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Global Warming and Climate change, causes, impacts and mitigation

Article · September 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4889.7128

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 1

Review

Global Warming and Climate change causes, impacts and mitigation

Sivakumaran Sivaramanan*

Environmental Officer,
Environmental Impact Assessment unit, Environmental Management & Assessment division,
Central Environmental Authority,
Battaramulla, Sri Lanka.

[email protected] September.15.2015 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4889.7128

Abstract

According to NASA and IPCC, Global temperature has increased by 1.4 oF since 1880, CO2 levels has reached 400.71
parts per billion, loss of world’s forest cover between the period 2000 and 2012 is 1.5 million square km, reduction
of land ice 287 billion metric ton per year, sea level rise is 3.2 mm per year and loss of arctic ice cover at the rate of
13.3% per decade. Increasing risk of irreversible changes due to large scale shift in the climate system such as
several sensitive species such as ocean corals, aquatic birds, reptiles such as sea turtles and amphibians are facing
extinction, failing of crops cause famine in many East African countries, decrease in potable water in
Mediterranean and Southern Africa and increasing intensity of extreme events such as forest fires (Australia and
Indonesia), flooding(Bangladesh) , storm events (tornadoes and hurricanes in USA), droughts (Sahal region) and
deadly heat waves (in India 2015) recorded in many parts of the world. Anthropogenic release of greenhouse gases
CO2, CH4, water vapour, N2O, O3, HFCs, PFCs and SF6reflects a portion of solar energy back to the earth, this
increases the temperature, causes changes in ocean currents, seasonal weather patterns and ultimately changes
the climate. Deforestation reduces the CO2 sink and it further enhances the greenhouse effect. Several mitigation
methods such as use of alternative green energy sources, reducing the use of fossil fuels, use of greenhouse gas
reduction techniques during the emission, carbon capture & carbon sequestration, afforestation, reforestation,
protection of existing forest reserves, silviculture and agroforestry are being facilitated by several international,
government and non-governmental organizations. Climate change issue can be handled either adapting to the
change or disaster risk reduction. UNDP has suggested a three step method to work on Carbon finance consist of
removal of barriers to climate friendly technologies, establishing efficient host country procedures for clean
development mechanism (CDM) and develop projects via millennium development goal (MDG) carbon facility. An
Integrated Territorial Climate Plan (ITCP) was designed for regional governments to plan their activities including
financing climate change mitigation process. This paper briefly evaluates anthropocene global climate change and
its human solutions.

Key words: Climate change, global warming, climate change mitigation, impacts of global warming,
climate change impacts, carbon capture, sequestration of carbon, climate change disasters,
Anthropocene
 2

Introduction in national greenhouse gas inventories. There

are several gases influencing the global
Naturally variation in solar irradiance, variations
radiation budget such as CO, NO2, SO2 and
in orbital parameters of earth and volcanic
secondary pollutants such as tropospheric
activities cause climate change. Portion of
ozone (formed in reaction with volatile organic
incoming solar energy reflects back to space.
compounds with oxides of nitrogen under UV
However, a portion of such outgoing energy is
radiation). Begin with industrialization burning
absorbed by atmospheric gases this also helps
of fossil fuel alone causes 30% increase in the
to keep the temperature warmer (this is the
concentration of greenhouse gases
reason earth is warmer than moon) In case if
(GHG).Earth’s surface temperature has risen by
this natural heat trapping properties are not
0.18oC during last century and the projected
available the average surface temperature of
rise of current (21st) century is ranging between
the earth would be about 33oC lower (IPCC,
1.1 and 6.4 oC (IPCC, 2007). In the period
2001) the gases which trap the heat energy is
ranging 1750-2001 increase in CO2 was by 31%,
known as greenhouse gases. Recent decades,
150% for methane and 16% for nitrous oxide in
after the industrial revolution the amount of
the atmosphere.
greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere has
greatly increased due to human emission of Are we long way from Global warming
GHG and removal of natural sinks such as Oblivion?
deforestation and oceanic pollution. This
Several million years ago earth’s CO2 level was
process of increase in greenhouse effect causes
greater than 1000 ppm and the average global
warming of the earth surface and alters the
atmospheric temperature during the evaluation
energy transfer between atmosphere, space,
of mammals and dinosaurs was about22oC
land and the oceans. This phenomenon is
whereas today’s global average temperature is
referred as global warming. In addition, solar
15oC (MacRae, 2008) see figure 1. Several parts
energy or temperature is the driving force of
of Arctic and Antarctica were ice free and
earth’s weather pattern as it drives the wind,
flourished with ancient trees and animals. Sea
ocean currents, humidity pattern, movement of
level about 55 million years ago was 100m
clouds,etc, thus, the global climate get changed.
higher than now. Norwegian Island Svalbard has
This also intensify the effect of natural disasters
fossil evidences of massive pantodont
such as storms, flooding rain, landslides,
creatures, sequoia type trees and beasts like
drought, land degradation and agricultural loss,
crocodile were living in now frozen Svalbard. If
species loss and epidemics.
current increase of CO2 (mainly anthropogenic)
continues in the same level it will reach 1000
ppm by the year 2100. However, global
Greenhouse gases give positive radiative forcing
warming is not a new issue, it happens since
(net increase in the energy absorption by earth)
prehistoric times. Ancient warming was natural
due to increase in radiatively active natural
and it was due to volcanic activities and thawing
greenhouse gases such as CO2, CH4, water
of frozen methane alone (Adapted from Doyle,
vapour, N2O, O3. In addition HFCs, PFCs and SF6
2007).
are anthropogenic in origin and are accounted
 3

Figure 1: Global Temperature and CO2 levels over 600 million years (Source: MacRae, 2008)

Global warming and Climate change Factors increases with global warming

Global warming and climate change refer to the

increase in average global temperatures due to
 Temperature of land
the increase in greenhouse effect by the
increase in the greenhouse gases. Natural  Sea surface temperature
events such as forest fires, volcanic eruptions,
 Troposphere temperature
methane release from thawing of permafrost
on the ocean floor and release of methane gas  Temperature over oceans
from cattle, wet lands and anthropogenic
 Ocean heat content
sources of exhausts from all kinds of
combustion, industrial production of  Sea level
greenhouse gases, agricultural water lodging
 Humidity
activities such as paddy cultivation artificial wet
lands and deforestation. Warming of the earth
causes rapid changes in pre-existing weather
pattern. According to National Oceanic and Factors decreases with global warming
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) there are
several indicators those changes with the
warming world. o Glaciers

o Snow cover
 4

o Sea ice Table 1 GWP values and lifetimes

Greenhouse Gas Lifetime GWP time

(years) Horizon
Greenhouse effect
100 years
Weather and climate of the earth is driven by
the sun’s energy. Solar radiation heats the earth Methane 12.4 34
surface, and in turn earth radiates the energy
back into space. Some gasses of the HFC-134a (hydro
13.4 1550
atmosphere traps some of the outgoing energy fluorocarbon)
and retains heat. This causes to an increase in
CFC-11
the global temperature and also causes 45.0 5350
(chlorofluorocarbon)
subsequent changes in the weather pattern.
Gases which trap the heat energy are known as Nitrous oxide (N2O) 121.0 298
greenhouse gases; all greenhouse gases are
positive radiative forcing agents and are Carbon tetra fluoride
50000 7350
capable of disturbing the energy balance in the (CF4)
atmosphere. Global warming potential (GWP)
of a gas is a measure of cumulative radiative
forcing caused by unit volume of gas over a (Source: Myhreet al., 2013)
given period of time, GWP values for gases are
measured with reference to the GWP of the
CO2. If GWP of CO2 over a period of 100 years is
1, then GWP of methane is 34 (see table 1).
Since 1880 Earth’s average temperature has
warmed by 0.8oC (1.4oF). This has reached a
peak in 2014 even though it is an El-nino neutral
year. The warming of earth has been increasing
more steeply during the last three decades (see
figure 2). (‘NASA,’ 2015)
 5

Figure2:Global temperature in the period between 1880 and 2014. (‘Anup,’2015)

According to John Cook, writing the popular warming faster than days, more fossil fuel
Skeptical Science blog (2010), 10 indicators of a carbon in coral, more heat return to earth,
human finger print on global warming were more fossil fuel carbon in the air, cooling of
observed. They are shrinking thermosphere, stratosphere and less heat escape to the space
rising tropopause, less oxygen in the air, release (see figure 3).
of 30 billion tons of CO2annually, nights
 6

Figure 3:Tenindicators of a human finger print on climate change

(Source: ‘John,’ 2010 as cited in ‘Anup,’ 2015).

Throughout the history earth’s climate has and often changes the global atmospheric CO2
changed several times before. For the last 650, levels. After the last ice age (7000 years ago)
000 years our planet has underwent several modern climatic era begins with the emergence
glacial advance and retreats including of human civilization. Last three decades has
catastrophic events, these changes were shown a rapid increase in global atmospheric
occurred due to the small variation in solar CO2 levels, which never happened before (see
energy received by earth during such events figure 4, 5&6).
 7

Figure 4: Global CO2 level throughout world’s history Source: NOAA via Shah (2015)

Figure 5:Increase in global CO2 concentrations (Source: ‘NASA Global Climate Change,’ 2015)
 8

Figure 6: Concentration of Main Greenhouse gases ([Etheridge et al., 1998], adjusted to the NOAA
calibration scale [Dlugokencky et al., 2005]as given in ‘James and Stephen,’ 2014).

Table 2: Major sources of Greenhouse gases

Sector Activities Gases

Energy Forest fuel combustion CO2, CH4, N2O, O3

Natural gas leakage

Industrial activities

Biomass burning

Forest Harvesting CO2, CH4, N2O

Clearing

Burning
 9

Agriculture Paddy fields CO2, CH4, N2O

Animal husbandry (ruminants)

Fertilizer usage

Waste management Sanitary landfill Incineration CO2, CH4, N2O, O3, CFCs

Biomass decay

Industrial Metal smelting & processing CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs, SF6, CF4,
C2F6
Cement production

Petrochemical production

Miscellaneous

(Source: Kemp, 2004)

CO2 as greenhouse gas Natural sources such as volcanic eruption and

forest fires account for large efflux of
Swedish chemist Svante Arrhineusis the first
CO2.Increased deforestation, degradation of
person who predicted the rise of temperature
oceanic algal photosynthesis due to marine
as the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
pollution also reduces the uptake of CO2from
rises his findings were published in 1896
the atmosphere, according to Dr. Michael
(Hulme, 1997 as cited in Kemp, 2004). CO2
Gunson and Dr. Charles Miller of NASA on
contributes for 56% of global warming, as other
Global climate change, current CO2 levels
geochemical cycles CO2 also used to be a self-
exceeds 400 ppm (400.06 in March 2015) and
regulating one, until the anthropogenic vast
expected to reach 450 ppm or more and the
emission and deforestation alters the balance.
rate of increase is more than 2.75 ppm /year
Major source of CO2is fossil fuel burning it
(‘NASA GCC,’ 2015).
contributes more than75% of atmospheric CO2
in 1990s, further chemical changes during
production of lime, cement and ammonia
augment and increasing litter and garbage
decomposition are other anthropogenic means. Methane
 10

Methane naturally exists in the atmosphere reactions with other pollutants such as CO
mainly from anaerobic decaying process in (‘NASA GISS Institute on Climate and Planet,’
natural wetlands, methane has GWP of 21 and 2010).Emission from natural sources alone
its radiative forcing is 11%, its rate of increase in account for ~180-380 Tg per year. Current total
the atmosphere is twice the rate of CO2. methane emission has risen to~450-500 Tg per
However, life span of methane is relatively year which is twice the amount of pre-industrial
shorter than that of CO2 as it reacts with times.
hydroxyl radicals and produce water and CO2
(which are less potent greenhouse gases than
methane). Anthropogenic sources account for Nitrous oxide
half of its release to the atmosphere.
Agricultural activities, increased number of It is the third highest greenhouse gas. N2O has
cattle and pig dairy farming and non- dairy the varying growth rate of 0.1–0.7 % per year
cattle(ruminants releases methane through (Saikawaet al., 2014) GWP of N2O is 298 and it
their digestive process), termite concentrated accounts for 6% of total radiative forcing by
areas such as tropical grass lands and forests greenhouse gases (IPCC, 2001as cited in Kemp,
releases considerable amount of methane to 2004). N2O released from fertilizers mainly
the atmosphere (Crutzenet al., 1986), forest fire during the intermittent stages of nitrification
events contributes a large amount of methane and denitrification, breakdown of nitrogen from
efflux particularly during ENSO.Paddy livestock manure and urine account for 5% of
cultivation and various other cultivation global efflux. Transportation is another major
produces flooded wetlands which generate source, supersonic engines and rockets releases
methane during anaerobic decomposition. Coal of N2O. Nitrous oxide is released as a byproduct
mining process, leakage through the pipelines during industrial production of nitric acid mainly
and drilling for oil are major anthropogenic in the production of inorganic fertilizer and
sources (Hengeveld, 1991 as cited in Kemp, adipic acid used in the production of fibers such
2004). Anaerobic decaying of landfill organic as nylon. (‘EPA overview of greenhouse gases,’
wastes and piling of garbage and fertilizer are 2015)
another source of methane, venting, flaring at
oil and gas wells, enteric fermentation, biomass
burning and burning of fossil fuels are few other CFC in global warming
anthropogenic sources. In addition, huge
Halogenated carbons such as CFCs were used as
amount of methane is trapped in higher latitude
refrigerants, insulating foams, aerosol sprays.
permafrost and in deep ocean sediments as
Its GWP is 12,000 its radiative forcing is 24%
methane hydrates and clathrates. With the
(IPCC, 2001as cited in Kemp, 2004). However,
effect of warming permafrost is about to melt
use and production of CFC is completely banned
and temperatures of oceans gradually
by Montreal protocol thus current levels of
increases, this causes decaying of clathrates and
global CFC in the atmosphere are declining.
release of methane, such methane release are
observed in pacific ocean floor and Siberian
permafrost (Ruddiman, 2001). Hydroxyl
reduction of methane also minimized due to the Effects of global warming
 11

level is 3.19 mm per year (Shaftel, 2015), this

causes loss of low lying land, submergence of
Sea level rise
island states in Indian and Pacific ocean might
This is caused by two factors such as addition of disappear completely, loss of valuable habitats
water from melting ice land and expansion of and beaches e.g.: nesting beaches of sea turtles
sea waters as it warms. Rate of increase in sea get disappeared and this may affect the already
endangered sea turtle population (see figure 7).

Figure 7: Sea level change (Source: NASA Global Climate Change Land ice (2015)

Warming oceans about 152 km of ice in the period of 2002 to

2005. According to the ‘NASA-GCC-Land ice’
Heat is absorbed by the oceans affects the top
(2015) the loss of ice mass in Antarctica is at the
700 m of the sea. Since 1969 oceans shows
rate of 147 billion metric tons of ice per year
warming of 0.302 oF.
since 2003, this is 258billion metric tons per
year in Greenland.

Shirking ice sheaths

Ice sheaths in Green land and Antarctica has Declining Arctic sea ice
shown decline in their mass. Greenland lost
Snow plays a vital role to the environment by
150-250 cubic km of ice per year in the period
reflecting the sunlight back this helps to reduce
between 2002 and 2006 and Antarctica lost
 12

the warming, in addition, melting seasonal snow cover in the northern hemisphere has
snow provides fresh water for the life and declined over the last five decades. Arctic sea
accrued soil moisture helps the growth of ice is declining at the rate of 13.3% per decade.
vegetation. However, increase melting of ice by According to the satellite data, the lowest arctic
global warming leads to spring time floods. ice extent was recorded in 2012 (see figure 8).
According to the satellite data amount of spring

Figure 8: Decreasing arctic sea ice (Source: ‘NASA GCC arctic sea ice,’ 2015; ‘NASA earth observatory,’
2000)

Antarctic melting and loss of ice shelf. waters melt the ice sheet from underneath
(basal shelf melt) accounted for 55% of the ice
Antarctic ice shelves accounted for a mass loss
shelf melts, it also changes the ocean currents.
of1,089 trillion kilogram ice per year in the
(‘Shaftel,’ 2015) see figure 9.
period between2003 and 2008. Warm ocean
 13

Figure 9: Antarctica mass variation (Source: ‘NASA Global Climate Change Land ice,’ 2015).

Glacial retreat speed exceeds 74 miles per hour this is

called hurricanes in Atlantic and
Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere such typhoons in pacific. Tornadoes are
as Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska and more frequent in USA and it causes
Africa. mass destruction to lives, properties
and crops (‘Union of concerned
scientists,’2006).

Extreme events 3. Droughts: there are four types of

droughts such as meteorological (low
precipitation), agricultural (lack of
moisture for crop growth), hydrological
1. Flood and landslides: Both causes large (surface & ground water supply below
death and injury in human population normal) and socioeconomic (effect in
such events are increasing with the the economy due to water scarcity)
global climatic change in countries like such events are common in Sahal and
Bangladesh, Khartoum, Netherlands, East African countries such as Ethiopia
Egypt and Sudan. and Sudan.
2. Hurricanes and Tornadoes: ocean 4. Forest fires: Are more common in
temperatures increasing due to global Australia and Indonesia during El-nino
warming this subsequently increases events. Forest fires can naturally ignited
the wind speed when maximum wind
 14

by lightening, volcanic eruptions, spark Increased temperatures of land and ocean

from rock falls and spontaneous moved the habitat range of many species pole
combustion. Anthropogenic slash and ward or upward from their current location
burn agriculture and exotic / invasive
such movements also accelerated by droughts
oily plants such as eucalyptus and pine
and desertification. Species with restricted
trees naturally causes fires. It has been
estimated between 1850 and 1980 90- habitat requirement or sedentary (coral reefs)
120 billion metric tons of CO2 was or limited climatic or geographical range
released by forest fires (‘earth (mountain top or Island habitats) are more
observatory,’ n.d.). (Adapted from vulnerable to climate change. This also may
McMichael, 2003). increase the net primary productivity as
5. Heat waves: heat waves killed more atmospheric CO2 levels increases and
than 2500 people in India (by June opportunists (weeds) win the competition.
2015). Most affected regions are Organisms of temperature dependent sex
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab, determination such as sea turtles, crocodiles,
Uttar Pradesh, Odisha and Bihar. It also amphibians with permeable skin and eggs are
severely affected cattle and crop
more vulnerable. Species that are already at risk
production.
face extinction, many habitats such as wetlands,
beaches, grass lands and sea grass beds
disappear. Climatic change associated reduction
Ocean acidification
in Arctic and Antarctic ice alter seasonal
Ocean acidification has lowered the pH of the distribution, migratory pattern, nutritional and
ocean waters by about 0.11 units (SCOR 2009 as reproductive status of marine mammals, it also
cited in ‘Tech Ocean Science’, n.d.)This is due to affect the plankton distribution this affect the
anthropogenic CO2 emission, amount of CO2 on marine food chain and loss of a key stone
upper layer of the ocean has been increasing species make the entire food chain get
by2 billion tons per year. Oceans have absorbed collapsed. Long living species such as perennial
1/3 of the CO2 produced by human activities trees slowly show evidence of climate change
since 1800 and fossil fuel burning alone account and they slowly get recover. Changes in
for half of the CO2 (Sabine et al., 2004 as cited phenology, breeding seasons, behavioural
in ‘Tech Ocean Science’, n.d. ). alterations and patterns of migration (e.g. in
birds) are already observed (Adapted from
Secretariat of the conservation on biological
If CO2 emission levels continues unchanged, the diversity (2003).
future CO2 levels will be high enough to lower
the pH of ocean to 7.8 by the year 2100 (Royal
Society, 2005 as cited in ‘Tech Ocean Science’, Effects on coral reefs:-Increasing temperature
n.d.). causes coral bleaching in various parts of the
world and acidification of oceans affect the
corals regard to their formation of skeleton,
Effects on Biodiversity acidified waters cause difficulties in absorbing
calcium from the water which is essential for
 15

shell formation and it also dissolves the reefs  Increasing sea level causes flooding in
(‘Tech Ocean Science’, n.d.). low lying lands and evacuation

 In Mediterranean climatic regions such

as Southern Europe, South Africa and
Health effects
Western Australia precipitation get
Direct physiological effect by heat and cold, reduced soil moisture levels decline and
high heat affects several in Indian states during ultimately productivity goes down.
the early 2015, sun stroke killed several,
 Increase in desertification
continuous exposure can causes skin damage,
eye disease, adverse effect on immune system  Abrupt weather changes affect the
and skin cancer, temperature increases blood agriculture and results in food
pressure, viscosity and pulse thus increases the shortages
death related to cardio vascular disease and
increased stress and malnutrition also adversely  Shortage of water in already water
affect the health. scarce areas.

Epidemics of water born and vector borne  Starvation, malnutrition and increased
diseases occur as flooding increases breeding deaths in the areas of food shortage
places of mosquito vectors and also breakage in
 More extreme weather and increased
water pipes, septic tanks, sewers, drainage and
frequency of catastrophic events such
storm water gets leak and contamination in
as storms, typhoons and flooding
portable water sources.
events.
Water borne diseases: Diarrhea, cholera
 Changes pollution and aeroallergen
anddysentery.
levels
Vector borne diseases: falciparum malaria,
 Increase in epidemics diarrhea, cholera,
vivax malaria, dengue, elephantiasis, yellow
dengue and malaria
fever and west nile fever, rodent borne diseases
plaque, Lyme disease and tick born encephalitis  Increased allergy and asthma rates due
and hanata virus pulmonary syndrome. to earlier blooming plants
(Adapted from McMichael, 2003)
 Deaths may occur due to heat waves.

 Crop failure and pest out break

Pros and cons of global warming
 Extinction of plants and animals

 Loss of plant and animal habitats

Disadvantages
 Emigration increases from poor or low
 Disruption of ocean circulation leads to lying countries to rich and wealthier
unknown changes and effects in world nations.
climate.
 16

 Additional energy expenditure for o Less energy and fuel requirement for
cooling and excavation of ground water warming up.
or bringing river water.

 Melting of permafrost leads to

o Decrease in death due to freezing
destruction of structures, landslides and
avalanches

 Increased air pollution o Longer the growing season could

increase the agricultural production
 Permanent loss of glaciers and ice
sheets. (Farhan, 2015)

 Cultural heritage sites get destroyed

rapidly by increased extremes of
CO2Mitigation
weather pattern

 Acidification of oceans
There are 3 basic ways suggested to lower the
 Earlier drying of forests leads to greenhouse effect. Firstly, stopping or reducing
increased forest fires the emission of CO2 into the atmospheres by
ways such as use alternative green energy
 Economical imbalance and increased sources or renewable energy sources,
violence upgrading the emission standards of the engine.
Advantages Secondly, liquefying the CO2 produced in the
combustion and dump into the oceans, though
o Arctic, Antarctic, Siberia and other it is a permanent disposal but it will result in
frozen regions of the earth experience ocean acidification which is currently becoming
more land for cultivation (opening of a major threat to aquatic life, thus underground
new lands) and more plant growth in injection or geologic sequestration and
favourable conditions. transportation/ storage of captured carbon in
industries and power plants. Thirdly, lowering
the atmospheric CO2 levels (post emission
o Northern Europe, Canada, Russia get control) this is done by increasing the sinks such
benefited with increased harvest such as afforestation, reforestation and prevention
as cereals, sugar beet, hay and of deforestation. Annually, about 2 billion tons
potatoes. of CO2 ends up in oceanic organic deposits in
sea floor.

o More sea transportation ways opens

such as Canada’s North West passage. Air quality and emission trading: US EPA has
proposed to reduce greenhouse gas emission,
reduce emission from new vehicle, reducing
vehicular pollution via telecommuting and
 17

series of programs conducted by US EPA to requires a pressure gradient for the separation;
reduce the vehicular emission. this is achieved by pressurizing flue gas on one
side of the membrane and vacuuming the other
Emission control during Beijing Olympics, during
side (Adapted from Global CCS Institute, 2012).
the Olympic season 300,000 heavy emission
vehicles (mostly trucks) were put away from the
site, government encourage public transport, Pre combustion de-carbonization
rules allow only some people to drive on certain
days about 2 million vehicles are removed from This is achieved by providing ‘synthesis gas’
roads. Mobile data collection of CO2 and soot in (mixture of H2 and CO) for combustion where
the atmosphere was done. As a result the black CO2 is absorbed completely. Thus, the
presence of carbon gets down by 33% in 2008. combustion occurs in the absence of CO2. CO in
the synthesis gas easily gets converted into CO2
which is then captured using solvent. Here a
Methods of carbon capture in power plants hydrogen rich fuel is produced that facilitate the
efficient burning in the turbine and minimizes
and industries
the CO2 emission.

Transportation of captured carbon dioxide can

Post combustion capture (PCC)
be done easily by regular transportation or
This method involves separation of CO2 from shipment in a compressed cylinder (IEA
flues gas, solvent absorption using ammonia Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, n.d.).
such as aqueous pure amines or blends of
amines, in Alstom’s Chilled Ammonia Process
(ACAP) aqueous ammonium carbonate to Carbon sequestration
bicarbonate reaction is used.
monoethanolamine (MEA) in aqueous solution Carbon sequestration is a process providing
is used to capture CO2 usually from boilers, Aker long term storage for captured carbon from
Clean Carbon is a mobile amine based facility, industrial effluents, which helps to reduce the
amino acid salt processes is the second emission of carbon to Atmosphere as CO2.
generation method, amino acid salts has high Captured compressed CO2 can be injected
absorption capacity than amines. underground using pipe line, suitable geological
Adsorption methods are using a material where formation for CO2 sequestration are depleted
the CO2 molecules get absorbed on to the solid oil & gas fields, solid, porous rock such as
surface e.g. 3X zeolites, this is comparatively sandstone, shale, dolomite, basalt, or deep coal
advantages than liquid based absorption as seams and saline formations. More precisely
regeneration energy is low, since the heat one or more layers below cap rock could be the
capacity of solid sorbent is lower than the ideal place which prevents the upward
aqueous solvents. migration of CO2 after being injected (see figure
10) (Adapted from ‘EPA CCS,’ 2015).
Membranes are used to separate the CO2
selectively, since CO2 has high permeability than
any other substances in the flue gas, however, it
 18

Figure 10: Geographical location of carbon sequestration injection zone (Source: ‘EPA CCS,’ 2015).

NOx Mitigation Absorption

It is selectively isolating the pollutant, here the

To reduce NOx methods such as selective gaseous pollutant dissolved in a liquid scrubbers
catalytic reduction process (SCR) which has the are coming under this category. In flue gas
NOx reduction rate up to 80% where injection of Denitrification the mixing of nitrous oxides with
reactive chemicals such as ammonia reacts with water resulted with nitric acid compounds
NOx and convert into N2 and O2, changing air to (which is a water and soil pollutant in liquid
fuel ratio and changing the combustion phase). In Selective Catalytic Reduction method
temperature. In automobile NOx reduction, ammonia is applied to the gas steam which
catalytic converters are used e.g. three way reacts with the oxides of nitrogen at very high
catalytic converters (1. conversion of NOx into temperature (300oC) in the presence of
N2 and O2, 2. conversion of CO into CO2 3. catalysts such as active Vanadium pentoxide
conversion of hydrocarbons into CO2 and water) and tungsten trioxide on a carrier of titanium
(‘Reducing Acid Rain’ US EPA, 2012). which releases nitrogen and water.
 19

flowers, nuts, vegetables, medicinal plants and

wildlife. Maintaining or protection against
Electrostatic precipitator
forest degradation can be successful by
planting, site preparation, tree improvement,
fertilization, uneven aged stand management,
Negative corona is most preferred in industrial thinning, pruning, weeding, cleaning, liberation
application as the industrial gases such as SO2, cutting or other appropriate silviculture
CO2, and H2O have best ability to absorb free techniques, maintaining or increasing the
electrons and spark over voltage is higher in landscape level carbon density using forest
negative corona. However, negative corona conservation strategies, longer forest rotations,
generates higher level of Ozone, thus not used fire management and protecting against insect
in air conditioners. pests (IPCC, 2007).

Flare and Thermo Oxidizers Most popular Afforestation and Reforestation

Flare stacks are used for burning off the programs
flammable gas release generally used in Forest plantation in a land which does not have
petroleum refineries, natural gas processing any forest in last 50 years of history is
plants and chemical plants, this also used to Afforestation, if it has an occurrence of forest
release the pressure of the equipment, flares within last five decades then it is Reforestation.
are designed for short term combustion. To
avoid most hazardous methane release during
fermentation in beer factories flares are used to
 China annually increased its forest
burn and release in the form CO2. Ground level
cover by 11,500 square miles, an area
flares are used in earth pits. Among thermal
the size of Massachusetts, according to
oxidizers regenerative thermal oxidizers are
a report from the United Nations in
efficient up to 95%, the process is more
2011. China’s Great Green Wall was
simplified by the use of catalytic thermo
designed to plant nearly 90 million
oxidizers where the catalyst are used to reduce
acres of new forest (Jon, 2012).
the ignition temperature and the reaction is
employed in relatively low such as  Reforestation in Korea: Between 1961
temperatures (reduction of 600 to 200 oC) there and 1995, stocked forest land went up
are ventilation air methane thermal oxidizer, from 4 million ha. to 6.3 million ha.
thermal recuperative oxidizer and direct fired Total timber rose from 30.8 million
thermal oxidizer used for the relevant purposes cubic meters in 1954 to over 164.4
(‘Thermal oxidizer,’ 2014). million cubic meters in 1984. By 2008,
11 billion trees had been planted about
two-thirds of South Korea is now
Afforestation and Reforestation clothed with forest.

Planting a tree is generally for establishing wind

breaks, shelter belts, timber, fuel wood,
 20

 Reforestation in Tanzania: the General features of this mechanism are

Kwimbare forestation project: During reforestation of native forests, plantations for
the nine year period of the project’s timber, agro forest or multipurpose tree
run, over 6.4 million trees were plantations and healing barren lands. Kyoto
planted. Protocol governs Land use, land use, change
and forestry (LULUCF) and modalities and
procedures for CDM. Organizations such as
 Reforestation in Mexico: the Mixteca International Tropical Timber Organization
Region: Center for Integral Small (ITTO) carried out the task according to the
Farmer Development in the Mixteca discussed strategies.
reforested with 1 million trees covers
more than 1000 ha.
Role of International Tropical Timber
Organization (ITTO)
 Reforestation in the United States: the International organizations such as ITTO,
Appalachian Regional Reforestation encourages conservation, sustainable
Initiative: 60 million trees have been development, use and trade of forest resources.
planted on about 87,000 acres of active It has 59 members represent about 80% of
mine sites in Appalachia under ARRI’s tropical forests and 90% tropical timber trade
guidance. worldwide. ITTO collects analyses and circulates
data on production and trade of timber and
allocates funds since 1987. It has funded more
 Reforestation in Colombia: Gaviotas than 750 reforestation and afforestation
Villagers have successfully reforested projects valued US$290 million. Donors are
about 20,000 acres as a result rainfall mostly Japan, Switzerland and the USA.
has increased by 10%. (‘Sustainablog’,
2011).
CDM projects

 Japan after World War II, have done  Pearl River Watershed Management,
intensive reforestation from 1950-1970, China: This project proposes to alleviate
during that period professional local poverty and reduce threats to
silviculture spread out in every forests by afforesting 4,000 hectares in
Japanese village. (Gerry, 2005) the Guangxi Zhuang. Project also
includes half of the Pearl river basin.

Forestry projects under the Clean

Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto  Pico Bonito Forest Restoration,
Protocol. Honduras: This is a pilot project on
agroforestry to support small scale
farmers of 20 villages with in the Pico
 21

Bonito National park buffer zone of  Reduce the material content of

2,600 ha. Main roles of the project are manufactured goods
introducing agroforestry for small scale
 Switch to energy efficient technology
farmers, reforestation to promote
conservation, establishment of  Transferring and sharing technology
sustainable commercial grade mainly from developed to developing
plantation. countries

 Recycle

 San Nicolás Afforestation project: This

project includes both forest and 3. Transport:
agroforestry plantation in an
 Improving energy efficiency of vehicles
abandoned pasture land of 8,730 ha. In
San Nicolás, Colombia.  Reducing vehicle emission

(Timothy, Sarah and Sandra, 2006).  Reduce the vehicle weight and size to
maximize the performance

 Changing land use patterns and life

Mitigation approaches for Global warming styles to reduce transport requirements

 Integrate transport policies

1. Energy:  Promote public transport option than

personal vehicles
 Increase energy efficiency in engines
and boilers  Promote greener vehicles such as
electric cars
 Switching to low carbon fossil fuels such
as natural gas

 Introducing flue gas decarbonization 4. Agriculture:

and carbon sequestration
 Develop new management techniques
 Increasing the use of nuclear energy to reduce tillage, recycling of crop
residues, mixed cropping and avoid
 Increase the use of renewable energy monoculture
sources
 Restoration of wetlands
 Conserve energy during the usage
 Improve energy efficiency

 Improve nutrition of ruminants and

2. Industry: reduce methane generation
 Reduce greenhouse gas emission such  Reduce biomass burning
as methane
 Manage fertilizer use to reduce nitrous
oxide production
 22

emission reduction projects under cap and

trade scheme, here a cap (limit) values is
5. Forestry
defined for GHG emission.
 Substitute burning of fuel wood for
fossil fuels
Kyoto Protocol, 1997
 Improve energy efficiency

 Reduce biomass burning This is an amendment to the U.N. Framework

convention on climate change, parties are
 Conserve CO2 in living trees committed to bring down the emission of six
 Afforestation and reforestation greenhouse gases (Carbon dioxide (CO2);
Methane (CH4); Nitrous oxide (N2O);
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); Perfluorocarbons
(PFCs); and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)(UFCCC,
6. Government
2014) or reducing their production as the listed
 Develop industrial land use plan to gases cause global warming, parties agreed to
minimize energy consumption fund research on climate change and promoting
alternative energy sources in both developed
 Planning disposal of waste material to
reduce production of methane and CO2 and developing nations, it also includes several
international partnerships such as Asia- Pacific
 Provide disincentives (tax) for excess partnership on clean development and Climate.
energy consumption First commitment period was between 2008
 Provide incentives for energy and 2012 here 37 industrialized nations and the
consumption and minimizing European community committed to reduce
greenhouse gas emission such as GHG emissions to an average of 5% against
reduce the taxes for electric and hybrid 1990 levels. Then Doha amendment was added
vehicles. in 2012, here parties committed to reduce GHG
 Improve energy efficient, recycling and emissions by at least 18 % below 1990 levels in
proper waste disposal the period from 2013 to 2020.

Source: Kemp (2014) Conclusion

Global warming is an increasing environmental

issue, earths average temperature has warmed
Emission trading
by 0.8oC, Annually 30 billion tons of CO2 is being
It is an administrative approach of pollution released to the atmosphere. Carbon capturing
control by giving economic incentives. Emission and sequestration methods are being widely
trading facilitates a market where parties can used to minimize the CO2 level in the
buy allowance or permits for emission of atmosphere. Clean development mechanism
particular pollutant or credits given for (CDM) developed under Kyoto protocol
reduction of pollutants. There are several promote greenhouse gas emission reduction in
 23

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