9.

SOIL PERMEABILITY
9.0 Why is it important to determine soil permeability?
Soil permeability is the property of the soil to
transmit water and air and is one of the most
important qualities to consider for fish culture.

A pond built in impermeable soil will lose little water

through seepage.

The more permeable the soil, the greater the

seepage. Some soil is so permeable and seepage
so great that it is not possible to build a pond without
special construction techniques. You will learn about
these techniques in a later volume in this series.

Soils are generally made up of layers and soil quality

often varies greatly from one layer to another. Before
pond construction, it is important to determine the
relative position of the permeable and impermeable
layers. The design of a pond should be planned to
avoid having a permeable layer at the bottom to
prevent excessive water loss into the subsoil by
seepage.

The dikes of the pond should be built with soil which will ensure a good water retention. Again, soil quality will
have to be checked with this in mind.

9.1 Which factors affect soil permeability?

Many factors affect soil permeability. Sometimes they are extremely localized, such as cracks and holes, and it
is difficult to calculate representative values of permeability from actual measurements. A good study of soil
profiles provides an essential check on such measurements. Observations on soil texture, structure,
consistency, colour/mottling, layering, visible pores and depth to impermeable layers such as bedrock and
claypan* form the basis for deciding if permeability measurements are likely to be representative.

Note: you have already learned that soil is made up of a number of horizons, each of them usually having
different physical and chemical properties. To determine the permeability of soil as a whole, each horizon
should be studied separately.

9.2 Soil permeability relates to soil texture and structure

The size of the soil pores is of great importance with regard to the rate of infiltration (movement of water into
the soil) and to the rate of percolation (movement of water through the soil). Pore size and the number of
pores closely relate to soil texture and structure, and also influence soil permeability.

Permeability variation according to soil texture

Usually, the finer the soil texture, the slower the permeability, as shown below:

Soil Texture Permeability

Clayey
Fine
soils
Loamy Moderately fine From very slow to
soils Moderately coarse very rapid
Sandy
Coarse
soils

Example
Average permeability for different soil textures in cm/hour
Sand 5.0
Sandy loam 2.5
Loam 1.3
Clay loam 0.8
Silty clay 0.25
Clay 0.05

Permeability variation according to soil structure

Structure may greatly modify the permeability rates shown above, as follows:

Structure type Permeability1

- Greatly
overlapping
Platy
- Slightly
overlapping From very slow to
very rapid
Blocky
Prismatic
Granular

1 This may vary according to the degree to which the structure is developed.

It is common practice to alter the soil structure to reduce permeability, for example, in irrigated agriculture
through the puddling of rice fields and in civil engineering through the mechanical compaction* of earthen
dams. Similar practices may be applied to fish-ponds to reduce water seepage.

9.3 Soil permeability classes

Permeability is commonly measured in terms of the

rate of water flow through the soil in a given period
of time. It is usually expressed either as a
permeability rate in centimetres per hour (cm/h),
millimetres per hour (mm/h), or centimetres per day
(cm/d), or as a coefficient of permeability k in metres
per second (m/s) or in centimetres per second Example
(cm/s).

For agriculture and conservation uses, soil permeability classes are based on permeability rates, and for civil
engineering, soil permeability classes are based on the coefficient of permeability (see Tables 15 and 16).

For fish culture, two methods are generally used to determine soil permeability. They are:
The coefficient of permeability;
The seepage rate.

For the siting of ponds and the construction of dikes, the coefficient of permeability is generally used to qualify
the suitability of a particular soil horizon:

Dikes without any impermeable clay core may be built from soils having a coefficient of permeability less than
K = 1 x 10-4 m/s;
Pond bottoms may be built into soils having a coefficient of permeability less than K = 5 x 10-6 m/s.

For pond management, the seepage rate is generally used:

In commercial pond culture, an average seepage rate of 1 to 2 cm/d is considered acceptable, but corrective
measures should be taken to reduce soil permeability when higher values exist, particularly when they reach 10
cm/d or more.

9.4 Measurement of soil permeability in the laboratory

When you take an undisturbed sample to a testing laboratory, to measure permeability, a column of soil is
placed under specific conditions such as water saturation and constant head of water. The result will be given
to you either as a permeability rate (see Table 15), or as a coefficient of permeability (see Table 16).

TABLE 15 TABLE 16
Soil permeability classes for agriculture and Soil permeability classes for civil engineering
conservation Coefficient of
Soil permeability Permeability rates1 permeability (K in
Soil permeability m/s)
classes cm/hour cm/day classes
Less than Lower Upper
Very slow Less than 3 limit limit
0.13
Slow 0.13 - 0.3 3 - 12 Permeable 2 x 10-7 2 x 10-1
Moderately slow 0.5 - 2.0 12 - 48 Semi-permeable 1 x 10-11 1 x 10-5
Moderate 2.0 - 6.3 48 - 151 Impermeable 1 x 10-11 5 x 10-7
Moderately rapid 6.3 - 12.7 151 - 305
Rapid 12.7 - 25 305 - 600
Very rapid More than More than
 25 600

1 Saturated samples under a constant water head of

1.27 cm

9.5 Measurement of soil permeability in the field

To measure soil permeability in the field, you can use one of the following tests:

The visual evaluation of the permeability rate of soil horizons;

A simple field test for estimating soil permeability;
A more precise field test measuring permeability rates.

The visual evaluation of the permeability rate of soil horizons

The permeability of individual soil horizons may be evaluated by the visual study of particular soil
characteristics which have been shown by soil scientists to be closely related to permeability classes. The
most significant factor in evaluating permeability is structure: its type, grade, and aggregation characteristics,
such as the relationship between the length of horizontal and vertical axes of the aggregates and the direction
and amount of overlap.

Although neither soil texture nor colour mottling alone are reliable clues, these soil properties may help to
estimate permeability when considered together with the structural characteristics. To evaluate visually the
permeability of soil horizons:
Examine a fresh soil profile in an open pit;
Determine the soil horizons present;
Using Table 17A, evaluate the permeability class to which each horizon belongs, carefully studying the structural
characteristics of the soil;
Confirm your results through the other soil properties shown in Table 17B;
Ranges of permeability rates may then be found in Table 15.

TABLE 17A
Visual indicators of permeability: structural characteristics of soil
 TABLE 17 B
Visual Indicators of permeability: texture, physical behaviour and colour of soil

A simple field test for estimating soil permeability

Dig a hole as deep as your waist; Early in the morning, fill it with water to the top;
 By the evening, some of the water will have sunk
into the soil;

Fill the hole with water to the top again, and cover
it with boards or leafy branches;

If most of the water is still in the hole the next

morning, the soil permeability is suitable to build a
fish-pond here;

Repeat this test in several other locations as many

times as necessary, according to the soil quality.

A more precise field test for measuring permeability rates

Carefully examine the drawings you have made On the basis of texture and structure, determine
when studying your soil profiles; which soil horizons seem to have the slowest
permeability;
Note: you could also use the visual method (see
Tables 17A and 17B) to estimate permeability.

Mark the soil horizons on your drawings which

seem to have the slowest permeability. Use a
coloured pencil;
Note: water seeps into the soil both horizontally and
vertically, but you need only be concerned with the
vertical water seepage because this is mainly what
happens in ponds.

Dig a hole approximately 30 cm in diameter until Thoroughly smear the sides of the hole with heavy
you reach the uppermost least permeable horizon; wet clay or line them with a plastic sheet, if
available, to make them waterproof;

Pour water into the hole to a level of about 10 cm;

At first, the water will seep down rather quickly, and you will have to refill as it disappears. When the pores of the
soil are full of water, seepage will slow down. You are then ready to measure the permeability of the soil horizon at
the bottom of the hole;

Make sure that the water in the hole is about 10 cm Put a measuring stick into the water and record the
deep as before. If it is not, add water to reach that exact water depth, in millimetres (mm);
level;
 Check the water level in the hole every hour for
several hours. Record the rate of seepage for each
hourly period. If the water disappears too rapidly,
add water to bring the level up to 10 cm again.
Measure the water depth very carefully;

When your hourly measurements become nearly

the same, the rate of permeability is constant and
you may stop measuring;
If there are great differences in seepage each hour,
continue pouring water into the hole to keep the
level at 10 cm until the rate of seepage remains
nearly the same;

Note: a soil horizon with suitable permeability for a

pond bottom should also be at least 0.7-1 m thick,
unless lower horizons exist with suitable
permeability and thickness.

Now compare your results with the following

values:

Permeability rate in
Suitability of horizon for a pond bottom
mm/h
Slower than 2 Acceptable seepage: soil suitable
Fast seepage: soil suitable ONLY if seepage due to soil structure which will
2-5
disappear when pond is filled
Excessive seepage: soil unsuitable unless seepage can be reduced as
5-20
described below

If the permeability rate is faster than 5 mm/h, this may be owing to a strongly developed structure in the soil. In
such cases, you try to reduce the permeability rate by destroying the structure, as follows:

Puddle the bottom soil of the hole as deep as you Repeat the more precise permeability test until you
can; can measure a nearly constant value for seepage.
 If this new permeability rate does not exceed 4 mm/h, you may consider this soil horizon as suitable for a pond
bottom. However, the entire bottom of the pond will have to be puddled before filling it with water;

If this new permeability rate exceeds 4 mm/h, this may be owing to the presence of a permeable soil horizon under
the horizon you have tested. Such a permeable layer is often found between layers of soil which are semi-
permeable or even impermeable;

Check this with the following test

Dig a new hole 30 cm in diameter

through the uppermost least
permeable layer (A) to the top of
the next least permeable layer (B);
Repeat the permeability test until
you measure a nearly constant
value for seepage;
If this permeability rate does not
exceed 3 mm/h, you may consider
this soil horizon as suitable for a
pond bottom. However, remember
that such slow permeability should
be found in a layer at least 0.7-1 rn
thick to ensure limited seepage
through the pond bottom.

Note: when building your pond, you do not necessarily need to remove a shallow permeable layer if there is a
deeper layer of soil which is not permeable and will serve to hold the water. You must, however, build the pond
dikes down to the deeper non-permeable layer to form an enclosed basin and to avoid horizontal water
seepage (see Section 9.0).

9.6 Determining coefficients of permeability

To obtain a more accurate measurement of soil permeability, you can perform the following test in the field
which will give you a value for the coefficient of permeability:
Using a bucket auger, drill a hole about 1 m deep Fill the hole with water to the top;
in the soil at the location where you wish to
determine the coefficient of permeability;
Every five minutes, for at least 20 minutes, refill the
hole to the top to be sure that the soil is fully
saturated;

Top the water in the hole and start measuring the

rate at which the water surface goes down, using a
watch to measure time and a centimetre-graduated
ruler to measure the distance P between the water
surface and the top of the hole. Stop measuring
when the rate becomes nearly constant;

Example
Rate becomes constant

Measure exactly the total depth of the hole (H) and its diameter (D). Express all measurements in metres (m):
for example

H = 1.15 m and D = 12 cm or 0.12 m

For each of the above two consecutive measurements of time/distance, calculate the coefficient of permeability
K using the following formula:
 K= (D÷2) x In (h1÷ h2) / 2 (t2- t1)

where (D ÷ 2) is the radius of the hole or half its diameter in metres; In refers to the Napierian or natural
logarithm;
h1 and h2 are the two consecutive depths of water in metres, h1 at the start and h2 at the end of the time interval;
(t2 - t1 ) expresses the time interval between two consecutive measurements, in seconds;

Note: the h-values may be readily calculated as the differences between the total depth of the hole H and the
successive P values. Be careful to express all the measurements in metres and seconds so as to obtain K in
m/s.

Now compare your K values (in m/s) with those in Table 16.

Example

If (D ÷ 2) = 0.12 m ÷ 2 = 0.06 m and H = 1.15 m, calculations of the various K values are made progressively
according to the formula (see Table 18).

Note: for obtaining the natural logarithm of (h1 ÷ h2), you will have to use either a logarithmic table or a pocket
calculator.

Remember that 10 - 6 = 0.000001 and 6.8 x 10-6 = 0.0000068, the negative exponent of 10 reflecting the
decimal place to be given to the multiplicant.

If you wish to compare a K value (m/s) with permeability rates (cm/day), multiply K by 8 640 000 or 864 x 104
such as for example:

K = 1 x 10-5 m/s = 86.4 cm/day

TABLE 18
Successive steps for the calculation of coefficients of permeability on the basis of field measurements
(for a test hole with H = 1.15 m and D = 0.12 m)

NOTE: The formula for calculating coefficients of permeability is K = [(D ÷ 2) x In (h1 ÷ h2)] / 2 (t2 - t1)
or A ÷ B (see Section 9.6).