Physical evidence. This is the tangible aspect of the service delivery.
The décor, the tablecloths, the menus and so forth in a restaurant are
all evidence of the service being delivered: in some services such as
insurance, glossy brochures or imposing office buildings provide
physical evidence. From a consumer’s viewpoint, physical evidence is
useful in judging the expected quality of the service provision.
EXAM HINT
If you are asked to discuss the marketing mix of a service the same as the physical products they sell. In other
business, remember that you are being asked for all words, what the retailer supplies is convenience, a plea-
seven elements, not just the last three. You will definitely sant in-store atmosphere, reassurance of quality and per-
lose marks if you do not discuss product, price, place and haps even some prestige if the retailer is an upmarket one.
promotion if asked to comment on the marketing of, say, Finally, almost all products have both a service ele-
a retail store. ment and a physical element – the 7P model covers all
You should also remember that the product consists products, therefore, not just those which we normally
of the benefits the retailer supplies – this is not necessarily define as ‘service’ products.
Bag of Box of vegetables Ready meal Computer Meal in an Insurance

builder’s delivered to your bought from a with support expensive policy
sand house supermarket package restaurant
Physical Service
product product
FIGURE 3.1 The product-service continuum.
Many academics regard the distinction between physical products and ser-
vice products as artificial, since most products contain elements of both:
generally speaking, current thinking is that all products are somewhere on a
continuum between physical and service elements, with some products
containing a higher service element than others. Having said that, if a
product is close to the ‘service’ end of the spectrum, the marketing mix
will emphasise different elements more than would be the case for a product
near the ‘physical’ end of the spectrum, and consumer behaviour will be
different in each case.
In Figure 3.1, an insurance policy represents an entirely service-based
product. There is no physical existence at all (apart from the policy docu-
ment, which has no intrinsic value except as physical evidence). A meal in
an expensive restaurant is mainly composed of the service element – the
waiters, the chefs, the ambience, etc. – but there is a physical element in
that there is actually some food. A computer with a support package is
much more of a physical product, but the support service may represent
quite a large proportion of the price and could be a very large proportion of
the value the consumer gets from the product. A ready meal bought in a
supermarket has some service element (since it has been prepared by some-
one and is offered for sale in a retail outlet) but is mainly a physical product.
A box of vegetables is almost entirely physical – only the delivery element is a
service. Finally, a bag of building sand is entirely physical, with no discern-
ible service element.
STUDY TIP
Although the elements of the marketing mix need to be In particular, many of the elements overlap – price, for
learned individually, each element impinges on every other example, conveys an impression of quality, which is part of
element. In practice, you cannot consider the elements the product benefit and also part of the promotional mix.
in isolation, so you need to cultivate the habit of thinking Likewise promotion might be considered as part of the pro-
how an adjustment to one element will affect all the other duct: owning a well-known and well-regarded brand (such as
elements. Nike or Rolex) conveys very real benefits to the customer.
Product 69
We will now look at each of the elements individually. Always keep in mind
that the elements of the promotional mix do not operate in isolation – each
one affects the others, in the same way as each ingredient in a recipe affects
the flavour or texture of every other ingredient.
EXAM HINT
Whenever you are asked to consider changes to one you will gain marks if you can explain these effects
element of the promotional mix, you should try to and come up with answers for how to handle such
think about how the other elements will be affected: changes.
PRODUCT
A product is a bundle of benefits. From a customer’s viewpoint, it is the
benefits that are important: we, as consumers, are only interested in how the
product will improve our lives, not in what it is made of, where it came from,
how it was developed or anything else about it. If we do not believe that the
product will improve our lives, no amount of persuasion will change our
minds.
ACTIVITY
Thinking about the organisation you work for, make a list of exchange – so maybe it is the people who give money to
the benefits your products provide to the people who buy the cause who are the real customers. In that case, what
them. This is easy if you work for a manufacturer or a service benefits are you providing for them? What might you do to
business like a restaurant or pizza delivery company – but add value, so that they are more likely to give to your
not so easy if you work for a training company or a charity. charity rather than another one?
If you work for a non-profit organisation like a charity, Whatever your organisation, you need to provide ben-
you need to define who your customers are. If you answer efits if you are to receive money. The next problem would
that it is the beneficiaries of the charity, you would need to be to work out what features the product must have if it is
explain what they are providing to you as their part of the to provide the benefits you have identified.
Competitors continually offer new products, and at the same time our own
products become outdated, old-fashioned and (eventually) obsolete. There-
fore, developing new products becomes extremely important for any firm,
since companies must offer something different from competing products if
they are to win customers. Products can be studied at different levels, as
explained by Levitt (1986) when he outlined the total product concept.
The basic core product is what is offered by all companies in the market –
for example, a car will carry the driver, his or her luggage and passengers, and
take them from one place to another via the road system. All cars provide
these benefits as a minimum: this is the core or generic product. Moving

beyond this is the expected product, which is the core product plus features
that the average person would reasonably expect to see. In the car example,
people would expect the car to have a radio, a heater, windscreen wipers and
so forth. Few cars would lack these basic features (although there was a time
when windscreens were an optional extra, and even quite recently radios
were not standard in cars). The augmented product includes features and
benefits which distinguish the product from its competitors: for example,
the car might have an automatic engine cut-out when the car is stationary or
might have windscreen wipers which sense when it is raining. Finally, the
potential product has all the features and benefits anyone could want or
need. In fact, no products fit into that category because there are so many
potential needs – and it would probably be unwise to try to offer such a
product to the market, since the cost would be prohibitive.
Elements of the product include the following:
& Branding. The brand is the ‘personality’ of the product, conveying
important information about the expected quality, the expected
performance and the reaction we might expect from our friends if they
know we have bought the product. This last factor is by no means
unimportant – people often define themselves by the brands they buy.
The brand is, in effect, the ‘lens’ through which the customers see the
product and through which the marketers project their offerings.
& Product lines and product ranges. Marketers need to manage a
portfolio of products: very few firms market only one product. The
portfolio may be broad (a wide range of product categories) or deep (a
range of variations on a product designed to reach all of a target
market). Sometimes products need to be dropped from the range, not
because they are unprofitable, but because the resources they take up
can be better employed elsewhere. Portfolio management is an
important part of marketing, as is NPD.
& Packaging. The design of the packaging often renders products more
desirable, more noticeable on the retailers’ shelves and more
informative in terms of product benefits. At its most basic, packaging
protects the product from the environment and vice versa. Marketers
also need to consider customer use of packaging and the
environmental impact of different packaging options. For example, a
gardener might use empty plastic soft drink bottles to protect
seedlings, or someone might use old coffee jars to store small items
such as screws or nails. In some cases, packaging has become the
differentiating factor for the product – some fast-food delivery services
use reusable plastic containers, while others use disposable foil ones:
Product 71
clearly the plastic ones are more useful, and this might be the deciding
factor between choosing one takeaway outlet over another. Disposal of
used packaging has, of course, become a hot topic in recent years due
to its environmental impact.
& Service support. Many physical products have a service element, if
only in terms of after-sales service or customer support helplines. This
is especially true in business-to-business markets, which represent the
bulk of marketing activity, far outweighing business-to-consumer
marketing. Service support can often be the only differentiator a firm
can offer, when rival products are similar or even identical. For
example, engine oil must be similar or identical in its formula to all
other engine oils, since the engine manufacturer will have designed the
engine specifically to use a particular grade of oil. Oil companies
cannot make major changes to the physical product, so they need to
compete on service support, for example, by offering technical advice
to motor mechanics or by making the product available in more
convenient retail outlets.
CASE STUDY: HJ Heinz
It has been many years since Heinz had only 57 varieties. Meanwhile, Heinz USA had decided to follow the
In fact, the number 57 was chosen by the company’s example of its Weightwatchers brand and lose some
founder, Henry J. Heinz, simply because he liked the weight. The company sold off its pet food business in
sound of it – it had no other significance. 2002 and a number of its other marginal brands over the
HJ Heinz produces almost 6,000 varieties, spread next few years. In the United Kingdom, sales of salad
across 200 brands worldwide. Food is produced and sold cream were falling – salad cream is an entirely British pro-
in eight different categories: convenience meals, condi- duct, with virtually no market outside the United Kingdom.
ments and sauces, infant feeding, weight control, frozen Also, healthy eating was becoming the latest fad – demand
food, pet food, foodservice and seafood. Although the par- for organic food, low-fat food and even low-carb food as a
ent company is American, the British part of the company result of the popularity of the Atkins Diet meant that Heinz
is the biggest overseas subsidiary, and many British con- had to make a number of tough decisions.
sumers think of the company as British. Jones Knowles Ritchie began by linking all the different
Managing such a huge range of products is by no products through the Heinz Keystone design – the badge-
means simple. In the United Kingdom, the Jones shaped symbol which appears on all Heinz products. The
Knowles Ritchie packaging design company took over agency realised that what consumers thought was impor-
the account in 1997 and found a wide range of differ- tant was the quality symbolised by the Heinz brand, rather
ent packaging designs in place. The situation had than the actual product contained in the bottle or can. This
grown up because each product had its own particular still left plenty of scope for individualising the brands – the
packaging problems and needs – but the situation had turquoise colour used for the baked beans (reputedly
got out of hand, with no clear brand image being pre- because it enhances the colour of the beans when the
sented and a confusing message being presented to can is opened) could remain, as well as the individual
consumers. graphics for the children’s products such as Eazy Squirt.
Heinz’ PR consultants issued a statement that salad sufficient profit, packaging products in an eye-catching
cream might be withdrawn due to falling sales. This press manner, and responding to the rapidly changing world of
release made the TV news, and amid a flurry of protests nutrition are continual activities for Heinz managers. This
from millions of Britons who had grown up with salad may be why Heinz has such a solid place in the hearts and
cream, the threat was withdrawn. Sales rose sufficiently minds of consumers.
for Heinz to introduce an organic version of salad cream,
to be sold alongside its existing traditional salad cream as
Questions
well as the ever-expanding range of organic products. In
February 2003, the Soil Association (Britain’s leading pro- 1. Why might Heinz drop its pet foods range, when the
moters of organic food) gave Heinz an award for their products were still making money for the firm?
organic range of foods. 2. What is the importance of packaging to Heinz?
In the United States, Heinz introduced ‘one-carb’ 3. How has the Heinz brand developed across the range?
sauces which are low-carbohydrate sauces intended for
4. What other changes might Heinz introduce to
Atkins dieters.
coordinate the branding better?
Managing the portfolio is, for Heinz, a constant,
dynamic process. Introducing new products to meet con- 5. Why might the company subdivide its brands into eight
sumer needs, cutting out products which no longer show categories?
ACTIVITY
Find data on your company’s product range, if possible Which recently introduced products do you expect
going back 20 years. Which products are still available will still be around 20 years from now?
from 20 years ago? Which were viable products 20 years (If you work for an organisation which has not been
ago, but are now no longer offered? Why were these around for 20 years, you could look at the industry as
products dropped? whole for this period.)
THE PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE

The product life cycle is an important concept for marketers. Basically, the
model states that products go through a series of stages, as follows. Each of
these stages will be discussed in more depth later (Figure 3.2).
1. Development. Products do not arrive fully formed: managers,
marketers, engineers, designers and researchers need to consider
product ideas and turn them into viable, feasible, profitable products.
There is more on the development process later.
2. Introduction. The product is launched onto the market: at first, it is
likely to lose money, because the cost of developing and marketing it
has not yet been recovered and sales are likely to be small at first. In
many cases, products do not move on from this stage, and in fact the
The Product Life Cycle 73
Money
Sales
Profit
Time
Introduction Maturity
Growth Decline
FIGURE 3.2 The product life cycle.
majority of new products fail. The losses they make have to be

covered by the products which do go on to succeed.
3. Growth. If the product is accepted by consumers, sales will rise and so

will profits, although during the growth phase the product will still
need considerable marketing expenditure. The growth stage can be
problematic, since at any point a competing product may enter the
market or some other change may occur which curtails the growth.
4. Maturity. Sales will eventually level off, at which point the product is
established in the market and will need less support: at this point, profits
will be high, and the company will start to get a real return on the
investment. In the maturity phase, the company will still need to promote
the product (using ‘reminder’ campaigns) in order to fend off competitors.
5. Decline. Sales will eventually fall off as competitors enter the market,
or as consumer tastes and preferences change. During the decline
phase, the product will probably still be profitable: at this point,
marketers may decide to develop a ‘Mark Two’ version of the product
or alternatively remove all support and let the product die.
6. Obsoletion. Finally, the product will become obsolete and be
withdrawn or at least dramatically downgraded. Sometimes profit can
still be made from such products, since they require virtually no
investment in marketing: sometimes these products can be re-
launched in new markets, and in fact this was a popular tactic in the
motor industry during the 1970s, when Western European car
manufacturers sold obsolete designs and machine tool patterns to
Eastern European manufacturers. For a while, Polish and Russian
versions of Fiat designs were re-imported into the West at extremely
low prices.
STUDY TIP
You will need to learn the PLC by heart, as well as its whereas others (the Rolling Stones, for example) seem to
accompanying diagram, but you need to remember that go on forever. What are the factors which determine this?
the model is far from complete. Products in decline some- Finally, and perhaps most importantly, you should
times revive, failed products sometimes never reach the consider what the company can do about managing the
growth phase and so forth. product in each of its stages. The job of a brand manager
You may want to consider some products which have is to make decisions about the product and its promo-
gone through a PLC so that you have examples to hand tion – and these will be different for a mature product
for the examination. For example, consider rock bands. compared with a new product, and even more challen-
Most have a short PLC, perhaps only 18 months or so, ging for a product in the decline stages.
The product life cycle is not necessarily followed by all products. Some will
have regular revivals (children’s toys such as the Hula hoop and the yo-yo are
often used as examples), while others never really get off the starting blocks
and disappear within a short time of being introduced. Others may fail
initially, but be repositioned into another market and find success elsewhere.
Another problem with the PLC is that outcomes are not measurable or
predictable – there is really no way of knowing whether the product has
reached maturity, or how long the maturity stage will last, or how long the
decline phase will be or how steep the decline curve, since we have no way of
predicting when a competitive response might prove too strong for the
product.
The main usefulness of the PLC as a concept, and the reason it is still
widely taught, is that it highlights the reason for developing new products.
The PLC concept tells us that (eventually) all products will become obsolete
and will disappear: a company which does not develop new products to
replace those which go out of fashion or are superseded by competitors will
eventually itself disappear.
EXAM TIP
The PLC will almost certainly come up in the exam. You Decisions about advertising, for example, will be dif-
should be able to explain your product management deci- ferent in maturity (where the emphasis is on reminder
sions in terms of the PLC (rather than explain the PLC in advertising) and the introduction stage, when the empha-
terms of the case study). In other words, if you are asked sis will be on brand awareness. This is an example of how
to plan a campaign around a product, you should decide the 7Ps all affect each other – they are not to be treated in
what stage the product is in and plan accordingly. isolation.
The Product Life Cycle 75
CASE STUDY: Smith and

Nephew
In 1856, a pharmaceutical chemist named Thomas James new three-part Group Strategy, focused on orthopaedics,
Smith opened a shop in Hull, UK. Forty years later, his endoscopy and wound management. During 2000, this
nephew Horatio Nelson Smith became his business part- new strategy led the company to sell off its feminine
ner, and the firm of Smith and Nephew was created. Hor- hygiene and its toiletries products in a management buy-
atio was interested in developing dressings for wounds, and out. Elastoplast was sold to Beiersdorf AG, who also took
the business moved towards the manufacture of bandages over the distribution of Nivea in the United Kingdom. Thus
and other dressings. Smith and Nephew pulled out of the consumer products
Massive expansion during the First World War (to meet market entirely, concentrating solely on its products for
the needs of wounded soldiers) took the company from 50 health care professionals. The company now offers over
employees to 1,200 in only 4 years. In 1928, the company 1,000 products and continually spends on research and
began development of Elastoplast, the adhesive bandage development to increase the range and efficacy of its pro-
designed to compete with Johnson & Johnson’s recently ducts. During 2003, the company spent £67 million in
introduced Band-Aid bandage. Band-Aid and Elastoplast R&D – 6% of the company’s total turnover. Research is
were, at the time, revolutionary products: Band-Aid, intro- concentrated in the company’s three strategic areas.
duced in 1920, only sold $3,000 worth in its first year and Graphic proof of the efficacy of Smith and Nephew’s
was hand-made until 1924. Elastoplast was originally a products came in October 2002. The Bali bombing killed
cloth bandage with an antiseptic pad and adhesive edges: over 200 people, but the wounds suffered by other victims
it was not until 1966 that the company introduced the were truly horrific. One young mother of two suffered 85%
Airstrip variant, which was a ventilated plastic adhesive burns: she was treated immediately with Smith and
strip with an antiseptic pad. Nephew’s Acticoat dressing, and in the Sydney hospital
Smith and Nephew expanded by acquisition during the where she was taken she was treated with Transcyte tem-
1970s and 1980s, in the process of which the company porary skin until skin grafts could be carried out. Even 5
acquired subsidiaries which produced medical equipment years earlier, a patient with 85% burns would not be
such as orthopaedic implants and continuous passive expected to live – but this mother was discharged from
motion machines, which keep patients’ joints moving after hospital within a month and was able to spend Christmas
surgery in order to avoid stiffness. Smith and Nephew were with her children.
thus beginning to move away from their concentration on
wound management and heading into general areas of
patient recovery.
This in turn led to an interest in surgery. Smith and 1. Why would Smith and Nephew sell off its consumer
Nephew have been at the forefront of developing endo- products divisions?
scopy – the so-called keyhole surgery – which enables sur- 2. Why does the company spend such a large portion of its
geons to use an extremely small incision when carrying out turnover on research?
internal surgical procedures. Endoscopy uses miniature 3. What stage of the PLC was Band-Aid in during 1924?
cameras and remote surgical instruments, and is being
4. What stage of the PLC was Elastoplast in when Smith
used more and more widely as surgeons realise the bene-
and Nephew sold it?
fits of causing the minimum wound. Patients can often
leave hospital the same day as their surgery and recovery 5. To what extent are Smith and Nephew’s products
times are markedly faster. customer specified?
In 1999, Smith and Nephew bought out 3M’s shoulder
and hip implant business: the company also announced a
PORTFOLIO MANAGEMENT
Very few companies produce only one product. This means that most
marketing managers have to deal with several products within a range,
each at a different stage of the product life cycle and each with its own
group of customers. Some products will be at the beginning of the life
cycle, others will be in the growth or maturity stages and still others will
be in decline: managers need to make decisions on what to do about each
product in terms of marketing it.
Probably, the best-known portfolio management tool is the Boston Con-
sulting Group Matrix (see Figure 3.3). This categorises products according to
their market share and the growth rate of the market they are in. The
categories are as follows:
1. A Star is a product with a large share of a growing market. This
product will grow in sales and profits, but will need to be protected
from incoming competitors, so may need a lot of marketing support.
2. A Problem Child is a product with a small share of a growing market.
This product is problematic because it will need a lot of effort to grow
its market share, but if this can be done it has the potential to become
a Star. If, on the other hand, the effort fails, then a lot of investment of
time and money will have been wasted, and it would have been better
simply to drop the product from the range.
3. A Cash Cow is a product which has a large share of a stable market. It
is probably in the maturity stage of the PLC and probably needs
relatively little marketing input to maintain its position: this means
that it will continue to generate income for the firm over a long period
of time.
Relative market share
High Low
Problem
High Star
Child
Market Cash
Low Dog
growth Cow
Negative War horse Dodo
FIGURE 3.3 The expanded BCG matrix.

Portfolio Management 77
4. A Dog is a product which has a small share of a stable market. Dogs

are not likely to be profitable and are prime candidates to be dropped
from the range: however, in some cases Dogs are kept on, perhaps
because they have a historical significance to the company, perhaps
because sales of other products depend on them, or perhaps because
some loyal customers might defect if the Dog were dropped. In any
case, they require little expenditure and therefore can be ‘harvested’
for their remaining income.
Researchers called Barksdale and Harris later added two more categories to
the list, to reflect the possibility that a market might actually be shrinking,
as follows:
5. A Warhorse is a product with a large share of a shrinking market. Like
the Cash Cow, it is probably profitable and will certainly require very
little support, since a shrinking market is probably not of interest to
competitors, so it can provide good cash returns, at least in the short
term.
6. A Dodo is a product which has a small share of a shrinking market. It
is extremely unlikely to be worth keeping and will in any case
eventually disappear along with its market. An example might be a
product which is kept on for historical or sentimental reasons
(perhaps because it has an aging, but loyal, customer group).
The BCG Matrix and its variants certainly provide a good way of focusing the
mind on product portfolio management, but it suffers from the major draw-
back that it is subjective. Deciding what is a large (or small) share is a
managerial judgement, nothing to do with any objective criteria, and it
may be hard to judge whether a market is growing, shrinking or stable at
any one time.
Having decided that a product is at a particular point on the PLC,
and in the BCG Matrix, managers then need to decide what to do about
it. Promotion policy, distribution policy and pricing policy all are
affected by this estimation. Most importantly, though, is the NPD
policy.
ACTIVITY
List all the products your organisation offers. Now try to Dogs and Dodos? How did you decide that those products
categorise them as Cash Cows, Stars, Dogs and so forth. ARE Dogs and Dodos?
Can you explain why the company does not simply drop Would you be able to justify your position to your boss?
NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

There are three main reasons for introducing new products and services:
1. Changing customer needs. As time moves on, customers change

their requirements, and new generations of consumers appear
bringing with them different ideas and needs.
2. Technological changes. Changes in communications technology

mean that many services (such as travel agencies) have been severely
hit by online services. At the same time, the Internet and other
communications systems (such as mobile telephones and texting)
have opened up new opportunities for services which could not have
existed even 10 years ago. Technological change is not confined to
communications and electronics, of course: a new method of making
concrete could have profound effects on the construction industry,
and a new diet discovery can disrupt the food industry dramatically.
3. Long-term business strategies. New products can often put the
company into new competitive positions, perhaps even against new
competitors. For example, a motor manufacturer’s decision to expand
in the Third World might mean developing an easily maintained,
reliable, cheap basic vehicle for use on poor roads in remote areas.
NPD follows a series of stages in most cases (Figure 3.4). These are as follows:
1. Idea generation. Ideas might come from any source – customers,

staff, research and development officers, senior management and so
forth. Some companies have dedicated teams of people charged with
New product
Initial strategy
large
number Idea generation
of ideas
reduced Screening
to a few Rejected ideas
Concept testing
which are removed from
launched Business analysis the process
Product
development
Market testing
Commercialisation
FIGURE 3.4 NPD process.

New Product Development 79
the task of thinking of new ideas: such groups are often drawn from
several different departments in order to take advantage of different
experience, specialist knowledge and different perspectives.
2. Screening. Ideas are discussed, and the most promising ones put
forward for further development. Screening should only take place
once all the ideas (however far-fetched) have been assembled. Trying
to screen ideas as they are formulated tends to make people self-
conscious and reluctant to offer their thoughts and also tends to
impede discussion within the group. Even the worst idea might trigger
a better one or be combined with a later idea to create a successful
product.
3. Concept testing. The basic idea behind each product is shown to
potential customers and their comments are invited. Sometimes this
can be done via formal market research; in other cases, it might
simply involve informal discussions with potential customers. At this
stage, there is unlikely to be any kind of prototype or mock-up: people
are only being asked to comment on the basic idea.
4. Business analysis. The degree to which the product will fit with
existing products and with existing corporate strategies is assessed.
Products which might harm existing sales, or which take the
company in undesirable directions, will be dropped at this stage.
Profitability (or at least the degree of fit with the corporate mission)
will be considered at this stage, although it is unlikely that a definitive
assessment can be undertaken since the costs of developing the
product and manufacturing it will not be known until the engineers
have carried out their part of the process.
5. Product development. Once the business analysis shows that the
product should be viable, the actual engineering process can begin.
Prototypes will be produced and tested, and engineering problems will
be overcome: feedback from the market will need to be considered,
and competitors’ products might also be tested as part of the process.
Sometimes competing products are ‘reverse engineered’, meaning that
company engineers will dismantle the competing product to find out
how it has been made.
6. Market testing. Often, though by no means always, the product will

be offered to a section of the market in order to test its potential sales.
This enables the company to assess the potential for the product
before committing fully to it, with all the marketing and production
costs entailed. In other cases, individuals might be asked to use the
product and report on it: for example, a new type of house paint might
be offered to several hundred people to try out, and these people might
later be interviewed to find out how they found the product. The
drawback of market testing is that competitors may find out about the
product and prepare their retaliation before the product is established.
7. Commercialisation and launch. Finally, the product is launched to
the full market. At this point, there should be a complete marketing
plan and a full commitment by the company. Even so, the majority of
new products fail to recoup their development costs – there are simply
too many variables for NPD to be an exact science.
Usually, these stages would be followed in the order given, but occasionally
stages might be skipped or might be carried out in another sequence. In some
cases, especially in volatile industries such as consumer electronics, several
stages might be carried out in parallel – for example, concept testing, busi-
ness analysis and even product development might overlap. In other indus-
tries, the whole process might be dramatically shortened or bypassed. For
example, a restaurant might simply put a new recipe on the ‘Daily Specials’
board, offer it to the lunchtime customers and gauge their reaction to it. If
the response is generally negative, the dish can be omitted in future, but a
positive response might lead to it being added to the main menu.
EXAM TIP
You will certainly be expected to consider the circumstances If you think a company will not follow the full process
of the company if you are asked to outline the NPD process for some reason, simply say so in your answer and outline
for a case study. A pharmaceutical company might have a what you think should happen. This will show that you
huge research budget with extremely long lead times – 10 or understand the NPD process, but can use some common
15 years – for developing new products, while a small light sense when applying it.
engineering company might simply be told what to make by
a large customer, with no real development process at all.
CASE STUDY: Gillette
When King C. Gillette was 40, he was working as a sales the idea of producing a disposable blade that would simply
representative for Crown Cork and Seal Company of Wis- be thrown away when it became blunt.
consin. He was making a good living, but the job required a After some years of experimenting, he found a way to
smart turn-out, including being clean-shaven. One morning make the blades and also found a machine tool which
he noticed that his cut-throat razor was blunt and was in could stamp out and sharpen the blades. Unfortunately,
fact so worn out that it would not take an edge and could the cost of making the blades was higher than the price he
therefore not be sharpened. At that point he had the flash could get for them – so this was where his sales training
of inspiration that has changed the world for men – he had paid off.
New Product Development 81
Gillette realised that he could only get the production inroads into Gillette’s position. Gillette needed to diversify –
costs down if he produced blades in the millions, which and to step up the rate of innovation.
meant converting a lot of men to the idea of using a The company’s fastest growing market is oral hygiene.
disposable blade. At first, he sold the blades below cost to The Oral-B toothbrush system is a flagship brand, in both
build up the business, but this was too slow. Then he hit on the manual and electric toothbrush categories. Gillette see
a business idea which is still used in the 21st century. He their most lucrative strategy as being to encourage consu-
gave away the razors which held the blades in place and mers to trade up – in world terms, most men who shave use
made his money selling the blades. Millions of the razors double-edged blades. In these markets, Gillette seek to
were handed out free, so millions of men tried the new move these consumers onto better-performing twin blades
system, and having done so very few went back to the old or to twin-blade disposables. In mature markets, where the
cut-throat razors. bulk of men are already using twin blade or disposables,
By the time he was 55, Gillette was a millionaire, and the company offers triple blade systems. Customers of
the cut-throat razor was a thing of the past. Nowadays, the Oral-B manual toothbrushes can be traded up to the elec-
company he founded is a worldwide organisation, market- tric systems, customers for zinc carbon batteries can be
ing items as diverse as toothbrushes and Duracell batteries. encouraged to switch to Duracell, and Duracell customers
Gillette have a history of being first to market. Following can be moved up to the more advanced Duracell batteries.
on from the launch of the world’s first safety razor in 1901, Overall, Gillette has a well-planned, long-standing stra-
the company went on to launch the following new products: tegic plan for NPD and diffusion. Innovation is not a hap-
hazard process: every product has its place in the plan.
& twin-bladed razor, 1972
& twin-bladed disposable razor, 1976
Questions
& pivoting head razor, 1979
1. How did Gillette develop his original idea for a
& pivoting head disposable razor, 1980
disposable razor blade?
& razor designed specifically for women – Sensor, 1992
2. Why does the company innovate so much?
& triple blade razor – Mach 3, 1998
3. How does Gillette handle the problem of new products
Note that the rate of innovation increased rapidly after cannibalising sales of existing products?
1970. For 70 years, the company had produced essentially
4. What was the relationship between marketing and
the same product: competition had been held off at first by
production in the case of the original blades?
King C. Gillette’s original patents, but eventually competi-
tors entered the markets anyway and began to make 5. How might trading up work in global markets?
ACTIVITY
Find out how NPD happens in your own firm, or a firm If you work for a small firm, the NPD process
with which you are familiar. How does it relate to the might well happen mainly inside someone’s head –
standard model shown above? If it is different, do the usually the boss. What are the problems with this
differences make it work better or worse? What might be approach?
the reasons for senior management adopting a different
approach from the standard one?
ADOPTION OF INNOVATION
STUDY TIP
The adoption of innovation model parallels the product life shape of the curve does differ somewhat, of course,
cycle model. This is a useful way of remembering, and of because of repeat purchases by people who have
understanding the processes involved in each model. The adopted the product already.
The adoption of innovation, whether of services or of physical products, is

not an instantaneous process throughout the target market. Sales of pro-
ducts grow over a period of time, as evidenced by the product life cycle
model. The delay in adoption is caused by a number of factors: word needs
to get round that the product exists at all, some people are reluctant to try a
new product until they have seen it in action (perhaps seen a friend using
one), some people like to wait until any problems with the product have been
identified and fixed, and some people are put off by the cost of switching
from one product to another.
Switching cost is a key factor in adoption because it adds directly to the
price. Someone considering a new product will almost certainly already have
another solution that works adequately and will have to go to the trouble of
learning how to use the new product, perhaps adapting his or her existing
life, and perhaps have to spend money on accessories to make the new
product work effectively. For example, someone buying a new mobile
phone will probably already have a phone which works adequately and
which might represent a considerable investment. The new phone will
have new features which have to be learned, owner’s current address book
will have to be transferred across, and it may be necessary to buy a new
carrying case or even new software to make the best use of the phone. The
company selling the new phone will have to accept that the total price the
customer pays (from the customer’s viewpoint) will include these extra
costs. This will inevitably affect the firm’s pricing policy (another example
of the way in which the 7Ps impinge on each other – in this case, how
product policy affects price).
As products spread through the market, it is possible to distinguish
between the different groups of consumers who buy at each stage. These
are generally thought to be as follows:
& Innovators. These people like to be the first to own a new product, and
they will probably pay a premium price in order to do so. They account
for around 2.5% of the target market.
Adoption of Innovation 83
& Early adopters. These people are eager to adopt new products and will
do so once the product has been on the market for a while. They
account for about 13.5% of the market.
& Early majority. These people like to wait until the product has been
available for some time, so that teething problems have been resolved,
and they have had a chance to see the product in action. They account
for around 33% of the market, so that we are now at the point where
half the people in the potential target market have adopted the
product.
& Late majority. These people only buy when the majority of people
already have the product. They are wary of the new product and only
feel confident to buy it when it is well established. They account for a
further 33% of the market.
& Laggards. These people are reluctant to buy anything new and will
only adopt the product if they are forced to. In some cases, they do not
adopt at all: they account for the remainder of the market.
The adoption sequence does not tell us much about the individuals con-
cerned, since there is no evidence that an adopter for one category of product
would be an adopter for a different category. People who do not buy the latest
computer games may simply not be interested in computer games under any
circumstances: perhaps the same individual spends his or her spare time
listening to music and would be an eager buyer of the latest hi-fi equipment.
As a predictor, the model is therefore not very helpful: it does provide us with
terminology, however, and it can be useful in terms of planning the style and
content of marketing communications, since we can observe the product
moving through the adoption process and can tailor our appeal
appropriately.
EXAM TIP
You will be expected to know the correct terms for Do not forget, though, that the divisions between the
these adopter groups and know the order in which groups are arbitrary – they were decided on by a statistical
they adopt. If you can also remember the approximate process, not by looking at the personal characteristics of
proportions each group represents of the total market, it the individuals involved. Research into what makes some-
will gain you marks. You are likely to be asked to make one want to adopt a new product is somewhat inconclu-
recommendations about new product launches, and sive – innovators can only really be defined by the fact that
knowing the terminology will undoubtedly be expected they buy new products, which is of course a fine example
of you. of circular reasoning.
James Dyson
When James Dyson was a 23-year-old student at the Royal Dyson’s success has been based on his ability to see
College of Art in London, he designed a novel boat, the the drawbacks with existing products and engineer solu-
Seatruck, which was able to carry cargo at high speeds. tions. His most successful inventions (the ballbarrow, the
This won a Design Council award and went on to earn seatruck and the vacuum cleaner) have been based on
$500 million in sales. Dyson later invented the ballbarrow, their practical advantages over existing products. The
a wheelbarrow with a ball instead of a wheel (which made it Wheelboat amphibian has been less successful – and
less likely to sink in soft earth), a boat launcher using balls Dyson has had many other inventions which failed to
instead of wheels, and an amphibious vehicle for use on make a hit with the public. Perhaps this is because they
sand dunes and on the sea. are technically interesting, but lack a practical advantage
Eventually, though, Dyson invented the product which over existing products.
made him a household name – the Dyson vacuum cleaner. Whatever the reason, Dyson continues to invent. He
This cleaner was the first bagless cleaner: needing no bag, recently launched a washing machine which does not tan-
it is cheaper to own and use and never loses suction. Dyson gle clothes and is working on improvements to his vacuum
has promoted these benefits very ably, using advertise- cleaners. The inventions are not revolutionary, but they are
ments showing people in the familiar position of having to practical and do improve the lives of millions of people –
dismantle the vacuum cleaner to find out what is clogging it simply because they meet people’s needs better than the
up. competing products.
Products will only be accepted if they offer benefits which existing products
do not have. Many new ideas have been launched, only to disappear without
trace because they do not have an advantage over products which are already
on the market. New products are not necessarily either new or not new:
there are degrees of newness, and one of the commonest classifications is
that proposed by Robertson (1967), as follows (Figure 3.5):
Risk for producer decreases, as does

expenditure on R&D and marketing
Continuous Dynamically Discontinuous

innovation continuous innovation
innovation
Innovativeness increases, as does

propensity to change people’s lives
FIGURE 3.5 Degrees of innovation.

Adoption of Innovation 85
1. Continuous innovation. This is a new product which follows on

from a previous version and is recognisably derived from its
predecessor. Heavy-duty batteries, toothpaste with a built-in
mouthwash, low-calorie biscuits and squeezable ketchup bottles are
examples.
2. Dynamically continuous innovation. These products are new ways
of solving old problems, but they do not make radical changes to the
way people live. For example, DVD recorders do not change people’s
lives in the way that home video recorders did: they simply replaced
the old technology with something which works better.
3. Discontinuous innovation. These are genuine new-to-the-world

products that make radical changes to people’s lives. Home
computers and the Internet have changed the ways in which people
communicate, study and work: mobile telephones have changed how
people work and live. For earlier generations, the car, television, radio
and aeroplane revolutionised ordinary people’s lives.
Risk for the firm increases as newness increases, but so too do the potential
returns. Continuous innovation rarely leads to product failures, and it is
relatively easy to research consumer acceptance of a new model of an exist-
ing product: discontinuous innovations often fail (some researchers estimate
that eight out of ten do not recover their development costs) and are virtually
impossible to research since most people are unlikely to recognise the
advantages until they have seen other people using the product.
Discontinuous innovations are risky, but on the plus side they do offer
what is called the first-to-market advantage. A company which can produce
something entirely new to the world will have a long lead time to gain
market share while competitors try to develop competing products: some-
times patent protection will enable such firms to capture most of a market
before the patent expires or competitors find a way around it.
There are six broad types of innovation strategy, as follows:
1. Offensive. Some firms aim to be the leading innovators in their
industry (Sony is an example). Such firms seek to gain first-to-market
advantage by spending a great deal of money and effort on developing
new products.
2. Defensive. Companies following a defensive strategy will usually wait
until a more innovative firm has introduced a radical new product,
then produce their own version of it, incorporating some
improvements. This often works well because any new product on the
market is almost certainly going to have some faults which the
defensive company can exploit. The purpose of the exercise is to

defend their own markets against the other company.
3. Imitative. This strategy involves making almost exact copies of new
products. The strategy only works of the new product has weak, or no,
patent protection: this is not the same as counterfeiting, which means
passing off a copy as if it were made by the brand-owning company.
Counterfeiting is illegal in most countries, whereas imitation is not
unless there is good patent or copyright protection.
4. Dependent. Some companies only innovate as a result of being told to
do so by a major customer. For example, a light engineering company
might be contracted to produce components for a major car
manufacturer and might be given an exact specification for a new
component.
5. Traditional. This strategy is not really innovative at all, since it
involves re-creating old traditional designs. For example, Victorian
baked potato ovens staged a comeback a few years ago: the design was
traditional, but it was a new product for the companies making the
ovens.
6. Opportunist. Opportunist companies make and market new
inventions as they become available, rather than having their own
research and development systems. Inventors approach such
companies with their ideas, taking a royalty on production as their
payment.
CASE STUDY:
Innovations Catalogue
Innovations has almost become a UK institution. Launched catalogue was the last – but the brand continued, shifting
in 1985, the catalogue offered gadgets and inventions of all itself (inevitably) to the most modern of media, the Internet.
descriptions to an unsuspecting public – the pioneer of the Now part of Shop Direct Group, the Innovations mail-order
radio-controlled clock, the recharger for ordinary carbon– service continues unchecked, offering lip-shaped pillows,
zinc batteries, the treeless hammock and the extendable patented oyster-openers and Toastabags (which allow peo-
window-cleaning device. The company also offered some ple to make toasted sandwiches in an ordinary toaster).
less immediately useful devices: the fun-fur-lined golf club Gadget lovers are attracted by the catalogue – a glance
cover, the portable paper shredder and the one-size-fits-all at the section which says ‘customers who bought this also
galoshes. bought . . .’ reveals that customers for a novel folding bed
In 2003, the catalogue appeared to be heading into the also bought Toastabags and festive rubber gloves (wash-
decline stage of the product life cycle. Its owners, Great ing-up gloves with Christmas tinsel on them). Not to men-
Universal Stores, said that the catalogue was underper- tion Wormie, the colour-coded terracotta worm that tells
forming and had to be closed down. The Spring 2003 you when to water your plants.
Price 87
In fact, a trawl through the Innovations website is a real and garden, sound and vision, and what’s new. This still
adventure for anyone who loves gadgets. Some are emi- begs the question of how the catalogue is targeted.
nently sensible, some are incomprehensible, and some are Throughout its life, Innovations has provided a talking
clearly useful but somehow unappealing; most are novel point for people. Because of the novelty of its products,
and relatively few are traditional or resurrected designs. people have actually read the catalogue and often told
Innovations claim to have only one goal: to seek out the friends about products – often in a sense of poking fun at
world’s latest innovations and market them first. Innova- some of the more outlandish gadgets, but nonetheless
tions is an admirer of the lone inventor, toiling away in the talking. Almost everybody in the United Kingdom has
garden shed, and is happy to advise inventors about how to heard of the Innovations catalogue and knows what it has
bring their products to market. to offer (at least in a broad sense), and most people have
The appeal of the catalogue to consumers has never browsed through at one time or another. Obviously, enough
really been clear. Because of its eclectic approach, Innova- people stop and buy items for the catalogue to have
tions offered products for everyone from gardeners to hi-fi remained viable for 20 years – and equally obviously there
enthusiasts: alongside products intended to make house- is no shortage of ideas for new products to fill its pages.
work easier were products for the office, and on the next
page to the electric coin-sorting machine were the adver-
tisements for dog-hair removing equipment. Even the sea-
food-eating kit (obviously aimed at the gourmet market) 1. How might Innovations seek to overcome the problem
appeared alongside the Air-Flow Mouse, a computer of not having a clear target market?
mouse with a built-in fan to keep the hands cool while 2. What might be the appeal of Innovations to the average
surfing. person?
This lack of a clear target market may have been what 3. What factors have enabled Innovations to maintain its
killed the paper catalogue, but it does not appear to be a success?
problem for the online version. Products are arranged by
4. Why would somebody buy fun-fur-lined golf club
category – gadgets, health and fitness, car and travel, home
covers?
ACTIVITY
Find three or more products from the Innovations catalo- Why is the new product better at meeting the need?
gue, or from a gadget shop, or on the Strange New What might be the costs of adopting the new product
Products website (the URL is given at the end of this unit). (purchase price and switching costs)? Do you think the
What need does each product address? What product would be viable in the long term, and if not,
might people be doing already to meet that need? why not?
PRICE
Price is often regarded as one of the least interesting aspects of marketing,
but in fact it is crucially important to the firm to set the right price for a
product. This is for the following reasons:
1. Price brings together the other elements of the marketing mix and
affects each one of them. For example, price is often used by
consumers to judge the likely quality of the product (a product
function), and price can also be used as a short-term incentive to buy
(a promotion function). Price can also be used to encourage people to
buy online (a process function).
2. Price determines the firm’s income and profits for each product and
each market. A relatively small increase in price can lead to a very
large increase in profits, unless of course the higher price means
customers buy competing products instead.
3. Price contributes to the firm’s business and financial objectives.

Pitching a low price will probably increase unit sales (at the cost of
losing profit), so price can be used to control demand, perhaps in order
to maintain efficient use of production capacity. This is particularly
important in service industries, where the product cannot be
stockpiled – this is why many restaurants offer early-evening
discounts or weekday discounts to use capacity at less popular times.
Controlling demand in this way is sometimes called loading: the same
result can be achieved by increasing customer value, perhaps by
offering a free aperitif to early diners.
4. Price can operate as a competitive tool – with care. Competing by
reducing prices can lead to retaliation by competitors, and a price war
will always favour the firm with the most cash resources.
Because price has an immediate effect on the value proposition, it can be
used to boost sales temporarily (e.g. a sales promotion which offers a dis-
count). The drawback with this is that cutting the price has a dramatic effect
on profits – if, for example, the company has a 20% profit margin, a cut of
10% off the price to the customer (which is a relatively small discount in
some markets) results in halving the supplier’s profit margin. In most cases,
competing on price is just a quick way to lose money. On the other hand,
raising the price by 10% (a figure which may go unnoticed by buyers in some
markets) increases profits by 50%.
Price is an important surrogate for judging quality. People tend to
assume that the higher priced product is better quality, and if the price/
quality ratio is right, higher priced products actually represent better value
for money since they offer more benefits: people often think that paying
extra is worthwhile in order to obtain a better product. Of course, the
product has to meet the customers’ expectations, or no repeat purchases
will result.
Price 89
EXAM HINT
In most cases, examiners will regard competing on price reducing the company’s ability to invest meaningfully in
as being a poor strategy. Often you will be asked to offer the product’s development and promotion.
suggestions for launching a new product: students fre- Price needs to be pitched at the level consumers
quently recommend cutting prices below that of existing believe represents fair value for money – which does not
competitors, which of course means cutting profits and mean cheap!
Relatively few people consistently buy the cheapest products. People only
do this if the reasons for buying a more expensive product are not immediately
apparent, in other words if advertising or point-of-sale materials have been
inadequate to explain why one product is superior to another. If this were not
so, the most popular cars on the road would be cheap Eastern European
models or basic cars such as the Fiat Seicento. In fact, the most popular car
in Europe in 2006 was the Opel Astra, selling almost half a million vehicles:
the tenth most popular was the BMW 3 series, which is of course a premium-
priced car. Since the BMW out-sold many cheaper, more basic vehicles such
as the Ford Mondeo and the Renault Megane, it is obvious that a large number
of people are prepared to pay more for a better product and consider the BMW
to be better value for money than the Ford or the Renault.
CASE STUDY:
The International
Software Market
Computer software is an unusual product. It is entirely The situation is further complicated by international
intangible, and the costs of supplying it can also be negli- marketing. Obviously, the software company needs to
gible – it is the cost of writing it in the first place which is the make an overall profit and therefore generate a substantial
main expense. Once the software exists, the costs of put- turnover from worldwide sales of the software, but on the
ting it onto CDs and packaging it are tiny in comparison. other hand customers in the wealthy countries of Western
Still cheaper is distribution over the Internet – which is why Europe, the United States and Australia can afford to pay
there is so much free software available online. much more than customers in the developing world such
Software is also easily copied by pirates, which makes as India, parts of Asia and Africa. At the same time, com-
life difficult for major software companies, and also each puters are a global phenomenon, so it pays for companies
company seeks to make its own software the industry to ensure that each country uses the same systems. In
standard, so that they can sell upgrades and add-ons. other words, it is worthwhile to subsidise poorer countries,
The switching costs for someone who has adopted a parti- because it helps adoptions in wealthier countries.
cular company’s software can be high, so there is a con- This creates a nightmarish problem for software mar-
siderable advantage in being the first software a customer keters. Setting a price which people will pay is one thing,
commits to. but ensuring that people in the wealthier countries do not
feel that they are being cheated is another. For major coy about exactly how much it is charging for the software,
players such as Sun Microsystems and Microsoft, the but since the simplified computers sell for around £350,
stakes are high – customers in the developing world are the software has to be a lot cheaper than the £100-plus
numbered in the billions, and in the software industry price tag of the UK version.
plans for world domination are constantly on the agenda. At the same time, Sun Microsystems are entering the
Companies that do not dominate will go to the wall – there is business sector with a version of its Java software. Sun are
no room for second-best. Microsoft always operated on a using a unique pricing system, based on the number of
one-price basis – everybody paid the same, whatever coun- people in the country and the country’s state of develop-
try they were in. This ensured that customers in the devel- ment as verified by the United Nations. John Loiacano,
oped world did not feel cheated and also prevented executive vice-president of software at Sun, said: ‘With
software from being bought in one country for use in our new per citizen pricing model, governments of devel-
another. However, as the 21st century began, it became oping nations can now reallocate punitive software licen-
obvious that this position would not be tenable in the long sing fees to critical tasks such as healthcare and education.
run. Something would have to change in Microsoft’s And the expanded platform support allows these nations to
pricing! deliver network services to citizens and customers on the
Companies in the software business have been forced architecture of their choice.’
to use differential pricing (using a different price in each Both companies are suggesting that their actions are at
market for the same product) in developing countries, least partly philanthropic: Microsoft talk about extending
simply because a price tag of $90 seems very expensive the benefits of computer ownership to the poorer nations,
in countries where most people only earn an average of and Loiacano of Sun talks about allowing countries to
$2 a day. Even though people who can afford a computer spend their money on hospitals and schools rather than
are in much higher income brackets, the temptation to buy on education. Seeking the moral high ground is, of course,
pirated software is high. fine and what the company spokesmen say is quite true –
Microsoft’s answer to this was to introduce cut-down but the fact remains that both companies have now won a
versions of Windows XP specifically adapted for the devel- captive market for their software, probably for the next 20
oping world. In December 2004, the company began offer- or 30 years at least. In Malaysia alone, Microsoft look set to
ing versions of XP in the local language, with some features pick up around 3 million new customers – and Malaysia has
removed, in India, Russia, Malaysia and Indonesia. The a population of only 26 million.
product had already been piloted in Thailand and had
been greeted with great enthusiasm. Microsoft’s Kenneth
Questions
Lundin said that the move was intended to give more
people access to software and also reduce the incidence 1. What is the role of consumer characteristics in software
of pirating of software. Because the cut-down XP systems price setting?
are only available in the local language, grey-market copies 2. Why should companies not charge one price for
were unlikely to be shipped out to the wealthier Western everyone, regardless of location?
markets, and also the software was only being made avail- 3. Why might the product not represent the same value for
able to computer manufacturers – not to the general public. money in each of its markets?
This means that the software either comes ready-installed
4. The market is huge, so why is there not room for many
on the computer or is protected so that it can only be
players to compete?
installed once. Microsoft have agreed this as part of a
deal with the Malaysian Government, intended to increase 5. How might a new software supplier (e.g. an Indian or
the use of computers in the country from its current 15% of Chinese supplier) price its products effectively in the
the population to 35%. The company is understandably world market?
Price 91
Lucie’s Farm
Farmers in the United Kingdom often have a hard time. They fact that they produce beef to a very high standard. Their beef
are price takers, not price makers, because the market deci- is aged for 21 days after slaughter – about 3–4 times as long
des the prices (on the basis of supply and demand), and no as the average pre-packed supermarket steak – and is orga-
one farmer is large enough to affect demand or supply – and nically reared. The flavour and tenderness of their beef is
since farmers are dependent on the weather so much, the already legendary, but the couple recently went a stage
supply is largely determined by the British climate, which is further and began producing Kobe-style beef.
uncertain at best (and certainly bad at worst). Kobe beef originates in Japan and is produced from
Escaping from the tedious cycle of failed crops, uncer- cattle which are treated better than royalty. The cattle drink
tain European Union subsidies, and ever-rising costs and beer from the local microbrewery, eat grain and are regularly
paperwork has proved difficult or even impossible for most massaged with sake to make the beef tender. The end result
farmers. Some, however, like Craig and Marjorie Walsh, is an incredibly tender, delicious meat – which of course sells
have found a way to break out of the ever-decreasing circle. for a premium price! Craig and Marjorie’s farm, Lucie’s Farm
In 1985, the couple saw the movie Rob Roy and were so in Worcestershire, is a Mecca for restaurateurs and foodies
impressed with the Highland cattle in the film they decided to prepared to pay around £60 for enough meat for four people
breed them. They are now the leading Highland Cattle bree- (even four hamburger patties comes out to around £12).
ders outside Scotland and are happy to sell the animals for In an affluent society, there will always be a market for
meat, or for breeding or (perhaps spectacularly) as ‘lawn the ‘special treat’, and even for luxurious foods on a daily
ornaments’ for wealthy people with large gardens. What has basis. Lucie’s Farm, by adding value to the product, has
helped Craig and Marjorie escape the price-taker trap is the tapped into that market extremely successfully.
Taking control of pricing, as in the case of Lucie’s Farm, is an important factor

in competition. Competing on price (i.e. trying to be the cheapest in the market)
is unlikely to be as effective as competing on value for money, since it is very
simple for competitors to retaliate by cutting their own prices. In practice there
will always be a competitor who is able to cut prices to the bone – even to the
point where they are losing money – if they are desperate to retain market share.
Adding to the customer value (what the customer gets in exchange for the
price paid) is a much safer alternative, provided the value added is greater for the
consumer than the price increase entailed, and the cost of adding the value is less
than the premium charged. If this is the case, both sales and profits will increase.
STUDY TIP
It is worth bearing in mind that the price people are sometimes as high as £10. Having some examples in
prepared to pay for a product bears no relationship what- mind is useful in exams, but it is even more useful to
soever to the cost of making the product. Ultimately it is your career, as you will often find yourself in the posi-
the price people are prepared to pay which will determine tion of defending customer-based pricing in the face of
what can be charged. engineers and accountants who are more likely to
You can probably think of many examples of this – favour cost-based pricing.
the price of T-shirts which cost pennies to make is
PRICING METHODS
You will be expected to understand different methods of pricing and be able
to apply them: you may well be asked to compare the advantages and
disadvantages of each method, and to make recommendations as to which
approach to pricing is most appropriate in any given set of circumstances. In
the ‘real world’, you will need to understand pricing methods in order to
argue your case with colleagues, many of whom will have been taught pricing
approaches which are not customer orientated.
STUDY TIP
It is worthwhile to practise seeing problems from the How would an NPD suggestion come across to an
other person’s viewpoint. For example, in your own engineer or a designer?
workplace try considering what an engineer or an The same, of course, applies in service industries: try
accountant would think of your pricing policy. You can suggesting a new menu item to a chef, for example! Yet if
apply this across the spectrum – What effect will your we are to achieve anything as marketers, we have to under-
marketing communications have on your colleagues? stand other people – that is what marketing is all about.
The following are the categories of method you will need to understand:
& Absorption costing. This method prices according to a formula which
includes all the costs of producing the product, including an allowance
for overheads. It takes no account at all of what customers are prepared
to pay, so it is not a market-orientated approach.
& Cost base and marginal costing. These again start from the costs the
firm incurs, but this time the price is set at the point where producing
one more unit of production would not be profitable. In practice, this is
extremely difficult to calculate and again takes no account whatsoever
of customers.
& Cost plus pricing. This is the method most accountants and engineers
are taught. It involves calculating the costs of production for a given
production run, then adding on a fixed percentage for the profit. It is
not market orientated, since it takes no account of competitors or of
what customers might be prepared to pay.
& Demand pricing. This method is customer orientated, because prices
are set at a level which will ensure that demand for the product is at a
point which will meet corporate objectives. For example, a company
may be able to produce economically at a particular level, so the price
will be set to ensure that demand reaches that level, no more and no
less. Alternatively, demand pricing can be used to determine the point
Pricing Methods 93
at which profit will be maximised, that is, the point at which a further
increase in price will reduce the production run past the most
economical point, or a reduction in price will simply reduce profit
without materially affecting sales.
& Penetration pricing. Here the company sets prices low in order to
capture a large part of the market before competitors can respond. This
is a dangerous policy unless the company has very large resources: the
risk of starting a damaging price war is high, and of course profits will
be minimal or even negative, that is, a loss will be incurred. In some
contexts, penetration pricing is illegal, because it represents unfair
competition; in international markets, it is known as dumping or
predatory pricing.
& Skimming. The company sets the price high initially so as to ‘skim’
the consumers who are prepared to pay a premium to be the first to
own a new product. The price is then gradually reduced so as to ‘skim’
consumers who are prepared to pay a lesser price and so forth. This
method is commonly used in consumer electronics markets, where the
company has a technical lead which can be maintained long enough to
shut out competitors. Unfortunately, most consumers know enough
about marketing to realise that the price will fall if they are prepared to
wait, so they often delay purchase.
& Loss leader. Some retailers will offer some basic commodities at a
price which will actually lose money in order to lure customers into the
store. Inevitably people will buy other goods while in the store as well
as the loss leader, and the store makes its money on these other
purchases. This principle has been carried over into other marketing
situations – for example, companies manufacturing printers for home
computers sell the printers for less than the price of replacement ink
cartridges and make their profit on the ink.
& Promotional pricing. In order to even out demand or bring sales forward
for other reasons, firms often offer extra discounts or ‘sale prices’. Because
such promotions cut profits, it may be cheaper to offer some other kind of
promotion, but promotional pricing does have the advantage of being
quick to put in place, and it is also very effective very quickly.
& Odd–even pricing. This is the practice of ending the price with 99p or
95c. Some studies have shown that this adds 8% to sales volumes,
while other studies are less conclusive: certainly, it is less effective in
some markets. An extension of this type of pricing is found in China,
where some numbers are regarded as lucky: collectively, pricing which
creates perceptions of this type is called psychological pricing.
EXAM HINT
You are likely to be asked about the pricing of new pro- Many students imagine that cutting prices is the
ducts. If so, you should bear in mind that penetration best way to compete. In most cases, it is probably the
pricing is extremely risky: it will almost always trigger a worst way to compete: it is certainly avoided by the vast
competitive response, and therefore a price war. Price majority of companies, because it cuts profits and it
wars are extremely damaging to profit margins, and signals poor quality to the consumers. Incidentally,
sometimes companies end up bankrupt as the firm with there is a general point here: whatever recommenda-
the greatest level of reserves can undercut for the longest tions you make, you will need to consider competitive
period of time. In some circumstances, penetration pri- response. Competitors will not stand by and let you eat
cing may be illegal, if it is seen as unfair competition. their lunch!
CASE STUDY:
Internet Auctions
The Internet has opened up many opportunities for increas- minimum, the purchase does not go ahead, and the bid-
ing consumer power, and nowhere has this been more ders pay nothing. Those who bid therefore run the risk of
apparent than in the proliferation of Internet auction sites. getting nothing: on the other hand, if the deal goes through,
Sellers are able to post goods for sale on sites such as eBay or they will undoubtedly walk away with a real bargain.
eBid, with or without a reserve price, and buyers are able to The implications of this for traditional High Street retai-
place their bids from (theoretically) anywhere in the world. lers are potentially extremely damaging. Although they
The price rises as more people bid, until there is only one might argue that consumers will still prefer to come to a
buyer left, who then buys the product at the final bid price. store where they are able to examine the products, get
Buyers can pay by credit card through an escrow company advice from the staff and even try out products, there is
(which holds the funds until the goods are delivered) or can obviously nothing to stop consumers doing this and then
make arrangements directly with the seller for payment. making the actual purchase via a reverse auction. The
In recent years, the process has moved a step further implications for manufacturers are equally far reaching:
with the advent of reverse auctions. Firms such as Lets- although the power of retailers will be curtailed, which for
buyit.com bring buyers together to bid for products. The many manufacturers would be a godsend, the power of
philosophy is simple: rather than bidding against other consumers is likely to increase dramatically.
purchasers, and forcing the price up, the reverse auction On the one hand, reverse auctions offer manufac-
arranges for buyers to join together and force the price turers a kind of instant marketing research; on the other
down. For example, a manufacturer may offer an LCD TV hand, the process may mean the end of price skimming,
for £800. If, however, 100 people are prepared to place a psychological pricing and all the other tried-and-tested
single order, the price might drop to £600. If 200 people are techniques for maximising the profitability of innovative
prepared to buy, the price might drop to £500. The price products.
paid to the supplier will be dictated by the number of In some cases, consumers have gone even further by
buyers, so Letsbuyit.com begins by negotiating a series of cutting out the Internet service provider altogether. They
steps at which the price will fall. The prices are posted on have taken to send tenders to car dealers and other retai-
the website for a set period, but once the product is sold out lers asking them to bid for supplying the product. On a
it will not be available to later bidders. If the number of new-car purchase, an astute logged-on consumer might
people wishing to buy the product does not meet a pre-set save hundreds or even thousands of pounds in this way –
Distribution Channels 95
a saving that more than compensates for a few minutes 2. How might a car dealer encourage a prospective
spent sending out e-mails. customer to increase the tender price?
If these consumer-led techniques catch on, the outcomes 3. What advantages might there be for manufacturers in
are by no means entirely bad for manufacturers, but the overall participating in reverse auctions?
effect is a major change in the way pricing is carried out. Prices
4. How might a manufacturer calculate the appropriate
are much more directly controlled by the end consumer than
price bands for a reverse auction?
ever before – and marketers need to adjust to that fact.
5. What might retailers do to counteract the effects of
reverse auctions?
1. How might a manufacturer retain a skimming policy

when dealing with a reverse auction?
DISTRIBUTION CHANNELS
Getting the product into the right place, at the right time and in the right
condition for customers to buy it is the ‘place’ element of the marketing mix.
Many firms have differentiated themselves entirely on the place element:
Avon Cosmetics, for example, broke new ground by selling products door-to-
door rather than through department stores and pharmacies. By so doing,
the company opened up an entirely new market among women who were
housebound for whatever reason.
There are various players in the distribution process, as follows:
& Wholesalers. These firms carry out a number of useful functions in
terms of bulk breaking of large shipments, assorting different types of
product into convenient quantities for shipping out, and so forth: they
buy goods themselves and sell them on, but not to the final consumers.
& Retailers. These intermediaries sell to final consumers. They may or
may not operate from a store: mail order and Internet retailing are also
retailers. Any organisation which sells to end users is a retailer,
whatever the medium involved.
& Agents. These people do not buy goods themselves, but they do act as
go-betweens, selling manufacturers’ goods to wholesalers and retailers.
Agents can be particularly useful in overseas markets, where they
know the local laws and customs and have local knowledge: often an
agent can save a small firm from having to set up warehousing and
marketing operations overseas.
& Export houses and import houses. These firms specialise in buying or
selling goods from other countries. They may or may not take
possession of the goods – in many cases, goods are shipped directly
from the producer to the foreign wholesaler.
There are several other types of intermediary, but the following routes allow
the supplier to remove intermediaries from the equation altogether and sell
directly to consumers.
& Direct marketing. This is a set of techniques by which products are
promoted via a medium which allows a direct response from the
customer, for example, a press advertisement which contains a
coupon, or a mailing which contains a reply-paid order form.
& Vending machines. These allow people to purchase directly from the
machine, using coins or (in some cases) credit cards. Vending machines
need to be filled with product and emptied of cash, of course, and also the
site owners will charge a rental, so the overall cost might be higher than
using a traditional retail route. What vending machines do best is provide
access to places traditional retailers might have trouble reaching – station
platforms, office corridors, factory floors and so forth.
& Telephone selling. Generally considered to be a part of direct marketing,
telephone selling can be inbound (customers call as a result of seeing a
marketing communication) or outbound (customers are called by
telesales operators). Outbound telesales has proved extremely unpopular
with consumers in recent years, and verbal attacks on telesales operators
mean that staff turnover is high and stress levels can become excessive.
Some firms have relocated their call centres overseas, which has two
advantages: first, costs are likely to be lower if the call centre is relocated to
a low-wage economy, and second, time-zone differences sometimes
mean that a 24-hour service can be maintained without requiring staff to
work through the night. Again, overseas call centres have proved
unpopular with the public, partly because of concerns about security and
partly because of concerns about job losses in the United Kingdom.
& Franchising. A business franchisor offers exclusive rights to a
franchisee to use the corporate brand name within a specific
geographical area or other segment. McDonald’s is probably the best-
known example of a franchise: such businesses are closely regulated by
the franchisor to ensure that the brand values remain intact.
& Electronic retailing. Online retailing is becoming more and more
commonplace as consumers become more Internet-literate. There are
drawbacks: delivery of goods can be problematic, especially to people
who are not at home, and mistakes happen when people are using
unfamiliar websites.
Because intermediaries usually add value by the various activities they
undertake, it is often not beneficial to cut them out of the picture. For
example, a cash-and-carry wholesaler adds place value for small retailers or
caterers. They are able to obtain most or all of their supplies in one place,
which is a considerable saving in time and effort: cutting out the wholesaler
would mean that each producer would have to deliver to each retailer,
probably in uneconomic quantities, and giving the retailer the problem of
dealing with a constant stream of deliveries happening at all times of the day.
The value added by each intermediary will be greater than the profit
margin ‘charged’, otherwise other intermediaries will quickly appear to
replace the inefficient one.
STUDY TIP
It is very common for people to talk about ‘cutting out the than compensates for the profit added. Therefore, remov-
middle man’ as a way of reducing the cost of goods. After ing intermediaries (disintermediation) almost always
all, wholesalers and other intermediaries do add on a increases costs.
profit for themselves. However, the efficiency gained by Familiarise yourself with various channels of distribu-
having a single point for shipments, plus help with mar- tion and consider which would be most suitable for each
keting goods (sometimes into specialist markets) more of several categories of product.
CASE STUDY:
C. A. Papaellina & Co. Ltd.
Cyprus is an island in the Eastern Mediterranean, perhaps best Cyprus has a small population (around 760,000 peo-
known as a holiday destination: the party-and-package holiday ple) but is economically highly successful, with a high
resort of Ayia Napa, the Troodhos Mountains, the family resort standard of living and low unemployment (around 3.4%).
of Paphos in the west and the ancient Greek and Egyptian ruins It thus represents a desirable, though small, market for
on the island are world-famous. Cyprus has a considerable most consumer goods. Greek Cyprus is now part of the
military presence also: since 1974, the island has been divided European Union, and if reunification talks go as well as is
between the Turkish Cypriots in the North and the Greek hoped, the Northern part of the island will also benefit
Cypriots in the South, with the United Nations maintaining an from EU membership. The island is small: the Greek part
uneasy truce between the two along the Green Line, which of the island is less than 70 miles from end to end, and
divides Nicosia into two. The island’s strategic situation, close around 30 miles wide at the widest point.
to the Middle East, means that the British Army and the RAF C.A. Papaellina & Co. Ltd. (or CAP) is one of the
maintain large bases on the island at Akrotiri and Dhekalia. island’s most important distributors. CAP was founded in
Although there has been some relaxation of the Green Line in 1930 and has since grown to the point where the company
recent years (with a permanent crossing-point opened up on 5 distributes into most of the retail outlets on the island. The
April 2008), the island still remains divided. company is well aware of the peculiarities of the Cypriot
distribution system: for example, the island has many small considering that many medicines have extremely short
street-corner kiosks which sell everything from newspapers shelf lives or may be in infrequent demand and therefore
to bootlaces, as well as several huge hypermarkets (retail may not be stocked by the pharmacies.
stores of over 5,000 square metres selling area). CAP Foreign companies appreciate the way CAP uses its
handles many international brands, such as Chanel, David- intimate knowledge of the Cypriot market to facilitate dis-
off, Jean Paul Gaultier, Kleenex, Lucozade, Ribena, Aqua- tribution. For example, CAP has a re-labelling and re-pack-
fresh, Maclean’s and even Tabasco Sauce. In 2002, the ing unit in which imported products are re-labelled in Greek
company opened its new pharmaceuticals centre, and in to meet local labelling requirements and if necessary are
2001, it signed a contract for new warehouse software also repackaged. CAP’s knowledge of the local distribution
worth CYP170,000 (approximately $300,000). This soft- systems means that the company is able to distribute in
ware was supplied by the UK software house, JBA Auto- bulk to hypermarkets with the same ease with which its
mated Systems of Durham. small vans distribute small quantities to kiosks: the moun-
CAP is divisionalised into five separate areas, as follows: tainous topography of Cyprus and its constant influx of
foreign visitors present special problems which only a
1. Personal care and household products
local firm can solve.
2. Consumer health care products Cyprus is a small island dependent on foreign trade. It
3. Paper products and foodstuffs can no longer be self-sufficient, but it is rich, so it imports
most of what it needs from day to day and exports some
4. Cosmetics and Fragrances
agricultural products and a lot of tourism. C.A. Papaellina is
5. Pharmaceuticals at the forefront of facilitating this exchange.
CAP employs 150 people, runs its own sales force and sup-
plies in every retail sector in Cyprus. This means that the firm is
equally able to supply huge hypermarkets and corner kiosks –
in itself, this presents considerable logistical and accounting 1. What advantages does Novartis gain from dealing
problems. Using its own fleet of trucks and vans, the company through CAP?
distributes throughout the Greek portion of the island. 2. Why might CAP have bought into retail outlets?
Because the Cypriot market is so small, distribution
3. What specific problems might a confectionery
chains are short and often integrated (i.e. members own
manufacturer have when approaching the Cypriot
shares in each others’ companies): CAP owns 30% of the
market? How might CAP be able to help?
AlphaMega Hypermarket in Nicosia, 100% of Beautyline
(the cosmetics retail chain) and 50% of Demetrides and 4. What are the major differences between supplying
Papaellinas, the distributors for the Swiss pharmaceutical hypermarkets and supplying kiosks?
giant, Novartis. CAP opened its own specialist pharmaceu- 5. Why would competing manufacturers such as Chanel
tical distribution centre, PharmacyLine, in March 2002. and Jean Paul Gaultier be prepared to use the same
This distribution centre can carry out daily deliveries to distributor?
every pharmacy in Cyprus, an important service
EXAM TIP
If you are asked about distribution channels, you will be and increase costs. Ensure that, if asked a question which
expected to understand the strengths and weaknesses of involves distribution, you consider both the strategic
different approaches. Short distribution channels give aspects of channel choice and the role of logistics in
more control to the producer, but are often less efficient getting products to customers.
Distribution falls into two main areas: choosing the right channels and
physical distribution (or logistics) which is concerned with transporting
products to the right locations. Choosing the right channels through which
to send goods is a strategic decision based on the choice of target market and
the product characteristics, whereas logistics is a set of tactical decisions
which involve transport decisions, warehouse decisions and financial deci-
sions. Logistics is also based on product characteristics, as well as market
infrastructures and market conditions.
The next case study considers logistics. Logistical issues include the
following decision areas:
& The possibility of using multiple channels, which means a different
delivery system for each channel. For example, a food manufacturer
might have one system for delivering to caterers (perhaps through a
cash and carry warehouse), another for delivering to supermarkets
(perhaps direct delivery using the company’s own trucks), and still
another for independent grocers. Multiple channels need to be handled
carefully, since some channel members (e.g. wholesalers) might feel
that they are being bypassed and therefore undermined.
& Location of customers. Customers in remote locations will need
different physical distribution solutions from those located in urban
areas. Obviously, a global market will require special measures.
& Compatibility. The selected delivery method must be compatible with
the channel, the product, the customers and the supplier. Some
customers will need rapid, reliable deliveries (spare parts delivery to car
repairers being one example), whereas for other customers rapid
delivery is less important than, say, reliable delivery times.
& Nature of the goods/services. Perishable goods clearly need to be
delivered more quickly (and probably therefore more expensively) than
non-perishables. Often air freight is actually cheaper than surface
transport for items such as fresh fruit or fish because there is less
wastage.
& Geography, environment and terrain. Clearly deliveries into
northern Alaska require different techniques from deliveries into
Iquitos in Peru: apart from the obvious climatic differences, Iquitos
has no road access to the outside world, so everything has to be
delivered either by river or by air.
& Storage and distribution costs. Warehousing can be an expensive
issue, hence the idea of just-in-time purchasing by which components
are delivered in small batches, theoretically at the exact time they are
needed in the factory, thus avoiding the cost of managing a store. Just-
in-time has fallen into disrepute in recent years because it often results
in trucks waiting outside the factory gates for the exact moment to
deliver, resulting in greater waste on the part of the supplying
company.
& Import/export costs. Apart from transport costs, there may be
customs duties to pay on goods, and there will always be international
insurance payments to make.
CASE STUDY: Giant Bicycles
In 1972, the Giant Manufacturing Company was first estab- people are among the shortest), the company not only
lished in Taiwan, producing bicycles for the local market. In needs to produce a wide range of bikes, but also needs to
fact, the company was not giant at all at that time, but the ensure that stocks of bikes in the various retailers
name proved to be a prophetic one because within 8 years throughout the world can meet the demand. Giant
Giant was the largest bicycle company in Taiwan and was makes over 3 million bicycles a year, but may need to
looking to expand internationally. deliver only one or two to a specific small retailer, perhaps
An obvious overseas market for Giant was the Nether- in a remote area.
lands, where everybody owns at least one bicycle and the For Giant, the problem is complex. Worldwide distribu-
entire country is networked by bicycle tracks. In 1986, tion is difficult to arrange at the best of times, but given the
Giant opened their first overseas sales office in Holland: in huge variation in needs of customers, and the wide range of
the following year, the company opened up in the United retail outlets which must be supplied, the company had a
Kingdom and the United States, and by 1991 had offices in major logistics problem. Giant bikes are available on every
six overseas countries including Japan and Australia. Their continent, through over 10,000 retail outlets.
first overseas factory was opened in the Netherlands in Giant therefore contacted Wincanton Group, a major
1996. European logistics company. Wincanton offer a full logistics
Giant have had notable successes on the racing service, including warehousing, intermodal transport
circuit and have their own race team: the team won the (transport which involves different types of vehicle), cus-
team prize in the Tour de France and the World Cup, and toms clearance, document and records management, store
the company expects to build on this success in the services and even aircraft refuelling. Wincanton operate a
future. The rapid expansion of the company has not fleet of vehicles, including lorries, barges and trains, and
been without its problems, however: despite a huge the company even manages sea ports and inland ports for
investment in IT, and a commitment to ‘the local touch’, barge transportation.
the company still faced an enormous problem in terms of Wincanton’s roots lie in the United Kingdom (it was
logistics. originally a subsidiary of the dairy company that later
Apart from having to consider local needs and tastes became Cow and Gate), but its operations now cover
(e.g. Dutch cyclists predominantly use their bikes to com- almost the whole of Europe. The company handles logistics
mute to and from work, whereas Americans use their for major firms such as BMW, Tesco, Dow Chemicals,
bikes for leisure and exercise), the company has been Electrolux and Hewlett–Packard, so shipping and storing
faced with the problem of shipping bikes worldwide from bicycles presented no major problems.
only three factories (Taiwan, China and the Netherlands). Wincanton’s success is due in no small measure to
Because of the wide range of characteristics of cyclists the company’s innovative use of IT. Since Giant
(Dutch people are the tallest in the world: Japanese Bicycles also has a strong IT base, the companies
Promotion 101
were able to interface their systems and exchange Questions

data directly, greatly improving the efficiency of the
1. What are the advantages of using a firm like Wincanton?
overall system.
Giant Bicycles Ltd. is moving into the 21st century with 2. How might Giant Bicycles enter markets where
more new products – an electrically assisted bicycle was Wincanton are not represented?
introduced in 1999, followed by a range of models which
3. What are the main problems Giant faces in terms of
are available worldwide. The company’s innovative Maestro
logistics?
suspension system has proved to be hugely popular, and
the company also makes folding bicycles. However, no 4. What challenges does Wincanton face in the 21st
matter how many new models the company produces, century?
and no matter how many markets it targets, Wincanton is 5. What type of information might the companies
confident in being able to provide the necessary logistical exchange via their mutual IT systems?
support.
PROMOTION
Non-marketers tend to think of promotion as being the whole of marketing,
and it is certainly the most visible area that marketers manage. Promotion
encompasses all forms of marketing communication, so many marketing
academics and managers use the term ‘marketing communications’ to cover
promotion in general.
Promotion has its own system of subdivision, the promotional mix. In its
most basic form, it consists of the following four elements:
& Advertising. This is the paid insertion of a message in a medium.
There is therefore no such thing as free advertising: promotion which
is ‘free’ might be classified as public relations or word of mouth, but it
is not advertising. Although advertising is often thought of as the main
element in marketing communication, it is actually only the most
visible element: the other elements can be equally, or more, important
and may even absorb more of the firm’s resources. Advertising has the
advantage that the marketers can control the content and to some
extent the audience by choosing the most appropriate medium. The
biggest drawback of advertising is that people find it relatively easy to
avoid – they skip past the pages the advertising is on or change
channels while the TV commercials are on. Advertising also suffers
from a lack of credibility: people are aware that the advertiser has an
agenda to follow and usually assume that the advertiser’s needs will
come ahead of the consumer’s needs.
& Public relations. This is all the activities that create a positive image of
the company and its brands – press releases, sponsorship, event
management and so forth. Public relations is about creating an
impression of a company that is good to do business with, but it does not

directly bring in sales. Companies with a good PR record have little
trouble in selling their goods, however – for example, imagine the
difference between an IBM salesperson arriving at a new prospect’s
offices and a salesperson from some unknown computer company
arriving at the same time. The IBM salesperson would almost certainly
have a much more positive reception and would be taken seriously
immediately, whereas the unknown salesperson would have to begin by
establishing some credibility before even being allowed to discuss
products. Public relations has a major advantage over advertising in that
it is much more credible – a press release is read as news, sponsorship
builds on the reputation of the sponsored person or event, and so forth.
& Personal selling. Probably the most powerful marketing tool, a
salesperson calling on prospective customers to present the firm’s
products is also probably the most expensive tool, at least in terms of
number of contacts made, but it has the major advantage that a
salesperson can identify specific needs of a customer and propose
suitable solutions from among the company’s range of products. Top-
class salespeople will often propose solutions from elsewhere as well, if
the company’s product range is insufficient. The important point to
note about personal selling is that it is not about persuading people to
buy things – it is about identifying and solving customer problems.
& Sales promotion. This includes money-off discounts, buy-one-get-one-
free offers, extra fill of the pack and in fact anything intended to give a
short-term boost to sales. In most cases, the switch from one brand to
another caused by a sales promotion is only temporary: typically, people
either switch back to their usual brand, or (in the case of bargain-hunters)
switch to whichever brand is on offer this week. Sales promotions rarely
increase sales overall – they are good for bringing sales forward (because
people stock up) and are good for shutting out competition (sometimes
this is a good thing to do at traditionally busy times, such as Christmas,
because it damages competitors’ sales at a time when they were expecting
a high revenue stream).
In fact, the above list is far from comprehensive: in recent years, direct
marketing has been added to the list by many commentators, but there are
still many more promotion tools in the locker. Some of these are as follows:
& Ambient advertising. This is advertising which becomes part of the
physical environment – messages on stair risers and petrol pump
nozzles, art installations in city centres and so forth. Ambient
advertising often cuts through advertising clutter (the effect of having
Promotion 103
so much advertising targeted at people that they simply ignore all of it).
It also often has novelty value, so that people remember it and
sometimes even tell their friends about it.
& Websites. An Internet website can be interactive (almost all UK and
American sites are interactive, but there are still some which are static,
mainly in Eastern and Southern Europe). Websites offer an entirely
different communications medium from any other, because they
establish an automated dialogue with the customer. They therefore
give the consumer a degree of control over the dialogue, whereas in
most cases promotions are either one-way monologues in which the
consumer has only a passive role, or managed by salespeople rather
than by the customers.
& Word of mouth. This is probably the most powerful promotional
medium available, since it is the most likely to be believed and acted
upon. Word of mouth is informal communication between friends and
family members: people like to talk about products they have bought and
companies they have dealt with, so marketers try to ensure that word of
mouth is positive rather than negative. This is, of course, out of a
marketer’s control, but it is possible to influence it considerably and
encourage it. For example, positive word of mouth is generated by bring-
a-friend schemes, whereby someone who brings a friend along or
encourages a friend to buy is rewarded in some way. In fact, these
schemes work even better if the friend is the one who gets the reward – it
is a chance for the customer to do a favour for a friend and is more likely
to result in repeat business as the friend is the one who feels grateful.
& Word of mouse. This is the online version of word of mouth and is
also called viral marketing. Marketers put games or jokes online, with
a hyperlink to send the URL to a friend. If the game is enough fun, or
the joke is good (some companies use spoof advertisements for this),
people will involve their friends in the joke or game. Sites such as
Facebook, YouTube and Twitter have been used by firms, despite the
general ban on commercial entries these sites have. Clearly, if a
posting on YouTube is a well-made spoof advertisement, the
moderators allow it to remain. Viral marketing should be
distinguished from spam: spam involves introducing a computer virus
which sends an advertising message to everyone in the individual’s
address book so that the message is sent (eventually) to an audience
numbered in the millions.
& Product placement. This means supplying products to film and TV
companies to be used in the shows. At one time, producers were happy
simply to be given the products to use as props, rather than have to go
out and buy them, but the advantages of having a product appear and
re-appear in a film, perhaps for many years as it is shown on TV,
became so obvious that film companies now charge substantial fees for
including branded products. In some cases, product placement deals
are enough to fund a film entirely, and firms such as Coca Cola use
product placement very extensively indeed.
EXAM TIP
If you are asked to make recommendations about a com- the profession. This means that they will read their
munications campaign, you should consider carefully the respective trade journals and will probably read the
needs and likely behaviour of the target audience. For advertisements.
example, some products are better suited to mass adver- On the other hand, instant coffee (which is a mass-
tising than are others, and some people are more likely to market item) should be advertised in a mass medium,
take an interest in advertising than are others. Profes- using an advertisement which cuts through the clutter. It
sional people such as doctors or lawyers will be interested is quite certainly the case that mass advertising will cost a
in anything which relates to their profession – doctors great deal more than tightly targeted advertising, so it is
want to find out about new medicines, and lawyers want essential that you do not recommend such a course
to find out about changes in the law or the regulation of unless you know there is a mass audience.
The promotional mix is similar to the marketing mix in that one element
cannot substitute for another, and each element acts on the others to create
an overall effect. In recent years, the concept of integrated marketing com-
munications has dominated academic thinking: the idea that all the mes-
sages emanating from the company should be essentially the same, no
matter which route is chosen, is intended to ensure that there is no conflict
between different messages or media. In practice, integration is hard to
achieve because of the wide variety of possible messages and, of course, the
wide variety of media involved: for example, sales people are likely to tell
customers whatever they need to know in order to make a purchase decision
rather than simply repeat the corporate story verbatim. Likewise, a message
placed on the Internet has a different appeal and creates different perceptions
from the same message placed in a specialist magazine or on a billboard.
ACTIVITY
Consider the last time you bought something from a sales- If so, how did that make you feel? Would you be more
person (perhaps a shop assistant). To what extent did the or less likely to buy from someone who shows a genuine
salesperson discuss your personal needs? Were you interest in your needs? Or would you prefer someone who
asked about the uses you have for the product? Were just talks about the product?
you asked about how much you were expecting to
spend? Did the salesperson seem interested in you?
Promotion 105
MARKETING IN ACTION:
The Mini Cooper
In the late 1950s, a designer by the name of Alec Issigonis design and decided that the car was due for a revival –
was commissioned to design a completely new car. At the updated, to a modern specification, with the 21st century
time, there was a world oil shortage due to the Suez crisis, so safety features, but recognisably the Mini. For BMW, the
the new car had to be small, cheap to buy and run, but problem shifted: they had to figure out the best way to cash
roomy: it should also break the mould of previous car design. in on the mini’s iconic status!
Issigonis came up with a revolutionary design – the Mini. At first, the Mini Cooper was launched in the United
The Mini was one of the first production cars to have Kingdom, to great critical acclaim. The car was no longer
front-wheel drive and the first to have the engine mounted the cheap runabout of the 1960s – but the baby boomers
transversely rather than in a fore-and-aft configuration. This who had owned the originals were now in a position to pay
made the engine compartment rather tightly packed, but the price to own a design classic. In addition, a new gen-
gave more room for the passengers – and the lack of a trans- eration of Mini fans had been born.
mission hump gave more space in the passenger compart- For Rover, the key market to get into was the United
ment. Issigonis even gave the car tiny 10-inch-diameter States. With almost as many cars as people, the United States
wheels so as to reduce the space taken up by wheel arches. is the biggest car market in the world, and Rover intended to
The car was finally launched in August 1959, to a rapturous make inroads into it. The firm therefore hired US advertising
reception by the motoring press – the car was so revolutionary agency Crispin Porter and Bogusky to run a $20 million cam-
that people were hard-pressed to find anything ordinary in it. paign, with 25% of the spend going into print media. The
During the 1960s, the car became a British icon. Despite objective of the campaign was to launch Mini into the United
some early teething troubles (the car leaked copiously when- States by promoting it as an alternative culture called ‘motor-
ever it rained and had an extremely lumpy gear change, for ing’ (as opposed to ‘driving’). The British terminology helped
example), further versions were designed and snapped up by to drive the campaign into becoming one of the most suc-
an eager public. Van versions, estate cars, convertibles and cessful ever: the campaign won awards from Adweek and
even the (supposedly) off-road Mini Moke were marketed. MPA Kelly, but more importantly it created such a demand
Issigonis said later, ‘We made a car that was so unusual that it for the car that long waiting lists appeared at dealers through-
automatically became a status symbol.’ Minis were seen out the United States. The car itself won awards from con-
everywhere and were owned by rich and poor, old and sumer organisations, car journals and even the Kelley Blue
young: the car even featured prominently in the film, ‘The Book (the car dealers’ guide to used car values). In 2003, the
Italian Job’, starring Michael Caine and Noel Cowerd. Alec car had a further boost in its fortunes when ‘The Italian Job’
Issigonis was knighted by the Queen for his services to was re-made using Mini Coopers as the getaway cars.
industry – a rare event for a humble industrial designer. Mini even has its own website (common for a car man-
During the 1970s and 1980s, the car’s fortunes slumped. ufacturer – unusual for a car) on which the themes of motor-
Other small cars had entered the market, and poor quality of ing, fuel economy and quirky originality are combined. The
manufacture, frequent strikes at the factory and heavy com- site is extremely interactive (it even tells users to get out in the
petition from better-engineered Japanese cars caused sales sunshine more if they remain logged on for too long), and the
to dwindle. Altogether, 5.5 million Minis were manufactured: site encourages visitors to ‘e-mail a friend’. The website links
many of them are still running, and in fact every part of the to websites in other countries, each of which has a local
original Mini is still being manufactured somewhere to serve character, but also conveys an air of Britishness. Each site
the army of Mini enthusiasts who keep these cars on the road. includes an area where owners can join a Mini-owners club
Issigonis is quoted as saying, ‘When I design my cars, and can receive newsletters and special offers.
they are styled so that they couldn’t be obsolescent.’ This The overall aim is to recreate the sense of fun and
has proved to be a telling statement. After BMW took over uniqueness that characterised the first Mini, in the
the Rover car company, it acquired the rights to the Mini 1960s – and so far this seems to be paying off handsomely.
The Mini Cooper story shows us how a firm can integrate several commu-
nications media to generate a strong brand personality (or perhaps empha-
sise an existing brand personality). The agency, Crispin Porter and Bogusky,
used the ‘British’ tag to create a novel and eye-catching campaign. Placing
the product in ‘The Italian Job’ reinforced the brand values to the baby
boomers who were the key target audience and also made great use of the
Internet, playing to the strengths of the medium as well as conveying the
message.
STUDY TIP
The promotional mix concept was first outlined in the late You might also try observing marketing messages
1960s. There are many more tools available to marketers around you and categorising each one according to your
now, although the principle that the tools need to be com- list of tools – this will help you remember what they are
bined in the right proportions remains. A full account of all and also give you some ideas, examples and templates to
the available tools is beyond the scope of this study guide, use in the examination.
so you should read around your textbooks and other
sources and familiarise yourself with the various tools.
CASE STUDY: Scotiabank
The Canadian banking system has, for many years, been in Canada, and Scotiabank was thought of as being some-
an oligopoly – the major banks have controlled the market, what unsophisticated, to put it kindly. This was no bad
and although regulation has been fairly tight, they have thing, given the developing climate of mistrust of banks.
been able to set their own fees and service levels without The bank saw an opportunity to focus on four areas
too much risk of serious competition. As in most oligopo- where management thought the bank could increase its
listic markets, however, the customer is the one who ends market share:
up losing out.
1. Home lending. Scotiabank was losing market share,
By the early part of the 21st century, banks in Canada
although mortgages were still big business for them:
had moved from being trusted custodians of the national
changes in the power of branch personnel to negotiate
finances to being regarded a necessary evil, monolithic
interest rates with customers were causing the bank to
enterprises with little regard for the customer’s needs or
lose share.
well-being. Brand image advertising had made promises
which never materialised, and banks were not differentiat- 2. Online activation. Scotiabank was falling behind other
ing themselves – banking had become a commodity and a banks in online banking, a potentially serious failing
disliked and mistrusted one at that. since online banking cuts costs for banks as well as
Within this overall structure, Scotiabank decided to increasing customer service.
break the mould. The bank was at the time Canada’s fourth 3. Small business. This represented a gap in the market,
largest – a position it had held since 1919 – and perhaps since none of the major banks had established itself as
because of its relatively small size, it was regarded as a having capabilities in the small business loan market.
friendly, folksy bank. Its East Coast roots helped – Nova 4. Investment. Research showed that few customers
Scotia is often regarded as something of a rural backwater were prepared to consider Scotiabank for their
Promotion 107
investment needs, and although this was not yet solution to that problem. The same format was used for
causing the bank any problems, it was clearly a television, print and radio advertising – for example, a busi-
ticking timebomb. nessman was shown leaving another bank, having been
The bank had recently adopted a new core purpose, as rejected for the umpteenth time and being offered a deal
follows: with Scotiabank through their ScotiaOne business loan
package. ScotiaOne offers a single package for the small
‘To be the best at helping customers to be business, covering both personal and business banking,
financially better off by finding relevant solutions and also offers business advice.
to meet their unique needs.’ The results? Over a 2-year period, Scotiabank
increased its mortgage business by 13% ahead of the
The bank recognised that each of the markets it was aiming
projected figures, it went from nowhere to being the indus-
for had its own unique problems – but how were they to
try leader in online banking in a period of only 3 months, it
convey these effectively in an advertising campaign?
increased the number of credits in small business by 52%
Scotiabank began by considering the unique aspects of
and experienced a 61% increase in dollar credits in small
each of the markets they wanted to enter. For home lend-
business, and it overachieved by 23% in recruiting new
ing, they realised that buying the home was only the start of
clients and overachieved by 11% in the investment
the financial problems – new homeowners need money for
business.
curtains, furnishings, legal fees, removal expenses and so
More importantly, compared with its rivals, it
forth, and may well have spent every last penny on the
achieved the largest percentage awareness improvement
down payment. The bank therefore introduced cash-back
of any Canadian bank, despite spending less than any of
mortgages. For online activation, the bank decided that
its competitors – another remarkable achievement, and
customers needed a lot of help in learning how the systems
one which can only have come about as a result of the
could help them manage their cash better, without making
advertising. In a market with very little differentiation,
trips to the bank to check on bank balances. For small
Scotiabank appears to have tapped into a real customer
businesses, the bank understood that business people
need – the need to be recognised as real people, not
are far too used to being rejected by banks. For investment,
simply as account numbers.
the problem for customers is not so much about under-
standing the worth of using their tax breaks to invest, but
actually finding the money to invest. Questions
In Scotiabank’s research, one word kept coming up: 1. How did Scotiabank translate its vision statement into
respect. So the bank developed its creative platform on an advertising campaign?
three principles: reflect the truth of customers’ lives, be
2. What sales promotion techniques did Scotiabank use?
relevant to getting ahead financially (by offering a tangible
Scotiabank solution), and reflect the customer’s perspec- 3. How did the three principles translate into an integrated
tive, not the bank’s. communications campaign?
The ensuing campaign used a problem–solution for- 4. What difficulties might there have been in offering a
mat. Each advertisement began by showing a common single, integrated message to such a wide range of
everyday financial problem, followed by the Scotiabank potential customers?
Whether or not the marketing communications are integrated, it is certainly

the case that each promotional tool will only work in specific circumstances,
and yet each tool has an impact on the others. The coordinating mechanism
must always be the brand image – what is the personality of the brand, and
where do we want the brand to be positioned in the customers’ minds? This
is long-term, strategic thinking: we are trying to develop competitive advan-

tage for the brand by careful use of communication.
For example, a money-off sales promotion might increase sales in the
short term, but might damage the brand image by making it seem cheap and
downmarket. In some cases, manufacturers have asked stores not to pro-
mote their brands in this way, for fear of doing damage to a brand which has
been carefully positioned against its competitors as an upmarket brand.
Equally, an advertisement might have an effect on a PR campaign (or vice
versa – since both might appear in the same medium at the same time).
EXAM TIP
The promotional mix actually contains more than the four to consider all the elements as a whole (just as you did
basic items – you will gain marks if you can ‘think outside with the marketing mix as a whole). You will also need to
the box’ and consider promotional methods which are distinguish carefully between the elements, in other
unusual. You will also need to consider aspects such as words do not confuse advertising with PR (if you talk
the appropriate medium for your message: there is more about ‘free advertising’, you mean PR or something else –
on this later. You should, of course, link any recommen- advertising, by definition, is not free). Terminology is
dations to measurable objectives. important in this, as in every other, profession: you need
Keep in mind that, even though each element is to be precise if colleagues (and examiners) are to under-
taught as if it were a separate issue, you will be expected stand precisely what you mean.
CASE STUDY:
Viral Marketing
Viral marketing has become one of the buzzwords of 21st and influence. These messages are powerful, because they
century marketing. To many people, it sounds vaguely are credible: word from a friend is much more acceptable
distasteful – connotations of virulent disease spring readily than word from a manufacturer.
to mind, and it almost sounds like the worst kind of manip- The classic example of a successful viral strategy is
ulation. In reality, it is simply a term for electronic word-of- MSN’s Hotmail free e-mail service. Hotmail was one of the
mouth promotion. first free e-mail services on the Internet, and it owed its
Although viral marketing is not dependent on the Inter- rapid growth to a very straightforward viral technique:
net, it has become strongly linked with Internet marketing firstly, the company gave away free e-mail addresses.
because e-mail is an extremely easy way to propagate Then, at the bottom of each message sent out by its
messages. Offline, viral marketing is referred to as ‘word users, it added the tag ‘Get your private, free e-mail at
of mouth’, ‘creating a buzz’ or ‘network marketing’, but it is http://www.hotmail.com’. This message was thus sent out
in fact the same thing – it is any strategy that encourages to thousands more people, some of whom signed up for the
individuals to pass on a marketing message to others, service, and thus added to the number of people who
creating an exponential growth in the message’s exposure propagated the name further.
Promotion 109
Obviously, giving things away is not, in itself, a way to something of interest – a free computer game, a free IQ
make money. However, Hotmail now has a large number of test, some free software and so forth.
subscribers, each of whom is a target for buying other In some cases, viral marketing can use messages and
products from MSN. Every Hotmail subscriber sees several imagery which would otherwise not be allowed in mass
advertisements each time he or she logs on to send or media – for example, the viral campaign for Trojan con-
receive messages, but this is a small price to pay for a doms developed by The Viral Factory uses some risqué
free service. images to get the message across. These images are likely
To be effective, a viral strategy needs the following to be passed on: other campaigns by the same agency are
characteristics (Wilson 2000): less risqué, but are equally engaging. In each case, they
appeal to a particular target market, who are likely to pass
1. There should be a free gift attached.
them on to people with a similar sense of humour and
2. The transfer to others should be effortless. similar interests.
3. It should scale easily from very small to very large, in Viral marketing also takes root in word-of-mouth cam-
other words the system needs the capacity to start paigns. Word of mouth can be generated by allowing cus-
small, but handle very large numbers of people fairly tomers and others to take guided tours of facilities. A prime
quickly, otherwise it will drown in its own success. example of this is Cadbury World, a theme park outside
4. It should exploit common motivators and behaviours. Birmingham which is dedicated to the history of chocolate.
Families and school parties are shown how chocolate is
5. It should utilise existing communications networks.
made and how the ancient Aztecs used chocolate, and
6. It should take advantage of others’ resources. even shown around a museum of chocolate-related arte-
The Hotmail example fulfils all of these criteria, as does facts. There are many other ways to generate word of
Adobe Acrobat. The Adobe Acrobat Reader is free soft- mouth: the main element in generating word of mouth is
ware: anybody who receives a PDF file from an Adobe to provide customers with something interesting to pass on
subscriber can download Reader so as to be able to read to their friends.
the file. This has meant that Adobe Acrobat has become The bottom line in viral marketing is credibility. People
the leading software for creating and sending PDF files – trust their friends far more than they trust a company – and
which means that everyone who buys Reader is potentially they will listen to their friends far more than they will listen
a customer for Acrobat since they are able to see the quality to an advertisement.
of the documents that it produces. Acrobat, of course, is
emphatically not free software. Annual turnover at Adobe is
$1.2 billion, and the company has 3,700 employees world-
wide – so viral marketing must have something going for it. 1. Advertising is heavily regulated: it must, by and large,
Viruses used in viral marketing are not the same as the be truthful. No such regulations exist on contacts
malicious viruses which occasionally infect innocent com- between friends, so why is viral marketing more
puters. The essence of viral marketing is that the sender credible than advertising?
knowingly transmits the marketing message. In some 2. How might the power of word of mouth be transferred to
cases, such as Hotmail, the sender transmits the message advertising?
automatically every time he or she uses the service. In other 3. What type of organisation might benefit most from viral
cases, websites have a link (labelled ‘Send this to a friend’ marketing on the Internet?
or something similar) which encourages the individual to
4. What other advertising media might be useful in driving
forward the entire website to a friend who might be inter-
customers to the website?
ested. In order for this to happen, the website must contain
MEDIA DECISIONS
Choice of medium is as important as choice of tool, because the medium
becomes part of the message. An advertisement placed in a cheap tabloid
newspaper does not have the same message as the same advertisement
placed in an upmarket broadsheet, and even TV advertising conveys differ-
ent impressions according to the type of programme it is linked to.
Media can be assessed in several ways: the most basic is the cost per
thousand, which means the amount it costs to reach a thousand people.
This is not, in itself, sufficient: what is equally important is to ensure that
the right people are targeted. Putting a message into the wrong medium
simply means it will be ignored, because it will be going out to people who
have no interest in the product: for example, a popular tabloid newspaper
might have a high readership and an attractive cost per thousand, but most
of the readers are likely to have relatively little education and small incomes,
so advertising an expensive car would be futile. The same car could be
promoted very well in a golfing magazine, however, since golfers tend to be
better-off professionals.
EXAM TIP
If you are asked to develop a promotional campaign, you incredibly wasteful – the number of doctors who would
must start by considering your customer base and aim it at see the advertisements would be very small as a propor-
them. Do not use television unless the product is really one tion of the viewers, so the bulk of the cost would be
which most people would want to buy: you will be wasting wasted. In some countries, of course, such advertising
most of your budget. The more closely you target what you would be illegal anyway.
do, the more efficient use you will make of the budget. Again, in any question of marketing – start with the
For example, in one exam students suggested using customer!
TV to advertise prescription drugs to doctors. This is
The main media are as follows:

& Television. This medium requires the biggest budgets, but it also
reaches the largest audiences. Until recently, targeting has been
difficult because there were few commercial stations in the United
Kingdom, but the advent of cable and satellite channels has provided at
least some opportunity to target specialist audiences. Television
advertising is costly but can have a low cost per thousand because of
the very large viewing figures for some shows. It is most suitable for
products with a very wide range of potential customers, for example,
instant coffee or cleaning products.
Media Decisions 111
& Cinema. This is often a neglected medium, but since cinema tends to
reach a young audience, it can be very powerful, especially as it is
difficult for the audience to avoid the advertising. Cinema audiences
also tend to be wealthier and better educated than the average, so they
represent a particularly desirable target audience for many products.
The biggest advantage of advertising in cinemas, though, is that the
audience are unlikely to ignore the advertisement. They are unable to
switch channels as they would with TV, and they cannot get up and
walk out while the advertisements are showing.
& Billboards. These are useful for localised campaigns, but are vulnerable
to vandalism. Billboards are especially useful for retailers because
locations close to the stores can be booked: billboard advertising can also
be changed relatively quickly, since all that is needed is a new print of the
poster and a man with a pot of paste and a ladder. For this reason,
billboards tend to be used a lot during election campaigns.
& Press. This subdivides into mass media such as newspapers and
popular magazines, and targeted media such as specialist hobby or
trade magazines. Advertising in specialist hobby magazines is powerful
because people are inclined to read the advertising: for example,
someone who is a keen angler is likely to enjoy reading about new
fishing lures in an angling magazine. Also, magazines are often kept
for long periods (unlike newspapers).
& Web advertising. Pop-ups and banners can be powerful, but they can
also be irritating for the audience. They do have the advantage of allowing
interested consumers to respond immediately by being directed to an
appropriate website. Weblinks are likely to be more effective, however,
since many pop-ups will be blocked by the individual’s firewall.
& Radio. This is often neglected as a medium, although it is cheap,
flexible and difficult for the audience to avoid. It is often used as a
reminder medium for TV advertising. People often listen to
commercial radio while doing other things such as driving, housework,
decorating and so forth, so they are often receptive to the advertising.
STUDY TIP
You will be expected to understand the relationship different tools. Try looking at how a product’s features
between the promotional mix tools and the media through and benefits are conveyed in a magazine as opposed to
which they operate, so it is a good idea to consider how the TV, for example. Consider ways in which the medium
various brand managers use the media to convey the affects the message.
CASE STUDY: Full Stop
This case study examines an integrated campaign for a that the stress is getting too great; third, to encourage
charitable organisation (i.e. not-for-profit). The campaign children to talk about abusive situations in which they find
used a wide range of media to convey messages to several themselves; and fourth, to raise funds for the charity. These
different groups, each with a different angle on the same aims were addressed at different times and using different
basic problem and each with differing needs. advertisements, but the basic Full Stop message linked
In 2001, research conducted on behalf of the them all together. The campaign was backed up by a
National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children leafleting campaign and by a series of videos aimed at
(NSPCC) showed that one in three people in Britain children and adolescents. Booklets distributed to schools,
would not act to prevent a case of child abuse if they and an impressive website, have also dramatically
knew it was happening. The reason? They would not increased the number of children who have come forward
know what to do. to report abuse.
The NSPCC is over 100 years old. During that time, the One of the main outcomes of the campaign has been
charity has set out to protect children from all forms of a huge increase in lobbying activities. Since the Full Stop
abuse wherever and whenever it occurs – but without pub- campaign started, 140,000 people have come forward to
lic support, they would have had no way of knowing that a help in the campaign, there is now a Children’s Commis-
particular child was suffering. The NSPCC relies on people sioner for Wales, 300 members of Parliament have
calling in and reporting suspected cases – neighbours, tea- signed the NSPCC Pledge on cruelty to children, and
chers, parents of school friends and so forth. Since the public awareness about child abuse has never been
charity was founded, other organisations have taken some higher.
of the burden of the work, however. Local authorities have The NSPCC are realistic enough to know that child
Children’s Services departments which investigate child abuse will probably always happen. The fact that it could
abuse, the police have wide powers to act in child abuse be prevented entirely if everyone worked together is unde-
cases, and other charities such as Action for Children and niable, though, and the charity continues to work towards
Childline (the emergency number which children can ring) this ideal. Effective communication is a key plank in the
have also contributed. platform for success.
However, after discovering that many people would not
know what to do if they knew a child was being abused, the
NSPCC decided to run a major integrated marketing cam-
paign aimed at stopping child abuse altogether. The cam- 1. What are the main communication factors which would
paign, called Full Stop, aimed to inform the general public prevent the NSPCC reaching its goal?
about what to look for, and provided a telephone number 2. How might the NSPCC be more proactive in contacting
(0808 800 5000) which people could call to report abuse. potential abusers?
The campaign included a series of TV advertisements 3. What other communications media might the NSPCC
using the Full Stop strapline, a billboard campaign featuring use?
well-known personalities from the entertainment world,
4. What are the main problems for the NSPCC in
sport and politics, a radio campaign, a newspaper cam-
producing an integrated campaign?
paign and a website. Sponsored by Microsoft, the NSPCC
campaign had four aims: first, to encourage people to 5. How might the NSPCC improve the integration of its
report cases of child abuse; second, to encourage parents campaign?
who might abuse their children to seek help when they feel
Measuring the Success of Promotions 113
ACTIVITY
Analyse a newspaper in terms of its ratio of advertising to categories such as houses for sale, cars for sale and
editorial content. You should find that the newspaper is second-hand goods) and how much is display adver-
around 40% advertising to 60% editorial. If you have tising (advertisements for shops, branded goods,
access to a free newspaper in your area, try analysing etc.)? Why do people buy newspapers – is it for the
the ratio for the free newspaper. Normally this would be news stories, or for the classified advertising? Why
about 80% advertising to 20% editorial. do people avoid the display advertising, yet read the
How much of the newspaper is devoted to Classi- classifieds?
fied advertising (advertising grouped into specific
MEASURING THE SUCCESS OF PROMOTIONS

Although an in-depth study of market research is outside the scope of the
Essentials course, it is useful to have some understanding of how promo-
tional campaigns can be assessed.
Many non-marketers believe that the success of a promotional campaign
can be measured in terms of sales, but in fact this is not true. For one thing,
some tools such as public relations are not aimed at generating sales, but
rather at generating goodwill and loyalty. For another thing, sales may be
affected by many other factors such as competitive activity, Government
initiatives or the general economic climate.
For these reasons, it is more effective to measure communications effec-
tiveness in terms of communications outcomes such as brand awareness,
positioning of the brand relative to competitors, knowledge of distribution
and increased tendency to loyalty. This view of communications crystallised
as the DAGMAR (Defining Advertising Goals, Measuring Advertising
Results) model in the 1960s. The model implies that concrete, measurable
communications objectives should be set for all advertising and the out-
comes measured against these objectives. For example, an objective might be
to raise brand awareness by 20% within 6 months: this objective is concrete
and measurable, and is certainly a communications objective rather than a
sales objective.
There are various techniques available for researching these issues, as
follows:
1. Questionnaire-type surveys. These are usually problematical due to
the difficulty of designing questionnaires which address the issues
accurately and do not lead the respondents towards specific answers.
However, they can be useful in assessing brand awareness. Brand
awareness can be assessed either by using a prompted recall test (in
which a list of brands is provided and the respondent is asked to state
which ones he or she recognises) or by an unprompted test (in which

people are asked which brands in the product category they can
remember, without being given any clues). Questionnaires can also be
used to rank brands against competitors across various product
attributes.
2. In-depth interviews. This technique involves asking people to talk

about the brand and about the advertising in an open-ended way, with
some guidance from the researcher. It is a technique which requires
great skill from the researcher in not ‘leading’ the respondent, but it
can yield a great deal of information, and has the advantage that the
respondent may identify issues which the researcher was not aware
were important.
3. Focus groups. This is a similar technique to the in-depth interview,

except that the respondents are brought together as a group and
invited to comment. This has the major advantage that the group
members often spark off new discussion routes and can explore their
ideas: since they often need to justify what they are saying to the
group, the method compels them to think about what they are saying
rather than simply telling the researcher what they think he or she
wants to know. The danger with focus groups is that one or two
members might sway the thinking of the others. Results are generally
quick to obtain, and a large proportion of commercial market research
is now conducted using focus groups since they appear to have better
predictive value than questionnaire surveys. They are notoriously
difficult to analyse, however.
4. Sales patterns. Although sales levels per se are generally a poor way to
assess promotional success or failure, the pattern of sales can be
indicative, provided it is used in conjunction with other methods. For
example, repeat purchases can indicate greater loyalty, and surges in
sales can indicate the success of sales promotions. Personal selling is
almost always assessed in terms of sales volume, but seasonal factors
can also be taken into account.
5. Pre-testing. Advertising can be pre-tested by showing the

advertisement to a typical customer and assessing his or her
responses. Focus groups are especially useful for pre-tests, but of
course the test assumes that people will actually pay attention to the
advertisement in the first place – it is much more difficult to test
whether an advertisement is eye-catching or not. This can be checked
using a portfolio test, in which a series of advertisements is shown
and the respondent is asked which ones he or she can remember.
Services Marketing 115
6. Physiological measures. This is a set of laboratory techniques in

which individuals’ responses are measured using such technology as
eye cameras (which record the route an individual’s eye takes when
reading an advert), pupil dilation response (which measures the degree
to which the person’s pupils dilate when they see an advert – this is
supposedly an indication of interest), and galvanic skin response by
which the electrical resistance of the skin is measured (also
considered to indicate interest).
SERVICES MARKETING
Virtually all products have some physical aspects and some service aspects.
It would be a mistake to divide products into services and physical products,
as if there were some definite dividing line between them. Having said that,
some products have a much greater service element than others, and for
convenience in writing we refer to these as service products. Service products
have the following characteristics:
& Inseparability of production from consumption. In most cases,
services are consumed at the time they are produced: one enjoys the
meal while sitting in the restaurant, for example. There will be residual
benefits in many cases: a haircut lasts for quite a long time after
leaving the hairdressing salon, and a foreign trip continues after the
airline has provided the transportation service.
& Intangibility. Services cannot be touched: the benefits are mainly in
the mind and the emotions. Some aspects are tangible, of course,
which is the physical evidence aspect of the marketing mix. Some
services are less tangible than others, of course: an insurance policy is a
great deal less tangible than a restaurant meal.
& Variability. Services are usually variable in that there may be
differences from day to day, or from customer to customer. Sometimes
the chef has a bad day (or a particularly inspired one), and of course a
good hairdresser has to take account of the client’s physical features
and specific tastes. This means that each customer will come out of
the salon with a different hairstyle from other clients.
& Perishability. Services cannot be stockpiled. Once an aircraft takes
off, any unsold seats will remain empty and cannot be used the
following day. Likewise, a hairdresser’s time cannot be sold later – if
client misses an appointment, the stylist can usually only sit down
and wait for the next customer. This is a major problem for service
industries, which is why many of them offer discounts or other
incentives to fill quiet periods. Restaurants sometimes offer
discounts to early-evening customers, and bars often run ‘happy
hours’ where drinks are cheaper.
& Non-ownership. Because services are intangible and perishable, the
customer does not own them. In other words, there is no second-hand
value for a service. There are one or two exceptions to this general rule:
it is possible to sell an endowment insurance policy, for instance.
In markets where the service element predominates, there will be a greater
emphasis on the final 3Ps of the marketing mix: people, process and physical
evidence. People are usually taken to mean the ‘front line’ staff who deal
directly with customers: the waitresses, truck drivers, receptionists, lawyers,
accountants, hairstylists and so forth who deliver the service. Some com-
mentators also include other people who may be present when the service is
provided, that is, other customers. This can be an important factor – if we
consider a restaurant, a bar or even a retail store, other customers affect the
atmosphere and consequently our enjoyment of the service. An extreme case
would be a nightclub, where the other customers are actually the product:
most clubbers are not there for the music or the quality of the drinks, they go
in order to meet other people.
IKEA’s co-workers
IKEA is a gigantic operation. The stores cover several acres, so that they can usually solve any customer problem, but
and each store employs 60 or more staff (called co-work- more importantly they are trained to spot customers who
ers). The stores carry thousands of different products, and are struggling or frustrated.
the whole experience can be so confusing for people who Co-workers are empowered to take a wide range of
are shopping there for the first time that IKEA provides corrective actions. Apart from solving the immediate pro-
pencils, paper, tape measures and maps so that people blem (being out of stock of an item, or helping the
can find their way around the vast stores and can make customer to find something) they can, when the situation
notes on what they want to purchase. requires it, offer customers a free meal in the IKEA on-
Inevitably some people become confused, disorien- site Swedish restaurant, or free delivery of an item, or
tated, frustrated and error-prone in such an environment. cash coupons or even money off the purchase price of
Sometimes they will pick up the three-drawer model when the product.
they meant to pick up the four-drawer one, or they will get Over 200 million people visit IKEA stores in any one
lost and wander in circles. Staff at IKEA are extremely well year – testimony to the effectiveness of the company’s cus-
trained: they are cross-trained in sales and stock operations tomer care policies.
As the case of IKEA shows, the people element in service provision can
create competitive advantage. Empowering the workers to resolve problems
instantly helps to create a positive working environment, but it also provides
the customers with exemplary service – which is, of course, what service
products are all about.
EXAM TIP
Some students have become confused over defining the definitely lose marks! Finally, if you are writing about a
People element. For most purposes, remember that the retailer, ‘product’ in services markets means the benefits
‘people’ in the service marketing mix are the people work- the retailer adds, not the products they sell. These bene-
ing for the service provider, not the consumers. fits include things like location, convenience, quick ser-
Also, do not forget that the services mix includes all vice, free delivery, advice on products, servicing back-up,
7Ps – do not just write about the last three or you will guaranteed fresh produce and so forth.
Physical evidence is the tangible aspect of service provision. The classic

examples are the documents one receives from an insurance company as
evidence of having a policy, the décor and ambience of restaurants and retail
stores, and the tickets for airlines and railways. In many cases, physical
evidence is used by consumers to help make a judgement about the likely
quality of the service – a lawyer with a smart waiting room and luxurious
offices gives an impression of success, which in turn inspires confidence in
the client that the lawyer will be successful in fighting the case. Likewise,
banks and insurance companies often have prestigious offices because this
gives an impression of financial probity and solidity – important factors for
financial services companies.
CASE STUDY: JD Wetherspoon
In 1979, law student Tim Martin decided he wanted to own a Wetherspoon’s operate by keeping the price of the
pub. Unlike most students with the same ambition, Martin beer relatively low, but offering a quiet atmosphere,
actually went ahead and bought the pub he usually drank in. no-smoking areas and all-day food.
From the beginning, Martin decided that Wetherspoon’s was Each pub has its own name, but operates under the
going to be different from the other pubs around. overall Wetherspoon brand: the pub name and the com-
For one thing, Wetherspoon’s has no music. There pany name appear prominently on each of the 640 Wether-
is no juke box, no live bands and no piped music any- spoon pubs in Britain. The company was floated on the
where in any Wetherspoon’s pub. Second, Wether- London Stock Exchange in 1992 and continues to expand
spoon’s has a wider range of beers than do most throughout the United Kingdom. In recent years, the com-
pubs – and it is the beer that makes the profits. pany has also diversified into J.D. Wetherspoon Lodges and
Lloyd’s nightclubs. Each of these operations has the same be the best way forward, and not result, for example, in a
philosophy as the central J.D. Wetherspoon brand. situation where customers can smoke in pubs in Newcas-
Maintaining a pleasant, safe atmosphere is central to tle, but not in nearby Gateshead, because neighbouring
Wetherspoon’s policies. The company has removed all councils have different agendas,’ he said. ‘However, it
financial incentives for customers to ‘trade up’ to larger or would be commercial suicide for a pub company to prohibit
more alcoholic drinks: for example, most pubs sell a double smoking in the absence of a nationwide ban by the govern-
measure of spirits for less than the cost of two separate ment. Going it alone, in my opinion, is not a viable option in
singles, but Wetherspoon’s have removed this because the pub world.’ The government clearly took him seriously –
they see it as an incentive for customers to buy more smoking was finally banned in pubs throughout the United
alcohol than they otherwise might. Strange behaviour – Kingdom in 2007. Some pubs have found that business
most companies seek to encourage people to buy more of dropped off, but many others have reported increases in
their products. The company also sell their soft drinks at business as non-smokers return.
much lower prices than most other pubs or restaurants. The United Kingdom is a pub culture, like Ireland:
John Hutson, managing director of Wetherspoon’s, says, much of Britain’s social life revolves around drinking, and
‘We believe that a combination of food served all day, reason- the corner pub is often the cornerstone of the commu-
ably priced soft drinks, an absence of financial incentives to nity. What J.D. Wetherspoon has done is recapture the
‘trade up’ to larger quantities of alcohol, combined with good old atmosphere of the pub – a place for conversation,
facilities and a heavy emphasis on staff training are the right perhaps some food, and a comfortable and safe
direction for the pub industry to take. . . . No company which environment.
serves alcohol can be immune from bad behaviour from time
to time, but these policies should help to reduce its effects
Questions
and, as a company, we will, as in the past, continue to
consider sensible policies for our business and the commu- 1. What is the role of physical evidence in Martin’s
nity in this complex area.’ thinking?
In another somewhat surprising development, Tim 2. Why would Wetherspoon seek to have smoking banned
Martin called on the government to ban smoking in all in all pubs?
pubs. Citing the Californian experience, where all smoking 3. Why ban music in the pubs?
in public places was banned in the 1990s, he said that a
4. Why might Wetherspoon’s seek to limit people’s
significant number of people were avoiding pubs because
drinking?
of the smoky atmosphere. ‘I believe that a total ban would
ACTIVITY
Next time you visit a service organisation – a restaurant, management have done to create physical evidence. How
store, bar, etc. – try listing the different things the have these elements combined to create a brand image?
Process is the series of events that takes place in order for the service to be
delivered effectively. Even when the physical aspects of the service product
are similar, the process can differentiate the products markedly: consider the
difference between a hamburger from McDonald’s and a hamburger from
Hard Rock Café. Process can also change the dynamics of the service opera-
tion, reducing costs and increasing efficiency.
CASE STUDY: EasyJet
EasyJet, the low-cost, no-frills airline, has been the subject the people involved in turning round the aircraft – the bag-
of many case studies and is widely used as an example of gage handlers, the caterers, refuelling companies, airport
how an innovative approach to marketing can produce staff, EasyJet front-line staff, ground engineers, pilots,
tremendous competitive advantage. This does not mean cabin crew and even the cleaning contractors. The consul-
that things have always gone smoothly for the airline – in tants then were in a position to set up the right conditions
fact, at one point it looked as if the company was going to for people who actually do the job to pool their ideas.
become a victim of its own success! One of the early discoveries by the consultants was that
The demand for cheap flights, and the availability of people carrying out the various tasks did not understand
new routes, was growing faster than the airline’s ability to how their processes fitted with other people’s activities,
buy or lease aircraft. EasyJet could not afford to relax on because they had little or no idea of what the other teams
opening up new routes, because a failure to seize opportu- actually did. Worse, they did not understand how each job
nities in that regard would have left the routes open for was reliant on every other job. The consultants arranged for
competitors, of which many had grown up since the early cross-disciplinary groups to meet and explain each others’
days when Ryanair and EasyJet were the only two budget jobs. The result of this was some creative ideas for cutting
airlines in Europe. Also, passenger numbers were growing ground time. For example, ground engineers normally wait
so fast that EasyJet’s prices were rising – unless one booked until all the passengers have disembarked before coming
very early indeed, the aircraft would be filling fast and the on board to discuss servicing needs with the pilots: this
computer system would raise the air fare, thus destroying inevitably causes delays as it can take 10 minutes or more
the company’s main selling point. for passengers to collect their hand baggage and leave the
The choices were simple: either the company would plane. Discussions within the focus groups led to the idea
have to raise fares across the board and use the money to of supplying ground engineers with headsets so that they
fund new aircraft (thus destroying the firm’s only competi- can talk to the pilots from the tarmac while the passengers
tive advantage), or it would have to find ways to make the disembark, getting most questions out of the way before
existing aircraft work harder. EasyJet chose the latter needing to board the aircraft. Another innovation is for the
course. cabin crew to begin cleaning the cabin before the aircraft
Aircraft suffer from some limitations. They fly at the arrives – the cabin crew collect unwanted magazines and
speed they fly: although it is possible to speed up a little, newspapers and any obvious rubbish while the aircraft is in
the cost in fuel outweighs the savings made. They have a its final approach and the seat belt sign is on.
fixed number of seats: unlike buses or trains, passengers Ideas were disseminated by videoing the sessions
cannot stand in the aisles. They cannot tow trailers, or and allowing staff to see what the groups discussed.
have extra carriages put on, or in any way expand their Ideas continue to flow from the staff, because they have
capacity. Many airports nowadays do not operate on a developed an innovative culture. After all, who can under-
24-hour basis, because of environmental and noise con- stand the job better than those who do it all day, every
siderations, so short-haul aircraft are effectively grounded day?
overnight. The only slack in the system that EasyJet could The net result of the exercise is that average turnround
identify was the turnround time on the ground: the less times are down from 50 to 33 minutes, and in one notable
time spent on cleaning and servicing the aircraft ready for case an aircraft was turned round in only 7 minutes. This
its next batch of passengers, the more time it could may not seem a lot, but if an aircraft makes an average of
spend in the air. four return flights a day, over an hour per day will be saved
EasyJet called in the consultants, but rather than hire in downtime. Over a working year, this equates to more
time-and-motion consultants, the airline brought in a group than 60 return flights from Luton to Nice – which is equiva-
which specialises in developing innovative corporate cul- lent to over a million pounds per aircraft in extra sales
tures. For the next 3 months the consultants interviewed all revenue.
Questions 3. What effect do the process changes have on the firm’s

1. How does the change in process affect EasyJet’s unique brand image?
selling proposition? 4. What was the role of the people element in making the
2. What might be the downside of the changes, from the changes?
viewpoint of passengers?
MEASURING THE SUCCESS OF MARKETING ACTIVITIES

Measuring success in marketing is not easy. Because much of what market-
ers do is concerned with establishing specific attitudes in consumers’ minds,
or with creating an image for a product, the difficulties inherent in assessing
intangibles often result in no accurate assessment being undertaken.
Factors involved in measurement are as follows:
& Budget measurement. This is the degree to which marketing expenditures
remain within the budget estimates. It is usually only relevant if the budget
is based on sales turnover, but many firms do measure against budget, at
least as part of the assessment of marketing success.
& Objectives obtained. Naturally, this relies on setting realistic objectives
in the first place (see Unit 2). In some cases, objectives are easily
measured: in other cases, for example, when trying to measure the
success of a communications campaign, outcomes are difficult to
measure. Communications activities can only be measured by
communications outcomes – measuring by marketing outcomes such as
increased sales is problematic since sales might have increased (or
decreased) for any one of a great many reasons. If the objectives have been
correctly set, using SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic
and Time-bound) as a checklist, the objective will be measurable.
& Sales revenue, or profit and loss measurements. The difficulty here is
that many factors other than marketing activities can affect sales
revenue, and even more is this the case with profit and loss. For
example, a major economic downturn can wipe out sales, and at the
same time a sudden fall in raw material prices or a currency fluctuation
can make dramatic changes in profit and loss. These can easily mask
any effects caused by marketing activities.
& Efficiency and effectiveness. Effectiveness is the degree to which
something has worked and efficiency is the degree to which something has
been achieved for a minimum of effort and expenditure. Each of these will
Measuring the Success of Marketing Activities 121
involve other measurements (notably effectiveness) but they are useful as

a way of understanding the impact of different marketing activities.
& Level of defects or returns. This appears at first sight to be an
engineering issue, but in fact marketers need to be assured that goods
going out to customers are fit for purpose. This is especially true in the
case of services. Companies may aim for a zero-defect policy or in
other cases expect a certain amount of complaining as being inherent
to the business. If levels of complaints or returns are rising, the
company may well want to do something about it.
& Customer service complaints. Two issues need to be addressed here:
first, the level of complaints itself, as being indicative of customer
dissatisfaction, or a mismatch between what the company provides
and what the customers want, and second, the extent to which
complaints are dealt with to the customer’s satisfaction. Complaints
which are satisfactorily dealt with tend to increase customer loyalty,
which is why some firms actively encourage complaining.
& Increased brand awareness. This is usually measured by formal
market research and is one measure of success in promotion. It does
not necessarily translate into sales revenue outcomes, however – being
aware of a brand is not the same as intending to buy it. Obviously
increased awareness of the brand will probably increase the number of
people who will be interested in buying, but in some cases people are
aware of a brand in a negative way.
& Changing attitudes. Like brand awareness, this can be measured
through good market research. Making changes in people’s attitudes is
one of the key functions of promotion activities, although in general
attitudes tend to be stable and most promotion probably only acts as a
reminder or ‘nudges’ people towards a purchase.
& Repeat purchase and loyalty. Some companies can measure this
easily: many large retailers operate loyalty schemes, and many online
retailers can track purchases. For other firms, especially those who are
not close to the final consumers of their products, measuring repeat
purchase and loyalty involves market research exercises.
CASE STUDY: Insight Express
Insight Express is a consultancy which specialises in marketing research, Insight Express has carved out a
online market research. Although the company’s niche for itself in the collection and analysis of data
researchers are also experts in traditional approaches to obtained from Internet-based surveys and qualitative
research. The company carries out research about adver- to age, gender and other basic demographic attributes.
tising effectiveness, attitude and opinion evaluation, Based on their answers, respondents are allocated to an
brand awareness and concept testing, customer satisfac- active survey for which they qualify.
tion, market sizing, new product feature selection, price The company claims to have the sampling problem
testing, and (in short) all aspects of consumer and cus- beaten because of the size of their population of potential
tomer research for marketers. respondents. In practice, there are some problems –
Insight Express say that the core of their success is the although the Insight Express panel shows the same break-
ability to deliver the online consumer and business audi- down by gender and marital status as the population at
ences that match the clients’ targeting criteria and are large, their household income is (on average) 25% greater
representative of the target markets. The company runs a and the sample shows considerably fewer individuals in the
panel called e-RDD which is their main pool of respon- lucrative 50þ age group.
dents, but has the capability to sample from up to 100 mil- For many types of survey, these differences do not
lion online individuals. All respondents are 100% opt-in matter: a representative sample can be drawn from the
(they are all volunteers, in other words) and response Insight Express population so that the overall results are
rates run typically between 50 and 85%. more reliable. Whatever the arguments for and against
A recent research project carried out by Insight online research, Insight Express have certainly found a
Express shows the power of their systems. In 2004, the potentially lucrative niche in the market research
company carried out an online survey on the topic of digital business.
video recorders (DVRs) and found that 80% of respondents
were already set up with a potential DVR device – their
home PCs. Of these, two-thirds said they would be happy
to use their PC as a DVR if it was easy and cheap to do so. 1. How might Insight Express be able to help with
This has major implications for electronics manufacturers assessing advertising effectiveness?
(who may lose out badly), computer manufacturers and 2. What type of marketing outcome would be reliably
software companies (who will gain dramatically). The entire researched by Insight Express, and which would not?
research programme was carried out within only 3 3. Apart from sampling, what other problems might arise
months – about one-third the time a comparable study for Insight Express clients?
would have taken by traditional methods.
4. What factors might have biased the DVR research?
Insight Express recruits its respondents by using pop-
ups, pop-unders, banners, links and other call-to-action 5. What problems might arise from using the panel
systems. Individuals who accept the offer complete an approach?
online screening survey which categorises them according
EXAM TIP
You will be expected to be aware of the methods used for Many students make the error of assuming that
measurement and the ways in which they can be used, so advertising can be measured by increased sales, for
you should be aware of the drawbacks and limitations of example, whereas advertising can only be measured by
each. You should also consider if some are inappropriate communications outcomes such as increased brand
with a marketing-orientated company. awareness or changed attitudes.
Putting it All Together 123
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

You will need to be able to assemble all the elements of the marketing mix in
order to make recommendations. Although the mix is dealt with as seven
discrete factors, marketers (in practice) have to use all seven in the correct
proportions and at the correct time to be successful. The coordinating
mechanism is the brand personality, but the starting point for everything
is the needs of the target customers.
In order to compete effectively, you will need to:
& Design a mix which is compatible and coordinated effectively.
& Think about your target market, their needs and expectations and also
(of course) what the firm wants from them in return.
& Think about possible competitive responses. Competitors do not sit
idly by and let you take their customers away – they will do something
and it might be something serious.
& Think of the impact on the other elements of the mix if you start
adjusting an element.
ACTIVITY
Here is a grid:
Product Price Place Promotion People Process Physical evidence
Product X
Price X
Place X
Promotion X
People X
Process X
Physical evidence X
Write in each box how you think the two elements might your own experiences in the firm you work for or any other
interact. This will help you remember the possible relation- marketing organisation with which you are familiar.
ships. If it helps, you could consider them in the light of
CASE STUDY: Manchester month. The Thai edition sells 25,000 copies per month,
United Football Club and there are editions in Malay and Norwegian, with other
foreign language editions to follow. The best markets for
MUFC merchandise are Scandinavia, Ireland and Asia,
Manchester United Football Club (MUFC) exhibits an inter- regions where football is popular and watched extensively
esting difference over other football clubs. The vast majority on TV and where there are strong national teams but few
of its fans have never seen the team play other than on really big club sides. It followed from this that several other
television. This is because most of Manchester United’s areas were ripe for targeting – the Middle East, for exam-
fans live outside the United Kingdom. ple – where the additional desirable criteria of a young
In 2002, fan club membership was spread across 200 population, high disposable income and the ability to
branches in 24 countries. The Internet has enabled MUFC watch matches on TV are also in evidence. South Africa is
fans to communicate through chat rooms on every conti- another target market for the club. The Manchester United
nent, including Antarctica – members of the British Antarc- brand is known worldwide, so the merchandising company
tic Survey team often have to wait until the appropriate is able to compete effectively with major sports equipment
satellite is above the horizon in order to get the latest and clothing manufacturers such as Nike and Adidas.
news of their team, but they feel it is worth the wait. The Manchester United is in the early stages of internatio-
club even has its own TV channel – MUTV – available by nalisation, however. MUFC still exports products directly
subscription and pay-per-view. Even though membership rather than setting up local production or licensing arrange-
of the US fan club cost $65 per person per annum, the ments. This provides the club with higher margins and total
membership lists had to be closed and the club’s allocation control over quality.
of tickets (held in the New York State branch and available The vast majority of the club’s income comes from its
to members travelling to the United Kingdom) was over- export markets – a far cry from the days when players were
subscribed by several hundred percent. part-timers who had other jobs during the week, and the
The huge international following for MUFC has opened club’s only income was the gate receipts.
up numerous possibilities for export marketing. A subsidi-
ary company, Manchester United Merchandising, was
Questions
formed to sell MUFC clothing, shoes, sports equipment,
memorabilia and even telephone cards. In 1992, when the 1. Which elements of the marketing mix does Manchester
company started, the turnover was £2 million. By 1995, the United use, and in what ways?
turnover was £20 million and exceeded the gate receipts 2. What type of pricing strategy might be most appropriate
and programme sales for the entire year. By 2004, the for MUFC?
turnover had grown to the point where playing football is
3. What effect would your choice of pricing strategy have
merely a device for selling merchandise – the income from
on the MUFC brand?
gate receipts is only a tiny proportion of the club’s total
income. 4. Which promotional devices would be most appropriate
The monthly Manchester United Magazine spearheads for MUFC?
the marketing effort, together with the bi-monthly Manche- 5. Why might MUFC have such a large following outside
ster United on Video. More than 140,000 copies of the the United Kingdom?
English language version of the magazine are sold each
Self-Test Questions 125
SUMMARY
The marketing mix is a useful concept in that it brings together all the
tactical tools that marketers have at their disposal and explains how each
one affects the overall marketing effort. It should be used as a recipe: each
ingredient, added at the right time and in the right quantity, contributes to
the final result. It is important to remember that the elements all affect each
other, and the total finished marketing plan will reflect all the elements.
It is also worth remembering that every firm supplies some services along
with its physical products. These service elements (people, process and
physical evidence) are often the only differentiators a firm has. One should
also bear in mind that not everything fits neatly within the marketing mix
‘silos’ – like most models, it is for guidance and convenience of thought, it is
not a prescriptive blueprint for action.
SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. What does PLC stand for?
A Product-loving consumer
B Product life cycle.
C Product launch controller.

A Screening comes before idea generation, but after concept testing.

B Concept testing comes after market testing, but before
commercialisation.
C Screening comes after idea generation and before concept testing.

A People can include other customers.
B Product, for a retailer, means the products on the shelves.

C Price is the only element of the mix which does not affect the other
elements.
4. A new product which changes people’s lives radically is called:
A Continuous innovation.
B Discontinuous innovation.
C Dynamically continuous innovation.
A Early adopters buy after innovators, but before early majority.

B Early majority buy before late majority, but after laggards.
C Late majority buy after laggards, but before early majority.
6. Which of the following lists the elements of the traditional

promotional mix?
A Price, advertising, PR and personal selling.

B Personal selling, advertising, PR and sales promotion.
C Selling, advertising, sales promotion and personal communication.

7. Pitching the price low to start with in order to gain market share is
called:
A Penetration pricing.
B Skimming.
C Demand pricing.
8. Pitching the price high to start with then reducing it as competitors
enter the market is called:
A Skimming.
B Penetration pricing.
C Competitive pricing.
9. A firm which sells books on the Internet is an example of:

A A wholesaler.
B An agent.
C A retailer.
10. The practice of moving goods through the distribution chain from raw
materials to end user is called:
A Physical distribution.
B Logistics.
C Marketing.
Websites 127
FURTHER READING
Since the marketing mix is such a large part of practical marketing, the reading tends
also to be comprehensive. Chapter 1 of Essentials of Marketing (Blythe), plus
chapters 6, 7, 8 and 9 for more detail on the mix elements.
Alternatively, Chapter 1 of Principles of Marketing (Blythe), with more detail in
Chapters 12–22. Chapters 7–19 of Principles of Marketing (Brassington and
Pettitt), Chapters 13–22 of Principles of Marketing (Kotler et al.), and Chapters
8–17 of Principles and Practice of Marketing (Jobber).
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Booms, B.H. and Bitner, M.J. (1982): Marketing strategies and organisation struc-
tures for service firms. In Donnelly, J.H. and George, W.R. (eds) Marketing of
Services. (Chicago: American Marketing Association, pp. 47–52).
Levitt, T. (1986): The Marketing Imagination. (New York: Free Press).
WEBSITES
http://www.berr.gov.uk/index.html
The official website of the Department for Business Enterprise and Regulatory
Reform. It contains a large number of articles and statistics on innovation, as
well as advice for innovative businesses.
www.myoffers.co.uk
This website directs users to many sales promotions, providing a useful set of
examples.
www.advertisingarchives.co.uk
This site contains advertisements going back over a hundred years.
This is an article about failed products, giving some of the reasons why they fail.
http://brand.blogs.com/mantra/2005/02/lovehate_brand_.html
This is a chat room for people to post their messages of love or hate about brands.
It offers some interesting insights into what goes wrong with brand messages.
http://www.strangenewproducts.com
It is a website for weird and wonderful new products. The products themselves
are genuine: some of them are definitely useful, others are useful but no one
would buy them, and some are just plain crazy.
How to Pass the CIM Exams
The Chartered Institute of Marketing’s (CIM) examinations are not a repla-

cement for a degree course. They stand alongside, or even instead of, degree
courses because the thrust of CIM thinking is towards the vocational rather
than the academic. Degree courses tend to emphasise theory, and compar-
ison of different models, whereas the CIM examiners are far more interested
in your ability to apply what you know, in other words to think like a
marketer.
This is by no means a minor distinction. Evidence from analysis of CIM
papers shows that students who bring ‘degree’-type thinking tend to do
badly, whereas candidates who bring their marketing experience to bear do
well. You should practise looking at every business situation (notably the
case study in the exam) by asking the following questions:
& What can this company do immediately to improve the customer
experience?
& What can this company do immediately to leverage its customer base
into providing greater revenue and profits?
& How can this company differentiate itself from its competitors – in
other words, what is this company able to do for customers which
other companies cannot?
& Do my recommendations give someone a ‘blueprint’ for what they
should do on Monday morning?
& Are the recommendations I am making worth somebody’s money?
These are questions which you will be expected to answer in the real world:
although (obviously) a CIM course is not the real world, CIM aim to make
the exams as relevant to practice as it is possible to make them.
129
130 How to Pass the CIM Exams
Thinking like a marketer means being a risk taker, being creative and
innovative and using common sense – ask yourself whether you, as a
customer, would react well to what the firm is doing. Marketers tend to
think differently from other people in the organisation, if only because their
focus is outside the organisation. Rather like someone who is choosing a
Christmas present, marketers have to think like a customer, understanding
his or her needs and wants, whereas the focus is internal for other people in
the firm.
You should also bear in mind standard exam behaviour: if a question
is only worth 4 marks, the examiner is only expecting a short answer. If
a question is worth 20 marks, the examiner is expecting a much longer
answer and you should spend the appropriate length of time on the
question. You should also spend a few minutes just reading over the
paper and ensuring that you understand the questions: sometimes can-
didates simply write down everything they know about (say) the product
life cycle without actually answering the question (which may be about
using appropriate communications tools at different life cycle stages and
is therefore about marketing communications rather than the PLC itself).
Remember that CIM examiners are not trying to trick you – they do not
want to fail you, they want to grade you! There is a sample exam paper
later in this section, with specimen answers of approximately the
expected length, with comments on typical errors students make when
answering the questions.
Here is a checklist for passing the exam:
& Read the paper and be sure you understand the questions. Many
candidates are losing marks because they simply did not answer the
question that was set. It is always worthwhile to spend the first 10
minutes or so of the exam reading the paper thoroughly.
& Work out how much time each question is worth and keep to that
timing. If a question is only worth 4 marks, it should only be worth
about 5 or 6 minutes of your time.
& Stick to the practical – do not just quote theory, use it to back up your
recommendations. If you apply the theory, it will be obvious that you
know it, so you do not necessarily need to repeat it.
& Ask yourself if your advice will improve the company’s profitability or
the customer experience, or preferably both!
Marks and Spencer (Dec 2008) 131
& Ask yourself if someone would be prepared to pay you for your advice.
After all, that is exactly what you are expecting your current or future
employer to do.
CASE STUDIES FROM PREVIOUS EXAMS

This section contains case studies from previous examinations, with an
analysis of each. The most common errors made by students are also
identified in each case.
MARKS AND SPENCER (DEC 2008)

Marks and Spencer (M&S) is a major UK retail chain, famous for its good-
quality clothing and for exceptional food products. M&S is something of a
UK institution – with 600 stores dotted throughout the country, and with
many ‘Simply Food’ outlets on motorway services and railway stations
catering to travellers, one is never far from an M&S store.
The company had its beginnings in 1884, when Michael Marks
(a Russian-born Jewish refugee from the pogroms) opened a market stall in
Leeds. Ten years later, he went into partnership with Tom Spencer, a former
cashier: by this time, Marks had opened a store in Manchester and was
beginning to expand throughout the North.
In the 1920s, M&S introduced the then-revolutionary policy of buying
direct from manufacturers and registered their own label (St. Michael).
Eventually (by 1957) all the products sold by M&S went out under the St.
Michael brand. The company had a policy of buying British goods only and
commissioned manufacturers to produce items to M&S designs and
specifications.
The company had an extremely enlightened attitude to staff welfare,
providing health care, subsidised canteens, hairdressing services and even
holidays for staff – this was revolutionary stuff in the 1930s and ensured a
committed and loyal workforce. In 1959 M&S banned smoking in all their
stores (the first retailer to do so) and in 1961 banned all dogs except guide
dogs, another first.
M&S have undergone several re-launches. The company’s reputation for
solid, serviceable, good-quality clothing has worked both for and against
them – on the one hand, a reputation for clothes that will last is a plus,
but on the other hand the same reputation can be perceived as a boring outlet
for industrial-strength underwear. This tends to alienate younger shoppers.
During the 1970s M&S re-designed the stores to create a ‘younger’ feel.
During the 1990s the company had a major resurgence and was the first
UK retailer to post profits of over £1 billion. The company dropped the
St. Michael brand during this period, in favour of the ‘Your M&S’ brand.
The company’s fortunes dipped again in the late 1990s, partly due to
overpricing, partly due to the company’s policy of not accepting credit cards
(except their own) and partly due to the policy of only buying British goods.
The company was simply unable to compete against rivals who were bring-
ing in cheaper products from low-cost countries.
M&S now accepts credit cards and imports products globally, although
they do insist on ethical dealings with overseas manufacturers. The com-
pany has a published code of practice for overseas suppliers which includes
aspects such as workers’ rights and working conditions.
Throughout the early years of the 21st century, M&S have worked to
shed their somewhat dowdy image and attract a younger audience. Lively ad
campaigns, new product ranges and store re-designs have all been aimed at
re-vitalising the corporate image, while still retaining a degree of differentia-
tion from other retailers. The ‘Per Una’ range of clothing has been intro-
duced as a younger-looking line, while still retaining the reputation for
quality for which M&S is famous.
In the longer term, M&S seems likely to continue to play to its strength,
which is a reputation for high quality (albeit at a price). With its increased
customer focus, this is almost certainly a winning formula.
Analysis
M&S is not an especially customer-centred company. They clearly put a
strong emphasis on staff relations and (until recently) they obviously had a
mission to support British manufacturing, even when this resulted in higher
prices for customers. Again, until they were more or less forced to do it, the
company did not accept credit cards, which for many British consumers
represented a considerable inconvenience.
Stock policies also seemed to be less than customer-centred. Apart from
the preponderance of own-brand goods, the company appears to have
retained the same stock policies regardless of changing fashion, with the
result that the company acquired a reputation for dowdy, old-fashioned
clothing. Attempts to overcome this image (the Per Una range) have been
Latchways (Mar 2009) 133
difficult for the company, but they have made considerable strides in that
direction.
The key issue with M&S, though, is its ethical stance. The company
maintains exemplary working conditions for its staff and also tries to ensure
that overseas workers are treated in a fair way: child labour and exploitative
working practices are banned.
The company’s pricing policy seems to be to charge a high price for top
quality: this applies to both the food and the clothing ranges. This is a form
of prestige pricing, especially for the food – the high price signals high
quality.
COMMON ERRORS
The main area where students did badly on this exam paper was on the
ethics question. Candidates often seemed to have difficulty in understanding
what is meant by corporate ethics, or why it matters to marketers. The
essence of the issue is that ethical companies acquire better reputations
and are seen as reliable companies with whom to do business: regarding
the staff welfare provisions, M&S are likely to have a much lower staff
turnover and much more loyal staff – which is in itself a cost saving. In
addition, the company is extremely unlikely to fall foul of legislation.
The other area where candidates did poorly was simply in not spending
enough time on the questions. Often candidates would write only one or two
pages – clearly inadequate for a question worth 20 marks. This is not to say
that the answer needs to be four or five times as long as that for a 4-mark
question: the examiners clearly expect that candidates will need to spend
some time on analysing the case and thinking about their recommendations.
In some cases candidates described the theory they were applying in
minute detail, which is definitely not necessary for the case study questions.
Using the theory to back up the recommendations rather than describing the
theory first is a far better approach.
LATCHWAYS (MAR 2009)

Latchways PLC is based in Devizes, Wiltshire, a rural area of England to the
west of London. The company specialises in safety equipment for people
who work at great heights, such as the outsides of office blocks,
telecommunications towers, electricity pylons and so forth. The company

was founded in 1974 and has patented systems for cable-based fall arrester
equipment.
The heart of the company’s product range is the Transfastener system.
This allows workers to move freely as they carry out their work, without
having to re-attach a safety line every few minutes: this avoids the possibility
of human error when using a two-karabiner system in which the worker has
to detach and re-locate one line while relying on another line, then detaching
and moving the second line. Examples have occurred where workers have
either accidentally detached both lines at once, or (because of having
nowhere to attach the second line) have relied on only one line while work-
ing. There is also the problem of having to detach and re-attach lines while
carrying tools or components. The Transfastener system avoids this sce-
nario, since the worker only attaches the line once and can then work hands-
free until the job is finished.
The system also incorporates a constant-force energy absorber so that (in
the event of a fall) the worker is not jerked to a halt too suddenly, with a
consequent risk of breaking bones or damaging internal organs. Latchways
ensures that all its products conform to the Health and Safety Executive
Code of Practice, which states (among other things) that:
It is the responsibility of the employer to ensure that any employee
required to work at a height of 2 m or more must be suitably protected
from any potential fall hazards. In the event of a fall the equipment
used must be of sufficient strength to arrest a worker’s fall.
Since the company sells it products worldwide, it also needs to comply
with foreign law, which differs from UK legislation in some respects. For
example, French legislation specifies a height of 3 metres or more, Dutch
legislation specifies a height of 2.5 metres and Spanish legislation specifies a
height of 3.5 metres or more. In Spain, fall arrest systems such as those
produced by Latchways are mandatory, but in France and Holland any
system is acceptable provided it protects workers. In the United States,
Latchways conform to the rigorous American National Standards Institute
recommendations, which are tougher than the Government’s Occupational
Health and Safety Standards for Industry legislation.
Naturally, in an industry such as this quality is a major issue, so Latch-
ways have devolved quality control to all employees. Each employee is
responsible for maintaining quality and safety standards: rather than having
a quality inspection at the end of the production process, each employee
Latchways (Mar 2009) 135
checks quality at every stage, thus maximising the chances of discovering

any defects before the product is sold.
And the products do sell. Latchways has sold its ManSafe system to the
Clifton Suspension Bridge, the Lysefjord Bridge in Norway and even the
Sydney Harbour Bridge, where it is used to allow tourists to climb to the
top of the bridge to enjoy the view over the harbour. St. Paul’s Cathedral in
London, Canterbury Cathedral and Portsmouth Dockyard all use ManSafe,
and the company has even supplied the Royal Family – Buckingham Palace
uses Latchways systems. Deutsche Telecom, Vodafone and NTL use the
systems for ensuring worker safety when working on telephone masts.
Latchways has not been slow to expand the product range, either. In 2001,
they incorporated HCL into the group. HCL is a specialist distributor of safety
systems, providing Latchways with access to a wider range of customers. In
2004 the company acquired the rights to the Wingrip system, originally
developed for aerospace applications but with potential for application else-
where, and in 2007 the company introduced the Walksafe system for people
working on roofs. As specialists in their field, Latchways also offers a free
design and specification service so that contractors, architects and technical
people can get the most from Latchways products. The company distributes its
products through independent agents throughout the world, but places great
importance on maintaining close relationships with its key account end-users.
So how is the company doing? In the 2007 Company Report, the direc-
tors reported a turnover of £31.9 million up 14% on the previous year.
Earnings per share increased by 27%. Although the United Kingdom is still
the company’s main market, sales there grew by only 11% compared with
26% for the rest of Europe and a massive 97% for the rest of the world. Sales
outside the United Kingdom now greatly exceed domestic sales, and as
legislation is introduced in other countries (particularly in developing econo-
mies), the company expects to see even greater growth in future. Subsidiaries
Safety Services (a specialist installation and consultancy arm of Latchways)
and Specialist Fixing (the installation arm) both did extremely well. Latch-
ways have directed some of the extra money towards research and develop-
ment, doubling the size of the development team, and have also introduced a
number of measures to increase efficiency as a way of offsetting some
substantial increases in raw materials costs.
Overall, the future looks bright for the Latchways group. They are invest-
ing in the right places and they are in a business which can only see growth,
partly as a result of more construction projects worldwide and partly because
of a tightening of legislation.
Analysis
Latchways is a relatively small firm which operates in a global niche market.
It therefore needs to understand trading conditions in those markets:
although the basic problem which the company seeks to solve remains the
same (all countries have a need for people to work at a height) the solutions
need to be adapted somewhat to meet local legislation. Legislation is what
drives Latchways: the tougher the regulations, the greater need there will be
for the company’s products, so the company needs to be aware of upcoming
changes in legislation in order to be ready with a suitable solution. This is
why the company has doubled the size of its development team in recent
years and why its consultancy arm is doing well – customers need more help
in understanding, and adapting to, the legislation.
The company empowers its staff to handle quality issues on the produc-
tion line and adds value by offering consultancy services: although it is too
small to have its own overseas sales offices, and therefore uses agents, the
company takes a relationship marketing approach to its end-users. The
company is therefore very marketing-orientated and expends considerable
effort on understanding the markets in which it operates.
It is obvious that the global aspects of the company are going to take
precedence in future. Growth in the United Kingdom is likely to be small as
the market becomes saturated, so the focus will be overseas and the com-
pany will need to put more effort into understanding those markets. The
company will also need to pay careful attention to distribution chain issues
and may well need to increase its control over distributors.
Common errors
For this paper, relationship marketing was widely misunderstood – students
really need to understand that this approach means taking active steps to
retain customers with a high lifetime value. This goes beyond simply pro-
viding a good service or a good product: it means establishing a dialogue with
customers, which Latchways seeks to do through its consultancy arm. The
company should also do this through its website, which needs to be as
interactive as possible and should have mechanisms in place for capturing
information about visitors to the site.
It is entirely possible that some customers are not worth retaining, of
course, and relationship market does contain this idea as well. This is why
companies who want to take a relationship marketing approach collect infor-
mation about all customers, not just those who seem particularly attractive.
Apple and the iPhone (Jun 2009) 137
Within the case study itself, some students had difficulty understanding
the concept of adding customer value. All this means is that the company
looks for ways to improve what they do for the customer, either without
raising prices or by adding enough value to justify a price rise (as judged by
the customer, of course). In the next question, candidates were asked to
consider the effects of legislation on Latchways: many failed to recognise
that increased legislation is helpful to the company, as it forces construction
firms to adopt Latchways products. Too many gave the ‘stock answer’ that
companies need to be aware of legislation which restricts their business –
which is true, but which is not the key issue for Latchways. The final
question for the case study concerned the 7P model of the marketing mix.
Some students did no more than describe the 7Ps, without actually applying
them to Latchways: others failed to recognise the importance of Latchways’
design and development department, which is clearly an important service
element.
Again, many candidates did not use their time well and some failed to use
report format when asked to. This meant losing marks – you are expected to
use the correct format in your working life, so you should use it when asked
to in the exam. Up to 10 marks are given for using the correct format.
APPLE AND THE IPHONE (JUN 2009)

In January 2007, Apple Corporation unveiled its latest must-have gadget: the
iPhone. Building on the success of the iPod music system, the iPhone is a
mobile telephone with all the bells and whistles. It connects to the Internet,
it has a 2 megapixel camera, it will store up to 1,000 songs, it has a screen
three and a half inches wide (big enough for TV shows), it will do everything
the iPod does and it will also make telephone calls. And what telephone
calls! Apart from the usual address book and automatic dialling that every-
one expects from a mobile telephone, the iPhone can hold calls while the
user answers another call, and can even set up a conference call. There is no
keypad – everything is controlled from the touch-sensitive screen. Basically,
the iPhone does everything any other telephone in the world does and it
connects to the Internet. Apple launched the product in the United States in
January 2007, intending to roll the product out worldwide over the ensuing
12 months or so, in order to manage demand.
Demand has been strong. In April 2008, the company reported that they
were unable to manufacture the telephones fast enough to meet demand,
despite the £500 price tag in the United States. Part of the problem was that
enterprising Nigerians were buying the phones in New York in lots of 500
and shipping them to Nigeria where demand among wealthy Nigerians was
taking off – Apple’s careful worldwide roll-out was being undermined within
days of the launch, partly as a result of the weak dollar. People used to paying
$500 for a Blackberry were delighted to find they could buy an iPhone for a
similar amount.
The launch was not without other problems. Cisco Systems filed a law-
suit alleging trademark infringement within hours of the launch: Cisco had
launched an Internet-enabled telephone in 2006 under the name iPhone, but
were prepared to share the name provided certain conditions were met. They
alleged that Apple went ahead with the launch before the discussions were
concluded, whereas Apple claimed that the talks were almost finished apart
from minor details. This wrangling over the brand name did not affect
Apple’s shares – they soared on the launch of the iPhone. In any case,
Apple is no stranger to lawsuits – they have even been involved in a long-
running legal battle with the Beatles, whose own record label is also called
Apple and uses a similar logo.
Apple has, according to business analysts JD Power, the highest rate of
customer loyalty of any computer/electronics manufacturer. Apple operate
their own network of retail stores and each new opening is usually marked by
huge crowds waiting to be the first to see the latest gadgets (in Tokyo, the
queue stretched for eight city blocks). Apple’s consumer base is reputed to be
unusually artistic, creative and well-educated: the company has fostered this
image, using advertising which reflects a rebellious image.
Certainly the iPhone proved popular when it was finally launched in
Europe. O2, the telephone service provider, secured exclusive rights to sell
the iPhone: they reported selling tens of thousands of the units in the first
weekend of the launch. Germany’s T-Mobile sold 10,000 units in the first
afternoon of the launch and O2 went on to sell 200,000 units over the
Christmas and New Year period. Apple have tried as far as possible to
distribute via network operators, linking the telephone to contracts.
Not surprisingly, the major players in the world’s mobile telephone
industry were quick to respond to this entry by a new competitor. Nokia’s
N95, Sony-Ericsson’s W960, Samsung Blackjack and several others were
already regarded as serious competition, but the majors are working to
develop similar touch-sensitive screens and interfacing in order to meet
the threat head-on. The relatively high price of the iPhone (around £300 if
the buyer takes out an 18-month contract or E799 in Germany without a
Apple and the iPhone (Jun 2009) 139
contract) means that competitors have some scope for undercutting the
price. Apple would almost certainly be in a position to retaliate, however,
since the colossal sales figures so far have almost certainly meant that the
company will have covered the development costs of the iPhone and can
afford to move the price closer to the costs of production. Meanwhile,
Vodafone ran a specific feature on its website offering ‘alternatives to
iPhone’, at lower prices – possibly a somewhat desperate measure, given
that Vodafone were thus giving the impression that the iPhone was a better
product!
In the longer term, there is little doubt that competitors will erode
Apple’s lead in the market. Whether Apple can maintain their position by
bringing out an even more advanced and exciting model remains to be seen –
but there is little doubt that the iPhone has generated a great deal of
consternation among the established firms in the mobile telephone
business.
Analysis
This case is largely about new product adoption, but it also contains ele-
ments of pricing. Apple tried to roll out the launch of the iPhone globally by
launching sequentially into different markets. This was probably because
they could not manufacture the phones in sufficient quantities for a global
launch, and in any case would not have had the necessary resources to
promote, deliver and service that many phones all at once. The gradual
roll-out gave competitors a chance to respond, though.
The price-skimming approach which is evident in Apple’s behaviour
probably helped to mitigate the effects of the global roll-out, since it should
have limited the grey market – unfortunately, this did not work very well,
since Nigerian entrepreneurs bought up large numbers of the iPhones to ship
to West Africa: the weak dollar helped this process along, of course.
Apple is not displaying the marketing concept here. It is, in fact, a
product-orientated company, making something which has all the features
that anyone could want, and thus having to charge a very high price indeed
as compared with other mobile telephones. Surprisingly for marketing the-
orists, this seems to have worked very well – despite the complexity of the
product, sales have been excellent. This may in part be due to Apple’s
customer base, which is supposedly more creative, artistic and educated
than the average – this is not surprise, given the price of the phone, since
it can only be afforded by well-off people.
Common errors
Many students became sidetracked into telling us everything they knew
about the iPhone rather than keeping to the marketing aspects. Others
suggested that Apple should have continued with the global roll out without
thinking through the possible reasons why the company could not have done
this: many others thought the price skimming idea was bad, in view of the
fact that competitors quickly entered the market. In fact, price skimming (or
indeed prestige pricing) is the ideal way to price such a product, since it has
great appeal to innovators. Few, if any, students picked up that the company
is not customer-centred but is in fact following a product orientation.
The first question for Part B asked candidates to identify what Apple
might have learned from the launch. This was a straightforward question
about the candidates’ analysis of the case, yet many candidates had trouble
identifying that Apple underestimated the demand for the product and also
that the company did not have systems in place to prevent people from
buying large numbers of the phones. The second question asked candidates
to identify potential threats from competitors: some failed to see that com-
petitors might enter markets that Apple had not yet got round to, notably the
Nigerian market where people were prepared to pay a premium price over
and above Apple’s already high price in order to get their hands on the
iPhone.
The final question for Part B asked candidates to explain the iPhone
pricing structure. In fact, the pricing structure is perfectly reasonable for
the type of product, but many candidates suggested lowering the price in
order to shut out competition or (bizarrely) using penetration pricing to
capture a large part of the market. In circumstances where the company
could not manufacture the phones fast enough to meet demand at a high
price, it is difficult to see how dropping the price dramatically would help.
ALLIANCE BOOTS (SEPT 2009)

Background
Boots the Chemist is a well-known brand name in the United Kingdom and
throughout the world. The company merged with Alliance Unichem plc in
July 2006 to create Alliance Boots plc. The combination of Boots’ strength
on the High Street and Alliance Unichem’s strengths in wholesale and
distribution are seen as important elements for the company’s success.
Alliance Boots (Sept 2009) 141
Mission
Alliance Boots’ mission is ‘to become the world’s leading pharmacy-led
health and beauty group’.
We will seek to develop our core businesses of retail pharmacy and
wholesale across the world and become a significant player in many
major international markets. Performance-driven, we aim to set high
standards that are recognised as the benchmark by all our
stakeholders, including employees, manufacturers, pharmacists,
consumers and payers. We intend that our brand portfolio will lead the
industry and we aim to demonstrate unparalleled expertise in
formulating, marketing, selling and distributing our own brands. We
will create a strong shared culture and sense of identity and belonging
for our team throughout the Group.
Channels
Following the merger Alliance Boots has over 3,000 pharmacies: 2,550 stores
in the United Kingdom and 500 overseas stores in Norway, Thailand, Ireland,
Italy and Switzerland, as well as wholesale outlets in 14 countries. The
company’s branded products sell in many other countries, including the
UAE, United States, Kuwait, Qatar, Russia, China, Spain, Canada and France.
In addition, Boots’ Wellbeing website offers thousands of products online,
with free delivery throughout the United Kingdom on orders over £40.
Most stores are located on high streets, but in line with modern shopping
trends, Boots the company is rapidly increasing its presence in out-of-town
retail parks, where 48 new stores have been opened in the last 3 years. At one
time, it was estimated that 40% of the women in the United Kingdom would
visit a Boots pharmacy in any one week.
Product range
The largest part of Alliance Boots’ business is prescription dispensing and
consumer healthcare. There are pharmacies in almost all of the stores, with
over 100 million items being dispensed each year. An increasingly important
part of the dispensing business is the Prescription Collection Service, which
accounts for about one third of all items dispensed in store. The company
also has the largest UK share of the over the counter medicines (i.e. those
that can be sold without a prescription).
The group sells more than just medicines, of course – it has its own
beauty product ranges and also sells products for babies, suntan lotions,
cooking utensils, cameras, some electrical goods, some books and gifts. Its
own brand and exclusive products account for around 35% of the company’s
total sales and, in addition, Boots’ No7 cosmetics range remains the UK’s
biggest selling cosmetics brand by revenue.
Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

Alliance Boots views the key to the successful introduction of its new group-
wide CSR strategy as the recognition that operating units in different coun-
tries face different challenges. The company has devised a new support
structure that will help it to develop and take ownership of CSR programmes
that are appropriate to local circumstances, while remaining within a con-
sistent Alliance Boots framework.
Each country will appoint a senior director, with overall responsibility for
CSR and for delivering against locally set targets. Because of the importance
the company attaches to developing CSR, each of those directors will also act
as the country champion, responsible for the day-to-day running of CSR
activities. Support and additional expertise will be available from a member
of the CSR management team. An in-country advisory body will provide
further guidance and an independent view of local priorities and sources of
advice and funding within the country in question.
The aim of the CSR programme is to grow a more sustainable company
in the community by focusing on the following areas:
& community
& environment
& marketplace and
& workplace.
The company has set four particular priorities, comprising the following:
& community health care
& carbon management
& stewardship and integrity of products and services, and
& employee well-being.
Alliance Boots (Sept 2009) 143
Alliance Boots believes that running a successful business and providing a

socially valuable service go hand in hand. The company’s press office issues
regular press releases, emphasising the company’s corporate social respon-
sibility credentials; in general, these are very strong, the Boots brand in
particular being a well-trusted name. Corporate initiatives include sponsor-
ing a new degree in international pharmacy (run jointly by the universities of
Nottingham in the United Kingdom and Tor Vergata in Italy) and increased
investment in local community pharmacies. The company continually seeks
greater efficiency in the supply chain in order to maintain lower prices for
customers.
Market growth
In February 2008, Alliance Boots announced a new joint venture taking the
company into China. The company is joining with Guangzhou Pharmaceu-
tical to acquire a major footprint in China, hoping to gain a substantial share
of the market. Meanwhile, Boots has retreated from Hong Kong, handing
over its interests in the former British colony to Hutchison Whampoa’s
Watsons chain of pharmacies.
China is the ninth largest pharmaceutical market in the world and is
experiencing rapid economic growth across the economy, and in health care
expenditure in particular. It is estimated that by 2010, China will have
become the sixth largest pharmaceuticals market.
Analysis
Alliance Boots appears to be practising societal marketing. Its mission
statement and its very extensive corporate social responsibility programme
show that the company is dedicated to the idea of being a leading corporate
citizen by sponsoring universities, community healthcare, carbon manage-
ment, integrity of products and services and employee welfare. The mission
statement is clear about looking after the interests of all stakeholders, with
consumers coming well down the list. This mission statement implies a
strong emphasis on PR, on internal marketing initiatives, on moving into
global markets and on staying with pharmacy as the core business rather
than venturing off into other retail functions. The intention to be perfor-
mance driven implies tight management objectives and good control
systems.
The mission statement drives the organisation: everything the company
does stems from this. It operates in many countries and has a policy of
thinking global and acting local – local managers have a great deal of auton-
omy in running the business, especially the CSR aspects, so the mission
statement needs to be interpreted in each market in which the company
operates.
Common errors
Many students struggled with Question 11, which asked them to explain
how Alliance Boots’ mission statement could be translated into solid tactical
actions. Several discussed SMART without actually recommending any
objectives and most missed the importance of CSR to Alliance Boots, even
though this was flagged up as being extremely important to the company.
Question 12 asked candidates to suggest communications methods for flag-
ging up the CSR programme with various stakeholders. This went better:
candidates recognised the role of PR and internal marketing and were able to
come up with tools for achieving the required outcome.
Question 13 was about adapting the marketing mix for the Chinese
market. Several candidates only considered the people, process and physical
evidence – nothing about the other four Ps. The extended marketing mix
(7Pmodel) includes the original 4Ps and should be considered as well. Unfor-
tunately, many candidates confined themselves to describing the elements of
the mix without actually applying it to the Chinese situation and explaining
how the mix might need to be adapted. Overall, this lack of applying the
theory to a real situation was the downfall of many students.
Many students failed to use report format. This lost marks unnecessarily –
report format is simple to apply and should be used when required in the
question.
GLAXOSMITHKLINE (DEC 2009)

GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) was formed in 2001 by the merger of Glaxo Well-
come (itself a merger of Burroughs Wellcome & Company and Glaxo Labora-
tories) and SmithKline Beecham (created from Beecham and SmithKline
Beckman). The company is the second largest pharmaceutical manufacturer
in the world, based on sales volume. The company produces both over-the-
counter medicines such as Panadol (a paracetamol-based pain killer) and
prescription drugs such as Flixonase, a steroid-based nasal spray used to treat
hay fever and other nasal inflammations. Many household medicines are
GlaxoSmithKline (Dec 2009) 145
GSK products: Niquitin tablets (which helps smokers to stop smoking) and
Lucozade (an energy drink) are both produced by the company.
From a marketing viewpoint, pharmaceuticals represent an interesting
challenge. Prescription medicines (known in the trade as ethical medicines)
cannot be sold directly to patients and doctors do not themselves buy them.
Pharmacists will only stock medicines that doctors will prescribe, so the
main thrust of the manufacturers’ marketing effort is geared towards per-
suading doctors to prescribe the medicines to appropriate patients. From a
doctor’s viewpoint, this is only likely to happen if the new medicine has
significant advantages over the ones it replaces, so there is strong pressure on
pharmaceutical manufacturers to innovate.
In consumer markets, there is somewhat less pressure to innovate, but as
medical science progresses more products will come onto the market any-
way. The problem here, as with ethical medicines, is that each new product
must pass strict tests before it can be launched onto the market – drugs also
have to be tested in several different countries against different medical
criteria. No drug is perfectly safe and a drug might be turned down in one
market and passed in several others.
In order to maintain the flow of innovation, GSK has a continuous
‘development pipeline’ for new ideas. The company has Centres of Excel-
lence of Drug Discovery (CEDDs) which are focused on five therapeutic
areas:
1. Infectious diseases. These are diseases carried from one person to
another by micro-organisms such as bacteria and viruses.
2. Metabolic pathways. These are diseases caused by malfunctions in
the patient’s body, such as diabetes or thyroid deficiency.
3. Neurosciences. These are diseases of the nervous system.
4. Respiratory ailments. The respiratory system is anything to do with

lungs, throat and nasal passages.
5. Immunoinflammation. This is the area of pain relief and anti-
inflammatory medicines.
During 2007 the company invested £3.2 billion in research and develop-
ment: it takes between 12 and 15 years to develop a new drug from first
discovery to marketing, due to the strict testing before a drug is approved for
use. A typical new drug will cost around £500 million to develop. Not all the
research is carried out in-house: GSK sponsors research in universities as

well, much of which is ‘pure’ research, that is research for which there is
currently no known use. Pure research is simply a quest for knowledge and
the company finds it worthwhile to sponsor this because it is where many of
the best ideas come from.
Eventually, research needs to be carried out with human subjects, at
which point volunteers are needed. The drugs will already have been tested
extensively on animals. Provided no serious side-effects are detected, the
drug can go for clinical trials to be tested on a group of people suffering from
the disease to see whether the drug helps. With this type of testing, another
group of patients will be given either a different drug or a placebo (a fake
medicine which has no effect) to ensure that the effects of the drug are not
confused with some other factor.
The company clearly has a series of ethical challenges to deal with. Use
of animals in experiments is one – currently, the company seeks to minimise
the use of animals, especially ‘higher’ animals such as dogs or monkeys.
Another issue is the clinical tests, in which some patients will not be given
the new drug while others are – if the drug is effective, the ones without it are
being refused something that might save their lives.
Ultimately, the pharmaceutical industry is one which is risky: marketing
a drug that turns out to have serious side-effects could mean paying out
billions in compensation. Equally, millions could be spent on research that
bears no fruit. Furthermore, there is the marketing risk – the new drug may
not be significantly better than what is already out there or a competitor may
produce something that works better while testing procedures are being
implemented. On the plus side, a successful new drug will make billions –
it is a global market, and once established, a drug can produce income until
the patent expires.
Analysis
This case is largely about the problems of operating in a high-risk, high-
return industry. GSK is a global corporation operating in a volatile market –
at any moment, another manufacturer might develop a drug which will out-
compete GSK. The key issues here are new product development and port-
folio management: there are unlikely to be as many problems in adopting a
new drug, since a successful cure for a disease will find a market provided the
missionary salespeople do their job in persuading doctors to prescribe the
drug. New product development is very long drawn out because of the need
GlaxoSmithKline (Dec 2009) 147
for rigorous testing and it is also expensive because it requires the efforts of
highly skilled (and highly paid) scientists. Protecting intellectual property is
important to pharmaceutical companies.
Distribution is an issue, because some drugs are only available on pre-
scription and the rules for this vary from one country to another: distribution
has two meanings, one being concerned with place issues such as which
retail outlets or pharmacists can be targeted and the other having to do with
the logistical aspects of getting products to the right location. The logistical
aspects are complex because drugs are valuable, often perishable and are also
often a target for thieves.
The company also faces ethical problems, not least because of the need to
test new drugs, often on animals, before releasing them onto the market.
Marketing of new prescription drugs is likely to involve missionary sell-
ing since the doctors decide what to prescribe, but do not themselves buy
drugs in any quantities. In many countries, it is illegal to advertise prescrip-
tion drugs to the general public. Pharmacists will only stock drugs which are
prescribed and over-the-counter medicines. GSK’s sponsorship of universi-
ties is only partly a PR exercise: it also generates ideas and processes which
the company can use commercially. The company already owns several well-
established brands in the general ‘health care’ category and could build on
this aspect of their activities.
Common errors
Students often failed to discuss both aspects of the distribution question,
sometimes concentrating entirely on logistics and sometimes concentrating
solely on place issues. Few students managed to consider these aspects in a
global context. Portfolio management also proved problematic: students
were able to outline the product life cycle and portfolio management models
(such as the BCG matrix) but were unable to recommend ways of extending
the company’s brands (e.g. Lucozade or Niquitin). Students seemed unable
to place GSK products on a continuum in terms of their position on the PLC
or the BCG matrix.
On Question 13 (which asked students to recommend communications
tools for communicating with health professionals), many students simply
described several communications tools, without applying them directly to
GSK or the pharmaceutical industry. In some cases, students suggested
inappropriate approaches, such as mass media advertising of prescription
drugs: this is clearly a wasteful thing to do, since doctors are a small
proportion of the population, and in any case it is illegal to advertise pre-

scription drugs in many countries, including the United Kingdom. In gen-
eral, the section on assessing the effectiveness of communications (which
was the second part of Question 13) was well answered, although many
students did not relate their answers directly to GSK.
Some students repeated large parts of the case study, explaining the
history of the company despite the fact that they were (supposedly) writing
a report for the boss, who would presumably know at least as much about the
company’s history as the student would. This simply wasted time and paper.
Overall, there was often a failure to relate answers to the case study –
recommendations must relate to the circumstances of the case or they are
worthless to the company.
SUMMARY
The basic problem with answer papers is students’ failure to apply the
theory. This may stem from a failure to analyse the case study adequately:
it is wise to spend some time thinking about the implications of the case
rather than simply read it through and then seek to answer the questions.
Broadly speaking, candidates have tended to talk about the theory far more
than is necessary, without showing how it is relevant to the case itself: after
all, you are supposed to be writing a report with recommendations for your
boss, who is likely to know the theory already.
You should practice analysing cases – there are several in this study guide
for you to start on – and think about the answers you are giving. Imagine
what it would be like to be working for those companies and actually having
to come up with recommendations for expanding the business. You might
also watch the business press and see how companies solve their problems.
Visiting company websites can also provide insights – obviously firms are
unlikely to publish sensitive corporate information on their websites, but
many firms provide their annual shareholders’ report and these can often be
instructive since the companies concerned are eager to boast of their
successes.
Sometimes students lost marks through not using report format when
asked to. You are expected to understand and use report format sometimes –
this is a business skill which is widely used and certainly if you work in a
larger firm, or work as a marketing consultant, you will need to understand
and use it.
Task One 149
Having said all that, many candidates do answer the papers well and
consequently obtain good grades. Even more answer most questions well,
with some errors, and consequently pass the exam.
SAMPLE SHORT QUESTIONS

This section should help you to answer the short, 4-mark questions in the
paper. Many candidates tend to write too much or simply ‘brain dump’ the
theory they know into the paper, whereas candidates who gain distinctions
will use examples and apply their knowledge.
The following questions are typical of those you are likely to find in the
paper you sit. Each one has a sample answer attached to it and a description
of some of the problems candidates have had in answering this type of
question. Note that the answers are short – you might like to try writing
them out by hand, to see how long it takes you. Each answer should take you
around 3–4 minutes to write out, but you are actually given around 7
minutes in the exam to do this. The CIM is not testing you on how fast
you can write by hand, after all!
TASK ONE
Explain how marketing orientation will help stakeholders of a charity.
(4 marks)
Specimen answer: For charities, the concept of meeting customer need
extends to all stakeholders: contributors, beneficiaries, volunteer and paid staff.
The needs of contributors might be to feel that their money is going to be put to
good use and also to feel good about contributing: a charity should acknowledge
the contribution in some way. Beneficiaries need to feel that the help is
appropriate and they should also be treated with respect, not as freeloaders.
Volunteers need to feel valued and also often have social needs – friendship, a
place in the community and so forth. Paid staff need to feel that they are
working for a good cause and should be helped to ‘buy into’ the charity’s
aims, with good internal marketing initiatives. The charity might have some
difficulty in reconciling the different needs of these various stakeholders.
For this question, the key point is that charities have stakeholders rather
than customers, and therefore have a somewhat different perspective on
meeting needs. You would be expected to be able to identify at least some
of the stakeholders and their needs, and be able to explain the role of
marketing orientation in meeting those needs.
TASK TWO
Explain, with examples, what is meant by the maturity and decline stages in
the product life cycle.
(4 marks)
Specimen answer: Maturity is the stage when a product’s sales are
stable, the brand is well-known and the company need only spend money
on reminder advertising rather than on building awareness. An example
would be Marmite, which has been around for many years, is widely avail-
able and requires relatively little advertising. The decline stage is the point at
which a product’s sales are falling, its market is diminishing and eventually
the product will disappear altogether. An example might be landline tele-
phones, which are gradually being replaced by mobile telephones and may
well disappear within the next 20 years or so.
In some cases, students get distracted into writing down everything they
know about the product life cycle, with a diagram as well. The question
actually does not ask for this, but it does ask for examples: you will lose
marks if you cannot put examples in.
TASK THREE
Describe how marketers in a business-to-business (B2B) organisation might
go about setting marketing objectives.
(4 marks)
Specimen answer: The marketers will begin with the corporate objec-
tives laid down by the directors of the firm. They should then conduct a
marketing audit to see where the firm is now, then set objectives which will
move the firm from its current position to where it wants to be. In a B2B
context, objectives need to take account of the long-term relationships the
firm has or wants to develop with its customers and suppliers, so this part of
the marketing audit will be especially relevant. This is the marketing strat-
egy, which can then be expressed in terms of tactics, implementation and
monitoring, and control. Objectives should be specific, measurable, achiev-
able, realistic and timebound.
Task Five 151
In some cases, candidates have been known to start writing all about B2B
marketing rather than describing how objectives are set.
TASK FOUR
Explain how communications technology can be used to develop and main-
tain effective relationships with distribution channels.
(4 marks)
Specimen answer: Establishing and maintaining relationships depends
heavily on good communications. Firms can use the database to ensure
accurate communications with the right people and should be using
e-mail for regular communications with appropriate individuals within the
distribution companies. Direct links between the companies’ computer
systems can make stock checking and shipments much more efficient,
which will in turn tend to ‘lock in’ the other companies. An interactive
website will help in making information flow more easily and should help in
identifying the needs of the distribution companies as well as flagging up
more efficient ways of working together. Linking front-line staff such as
delivery drivers and order-chasers through SMS or mobile telephones is
also an option: ultimately, the greater the communications links, the closer
the relationship will become.
This is actually a question about communications technology, not about
relationship marketing or about managing distribution channels, although it
does provide scope for discussing all three. The focus should, however, be on
the communications tools which might be used.
TASK FIVE
Explain, with examples, TWO benefits that marketing can bring to organisa-
tions AND TWO benefits it can bring to consumers.
(4 marks)
Specimen answer: Good marketing will attract and retain customers and
will also act as a coordinating force within the firm. For example, a good
sales promotion such as a bring-a-friend scheme can bring in new custo-
mers, and a staff newsletter can convey the company’s values and mission to
staff, enabling them to coordinate their activities around customer satisfac-
tion. Consumers benefit from marketing mainly because good marketing
makes products available which meet customer needs more effectively than
others. They also benefit by being given information about the products,
both in terms of knowing about its features and benefits, and also about
where the product can be bought.
There are many other benefits of marketing for consumers and society at
large – for example, advertising pays for a great many free services such as
the Internet and television, and it subsidises transport, newspapers, maga-
zines and even some public services such as schools and hospitals.
TASK SIX
Describe TWO ways in which the marketing department of a haulage com-
pany could respond to external pressures for the company to become more
environmentally responsible.
(4 marks)
Specimen answer: The marketing department should begin by consult-
ing with the pressure groups to find out exactly what the problems are,
especially asking whether the company is worse than others in the same
industry. The company should respond to the problems as quickly as possi-
ble and should ensure that the solutions are well publicised through a PR
campaign. For example, if the pressure group identifies pollution from the
company’s lorries as the major problem, the company should find ways to
reduce exhaust emissions, or should consider replacing the fleet, perhaps
over a period of years.
The risk with this question is that the candidate gets sidetracked into
‘theory dumping’ everything he or she knows about societal marketing or
corporate social responsibility. This is not required – this question is a
straight application of the theory to a practical issue.
TASK SEVEN
Identify and explain TWO reasons why distribution channel analysis is an
important part of the marketing audit.
(4 marks)
Specimen answer: Distribution channels exist to get the product to the
customer in the most efficient way possible. The first reason why the analysis
is import is that it enables the company to decide whether the existing
Task Nine 153
channel is close enough to the end consumer, in other words whether the
Place element of the 7Ps is correct. The second reason for conducting a
distribution channel analysis is concerned with logistics: are the products
arriving in the best condition, via the most cost-effective transportation,
taking account of all the factors? For example, a clothing importer might
decide that a particular retail chain does not have the appropriate customer
base for the products, or might decide that a particular wholesaler does not
have the necessary fleets of lorries for moving the goods to the right retailers.
On this type of question many candidates would try to write everything
they know about the marketing audit, whereas the question is actually about
distribution channel analysis, with examples of why the distribution chan-
nel is important.
TASK EIGHT
Identify TWO communications tools that could be used in the decline stage
of the product life cycle.
(4 marks)
Specimen answer: Reminder advertising could be used to bring the
product back to people’s attention, but if the product really is declining
then a sales promotion could help it back up again. Reminder advertising
is used to move a product back up the consumer’s agenda by reminding
them of its benefits. Sales promotion is usually used to create a short-term
rise in sales, but in the case of a declining product it will help to re-establish
the product on consumers’ shelves: if there is a sales promotion aimed at the
distribution channel this could also help.
This question is about communications, not about the product life cycle.
There is no need to discuss the PLC beyond the decline stage – the examiner
will not give extra marks for it and it simply wastes your time.
TASK NINE
Identify and explain TWO suitable marketing communication media that
could be used by a grocery retailer.
(4 marks)
Specimen answer: A grocery retailer (e.g. Tesco’s) is offering its products
to a very wide range of people, so mass media would be most appropriate.
Television is an obvious choice, because it reaches a very large number of

people at a relatively low cost-per-thousand and it has the advantage that
products can be shown and demonstrated. Despite the high headline cost,
TV provides a powerful way to reach a large audience. Newspapers or other
mass print media would also be suitable, since they are a permanent med-
ium and coupons and special offers can be included, thus increasing the
likely take-up of the offers.
This question is asking you about very specific circumstances. The com-
munications media should be suitable for the purposes of a grocery retailer –
another type of business might well require an entirely different set of media.
TASK TEN
Explain, with examples, the relationship between price and promotion.
(4 marks)
Specimen answer: Price is more than just the amount of money the
customer exchanges for the product. Price can signal quality (a high price
is assumed to be associated with high-quality products), it can be used as a
sales promotion (a reduction in price for a specified period will usually
increase sales) and it can be used as a negotiating point by salespeople.
Prices also help to position the brand against competing brands in people’s
minds: some products are perceived as being cheap, others as being
expensive and there are many examples of this. One is the difference
between Ford and BMW. The higher price of the BMW is associated with
higher quality, greater prestige and a wealthier owner. Sales promotions
for fast-moving consumer goods are often based on money-off, as are
products offered in retailers’ sales. Salespeople will often use a reduced
price as a way of negotiating a larger order or a purchase of other products
in the range.
Again, this is very much an applied question. Simply writing out every-
thing you know about pricing will not work.
(Total 40 marks)
SUMMARY
The short questions are mainly intended to test your knowledge, but you
still will not be able simply to ‘brain dump’ the theory and hope to pass.
Summary 155
Many of the questions will test your understanding – Task 10 above does
this – and your ability to think outside the box. Also, the questions will be
taken from right across the syllabus, which means you will not be able to
‘cherry-pick’ and only revise part of the syllabus.
The reason for this is that Marketing Essentials is the foundation course
for the rest of the Certificate, so it has to form a solid base from which you
can go on to specialise. This does not mean that you have to know every-
thing in order to pass – the pass mark is still 50% – but it does mean that you
will have to have a broad range of knowledge to gain a high grade. Bearing in
mind that you may make mistakes in the exam, you might misunderstand a
question, you might simply be unable to make the necessary connections
when you are working under pressure, you should insure yourself by study-
ing every aspect to the best of your ability.
Try to answer every question, even if you are unsure of the right answer.
Failure to attempt a question means you lose all 4 marks – even a bad answer
might gain you a couple of marks and you might surprise yourself by
remembering something you thought you had forgotten once you actually
start writing.
Appendix Answers
CHAPTER 1
Case study answers
Tesco
1. Having low costs coupled with high prices must have made Tesco very
profitable in the 1950s and the early 1960s. Why would Jack Cohen have
lobbied for the abolition of Resale Price Maintenance? Cohen saw that he
had a clear competitive advantage, because his supermarkets had a lower
cost base than traditional corner shops and therefore he could undercut
other shops. Removing price controls would therefore benefit him in the
long run – as indeed has proved to be the case. Providing customers with
better value for money (which does not necessarily mean lowest possible
prices, of course) is always advantageous.
2. Presumably Tesco’s various customer-focused innovations cost

money. Why not simply cut prices even further? Price is not the only
way to compete. Most people do not buy the cheapest – they buy
products which represent best value for money. Providing extras such
as the ‘one in front’ policy creates a better value proposition, at
relatively low cost to the firm – the value to the customer is vastly
greater than would be the tiny reduction in prices the company could
make if it did away with the policy.
3. Why have three separate own-brand labels? The separate own-brand
labels exist to provide for the needs of different segments of the
market. Price-sensitive customers use value brands: people seeking
value for money look for the ordinary Tesco brand, and people seeking
something luxurious might buy the Tesco’s Finest. The Finest brand
does not actually compete head-on with national brands in the way
that the ordinary Tesco brand does.
157
158 Appendix Answers
4. What is the difference between the trading-stamp system and the

loyalty-card system? What advantages do loyalty cards have for
customers and for Tesco’s? Loyalty cards have the major advantage
that they enable Tesco to record individual customers’ purchasing
patterns. This allows Tesco’s to plan better for meeting customer
needs and also to target special offers and promotions more
accurately. From the customer’s viewpoint, the cards are much more
convenient, and having special offers which are accurately targeted
reduces the amount of junk mail the customer receives.
5. Why stock a range of organic products as well as ordinary products?
Stocking organic products enables Tesco to meet the needs of a
health-conscious group of people: at the same time, organic products
tend to be more expensive, so the majority of Tesco’s customers
currently prefer the cheaper factory-farmed products.
Legoland
1. What is Lego doing that most of its competitors are not doing? Lego is
appealing directly to its young customers by means of opening stores
that are customer-friendly for children. It is also using parallel
distribution: most toy manufacturers operate through retailers, but
Lego also sells direct to the consumers.
2. Lego’s consumers are children, but the customers are the parents.
How does Lego address this? Because the children make their wishes
known to their parents, Lego seeks to involve the parents in the
process by means of the theme park. Parents bring their children to
the park as a way of entertaining them and enjoying a day out, but
they are then exposed to the educational and creative advantages of
the toy.
3. What is the coordinating role of Lego’s approach? Lego seeks to

coordinate everything the firm does through the theme park idea. The
franchising, production, licensing and distribution deals all rely on the
fundamental view that children are individuals.
4. How is Lego using its marketing philosophy to expand the business?

Lego extends the business via franchising and licensing deals, thus
increasing the number of products which can be bought bearing the
Lego brand. Considering the needs of its customers (the parents) and
the consumers (the children) are the driving forces behind this
approach.
Chapter 1 159
Bribery and Big Business

1. Why should not Lockheed continue to offer bribes in countries where
this is normal business practice? Lockheed should not offer bribes
because it leads to a spiralling effect – the more companies offer
bribes, the more they come to be expected. The company would be
better occupied in seeking to stamp out bribery and compete on a
level playing field.
2. How might governments stop bribery from happening? Governments
do have the option of imposing large fines or imprisonment on people
who accept bribes, but they can also impose sanctions on companies
who offer them. An effective method is to allow people who accept
bribes to keep the money provided they tell the authorities about the
bribery.
3. Is bribery an appropriate use of shareholders’ money? Bribery can be
appropriate in the sense that shareholders’ interests are best served by
corporate growth: however, in the long term bribery will push up
costs.
4. Why is bribery damaging? Bribery ultimately results in poorer quality

firms prospering, with consequent damage to consumer interests.
This is apart from the effects on the morals of the people giving and
receiving bribes.
Unia~o Digital Perifericos LTDA

1. Why are relationships so important for Unia~o Digital? Unia~o Digital
operates in a culture where personal relationships are important. The
company also has to deal across very large distances: many of the
firm’s agents operate far from the company and may not therefore be
as assiduous in looking after the company’s interests as they might be
were it not for the close relationships involved.
2. Why would the company use the impersonal medium of a website to
improve its relationships rather than spend more effort and money on
personal contacts via salespeople? Websites offer an excellent way to
maintain contact over very long distances, at relatively low cost.
Paying salespeople to cover the territory of South America would be
prohibitively expensive: it could easily take more than a day’s travel to
visit a single customer.
3. What role did BearingPoint’s relationship marketing have in the
process? BearingPoint’s own network of suppliers, and especially its
close relationship with Cisco Systems, enabled the company to
develop a complete system for Unia~o Digital. An essential element of

developing networks is to have access to a wide range of firms.
4. How might Unia~o Digital further improve its relationship marketing?
Unia~o Digital might improve its relationships by continuing to
consult its customers, by meeting with customers at every
opportunity (e.g. at exhibitions and trade shows). The company
should also consider customer win-back tactics.
5. What are the specific advantages for Unia~o Digital in retaining

customers? Unia~o Digital would face exceptionally high costs in
recruiting new customers due to geographical distances. Recruitment
is likely to be largely undertaken by salespeople rather than by direct
mail or other means: salespeople are expensive in such a widespread
geographical area.
Self-test answers
1. B Customer service is crucial in developing customer relationships.
2. A The other two are aspects of relationship marketing.
3. B The correct order is production, product, sales, marketing and

societal.
4. B Production orientation and sales orientation have nothing to do

with leadership styles: they are strategic positions.
5. A Setting common goals is necessary to coordination of

departments.
CHAPTER 2
Case study answers
Sainsbury’s
1. Why might Sainsbury’s have revised the cost savings objective?
Sainsbury would do this in the light of having over-achieved.
Objectives should always be subject to revision in the event of a
change in circumstances – they should be a guide, not a straitjacket.
2. How do the objectives relate to the vision statement? The objectives
come directly from the vision statement since the company seeks to
increase overall revenue and profit (which will satisfy shareholder
needs) by creating a better offer for customers. The objectives are all
Chapter 2 161
concerned with returning the Sainsbury brand to its former

prominence.
3. How might Sainsbury’s management have arrived at the stated
objectives? Partly, these objectives have arisen as a result of looking at
the firm’s competitive position and, partly, they have looked at their
financial position. The objectives mainly arose, however, from the
company’s recovery plan and the MSGA vision.
4. How realistic is the new Sainsbury’s 3-year plan? Given the recent
gains the company has made, and the fact that they have exceeded
the previous objectives, the new 3-year plan seems eminently
achievable. In that sense, it is a good set of objectives: achieving the
achievable is motivating for all concerned and reassuring for
shareholders.
Procter and gamble

1. What is the role of corporate culture in P&G’s objective setting?
Corporate culture is key to the objective setting: P&G have to
consider how their staff will respond to the changes and they are
seeking to devolve a great deal of strategic decision making to local
managers. This means that there is a real danger of the company
having many different outcomes unless there is a string corporate
culture binding staff together.
2. Why did the Organisation 2005 initiative fail? The main reason this
initiative failed appears to be that it was too much change, too fast.
The rapid shift in corporate culture upset some managers, who did
not ‘buy into’ the changes, and consequently did not implement them
successfully.
3. What does the case study tell us about visionary leadership? Visionary
leaders can often be less than sensitive to staff needs: in pursuit of the
vision, they may forget that their employees share a different vision.
4. Why is P&G following a formal planning approach? Formal planning

enables the firm to ensure consultation with all interested parties, in
an effort to ensure that most people will support the changes. In a
corporation of this size, a degree of formal planning helps ensure some
consistency across the range of activities being undertaken.
5. How might P&G resolve the inevitable conflicts between GBUs and
MDOs? These conflicts can only be resolved by communication and
negotiation between the parties at grass-roots level. Any attempt to
impose decisions from senior management will only result in

alienating the local managers and making them feel disempowered.
Amway
1. What were the objectives of DeVos and Van Andel in setting up
Amway? DeVos and Van Andel appear to have had an ethical or
socially responsible driver for setting up Amway. The company was
started on the basis of an ideal – the American Way of being self-
sufficient and enterprising – and the founders not only believe in this
themselves, but wanted to encourage other people to believe in it.
Obviously, the new company needed to be profitable in order to
survive – and the aim of growth is another strong element in Amway’s
objectives – but the main element is the founders’ joint vision of a
worldwide group of entrepreneurs creating an independent living for
themselves.
2. How are objectives communicated to the workforce? The company
communicates objectives in two main ways: first, its group leaders are
sent on regular training courses at which company policies are
promoted and the corporate culture is strengthened and, second, the
IBOs are invited to regular ‘pep talk’-type meetings at which
enthusiasm for the Amway ethos is engendered. The company also
communicates its strict code of ethical conduct in writing to IBOs and
group leaders.
3. How have technological influences affected Amway? The main

technological influence on Amway has been, of course, the Internet.
This has made shopping from home extremely easy and convenient,
which was of course Amway’s main advantage over traditional
retailers. Amway need to respond to this either by offering their
products online (which would harm the interests of the IBOs) or by
allowing IBOs to have their own websites (which might well dilute
the brand values). Simply ignoring the Internet is not an option – the
company’s products would be forced into direct competition with
other mainstream brands available through online retailers.
4. What have been the cultural and social influences on Amway’s
business practices? Cultural and social influences include the need for
foreign cultures to buy into the ‘American way’ of entrepreneurship
and independence – something which is alien to many cultures. For
many people, there is an ethical problem in selling to friends and
family, and there is of course a cultural problem in acting
independently or (in some cases) of going into business at all. Amway
Chapter 2 163
has responded to some of these issues by demonstrating its credentials

as a good corporate citizen – its strict code of practice, its community
development programmes and its sponsorship of worthy events help
to make people feel good about the company. This has helped to
overcome the tarnished image of multi-level marketing.
5. How has legislation affected the firm? Legislation has affected the firm
seriously in many ways. The advent of pyramid schemes has caused
governments to introduce legislation, but because each country has
taken a different approach to tackling the problem, Amway has had to
set up different systems in different countries, which creates major
problems in terms of global corporate policy. Legislation concerning
product formulation has been less of a problem, but still represents a
potential threat, especially as environmental concerns become more
important and governments might be expected to ban certain
ingredients.
Self-test answers
1. B is correct. The others are invented.
2. C is correct. Enlarging the market cannot be carried out by increasing
profitability (although the reverse might be true) and likewise
increasing profitability will not increase market share (again, the
reverse might well be true).
3. B is correct. Aspirations of staff members and resource constraints are
both part of the internal environment.
4. A is correct. Technological advances may come from competitors and

may alter the resource constraints, but they are part of the external
environment.
5. B is correct. The order is as follows:
& Corporate objectives are set.
& Marketing audit.
& Setting business and marketing objectives.
& Marketing strategies.
& Marketing tactics/mix decisions.
& Implementation.
& Monitoring and control.
CHAPTER 3
Case study answers
HJ Heinz
1. Why might Heinz drop its pet foods range, when the products were
still making money for the firm? The pet foods range may have been
making money, but since the range would require a completely
separate marketing programme, it seems likely that resources would
have been better directed towards new products in the food for
humans range. There would undoubtedly be marketing synergies and
economies of scale which would not exist in the pet food market. It is
also possible that the pet food range was too small a part of an
essentially stable, even stagnating market: as ‘Dog’ products, the pet
food range might have been too unattractive to remain in the
portfolio.
2. What is the importance of packaging to Heinz? Packaging enables

Heinz to show a corporate image through the Keystone design and
also provides possibilities for making the product more attractive, as
with the turquoise colour of the baked beans can and the squeezable
ketchup bottle. In common with other food companies, Heinz is
required to provide nutritional information on the packaging, and can
use the packaging to promote other products.
3. How has the Heinz brand developed across the range? The original 57
Varieties slogan and the keystone link the brand, but brand managers
have been able to operate within this framework to develop individual
images for products. The brands therefore reinforce each other, while
retaining their individual personalities. This process could be
developed further.
4. What other changes might Heinz introduce to coordinate the
branding better? Heinz could coordinate the colour of its brands and
could extend the 57 Varieties idea further. Establishing an overall
Heinz brand personality would help: promoting the entire group of
brands as one entity, carrying out cross-promotions in which one
product is used as a promotional tool for others, and perhaps
promoting the traditional values of the company would also help in
establishing the firm’s brand identity. This may require a shift in the
corporate culture and systems, since each sub-brand apparently
operates as an independent entity.
5. Why might the company subdivide its brands into eight categories?
Categorising the products into branding groups makes it easier to
Chapter 3 165
administer and control the marketing activities and also enables

Heinz to produce a more coherent and coordinated campaign within
each category. Dividing the overall range of 6,000 varieties enables
brand managers to build up expertise in specific markets (e.g. baby
foods require special marketing techniques, and seafood requires
special purchasing and packaging systems) and gives the company the
opportunity to establish itself as an expert in specific areas, rather
than a generalist food marketing company.
Smith and Nephew

1. Why would Smith and Nephew sell off its consumer products
divisions? Smith and Nephew clearly decided that the ethical medical
market (sales to medical professionals and hospitals) was more
lucrative and less trouble than selling in consumer markets. The
markets are bigger and require (in most cases) much less marketing
expenditure. Also, in such a field as medicine companies need to
show themselves as specialists rather than generalists – dealing with
professional medical people is a skilled and delicate matter.
2. Why does the company spend such a large portion of its turnover on
research? Medical science moves forward very quickly, and other
firms in the supply side of the industry spend similar amounts on
R&D. If Smith and Nephew fail to match this expenditure, they will
be left (eventually) with an obsolete product line: product life cycles
are short, in other words.
3. What stage of the PLC was Band-Aid in during 1924? Band Aid was in
the introduction stage in 1924: it was almost certainly not yet a truly
profitable line. At this point, relatively few people would know the
product or be aware of its advantages, and the company would
probably be spending a relatively large proportion of the marketing
budget on trying to establish the product in its market.
4. What stage of the PLC was Elastoplast in when Smith and Nephew
sold it? Elastoplast would be in the maturity stage, since there is still
demand for the product but it is facing strong competition from cheap
imitators. Essentially, it is currently stable, well known and requiring
relatively low marketing expenditure to retain its market share. It is
not yet in the decline phase, since there is nothing available to replace
it apart from very similar ‘me-too’ products available from close
competitors.
5. To what extent are Smith and Nephew’s products customer-specified?

Most of Smith and Nephew’s products for professionals are customer-
specified. The health care professionals need to be involved in
identifying needs for new products, in all the fields in which the
company operates: consultation with health professionals is essential.
Even when the company develops new products, input from
healthcare professionals is crucial.
Gillette
1. How did Gillette develop his original idea for a disposable razor blade?
Gillette began by noticing a need, then went through the
development process of finding a technique for manufacturing the
blades. Business analysis showed that he could not manufacture the
blades cheaply enough without very large-scale production, so market
testing demonstrated that giving the razors away would generate large
enough sales of blades to make the project viable.
2. Why does the company innovate so much? Many of Gillette’s
products can be easily copied by competitors, so developing new ones
is a good way to keep ahead of the competition. Products quickly
become obsolete as competitors enter, and for some products
(batteries, etc.) technological change means rapid obsolescence. Few,
if any, of Gillette’s products can be protected effectively by patents.
3. How does Gillette handle the problem of new products cannibalising
sales of existing products? Gillette is not unhappy about new products
taking over sales of existing products, but the company sells existing
products at lower prices and encourages consumers to ‘trade up’ to
the new ones. Keeping obsolescent products in the range for as long as
possible allows the company to harvest from its Dogs and Dodos, and
also shuts out competitors effectively.
4. What was the relationship between marketing and production in the
case of the original blades? In the original case, marketing drove
production. Especially in the area of pricing, Gillette worked with the
market: production would never have reached an economic level
without his innovative approach. In fact, Gillette need never have
manufactured anything – the whole of production could have been
subcontracted.
5. How might trading up work in global markets? In a global market,
obsolescent products can be re-launched in less developed markets,
with the more up-to-date products following on later so that people
Chapter 3 167
can then trade up. This allows the company to obtain a maximum
return on its development costs, while opening up new markets for
the later products.
Innovations catalogue
1. How might Innovations seek to overcome the lack of a clear target
market? To an extent, the segmentation problem is self-correcting
since people are able to search the catalogue by category. However,
this implies that people are seeking products which apply to a specific
hobby, interest or work situation, whereas people may well be just
looking for ‘wild and wacky’ products, as gifts or as novelty items.
Innovations could address this group by offering a ‘weird’ category,
although inventors might be offended by this!
2. What might be the appeal of Innovations to the average person?
Innovations makes interesting reading, but more importantly it offers
newness in the products it markets. In some cases, the gadgets are
directly useful; in other cases, they make interesting novelties or gifts.
It may be that the products fulfil a ‘hunter-gatherer’ instinct in that
visitors to the site might find something unexpected and will certainly
find items that are interesting and stimulating.
3. What factors have enabled Innovations to maintain its success? A
general interest in novelty on the part of consumers, the word-of-
mouth potential of the products and the accessibility of its website
(and the previous catalogue) are the main contributors. The products
themselves often have entertainment value – they are interesting or
humorous, and consequently the catalogue is worth reading. Finally,
Innovations has been prepared to embrace new technology by moving
itself to the Internet.
4. Why would somebody buy fun-fur-lined golf club covers? This is
clearly a fun, novelty item: it is the type of product which is bought for
‘the man who has everything’ or by someone wanting to distinguish
his or her golf clubs from everyone else’s. The likelihood is that the
product will be bought as a gift rather than for personal use, in other
words – something which probably applies to a great many of
Innovations’ products.
The international software market

1. What is the role of consumer characteristics in software price setting?
Consumers may want very different things from the software and
have very different ideas on what is worth paying for and what is not.
In different parts of the world, wealth and price perceptions clearly
play a role: what appears cheap in one market appears expensive in
another, and people’s view of what represents value for money will
also vary according to the cost of other products in the market,
especially those against which people make comparisons.
2. Why should companies not charge one price for everyone, regardless
of location? Perceptions of value for money will differ greatly between
wealthy countries and poorer countries, since people are likely to
translate prices in terms of how many hours they need to work to buy
the item. Charging a lower price in poorer countries is still
economically viable for software companies, since the upfront costs of
developing the software have been met by consumers in wealthy
countries. Charging a lower price simply opens up extra revenue at
little cost.
3. Why might the product not represent the same value for money in
each of its markets? Value for money is based on what the product
will do for the customer. In a wealthy market, the labour savings
gained by using computers soon pay for the software, because labour
is expensive: in poorer countries the gains are less obvious, since pay
is much lower. Software costing 100 represents a day’s pay to the
average Briton, but perhaps 3 months’ earnings to the average Indian.
Of course, wealth concentration is higher in India, so the ‘average’
Indian is unlikely to be in the market for either a computer or the
software to run on it.
4. The market is huge, so why is there not room for many players to
compete? Because of standardisation and compatibility issues, one
standard for the world is likely to emerge. Competition is therefore
aimed at dominating the entire market, not just at capturing a section
of it: in a sense, there is only one market to go for. Smaller players
have very little chance of entering the market, because of the
economies of scale involved: the huge upfront costs of developing
software can only be amortised over a very large production run,
hence the product orientation is commonly seen in the software
market.
5. How might a new software supplier (e.g. an Indian or Chinese
supplier) price its products effectively in the world market? New
suppliers would probably enter the market competing on price at first,
but (given that their products would have to be compatible with other
products) an Indian of Chinese supplier would still need to enter the
Chapter 3 169
world market on a similar pricing structure as the current major

players, since they would find it difficult or impossible to fight a
lengthy price war.
Internet auctions
1. How might a manufacturer retain a skimming policy when dealing
with a reverse auction? Manufacturers can set a series of price levels
according to the quantities bought and can set those levels wherever
they want: this is, in effect, what skimming does. However, there is
no control over when each price applies, only over the number of
people needed to trigger the next price reduction. This means that
people who would have been prepared to pay a higher price will in fact
obtain the product at the lower price, which destroys the point of
skimming.
2. How might a car dealer encourage a prospective customer to increase

the tender price? Car dealers can offer extras, but in particular a car
dealer might be able to offer something which other car dealers are
unable or unlikely to match, for example, free delivery to the
customer’s home or free driving lessons for the customer’s older
children.
3. What advantages might there be for manufacturers in participating in
reverse auctions? From a manufacturer’s viewpoint, a reverse auction
represents an opportunity to sell a lot of products in one sale, often for
more than would be the case if the firm went through wholesalers.
However, the extra administrative effort and the possibility of
annoying the existing distributors might outweigh the benefits.
Clearly, it is in the manufacturer’s interests to sell large quantities of
product in one hit, but not at the expense of damaging the existing
distribution chain, which will undoubtedly represent the bulk of the
business.
4. How might a manufacturer calculate the appropriate price bands for a

reverse auction? Manufacturers would need to take account of the
economies of scale involved in making a bulk sale, the extra
administrative burden of dealing with the sales, and the extra risks
involved. They would also need to consider delivery costs to a lot of
individuals rather than to a single distributor, and the potential costs
attached to auctions which fail to reach the minimum number
needed to make the sale worthwhile.
5. What might retailers do to counteract the effects of reverse auctions?

Retailers probably have little to fear from reverse auctions, as they are
time-consuming and potentially unproductive for consumers – the
savings may well be outweighed by the hassles. Having said that,
retailers should be able to emphasise the greater convenience, the
availability of advice and the quality of their after-sales service.
Retailers can generally compete well, provided they offer a good
enough service to their customers – which is, of course, the basis of
marketing.
C.A. Papaellina & Co. Ltd.

1. What advantages does Novartis gain from dealing through CAP?
Novartis gains comprehensive distribution throughout Cyprus, even
to small street-corner kiosks. Pharmaceutical distribution needs to be
very responsive, due to the short shelf life of some medicines and the
fact that pharmacies do not stock everything. This means that
Novartis needs a firm which can respond rapidly to any delivery
requirements.
2. Why might CAP have bought into retail outlets? CAP has bought into
retailers as a means of creating vertical integration. This will
streamline the distribution and remove the problem of controlling (or
being controlled by) other members of the distribution chain.
Retaining this level of control could be important to CAP in such a
small overall market, especially as European Union membership has
increased the possibility of other firms entering the Cypriot market.
3. What specific problems might a confectionery manufacturer have
when approaching the Cypriot market? How might CAP be able to
help? Confectionery is affected by heat, and Cyprus is a hot place, so
delivery will need to be expeditiously carried out. Also, confectionery
is sold largely through kiosks, which means having the capability to
deliver very small amounts to places which are often hard to access
using large delivery vehicles. CAP can help because it has a
comprehensive delivery system which operates daily deliveries to
retail outlets throughout the island.
4. What are the major differences between supplying hypermarkets and
supplying kiosks? Hypermarkets will accept very large deliveries at a
time: large lorries can be used, whereas a kiosk will require deliveries
in small amounts, possibly by handcart. Also, invoicing for a
hypermarket can be done by each individual manufacturer if
Chapter 3 171
necessary – such an approach would be hopelessly uneconomic when

dealing with kiosks, so an intermediary is essential.
5. Why would competing manufacturers such as Chanel and Jean Paul
Gaultier be prepared to use the same distributor? Although these
manufacturers are competing, they do need distribution to the same
outlets. In Cyprus, there is relatively little choice about who
distributes to the target retailers: CAP is probably the only choice.
Ensuring that one’s products are offered from the same outlets as
competing products is actually essential if people are to be able to
make comparisons: such comparisons should result in increased
business, unless of course the competitor’s product is better.
Giant bicycles
1. What are the advantages of using a firm like Wincanton? Wincanton
supply specialist services and are already familiar with distribution in
most or all of Giant’s markets overseas. Wincanton can also operate
more efficiently when delivering to small outlets, since they would be
able to fill a truck or container with goods bound for nearby
destinations.
2. How might Giant Bicycles enter markets where Wincanton are not
represented? Giant might look for a local distributor or agent, or might
operate through wholesalers in the area. It may be possible for them
to find another logistics firm able to fill the gaps in Wincanton’s
coverage.
3. What are the main problems Giant faces in terms of logistics? The
main problems are the global nature of the business, the differing sizes
of retail outlets, the location of outlets in terms of national
transportation infrastructure and (occasionally) the small delivery
quantities.
4. What challenges Wincanton face in the 21st century? Wincanton are
facing problems from global competition and from the rapid growth in
alternative distribution systems. A growing expectation for just-in-
time delivery, and an impatience with failed deliveries, will also
impact the firm. Increased customer expectations, particularly
regarding delivery reliability and order tracking, may also affect
Wincanton’s operations.
5. What type of information might the companies exchange via their

mutual IT systems? The main type of information will be order
tracking, since customers will contact Giant with the query but Giant
may not have the information. Sales forecasts would be useful for
Wincanton to have, since these will help with their own forward
planning, and obviously ordering information will be important.
Scotiabank
1. How did Scotiabank translate its vision statement into an advertising
campaign? The vision statement was about treating people as
individuals and finding solutions which would help make them
wealthy – a very customer-orientated vision. The bank used this to
develop a campaign showing people in typical ‘problem’ situations,
then showing how the bank could help solve the problem.
2. What sales promotion techniques did Scotiabank use? The bank used
the cash back mortgage, the business and personal banking facility,
and a hand-holding approach to online banking. These sales
promotions encouraged loyalty, but they also encouraged people
towards dependency on the bank for sorting out all sorts of financial
problems.
3. How did the three principles translate into an integrated
communications campaign? By using the problem–solution format,
Scotiabank was able to show typical, relevant problems and show the
solution (thus meeting the focus on the truth of people’s lives
principle). The bank showed how it could help people to generate
wealth for themselves (the getting ahead principle) and by
understanding how people were usually treated by other banks they
were able to see things from the customer’s perspective.
4. What difficulties might there have been in offering a single, integrated

message to such a wide range of potential customers? The main
problem would be ensuring that people felt that the message was
relevant to them. Seeing people in typical problem situations would
certainly have helped to convey the message: most of the situations
would be fairly stereotypical of people’s involvement with banks.
Viral marketing
1. Advertising is heavily regulated: it must, by and large, be truthful. No
such regulations exist on contacts between friends, so why is viral
marketing more credible than advertising? Credibility is about the
source, not about the regulations surrounding it. People are more
likely to trust someone they know, especially if the person has no
obvious vested interest, rather than a stranger with an obvious
Chapter 3 173
interest in making the sale. Interpersonal communications will

always be more credible than impersonal ones because the
individuals concerned can read each others’ facial expressions and
body language more easily.
2. How might the power of word of mouth be transferred to advertising?
Some advertising models word of mouth by showing friends advising
each other: this is a common ploy in household products advertising.
Another approach is to encourage people to tell a friend by offering
incentives, either to the adviser or to the friend or to both. In general,
giving a reward to the friends works better than giving a reward to the
existing customer.
3. What type of organisation might benefit most from viral marketing on
the Internet? Any organisation which is offering goods which are
useful to computer owners and users, and any organisation aiming for
a younger market would benefit from Internet-based viral marketing.
On a more subtle level, any organisation which has difficulty in
identifying the members of its target market would gain from viral
marketing, because people tend to become friends with people much
like themselves and will therefore tend to send them items they find
interesting.
4. What other advertising media might be useful in driving customers to
the website? Almost any other medium can be used to drive
customers to the website: firms often use billboard or press
advertising to do so, and even TV can be used. Recently, firms have
been using e-mail viruses to drive potential customers to websites,
but this is widely regarded as unethical. Probably print is most
suitable because the URL can be printed – broadcast media such as
TV and radio are impermanent, and it is unlikely that someone
watching a TV ad would be quick enough or alert enough to write
down a web address.
Full stop
1. What are the main communication factors which would prevent the
NSPCC reaching its goal? One major problem the NSPCC has is that
child abuse is a distressing topic: many people are likely to shy away
from overly-emotional portrayals of abuse victims, and thus the
impact of the advertising will be lost. On the other hand, the issue has
to be confronted in a realistic way. A further factor is the difficulty of
conveying complex information about how to recognise and report
child abuse, when the advertisements are only a few seconds long.
2. How might the NSPCC be more proactive in contacting potential

abusers? The NSPCC could run a hotline for parents who feel unable
to cope and could also liaise closely with the police and other agencies
to work with parents who are or who might become abusers.
Although currently much of this work is carried out by local authority
Social Services departments, the NSPCC could also contribute.
3. What other communications media might the NSPCC use? Most

media are already used by the charity, including TV, radio, direct
mail, press, outdoor media and Internet-based media. The charity
should look at viral campaigns, thus approaching a younger audience
who are comfortable with ‘word of mouse’ communications.
4. What are the main problems for the NSPCC in producing an
integrated campaign? The NSPCC has a major problem in that it is
trying to communicate to a wide range of audiences, each of whom
need a different message and each of whom will interpret messages
intended for others. For example, a message intended to help abusive
parents control themselves better may be construed as sympathetic to
the abuser by some other observers. Also, the charity uses a wide
range of media, each of which will offer a different type of media
experience for the audience.
5. How might the NSPCC improve the integration of its campaign?
Although it is difficult to integrate the campaign fully, some progress
might be made by ensuring that the charity’s main aim is always
prominent. In this case, the NSPCC needs to ensure that its Full Stop
strapline is used in all the communications, and to retain a common
theme in the advertising. Integration would be easier if fewer media
were used, but this would undoubtedly reduce the coverage the
campaign receives.
JD Wetherspoon
1. What is the role of physical evidence in Martin’s thinking? Physical
evidence is exemplified in Wetherspoon’s by the unique
environment. There is no loud music, no TV and no noisy pub games,
so customers have a relaxing and quiet atmosphere in which to enjoy
their evening out.
2. Why would Wetherspoon seek to have smoking banned in all pubs?

Banning smoking in pubs has been advantageous to Wetherspoon’s
because of their belief that many people avoid pubs because of the
smoky atmosphere. Smokers are now a minority of the UK
Chapter 3 175
population, and smoking is becoming socially unacceptable:

Wetherspoon’s brand image (comfort, safety and clean surroundings)
does not fit well with allowing smoking. Although many pubs appear
to have lost business due to the ban, Wetherspoon’s remains relatively
buoyant.
3. Why ban music in the pubs? Wetherspoon’s emphasis on the physical

evidence aspect of the service mix means that they are aiming for
customers who seek out a quiet environment. Music detracts from
this.
4. Why might Wetherspoon’s seek to limit people’s drinking? An
important element in the People factor in the marketing mix is the
other customers. Customers who become drunk might also become
noisy, or even abusive and violent. This would harm the
Wetherspoon’s image: it is not worth damaging the brand simply for
the short-term gain of selling a little more alcohol.
Wetherspoon Lodges are a brand extension of the basic Wetherspoon’s
brand. It carries the same brand values as the Wetherspoon pub brand, but
offers different benefits.
Insight express
1. How might Insight Express be able to help with assessing advertising
effectiveness? Measuring advertising effectiveness is notoriously
difficult, because there are too many other variables that can account
for any observed effects. Measuring communications effectiveness
involves measuring communications outcomes rather than
marketing outcomes, so Insight Express should be looking for such
outcomes as brand awareness, corporate image or position of the
brand with respect to competitors.
2. What type of product would be reliably researched by Insight Express,
and which would not? Anything which involves computing would be
an obvious target for Insight Express, since the respondents would
obviously own (or at least regularly use) computers. Products which
require physical inspection, for example, prototypes of new products,
would probably not be suitable. Also, products which are aimed at
low-income groups or older age groups might be difficult to research
because of the demographic profile of Insight Express’s typical
respondents.
3. Apart from sampling, what other problems might arise for Insight
Express clients? Because the respondents are self-selecting, they are
likely to be people who will have strong opinions, or have a particular

viewpoint they wish to express, or (in some cases) may have a
malicious motive for joining the panel. Some people even join such
panels for the rewards which they are sometimes offered. In any
event, they are likely to differ somewhat from a randomly chosen
sample of the population.
4. What factors might have biased the DVR research? Levels of
computer literacy and involvement, the degree to which people are
prepared to answer questions honestly (in particular issues such as
age and income which would not be apparent when the respondent is
not physically present), and the degree to which it is possible to be
dishonest when the researcher is not present are all rich sources of
bias.
5. What problems might arise from using the panel approach? Because
the same respondents are used each time, the panel members
become used to the kind of questions which are asked and will often
start thinking of themselves as ‘expert witnesses’ whose opinions are
more important than other people’s. This can be fatal for the conduct
of research because the panel members begin to give an ‘official’
opinion instead of their own honest viewpoint.
Manchester united football club

1. Which elements of the marketing mix does Manchester United use,
and in what ways? MUFC uses promotion via its website, TV channel
and magazine. The company uses premium pricing for its products
(the merchandise range) and also for its gate – watching MUFC play
live is an expensive proposition. The actual product – entertaining
football – is used as a device for merchandising. The place where the
exchange takes place might be at the ground, over the Internet, or on
TV: the matches might be seen or the merchandise purchased in
several locations. The people element is mainly about the players,
who deliver the service but (in this case) have virtually no contact
with the consumers. Players have typically generated extensive PR
coverage by being themselves newsworthy. The process of doing
business is based around the football calendar and the scheduling of
matches: the physical evidence is the merchandise itself.
2. What type of pricing strategy might be most appropriate for MUFC?

MUFC use a premium pricing strategy, but might possibly use
skimming when new strip comes on the market. In practice, since
there is no possibility of competitors producing similar products (other
Chapter 3 177
teams’ strips would not be acceptable to MUFC fans, and the club has
copyright on its strip), there would be no need to reduce prices to
meet competition.
3. What effect would your choice of pricing strategy have on the MUFC
brand? Premium pricing has the effect of enhancing the value of the
brand, since price is a surrogate for quality. Skimming would be less
effective.
4. Which promotional devices would be most appropriate for MUFC?

Having their own TV channel clearly marks MUFC out as something
very different, but as a global brand the emphasis needs to be on global
media such as the Internet.
5. Why might MUFC have such a large following outside the UK?
MUFC has been extremely successful on the pitch, especially in
international contests, which means that TV coverage of MUFC
matches has been both extensive and international. Global TV
channels such as Sky have been instrumental in promoting MUFC
since the quality of the play guarantees large audiences. The club has
capitalised on this by using its own global media to enhance its
position on the world stage.
Self-test answers
1. What does PLC stand for? B is the correct answer. The others are
invented.
2. Which of the following is true? C is correct. The order is: idea

generation, screening, concept testing, business analysis, product
development, market testing and commercialisation.
3. Which of the following is true? A is true. For a retailer, product is the
service element the retailer adds, not the products on the shelves,
and price affects all the other elements of the mix.
4. A new product which changes people’s lives radically is called: B is

correct. Continuous innovation is merely a minor adjustment, and
discontinuous innovation is still recognisable as its predecessor,
whereas discontinuous innovation is truly new to the world.
5. Which of the following is true? A is correct. The order is: innovators,
early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards.
6. Which of the following lists the elements of the traditional
promotional mix? B is correct. Price is part of marketing mix, and
personal communication is usually regarded as being part of PR.
7. Pitching the price low to start with in order to gain market share is
called: A is correct. Skimming means pricing high to start with, and
demand pricing is about setting the price at a point which controls
demand.
8. Pitching the price high to start with then reducing it as competitors

enter the market is called: A is correct. Penetration pricing means
pitching the price low to gain market share, and competitive pricing
means pricing according to what competitors are charging.
9. A firm which sells books on the Internet is an example of: C is

correct. Any firm which sells to final consumers is a retailer.
10. The practice of moving goods through the distribution chain from
raw materials to end user is called: B is correct. Logistics is the
science of supply – it includes physical distribution and is included
in marketing.
Index
A D Implementing a marketing project,

54
Absorption costing, 92 Decline of product, 73
Achieving objectives, 54–55 Delivering strategies, 54 Import houses, 96
Adoption of innovation, 82–83 Demand pricing, 92 Infrastructure, 15–16
Advertising, 101 Developing a marketing orientation, Innovation
Agents, 95 14–18 adoption, 82–87
Aspirations of staff members, 47 Development of product, 72 continuous, 85
Audit–marketing, 56 Direct marketing, 96 discontinuous, 85
Autocratic leadership, 16 Discontinuous innovation, 85 dynamically continuous, 85
Distribution channels, 95 Innovators, 82
Inseparability of product from
B Dynamically continuous innovation,
consumption, 115
Billboards, 111 85
Intangibility of services, 115
Brand awareness, 121 Internal influences on objectives, 46
Branding, 70 E Introduction of product, 72
Budget measurement, 120 Early adopters, 83
Business analysis, 79 Early majority, 83
Effectiveness, 120 L
Laggards, 83
C Efficiency, 120
Late majority, 83
Categories of objectives, 50–54 Electronic retailing, 96
Environment–internal and external, Leadership and vision, 15
Changing attitudes, 121 Legal constraints, 26
Charitable objectives, 54 60
Ethical responsibility, 53 Legislation, 48
CIM code, 26 Level of defects and returns, 121
Cinema, 111 Evolution of marketing orientation,
3–6 Level of returns, 121
Codes of practice, 26 Life cycle–product, 72–76
Commercialization and launch, 80 Export houses, 96
External influences on objectives, Local morals and customs, 26–27
Competitor analysis, 60 Long-term business strategies, 78
Competitors, 48 46–50
Loss leader, 93
Concept testing, 79
Conflict between marketing and F M
other functions, 16 Financial management, 55
Continuous innovation, 85 Managing implementation, 55
Financial objectives, 50 Marginal costing, 92
Contribution of marketing, Franchising, 96
7–10 Marketing
Control, 57 audit, 56, 57–62
Corporate culture, 46 G conflicts, 16
Corporate objectives, 56 Government and legislation, contribution, 7–10
Cost base, 92 48 cross-functional role, 18–20
Cost plus pricing, 92 Growth of objectives, 52 direct, 96
Cross-functional role, 18–20 Growth of product, 73 impact on society, consumers
Customer knowledge, 15 and the environment, 23–27
Customer needs, 78 I mix, 65–127
nature and scope, 1–36
Customers, 48 Idea generation, 78
Customer service complaints, 121 Implementation, 56 objectives, 52
179
180 Index
Marketing (continued)
services, 115–119
P S
Packaging, 70 Sales focus, 16
strategies, 56 Penetration pricing, 93 Sales maximization, 52
tactics, 56 People, 67 Sales orientation, 3–4
Marketing activities–success, Perishability of services, 115 Sales promotion, 102
120–122 Personal selling, 102 Sales revenue, 52, 120
Marketing context–planning, 39–64 Persuasive objectives, 54 Scope of marketing, 1–36
Marketing orientation Physical evidence, 67 Screening, 79
difficulties in developing, 14–18 Place, 66 Services
evolution, 3–7 Planning process–stages, 56–61 inseparability, 115
Marketing plan–using, 54–55 Press, 111 intangibility, 115
Marketing project–implementing, Price, 66, 87–91 non-ownership, 116
54–55 Pricing methods, 92–95 perishability, 115
Marketing’s cross-functional role, Process, 67 variability, 115
18–20 Product, 66, 69–72 Services marketing, 115–119
Market orientation, 4–5 decline, 73 Service support, 71
Market-oriented approach, development, 72 Setting business objectives, 56
10–13 development, 78–80 Setting marketing objectives, 56
Market testing, 79 growth, 73 Skimming, 93–95
Maturity of product, 73–74 introduction, 72 SMART objectives,
Measurement of success, 55 launch, 80 40–41
Media decisions, 110–112 life cycle, 72–75 Social responsibility, 53
Mix decisions, 56 lines, 70 Strategies–delivering, 54
Monitoring and control, 57 maturity, 73 Success of marketing activities,
Monitoring of progress, 55 obsoletion, 73 120–122
orientation, 3 Success–measurement, 54
N ranges, 70
Non-ownership of services,
116
Production focus, 16 T
Production orientation, 3 Technical innovation, 52–53
Profit and loss measurements, 120 Technological advances, 48
O Promotion, 67, 93 Technological changes, 78
Objectives Promotional pricing, 93 Telephone selling, 96
achieving, 54–55 Public relations, 101–102 Television, 110
categories, 50–54 Purchase and loyalty, 121 Transactional approach to business,
charitable, 54 16
corporate, 56 R Transactional marketing,
financial, 50 Radio, 111 27–32
growth, 52 Relationship marketing, 27–32
internal and external influences,
46–49
Relationship between the problem V
and the solution, 43 Variability of services, 115
obtained, 120 Resource constraints, 46 Vending machines, 96
persuasive, 54 Resource management, 55
setting, 39–46 Responsibility, 53
SMART, 40–41 Retailers, 95 W
Obsoletion of product, 73 Revenue maximization, Web advertising, 111
Odd-even pricing, 93 52 Wholesalers, 95

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Marketing Essentials

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AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON •NEW YORK • OXFORD

First edition 2008

Copyright Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted

Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann

Printed and bound in Great Britain

CHAPTER 1 The nature and scope of marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 3 The marketing mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

The Nature and Scope of Marketing

THE EVOLUTION OF MARKETING ORIENTATION

3. Sales orientation. As mass production developed to the point where

that salespeople are an expensive item, so much so that it is almost

A more recent addition to the evolution of marketing debate is the concept of

staging something of a renaissance with the advent of iPhones: people are

THE CONTRIBUTION OF MARKETING

Customer value is a key concept in marketing because it gives impor-

CASE STUDY: Tesco

ASPECTS OF THE MARKET-ORIENTED APPROACH

Marketing can be viewed in several different ways, according to its role

3. As a managerial function. If marketing is viewed as a managerial

position than it would otherwise occupy if it were regarded as the

Another view of the development of marketing has been offered by Kotler

(C) Marketing as the major function

(E) The customers as the controlling function

FIGURE 1.1 Evolution of the role of marketing.

DIFFICULTIES IN DEVELOPING A MARKETING

Lack of committed leadership and

Lack of customer knowledge

Transactional approach to business

FIGURE 1.2 Barriers to establishing a marketing orientation.

The Marketing in Practice box above tells us how NOT to be customer

MARKETING’S CROSS-FUNCTIONAL ROLE

Provided the firm does develop a marketing orientation, marketing will

satisfactorily dealt with within 48 hours. Since any department in the

CASE STUDY: Legoland

1. Encourage an atmosphere of pride. This might involve highlighting

2. Provide suitable vehicles for innovation. Communication channels

4. Cut down layers of hierarchy. Empowering staff at ‘grass roots’ level

5. Increase the available information about company plans and projects.

6. Ensure that the leadership is aware of its limited perspective. Senior

Internal marketing uses similar tools to customer-based marketing. It

1. Internal newsletters. These can take the form of notice boards, e-

2. Staff magazines. These can be glossy magazines with articles about

3. Staff meetings. Meetings can often be extremely boring, but a

4. Team-building exercises. These can be particularly important when

5. Awards for employees. Employee of the Month awards are often

do this, as it is often the case that a production line worker will

Internal marketing is an important, and sometimes neglected, aspect of

THE IMPACT OF MARKETING ON SOCIETY, CONSUMERS

Anybody who works in marketing has had the annoying experience of

Bhopal paid to the Indian Government to administer rather than

CASE STUDY: Bribery and Big

Business morality is driven by three main influences (See Figure 1.3):

Legal constraints Ethical behaviour