The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Appendix 2
Codes and Standards

There are many codes and specifications which control Vessel Committee was formed and how it operates, some
the design and construction of boilers, steam generators, historical background is necessary.
pressure vessels and piping. Two of the most important During the mid-1880s, explosions in fire-tube boilers
are the American Society of Mechanical Engineers were common. Therefore, in 1887, the American Boiler
(ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) and the Manufacturers Association (ABMA) was organized to
ASME B31 Pressure Piping Code. Pressure-containing develop general rules for design and construction of
components may be required by law to meet the require- boilers and pressure vessels. However, participants
ments of these codes. In the United States (U.S.) and were reluctant to give up trade secrets and the effort to
Canada (and recently in some other countries), state, city develop rules or standards failed. There was, however,
and provincial laws, enforced by local jurisdictions (see some exchange of technical information such as materials
Note below), require new pressure parts to comply with data, riveting methods, design factors, head and flange
the ASME BPVC. The rules of design and construction of design rules, and hydrostatic testing which helped
pressure parts for repair or replacement are established manufacturers improve the safety of their products.
by the local jurisdiction and/or insurance carrier From 1898 to 1903, more than 1900 separate boiler
generally following the National Board Inspection Code explosions caused numerous injuries and fatalities in
(NBIC) in the U.S. the U.S. In 1905, a catastrophic explosion of a fire-tube
In addition to the BPVC and B31 Pressure Piping boiler in a factory in Brockton, Massachusetts, killed 58
Codes, the ASME Performance Test Code (PTC) provides people. This tragedy led the governor of Massachusetts to
uniform procedures for the testing and performance request and obtain the first legal set of rules for the design
evaluation of power plant equipment. This code is and construction of boilers. The next year a similar set
frequently used to establish contract compliance of a of boiler design and construction rules was issued by the
particular component. State of Ohio. Other jurisdictions followed with their own
rules. This wide array of rules and regulations caused
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code problems for manufacturers and users because equipment
The ASME BPVC establishes rules of safety governing which was acceptable and met the rules of one state was
the design, fabrication and inspection during construction frequently not acceptable in another.
of boilers, pressure vessels and nuclear power plant Colonel E.D. Meier, a founder of the ABMA, cam-
components. The objectives of the rules are to assure paigned for acceptance of uniform boiler laws. In 1911,
reasonably certain protection of life and property and he was elected president of the ASME. On February
to provide a margin for deterioration in service. These 13, 1915, the first ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
rules do not provide criteria for thermal performance, but Code was issued. It was 147 pages long and titled Boiler
rather set minimum necessary guidelines for structural Construction Code, 1914 Edition.
integrity to ensure safe operation during the expected
ASME BPVC additions
component life. The BPVC provides a systematic ap-
proach to evaluating the stresses and applying material After the 1914 Edition, the following major changes
properties in a way which provides a safe pressure vessel were issued:
design. The rules are established through a structured 1921 Section III – Boilers for Locomotives. (With the
voluntary consensus code writing system and are 1962 Edition, this Section was integrated into
implemented through specific contract terms and/or Section I and the Section III designation was later
adoption by various jurisdictions. reassigned.)
1922 Section V – Miniature Boilers. (With the 1962 Edi-
ASME BPVC history tion, this Section was integrated into Section I and
To understand why the ASME Boiler and Pressure the Section V designation was later reassigned.)
1923 Section IV – Low Pressure Heating Boilers.
1924 Section II – Material specifications. (Until 1924,
Note: Local jurisdiction refers to the municipal, state, provincial
materials were included as part of Section I.)
or federal authorities enforcing boiler and pressure vessel laws of 1925 Section VIII – Unfired Pressure Vessels. (With
regulations at the boiler location. the 1968 Edition, this title was changed to Rules

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

for Construction of Pressure Vessels, Division 1.

Also, Division 2 was first issued.)
1926 Section VI – Rules for Inspection (of Power Boil-
ers). (With the 1970 Addenda, this section was
reassigned with a new title.)
1926 Section VII – Suggested Rules for Care of Power
Boilers.
1937 Section IX – Welding Qualifications. (This section
was originally a supplement to Section VIII, but
with the 1941 Edition, the section was published
separately.)
1963 Section III – Nuclear Vessels. (Now Rules for
Construction of Nuclear Facility Components.)
1968 Section VIII, Division 2 – Alternative Rules for
Pressure Vessels.
1968 Section X – Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure
Vessels.
1970 Section XI – Rules for Inservice Inspection of
Nuclear Power Plant Components.
1970 Section VI – Recommended Rules for Care and
Operation of Heating Boilers.
1971 Section V – Nondestructive Examination.
1974 Section IX – Welding and Brazing. (Renamed.)
1975 Section III, Division 2 – Code for Concrete Reac-
tor Vessels and Containments. (Now Concrete
Containments.)
1977 Section I – Power Boilers. (Renamed.)
1980 Section I – Rules for Construction of Power Boilers.
(Renamed.) Organization of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
1997 Section III, Division 3 – Containment Systems Vessel Committee
for Storage and Transport Packagings of Spent In 1911, the first ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Nuclear Fuel and High Level Radioactive Material Committee was formed and included seven members. By
and Waste. (Now Containments for Transportation the early 1990s, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
and Storage.) Committee had grown to about 800 people. The members
1997 Section VIII, Division 3 – Alternative Rules for were involved at all levels, from working groups to the
Construction of High Pressure Vessels. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Main Committee. With the
2004 Section XII – Rules for Construction and Continued 2010 BPVC publications, the Main Committee was
Service of Transport Tanks. effectively replaced by the Technical Oversight Manage-
2004 Section II – Metric values of material properties ment Committee (TOMC). The BPVC tries to maintain
were added as Part D. balance on the committees with representatives from
2009 The 2013 Edition of ASME Section I Foreword manufacturers, users, insurance carriers, jurisdictions
describes the 2009 ASME organization changes. and other areas. However, the representatives from these
The Boiler and Pressure Vessel Committee was groups may maintain their position within the Boiler and
superseded by the following committees: Pressure Vessel Committees, subgroups and task groups,
even if they change their affiliation.
(a) Committee on Power Boilers (I)
The administrative structure of the ASME Boiler
(b) Committee on Materials (II)
and Pressure Vessel Standards Committees follows. The
(c) Committee on Construction of Nuclear
Administrative Committee, the Conference Committee
Facility Components (III) and the Headquarters Staff Committees report to the
(d) Committee on Heating Boilers (IV) TOMC. Also, there are three different types of groups
(e) Committee on Nondestructive Examination (V) reporting to the TOMC. First, there are the component or
(f) Committee on Pressure Vessels (VIII) book committees which are responsible for all the rules of
(g) Committee on Welding, Brazing, and Fusing (IX) design and construction for a particular type of component
(h) Committee on Fiber-Reinforced Plastic and for that Section of the BPVC in which the rules are
Pressure Vessels (X) given. Presently, the book Committees are:
(i) Committee on Nuclear Inservice Inspection (XI)
(j) Committee on Transport Tanks (XII) Section I – Committee on Power Boilers (BPV I)
Section III – Committee on Nuclear Power (BPV III)
2013 Section IX – Welding, Brazing, and Fusing Section IV – Committee on Heating Boilers (BPV IV)
Qualifications. (Renamed.) Section VIII – Committee on Pressure Vessels (BPV
VIII)
As of 2010, the current sections of the BPVC are Section X – Committee on Reinforced Plastic Pressure
summarized in Table 1. Vessels (BPV X)

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Section XII – Committee on Transport Tanks (BPV XII) • Edition 1937 (1/31/38) addenda 8/15/38, 8/18/39,
3/1/40 and 9/27/40.
Second, there are the service book committees. These • Edition 1940 (1/31/41) addenda 9/30/41, 9/16/42 and
committees are responsible for developing a specific set of 9/3/43.
rules which may be used by the component committees. • Edition 1943 (1/30/44) addenda 5/19/44, 8/25/44,
Currently, these are: 7/18/45 and 6/4/46.
Section II – Committee on Materials (BPV II) • Edition 1946 (12/4/46) addenda 6/27/47 and 7/26/48.
Section V – Committee on Nondestructive Examina- • Edition 1949 (1/26/49) addenda 8/9/49, 8/3/50, 8/8/51,
tion (BPV V) 8/1/52, and 2/2/53.
Section IX – Committee on Welding (BPV IX) • Edition 1952 (2/2/53) addenda 7/30/54 and 9/2/55.
Section XI – Committee on Nuclear Inservice Inspec- • The Editions continue to show approved by Council
tion (BPV XI) date but addenda show Date of Issuance/Issue.
• Two addenda are prepared and issued annually
Finally, there are the service committees which are starting with 1957.
each responsible for a specific area of technology or • Edition 1956 (9/2/55) addenda 12/21/56, 7/25/57,
administration of the BPVC that may be applied to the 12/30/57, 5/20/58 and 12/4/58.
book sections. In early 2009, the Service Subcommittee on • Edition 1959 (8/30/58) addenda 8/21/59, 11/10/59,
Design was eliminated. The current service Committees 5/10/60, 11/1/60, 6/1/61 and 12/29/61.
are: • Edition 1962 (8/30/61) addenda 7/16/62, 12/1/62,
Committee on Safety Valve Requirements (BPV SVR) 6/30/63, 12/31/63, 6/30/64 and 12/31/64.
Committee on Boiler and Pressure Vessel Conformity • Edition 1965 (8/11/64) addenda 6/30/65, 12/31/65,
Assessment (BPV CBPVCA) 6/30/66, 12/31/66, 6/30/67 and 12/31/67.
Committee on Nuclear Certification (BPV CNC) • Edition 1968 (8/15/67) addenda 6/30/68, 12/31/68,
6/30/69, 12/31/69, 6/30/70 and 12/31/70.
• The Editions are now release dated and addenda
Code Editions, Code Addenda and Code Cases show Date of Issuance/Issue.
The 2010 edition of the BPVC was issued including a • Edition 1971 (7/1/71) addenda 6/30/71, 12/31/71,
2010 addenda. This was followed with the 2011a addenda, 6/30/72, 12/31/72, 6/30/73 and 12/31/73.
which was printed as a complete replacement to the 2010 • Edition 1974 (7/1/74) addenda 6/30/74, 12/31/74,
edition. The plan was to have no 2012 code issue, but 6/30/75, 12/31/75, 6/30/76 and 12/31/76.
to issue a 2013 edition which includes a 2013 addenda. • Edition 1977 (7/1/77) addenda 6/30/77, 12/31/77,
Thereafter, a new edition with included addenda is to 6/30/78, 12/31/78, 6/30/79 and 12/31/79.
be issued on the odd numbered years and no separate • Edition 1980 (7/1/80) addenda 6/30/80, 12/31/80,
addenda will be issued. The frequency and terminology 6/30/81, 12/31/81, 6/30/82 and 12/31/82.
used for the release has changed many times over the • Edition 1983 (7/1/83) addenda 6/30/83, 12/31/83,
years. The following list shows the ASME Section I 6/30/84, 12/31/84, 6/30/85 and 12/31/85.
releases from the first 1914 edition to the 2013 edition. • The Editions and addenda are marked with Date of
The first edition (1914) was approved by Council on Issue. One addenda is prepared and issued annually
10/9/1914 and had no addenda. All changes were kept starting with 1986.
for the next edition. Edition 1918 (12/3/18) contained all • Edition 1986 (7/1/86) addenda 12/31/86, 12/31/87
the changes since the 1914 edition. These changes were and 12/31/88.
not mandatory until 6/3/19, six months after the edition • Edition 1989 (7/1/89) addenda 12/31/89, 12/31/90
was approved. The six months before the changes become and 12/31/91.
mandatory provide a time span for code subscribers to • Edition 1992 (7/1/92) addenda 12/31/92, 12/31/93
make changes in procedures to meet the new require- and 12/31/94.
ments. Whenever there are included changes that have • Edition 1995 (7/1/95) addenda 12/31/95, 12/31/96
not been previously approved by Council, six months prior and 12/31/97.
to an edition release, those changes are not mandatory • Edition 1998 (7/1/98) with changes since 12/31/97
until six months after the changes have been approved. addenda, addenda 7/1/99 and 7/1/00.
This is the current code release process. Subsequent • Edition 2001 (7/1/01) with changes since 7/1/00
editions follow: addenda, addenda 7/1/02 and 7/1/03.
• Edition 1924 (3/19/24). The first separately approved • Edition 2004 (7/1/04) with changes since 7/1/03
and released addenda was approved 12/6/26 which addenda, addenda 7/1/05 and 7/1/06.
became mandatory six months after approval on 1/6/27. • Edition 2007 (7/1/07) with changes since 7/1/06
• Edition 1927 (10/4/27) included addenda 12/6/26, addenda, addenda 2008a (7/1/08) and 2009b (7/1/09).
followed by addenda approved 1/10/28 and 7/1/29. • Edition 2010 (7/1/10) with changes since 7/1/09
• Edition 1930 (1/1/30) has one addenda approved addenda, and addenda 2011a (7/1/11).
7/7/31. • Edition 2013 (7/1/13) with changes since 7/1/11
• Edition 1931 (11/30/31) has one addenda approved addenda; the 2013 changes are not fully addressed
8/17/32. within this Appendix.
• Edition 1933 (9/30/33) has addenda approved 7/23/35. • New editions with changes are to be prepared and issued
• Annual addenda are usually issued starting in 1936. bi-annually starting in 2013 (2013, 2015, 2017, …). This
• Edition 1935 (1/23/36) addenda 8/31/36 and 8/31/37. is true for all the ASME Section numbered codes.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

For a particular contract, with the exception of Sec- General design philosophy and design factors
tion III, the date of the appropriate BPVC edition and The basic design philosophy of the BPVC from its be-
addenda is the date on which the contract is negotiated ginning was one in which the primary membrane stress,
or signed. Most sections indicate that the appropriate or maximum direct stress, does not exceed the allowable
year and addenda is determined by the inception date design stress. (See Chapter 8 for an in-depth discussion
of the contract. The actual signing of the contract may of stress analysis and stress categorization, e.g., primary
come some time later. For some applications, Section membrane stress.) The calculated stress is based on the
III permits the use of an edition and addenda which maximum stress theory. This design philosophy is still
are not the latest versions. In general, this is used for used in Section I; Section VIII, Division 1; and Section IV.
construction of a component which will be used for In most instances, these sections do not call for a detailed
repair or replacement. The other sections of the BPVC analysis to determine the local and secondary stresses.
do not control the repair or replacement of components Instead, they rely on a design-by-formula approach.
after the product has been installed; consequently, the The BPVC makes a significant distinction between
decision of the date of the edition and addenda is the allowable stress limits and the physical properties of
responsibility of the owner, the local jurisdiction and/ the material such as ultimate tensile strength. The
or the insurance carrier. published allowable stresses incorporate a design factor
Code Cases are contained in two special volumes (see Note below) which reduces measured properties
independent from the BPVC Sections. Code Cases are to account for: 1) the degree of complexity of the stress
issued four times a year after each TOMC meeting and are evaluation method, 2) certain levels and types of stress
subject to the same approval procedures as other changes concentration, 3) certain nonuniformity in the materials,
and additions. Code Cases permit the use of a material or and 4) geometric factors. The design factors are based
construction for which there are no current BPVC rules. upon experience, experimental evidence and theoretical
The scope of Code Cases is purposely kept very specific evaluations. In general, where the BPVC allows a more
to limit their usage. Each is reviewed for incorporation detailed exact stress evaluation, a smaller design factor is
into the text of the appropriate BPVC Section. Code permitted in determining the allowable stress. The BPVC
Cases are numbered sequentially, and nuclear Code therefore specifies the evaluation procedures and the
Cases carry an N prefix. Code Case use is optional, not applicable allowable stresses (including design factors)
mandatory, and must be allowed by the customer and the to provide a uniform, safe design procedure.
jurisdiction. When one is chosen, all parts of the Code In the original BPVC in 1914, the allowable stress
Case are mandatory and the Code Case number shall be limits were based on a design factor of five applied to
listed on the Manufacturer’s Data Report form. the minimum specified ultimate tensile strength of the
Technical Inquiries material. However, in December 1931, a joint American
Petroleum Institute (API)-ASME Committee on Unfired
When any user of the BPVC is unable to interpret Pressure Vessels was formed to develop a special code for
a specific rule, a Technical Inquiry may be sent to Petroleum Liquids and Gases. The first edition was issued
the Secretary of the appropriate Boiler and Pressure in September 1934. The API-ASME Code permitted
Vessel Committee for an interpretation. Each Section a design factor of four with only minor changes in the
of the BPVC includes an appendix that describes the design equations used for establishing the minimum
preparation of Technical Inquiries. It is important that wall thickness of cylinders and heads, for reinforced
the inquiry meet all of the requirements so that action openings, and for other parts. At that time, the ASME
can be taken without delay. Typically, the Secretary BPVC maintained a design factor of five with some special
of the appropriate ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel provisions which permitted a design factor of four. One
Committee will contact the inquirer to acknowledge the of the reasons for the special provisions was to conserve
receipt of the inquiry and will inform the inquirer of any metal during World War II.
actions being taken. Once the question and reply are The design factor of five, except for the special
approved, a reply is sent to the inquirer. If the question provisions in Section VIII, was used by all sections of
and reply become an interpretation of code wording, the BPVC through the 1949 Edition. Based upon the
they are also published in the Interpretations, issued satisfactory experience in using a design factor of four
to BPVC subscribers. with the API-ASME Code and the special paragraphs of
There are several reasons that an inquiry will not be Section VIII, the 1950 editions of Section I and Section
handled by the committee: VIII were issued with a design factor of four. The design
1. indefinite question – no reference to BPVC paragraph factor of Section IV remains at five.
or rule, During the 1950s, Admiral Hyman Rickover led the
2. semi-commercial question – doubt as to whether development of the first nuclear submarine, the Nautilus.
question is related to BPVC requirements or is asking Westinghouse’s Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory was the
for design approval, prime contractor, and The Babcock & Wilcox Company
3. approval of specific design – inquirer wants approval (B&W) designed and built the reactor vessel, pressurizer
of specific design or construction as meeting BPVC and steam generators. Bettis, General Electric’s Knolls
requirements, and
4. basis or background of BPVC rules – inquirer wants
rationale or basis of BPVC requirements. These are not Note: The term safety factor has been previously used, but present
given. Suggested revisions and additions are accepted Code terminology prefers the more appropriate design factor to
for consideration. describe the methods used to develop conservative design stresses.

A2-4 Steam 42 / Codes and Standards

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Atomic Power Laboratory and the U.S. Atomic Energy In addition, for austenitic stainless steels and certain
Commission developed and published rules for the stress nonferrous nickel alloys, excluding bolting, flanges and
analysis and design basis. This was titled Tentative other strain-sensitive usage where slightly greater de-
Structural Design Basis for Reactor Vessels. These formation is objectionable, the factor on yield strength
rules permitted increased allowable stresses because at temperature may be increased from 2/3 to 0.90.
a thorough and accurate stress analysis was required. 2. at temperatures in the creep range, the lowest of the
During the late 1950s, the ASME Code Committee following applies:
and the U.S. government began to see the need for an
ASME code which would contain design rules similar to a. 100% of the average stress to produce a creep rate
the tentative basis. The first consideration was to do a of 0.01% in 1000 hours,
major upgrading of Section VIII either by a supplemental b. 80% of the minimum stress to cause rupture at the
document or major revision of Section VIII. After much end of 100,000 hours, and
discussion in various committees, it was decided to c. 67% of the average stress to cause rupture at the
develop a new code section. end of 100,000 hours.
In 1958, the ASME established a Special Committee to
Review Code Stress Basis. This special group met many Method for development of allowable stress values
times to develop and review all facets of nuclear vessel Allowable stress values are developed by the Com-
requirements —not only design rules, but also fabrication, mittee on Materials (BPV II) by applying the various
inspection, materials and other kinds of rules. Fatigue design factors to data which the committee has obtained
analysis methods were introduced for explicit use for the from tests conducted for the committee or various other
first time. industrial sources. The published allowable stress values
In 1963, a public hearing was held in Baltimore, at any given temperature are then the lowest stresses
Maryland. As a result of the meeting, Section III, Nuclear evaluated using the criteria discussed above. (See also
Vessels, was issued which permitted a design factor of Chapter 8.)
three (on minimum specified ultimate tensile strength). The BPVC also provides the basis for establishing al-
However, to use this factor, many requirements had to lowable stress values, called design stress intensity values,
be met. A very thorough stress analysis procedure, called for Section VIII, Division 2, and Section III, Division
design by analysis based on the maximum shear stress 1, Class 1. No design stress intensity values have been
theory, had to be applied. Also, more rigid fabrication, established in the creep range for Section VIII, Division
examination and testing procedures were required to 2. For Section III, Division 1, Class 1 applications in the
allow a reduction in the design factor. elevated temperature range, rules for some materials are
While the development of the Nuclear Code was given in Section III, Division 1, Subsection NH. For the
being concluded in late 1961, a task group was formed to various materials permitted, except for bolting materials,
develop an extension of Section VIII. The original title the design stress intensity values, i.e., allowable stress
was Task Group on Code for Industrial Pressure Vessels values, are based on the lowest value of the following
of Superior Quality. Later, this name was changed to criteria:
Alternative Rules for Pressure Vessels and ultimately it
a. 1/3 of the specified minimum tensile strength at
became Section VIII, Division 2.
room temperature,
In 1968, the new division was issued as an alternative
b. (1.1)/3 of the tensile strength at temperature,
method for constructing pressure vessels, Section VIII,
c. 2/3 of the specified minimum yield strength at
Division 2. It required a much more extensive structural
room temperature, and
investigation in order to reduce the design factor to three.
d. 2/3 of the yield strength at temperature except
In 1998, the design factor for Section I, Section III
for most austenitic stainless steels and certain
Class 2 and 3, and Section VIII, Division 1 was reduced
nonferrous materials where the factor may reach
from 4.0 to 3.5 on minimum specified ultimate tensile
as high as 90% of the yield strength at temperature.
strength, based mainly on acceptable experience and
This may result in a permanent strain of as
improvements in materials achieved over the years.
much as 0.1%. When this amount of deformation
is not acceptable, the designer must reduce the
Allowable stress values allowable stress to obtain an acceptable amount
The BPVC provides the basis for establishing allowable of deformation.
stress values for Section I, Section VIII, Division 1, and
Section III, Division 1, Classes 2 and 3. (See Chapter 8.) There are tables in Section VIII, Division 2 which
For wrought or cast ferrous and nonferrous materials, the list factors for limiting permanent strain in high alloy
allowable stress values are based on the following criteria: steels and in nickel and high nickel alloys. In effect, the
criteria permit the designer to choose a factor between 67
1. at temperatures below the creep range, the lowest of and 90% of the yield strength depending on the tolerable
the following: deformation. For example, suppose that by some limiting
a. 1/3.5 of the specified minimum tensile strength at clearances the tolerable strain is limited to 0.05% in a
room temperature, shell. The designer can then refer to the table of limiting
b. (1.1)/3.5 of the tensile strength at temperature, permanent strain for 18-8 stainless steel and see that
c. 2/3 of the specified minimum yield strength at the factor on yield strength should be limited to 0.80.
room temperature, and The designer then goes to the yield strength values to
d. 2/3 of the yield strength at temperature. establish allowable stress values.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Bolting materials have their design stress intensity rules for the more common shell and head geometries
values, i.e., allowable stresses, established by similar, but for design temperatures that are below the creep range.
more restrictive, criteria. (See Section II, Part D, Table A detailed stress analysis is required for most complex
3 and also Appendix 2 of the Standard.) geometries and loadings including internal pressure
loading. For Section III, Division 1, Classes 2 and 3,
Strength theories the requirements are similar to those of Section VIII,
The three commonly used theories to predict failure Division 2. However, rules are provided requiring detailed
are the maximum principal stress theory, the maximum analysis and there are fewer formulas.
shear stress theory, and the distortion energy theory as Both Section VIII, Division 2, and Section III, Divi-
discussed in Chapter 8. sion 1, Class 1 have adopted the maximum shear stress
Test results show that for ductile materials, such as criteria. This method requires calculated stresses to be
those ferrous and nonferrous materials permitted by assigned to various categories and subcategories that
the BPVC, either the maximum shear stress theory or permit different allowable stresses for various combina-
the distortion energy theory predicts yield and fatigue tions of calculated stresses. The various categories and
failure better than the maximum stress theory. However, subcategories of stresses are:
the maximum stress theory is easy to apply in boiler 1. primary stresses
components and pressure vessels where the circumfer- a. general primary membrane stress
ential and the longitudinal stresses are calculated using b. local primary membrane stress
simple formulas with an adequate design factor to set c. primary bending stress
the allowable stress values. Where a more exact analysis 2. secondary stresses
is desired and the design factor may be less, the BPVC 3. peak stresses
uses the maximum shear stress theory. Section I, Section
IV, Section VIII, Division 1, and Section III, Division 1, Primary stresses are caused by loadings which are
Subsections NC, ND and NE use the maximum stress necessary to satisfy the laws of equilibrium with applied
theory while Section III, Division 1, Subsection NB and pressure and other loads, and they are not self-limiting
Section VIII, Division 2, use the maximum shear stress by deformation and redistribution. Secondary stresses
theory. The former use a design factor of 3.5 or 5 on tensile are developed by self-constraint in the structure. A basic
strength; the latter use a design factor of 3. characteristic of secondary stresses is that they are
self-limiting. That is, rotation, deflection or deforma-
Design criteria tion takes place until the forces and moments are in
The design criteria for different sections of the BPVC balance even though some geometric change may have
are related to the theory of failure and design factors occurred. Peak stresses are highly localized stresses in
which are applied to the allowable stress values. For a structure usually caused by an abrupt change in the
both Section I, Power Boilers, and Section IV, Heating geometry such as a notch or a nozzle fillet weld. Peak
Boilers, the requirements call for the calculation of the stresses are considered only during fatigue analysis of
required minimum wall thickness which will keep the cyclic loadings.
basic circumferential stress at or below the allowable Failure modes, stress limits and stress categories are
stress limit for that section. Additional rules, equations related. One of the most important aspects of a stress
and charts are given to determine the minimum required analysis is to make sure that various stresses are as-
thicknesses of components other than those with circular signed to the proper stress categories. Limits on primary
cross-sections. A more detailed stress analysis may be stress are set to prevent plastic deformation and burst.
required for special designs and configurations for which Secondary stress limits are set to prevent excessive plastic
there are no rules. Both Section I and Section IV recognize deformation which may lead to incremental collapse and
that high local stresses (discussed below) and secondary to ensure the validity of the use of an elastic analysis for
stresses may exist within a component, but those sections making a fatigue analysis. Peak stress limits are set to
have established design rules that keep stresses at a safe prevent fatigue failure due to excessive cyclic loadings.
level with a minimum of additional analysis. For analysis according to Section VIII, Division 2, and
Section VIII, Division 1, Pressure Vessels, and Section III, Division 1, Class 1, thermal stresses are
Section III, Division 1, Class 2 and 3, Nuclear Facility considered only in the secondary and peak categories.
Components, have similar design criteria to Sections
I and IV except Section VIII, Division 1, and Section The ASME Code for Pressure Piping, B31
III, Division 1, Class 2 and 3 require the minimum
thickness of cylindrical shells to be calculated in both The ASME Code for Pressure Piping is divided into
the circumferential and the longitudinal directions. The many sections relative to different applications. Cur-
actual minimum required thickness of the cylinder may rently, these sections are:
be set by stress in either direction. In addition, Section B31.1 Power Piping
VIII, Division 1, and Section III, Division 1, Class 2 and B31.3 Process Piping
3 have rules which permit the combination of primary B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid
membrane stress and primary bending stress to be as Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids
high as 1.5 S where S is the basic allowable stress value. B31.5 Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer
At elevated temperatures, consideration must be given Components
to inelastic strain due to creep. B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
The design criteria for Section VIII, Division 2 provide Systems

A2-6 Steam 42 / Codes and Standards

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

B31.9 Building Services Piping longitudinal pressure stress is a major consideration

B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems because it combines with longitudinal bending stress
developed from the supporting of dead loads and from
The scope of jurisdiction of the ASME BPVC Section flexibility stress due to the thermal expansion of the
I applies to the boiler proper and to the boiler external piping system. Although circumferential pressure stress
piping. The boiler external piping is that piping connect- is calculated and sets the minimum required thickness for
ing the boiler proper with the nonboiler external piping internal pressure, the longitudinal stress often influences
as defined in PG-58 of Section I. For boiler external piping arrangement.
piping, the materials, design, fabrication, installation Two sections of the ASME B31 Code for Pressure
and testing shall be done according to ASME B31.1, Piping are primarily used in combination with the
Power Piping. In addition, most of the connecting piping ASME BPVC sections. These are: ASME B31.1 Power
outside of the Section I jurisdiction is done according Piping, and ASME B31.3 Process Piping. B31.1 is closely
to ASME B31.1. associated with Section I while B31.3 is associated with
Section VIII. However, there are no ASME requirements
Editions, addenda, cases and interpretations assigning one or the other. This is essentially done by the
With the responsibility of the B31 Pressure Piping jurisdictions and the laws they enforce.
Code Committee resting with ASME, procedures of Both sections of the Piping Code use the maximum
releasing editions, addenda, cases and interpretations stress theory for combining and evaluating stresses.
are the same for the Piping Code as for the BPVC. The allowable stress values for Section I and B31.1 are
the same, as are the design factors. However, B31.3 is
Design philosophy, design factors and unique because it uses the maximum stress theory but
strength theory permits higher allowable stresses which are based on a
The design philosophy of the Piping Code is one in design factor of three on ultimate tensile strength similar
which the primary membrane stress is not permitted to Section VIII, Division 2 and Section III, Division 1,
to exceed the allowable stress. In the Piping Code, the Class 1.

Bibliography
Cross, W., The Code: An Authorized History of the ASME Greene, A.M., History of the ASME Boiler Code, American
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, American Society of Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, New York, 1955.
Mechanical Engineers, New York, New York, 1990.

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