Writing Position Papers

Write a position paper to

 Organize and outline your viewpoint on an issue
 Formally inform others of your position
as a foundation to build resolution to difficult problems
 Present a unique, though biased, solution
or a unique approach to solving a problem
 Frame the discussion in order to define the "playing field."
This can put you in an advantageous position with those who may not be so well prepared as regards the
issues behind their positions
 Establish your credibility
Here you are demonstrating that you have a command of the issues and the research behind them, and can
present them clearly
 Let your passion be demonstrated in the force of your argument
rather than in the use of emotional terms
 Guide you in being consistent in maintaining your position in negotiation
The better prepared you are
the more disadvantaged are your opponents and more likely they will defer to you
Guidelines:
 Format should be consistent with guidelines determined by the sponsoring organization or committee
 Include topic, date, purpose, etc., and should readily identify you as the author
 If the paper represents a group, organization, committee, do not write in the first person (not I, my, mine,
etc. but rather we, our, etc.)
 Limit yourself to two pages following the format established by previous successful position papers
Research:
 Develop supporting evidence for both sides
including factual knowledge, statistical evidence, authoritative testimony
 Identify the issues and prejudices keeping in mind your audience
List these as appropriate and anticipate counterclaims
 Assume familiarity with basic concepts 
but define unfamiliar terms/concepts or state meanings that define your point of departure
 Refer to those who agree with your position to assist you in developing your argument
 Familiarize yourself with those who disagree with you to prepare your defense.
Summarize their argument and evidence, then refute
Introduction:
Consider your audience: 
start with a topic sentence or two that attracts attention and summarizes the issue
Inform the reader of your point of view
Development:
Focus on three main points to develop
Each topic is developed with
 a general statement of the position
 an elaboration that references documents and source data
 past experiences and authoritative testimony
 conclusion restating the position
Establish flow from paragraph to paragraph
 Keep your voice active
 Quote sources to establish authority
 Stay focused on your point of view throughout the essay
 Focus on logical arguments
 Don't lapse into summary
in the development--wait for the conclusion
Conclusion
 Summarize, then conclude, your argument
 Refer to the first paragraph/opening statements
as well as the main points
 does the conclusion restate the main ideas?

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  reflect the succession and importance of the arguments
 logically conclude their development?

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 reaction paper
Reaction or response papers are usually requested by teachers so that you'll consider carefully what
you think or feel about something you've read. The following guidelines are intended to be used for
reacting to a reading although they could easily be used for reactions to films too. Read whatever
you've been asked to respond to, and while reading, think about the following questions.

 How do you feel about what you are reading?

 What do you agree or disagree with?
 Can you identify with the situation?
 What would be the best way to evaluate the story?

Keeping your responses to these questions in mind, follow the following prewriting steps.

Prewriting for Your Reaction Paper

The following statements could be used in a reaction/response paper. Complete as many statements
as possible, from the list below, about what you just read.
My Reaction to What I Just Read Is That . . .

I think that

I see that

I feel that

It seems that

In my opinion,

Because

A good quote is

In addition,

For example,

Moreover,

However,

Consequently,

Finally,

In conclusion,

What you've done in completing these statements is written a very rough reaction/response paper.
Now it needs to be organized. Move ahead to the next section.

Organizing Your Reaction Paper

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A reaction/response paper has an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

 The introduction should contain all the basic information in one or two paragraphs.

Sentence 1: This sentence should give the title, author, and publication you read.

Sentence 2, 3, and
These sentences give a brief summary of what you read (nutshell)
sometimes 4:
This sentence is your thesis statement. You agree, disagree,
Sentence 5: identify, or evaluate.


 Your introduction should include a concise, one sentence, focused thesis. This is the focused
statement of your reaction/response. More information on thesis statements is available.
 The body should contain paragraphs that provide support for your thesis. Each paragraph
should contain one idea. Topic sentences should support the thesis, and the final sentence of
each paragraph should lead into the next paragraph.

Topic Sentence
detail -- example --quotation --detail -- example -- quotation -- detail --
example -- quotation -- detail -- example --quotation
Summary Sentence

 You can structure your paragraphs in two ways:

Author
You
 OR

Author
in contrast to
You
 The conclusion can be a restatement of what you said in your paper. It also be a comment
which focuses your overall reaction. Finally, it can be a prediction of the effects of what
you're reacting to. Note: your conclusion should include no new information.

More information on strategies for writing conclusions is available.

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Summary
In summary, this handout has covered prewriting and organizing strategies for reaction/response
papers.

 Prewriting
o Read the article and jot down ideas.
o How do you feel about what was said?
o Do you agree or disagree with the author?
o Have you had any applicable experience?
o Have you read or heard anything that applies to this what the writer said in the article
or book?
o Does the evidence in the article support the statements the writer made?
 Organizing
o Write the thesis statement first.
o Decide on the key points that will focus your ideas. These will be your topic
sentences.
o Develop your ideas by adding examples, quotations, and details to your paragraphs.
o Make sure the last sentence of each paragraph leads into the next paragraph.
o Check your thesis and make sure the topic sentence of each paragraph supports it.

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7 Essential Tips to Writing an APA Analysis Paper Successfully
Writing an analysis paper is one of the greatest challenges a student can face. This type of assignment goes beyond the
presentation of facts. It requires not only a proper explanation of discussed events, but a thorough analysis along with it.
An analysis paper evaluates student’s knowledge on a specific subject. This is why it is extremely important for a student to
show a high competence on this matter.
When faced with this challenge, you have only two choices.

You Can Try to Write a Literary Analysis Paper Yourself…

If you decide to do so, get ready to spend a lot of time and nerves. Arm yourself with patience and get down to work. Follow the
example of experienced authors who can write a great analysis essay in less than a day.
Start with narrowing down the topic. You don’t need to cover a wide range of issues in the paper. Come up with an appropriate
niche subject of analysis and spare your work from irrelevant information.
Once you pick a subject of analysis, make it clear on which side you stand. Come up with an opinion that expresses your own
viewpoint as an author. And don’t forget to document how you arrived at the conclusions of your idea.
The next step is to gather all the necessary information on the subject. How? You can carry out experiments, compare content,
use secondary sources for your research – do whatever is possible to make a thorough analysis of the material.
Prepare a detailed analysis paper outline. Follow your plan.
Write an introduction that gives a summary of your subject analysis. Start with a broad statement that narrows down to a field-
specific topic.
Write the main body where you cite facts, discuss your thoughts and findings, provide supportive arguments using quotes and
other reliable data.
Finish your paper with a summary, briefly summarizing the main body and coming to a firm conclusion that proves your opinion
and viewpoints.
Remember: topic choice is important.
Writing a critical analysis paper yourself has several of advantages. For example, it makes the most difficult topics
understandable for students. This is why it is crucial to select an appropriate topic. Unless pre-assigned by your instructor,
choosing a topic that one is passionate about is a sure way of composing a successful paper.

… or You Can Trust Writing Your Paper to a Reliable Ghostwriting Company.

Writing an analysis paper is not an easy thing, even for the A-graders. Even for professional writers, it can be challenging.
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1. Introduction

 Hook sentence

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  Topic introduction

 Background information

 Thesis statement (the order is not important)

2. Body part

 Topic sentence #1 along with the claim, supporting evidence, and tie (3 times each)

 Topic sentence #2 along with the claim, supporting evidence, and tie (3 times each)

 Topic sentence #3 along with the claim, supporting evidence, and tie (3 times each)
3. Conclusion

 Summary

 Thesis statement (reword it)

 Final thought/hook

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 MAKE NOTABLE EDITORIAL
An editorial is an article that presents a group's opinion on an issue and because
of this, it is usually unsigned. Just like a lawyer would, editorial writers build on
an argument already made and try to persuade readers to agree with them on a
current, burning issue. In essence, an editorial is an opinion piece with a side of
news.

Method 1
The Basics

Pick your topic and angle. Editorials are meant to influence public opinion,
promote critical thinking, and sometimes cause people to take action on an
issue. Your topic should be current, interesting, and have a purpose. There are
generally four types of editorials:[2]
 Explaining or interpreting: This format is used to explain how and why a
newspaper or magazine took a certain stance on a controversial subject.
 Criticizing: This format criticizes actions or decisions made on a third
party's part in addition to offering a better solution. It's more to get the readers to
see that there is a larger problem at hand.
 Persuading: This type is used to move the reader to action, concentrating
on solutions, not the problem.
 Praising: This format is used to show support for people and organizations
in the community that have done something notable.

Get your facts straight. An editorial is a mix of fact and opinion; not solely the
writer's opinion, but the opinion of the entire staff. Your fact collection should
include objective reporting and research.
 A good op-ed needs to contain at least one "point of enlightenment" which
can be described as "an observation that is fresh and original."[4] So, get your
facts from a number of different sources, pointing out patterns, impending
consequences, or a hole in current analysis

Keep it user-friendly. Typically, editorials are for a fairly quick, captivating read.

They are not meant to go on for pages and pages, belaboring the point. Nor are
they meant to make the average Joe feel as if he's missed something. Make sure
your editorial isn't lengthy or overly esoteric.
 Keep it to about 600-800 words.[4] Anything longer and you risk losing your
reader. A short, snappy, fiery piece is much more captivating than a wordy
lecture.
 Eliminate the jargon. Your audience is reading your article for information
on something they seek to understand; using technical terms or specific jargon

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 may be off-putting and make your article difficult to take in. Keep the lowest
common denominator in mind.

Method 2
Writing Your Editorial

Start your editorial with a thesis-like statement. The introduction--the first one or

two paragraphs--should be designed to catch the reader's attention. You can start
with a rich question, a quote, or you can summarize what the whole editorial is
about.
 Clearly state your argument. The rest of your editorial will be based on
supporting this opinion. Make it as striking as possible. However, in doing so,
never use "I"--it diminishes the strength and credibility of the paper and sounds
rather informal.[5]

Lead with an objective, unbiased explanation of the issue. The body of your work
should explain the issue objectively, as a reporter would, and tell why this
situation is important to the reader or community as a whole. [3]
 Include who, what, when, where, why, and how. Cover all your bases and
pull in facts or quotations from relevant sources. This ensures that every reader
has at least a base knowledge (and an non-skewed one) of the topic at hand.

Present the opposing argument first. Make sure to identify the groups who
oppose you or else the movers of the debate will become foggy. State their
opinions objectively, using accurate facts or quotations. Never use slander.
 It is fine to state positive things about the opposing side, as long as they're
factual. It shows that you are taking the moral high road and giving a balanced
overview. If you neglect to air the good side of your opposition, your editorial will
come off biased and uninformed.
 Give the opposition an actual argument, and a strong one at that. You gain
nothing from refuting a non-issue. Make it clear their beliefs and what they're
advocating.

Present your reasons/evidence that directly refute the opposition. Begin this

section with a transition, clearly flowing from their argument to yours. Utilize
facts and quotations from others who support your opinion.
 Start with strong reasons that only get stronger. Don't feel limited to
existing opinions--add your own, too. Whatever your reasons are, make sure to
clearly come down on one side of the argument; there is no room for gray area
here.
 Literary allusions are appropriate. It can lend to your credibility and
learnedness.[3]Call to mind images of persons or times in the past that present an
imagery to your reader.

Make your solution known. This is different than reasons and evidence. If you
believe cutting the defense budget is wrong, what would you rather cut instead?

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 Putting your solution out there is imperative to addressing the problem. If you
don't have one, any solution is better than yours.
 Your solution needs to be clear, rational, and doable. It cannot only work in
a vacuum. What's more, it should be compelling. Ideally, your readers will be
drawn to action with the information and answers you've presented.

Conclude your editorial with a punch, a noteworthy statement that would forever
engrave the editorial into the reader's mind. Use quotes or a question that would
make the readers think hard. (e.g. If we will not take care of the environment,
then who will?)
o End with a hard-hitting summary; you may have a few readers who
scanned your piece absentmindedly. All in all, your audience should leave feeling
more informed and moved to do something further about the issue.

Proofread your work. A great piece is not great if it's riddled with spelling,
grammar, and punctuation errors. Have someone on your team look over your
work- two minds are always better than one.

 If you're working as part of an organization, make sure you haven't

misrepresented their viewpoints. Allow your group to go over the piece to make
sure everyone (at the very least, the majority) is behind the arguments you're
about to make public. They can, simultaneously, present questions or ideas that
you may have missed or glossed over.

SAMPLE
As a young professional in the workforce, I know that I am in the minority when I say that casual
attire has no place in a professional environment. After college, I job-hopped for a while before finally
landing a promising position with a leading insurance company. The job required extremely
infrequent face-to-face interaction with customers, so the dress code was business casual. I
understood and appreciated this requirement. However, when the powers that be inexplicably
abolished our dress code, I was shocked. The resulting change that I’ve seen in many of my
colleagues has definitely been for the worse.
On the most basic level, attire has transitioned to completely casual. Most employees wear jeans, and
I’ve seen the occasional pair that looks more like it belongs in the trash can than at the office.
Summer blouses have become more revealing. Footwear has become more beach-like. Questionable
graphics, slogans, and political agendas are also in full display. In possibly the most disturbing fallout,
when dressing up was thrown to the wayside, so, unfortunately, was a few people’s hygiene.
The effect of the obvious change in attire is the resulting impact to the company’s image. While the
dress code alone might not be a problem, it is somewhat startling in light of the fact that the small
amount of customer contact has remained unchanged. Not to mention, employees dine out for lunch
wearing their badges, and all of their neighbors know where they work. What kind of message does
that send? Also, I can’t help but notice the disapproving looks from the local management, many of
whom may not have been completely on board with the directive from corporate.
Next, I’ll speak to productivity (mine included). It seems as though dressing casually has led to
approaching other aspects of the job more casually as well. A general lack of formality has made
people more inclined to chat with coworkers, surf the internet, and just generally blow off work. It also
falls short of fostering a climate of respect for the company, its customers, and each other.
I’m sure much can be said for the benefits of allowing employees to dress as they wish. There’s no
doubt the higher-ups of my company did extensive research to evaluate the improvement to morale,

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reduced cost to the company, open lines of communication between employees and management,
etc. However, those of us on the front lines know what’s really going on. While we enjoy coming to
work in our slippers, these sunglasses are really just hiding the fact that we’re sitting here napping as
we’re slumped down in our chairs after our two-hour lunch.

11 | P A P E R S
Running Example
As a running (fictitious!) example, suppose you've designed and run experiments with a new
algorithm for external multipass merge-sort. Your algorithm reduces the complexity from
O(n log n) to O(n), under the premise that it's acceptable to have some bounded
"unsortedness" in the result. You plan to write up the results for submission to a major
conference.

Note: This example was used throughout the live presentation but I haven't followed through
much in these notes. Thus, the notes include several exercises for the reader.

Paper Title
Titles can be long and descriptive:

 Linear-Time External Multipass Sorting with Approximation Guarantees

or short and sweet:

 Approximate External Sort

Here's a middle-of-the-road length, plus a cute name that sticks in people's minds:

 Floosh: A Linear-Time Algorithm for Approximate External Sort

The Abstract
State the problem, your approach and solution, and the main contributions of the paper.
Include little if any background and motivation. Be factual but comprehensive. The material
in the abstract should not be repeated later word for word in the paper.

(Exercise: Write an abstract for the multiway sort example.)

The Introduction
The Introduction is crucially important. By the time a referee has finished the Introduction,
they've probably made an initial decision about whether to accept or reject the paper -- they'll
read the rest of the paper looking for evidence to support their decision. A casual reader will
continue on if the Introduction captivated them, and will set the paper aside otherwise.
Again, the Introduction is crucially important.

Here is the Stanford InfoLab's patented five-point structure for Introductions. Unless there's a
good argument against it, the Introduction should consist of five paragraphs answering the
following five questions:

1. What is the problem?

2. Why is it interesting and important?
3. Why is it hard? (E.g., why do naive approaches fail?)
4. Why hasn't it been solved before? (Or, what's wrong with previous proposed solutions?
How does mine differ?)
5. What are the key components of my approach and results? Also include any specific
limitations.

(Exercise: Answer these questions for the multiway sort example.)

12 | P A P E R S
Then have a final paragraph or subsection: "Summary of Contributions". It should list the
major contributions in bullet form, mentioning in which sections they can be found. This
material doubles as an outline of the rest of the paper, saving space and eliminating
redundancy.

(Exercise: Write the bullet list for the multiway sort example.)

Related Work
The perennial question: Should related work be covered near the beginning of the paper or
near the end?

 Beginning, if it can be short yet detailed enough, or if it's critical to take a strong
defensive stance about previous work right away. In this case Related Work can be
either a subsection at the end of the Introduction, or its own Section 2.
 End, if it can be summarized quickly early on (in the Introduction or Preliminaries), or
if sufficient comparisons require the technical content of the paper. In this case Related
Work should appear just before the Conclusions, possibly in a more general section
"Discussion and Related Work".

The Body
Guideline #1: A clear new important technical contribution should have been articulated by
the time the reader finishes page 3 (i.e., a quarter of the way through the paper).

Guideline #2: Every section of the paper should tell a story. (Don't, however, fall into the
common trap of telling the entire story of how you arrived at your results. Just tell the story of
the results themselves.) The story should be linear, keeping the reader engaged at every step
and looking forward to the next step. There should be no significant interruptions -- those can
go in the Appendix; see below.

Aside from these guidelines, which apply to every paper, the structure of the body varies a lot
depending on content. Important components are:

 Running Example: When possible, use a running example throughout the paper. It can
be introduced either as a subsection at the end of the Introduction, or its own Section 2
or 3 (depending on Related Work).
 Preliminaries: This section, which follows the Introduction and possibly Related Work
and/or Running Example, sets up notation and terminology that is not part of the
technical contribution. One important function of this section is to delineate material
that's not original but is needed for the paper. Be concise -- remember Guideline #1.
 Content: The meat of the paper includes algorithms, system descriptions, new
language constructs, analyses, etc. Whenever possible use a "top-down" description:
readers should be able to see where the material is going, and they should be able to
skip ahead and still get the idea.

Performance Experiments
We could have an entire treatise on this topic alone and I am surely not the expert. Here are
some random thoughts:

 Many conferences expect experiments.

 It's easy to do "hokey" or meaningless experiments, and many papers do.
 It's easy to craft experiments to show your work in its best light, and most papers do.
 What should performance experiments measure? Possiblities:

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 o Pure running time
o Sensitivity to important parameters
o Scalability in various aspects: data size, problem complexity, ...
o Others?
 What should performance experiments show? Possibilities:
o Absolute performance (i.e., it's acceptable/usable)
o Relative performance to naive approaches
o Relative performance to previous approaches
o Relative performance among different proposed approaches
o Others?

The Conclusions
In general a short summarizing paragraph will do, and under no circumstances should the
paragraph simply repeat material from the Abstract or Introduction. In some cases it's
possible to now make the original claims more concrete, e.g., by referring to quantitative
performance results.
Future Work
This material is important -- part of the value of a paper is showing how the work sets new
research directions. I like bullet lists here. (Actually I like them in general.) A couple of things
to keep in mind:

 If you're actively engaged in follow-up work, say so. E.g.: "We are currently extending
the algorithm to... blah blah, and preliminary results are encouraging." This statement
serves to mark your territory.
 Conversely, be aware that some researchers look to Future Work sections for research
topics. My opinion is that there's nothing wrong with that -- consider it a compliment.

The Acknowledgements
Don't forget them or you'll have people with hurt feelings. Acknowledge anyone who
contributed in any way: through discussions, feedback on drafts, implementation, etc. If in
doubt about whether to include someone, include them.
Citations
Spend the effort to make all citations complete and consistent. Do not just copy random
inconsistent BibTex (or other) entries from the web and call it a day. Check over your final
bibliography carefully and make sure every entry looks right.
Appendices
Appendices should contain detailed proofs and algorithms only. Appendices can be crucial for
overlength papers, but are still useful otherwise. Think of appendices as random-access
substantiation of underlying gory details. As a rule of thumb:

 Appendices should not contain any material necessary for understanding the
contributions of the paper.
 Appendices should contain all material that most readers would not be interested in.

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 EFFECTIVE SPEECH MAKING
TIP FOR THE PROS

Scholastic asked some expert political speechwriters to tell YOU the secrets of writing a speech that wins a crowd. Here are their tips:

Pick Your Main Ideas

Don't try to put too many ideas into your speech. Research shows that people remember very little from speeches, so just give them
one or two ideas to hang onto. Remember, you only have one minute for your speech!

Write Like You Talk

Remember that you're writing a speech, not an essay. People will hear the speech, not read it. The more conversational you can make
it sound, the better. So try these tips:

 Use short sentences. It's better to write two simple sentences than one long, complicated sentence.
 Use contractions. Say "I'm" instead of "I am" "we're" instead of "we are."
 Don't use big words that you wouldn't use when talking to someone.
 You don't have to follow all the rules of written English grammar. 
"Like this. See? Got it? Hope so." Your English teacher might be horrified, but people don't always talk in complete sentences
with verbs and nouns. So try to write like people talk. 
 Always read your speech aloud while you're writing it. You'll hear right away if you sound like a book or a real person talking!

Use Concrete Words and Examples

Concrete details keep people interested. For instance, which is more effective? A vague sentence like "Open play spaces for children's
sports are in short supply." Or the more concrete "We need more baseball and soccer fields for our kids."

Get Your Facts Together

You want people to believe that you know what you're talking about! So you'll need to do some research. For instance, let's say your
big issue is the environment. You promise to pass a law that says all new cars must run on electricity, not gas. That will cut down on air
pollution! But it would help if you had a few facts: How much bad air does one car create each year? How many new cars are sold in
the U.S. every year? So how much will pollution be cut every year? Use the library or the Internet to do research. Your new policy
proposal will sound really strong if you have the facts to back it up.

There are many issues you can talk about at your inauguration. How do you pick one? A good idea is to look inside yourself and find
out what you feel very deeply about. Maybe it's the environment. Or maybe you care about stopping war. Or you feel passionate that all
schools should have more art and music classes. Or you feel that downloading music on the Internet should be free! Your issue should
reflect who you are and what you care about.

Persuade With a Classic Structure

In a speech where you're trying to persuade someone, the classic structure is called "Problem-Solution." In the first part of your speech
you say, "Here's a problem, here's why things are so terrible." Then, in the second part of your speech you say, "Here's what we can do
to make things better." Sometimes it helps to persuade people if you have statistics or other facts in your speech. And sometimes you
can persuade people by quoting someone else that the audience likes and respects.

Simplify
After you've written a first draft of your speech, go back and look for words you can cut. Cutting words in the speech can make your
points more clear. One speechwriter for a U.S. Senator has a sign above her desk that says: "Fewer Words = Clearer Point." It helps
her remember to always simplify a speech by cutting out words.

15 | P A P E R S
The Effects of Globalization on Global Communication

Connecting with people on the other side of the world is now much easier than it was a few years
ago. Satellites, fiber-optic cables and the internet make it effortless to share information with those
in different time zones and locations. Global communication is directly affected by the process of
globalization, and helps to increase business opportunities, remove cultural barriers and develop a
global village. Both globalization and global communication have changed the environmental,
cultural, political and economic elements of the world.

Increased Business Opportunities

Many companies today hire employees that are located in other countries. Using communication
vehicles such as video calling make it simple to converse with colleagues across the globe, almost
making it feel as if they are in the same room. Technology also makes it easier to connect with
suppliers and customers all over the world, and to streamline those relationship through improves
ordering, shipment tracking and so on. With this kind of communication technology, many
businesses are able to take advantage of opportunities in different countries or cities, improving the
economic outlook on a global level.

Thanks to global communications, information itself can be transferred as a valuable business asset
from one country to another. This has the effect of making everyone's operations more modern and
efficient, regardless where they are located.

Fewer Cultural Barriers

Many people perceive culture to be the root of communication challenges. When people from two
different cultures try to exchange information, the way they speak, their body language or their
mannerisms can be interpreted differently by the other person. The way people approach problems
and how they participate in communities is all influenced by culture.

Globalization has made it possible, for example, for someone in Japan to understand how someone
in the U.S. goes about their day. With television and movies, cultural barriers are becoming less
prevalent. Being able to communicate effectively and frequently with colleagues or friends across
the planet helps people understand each other’s cultures a little better.

Creation of a Global Village

You’ve likely heard of the phrase "global village," coined by theorist Marshall McLuhan. Affected
both by globalization and global communication, the global village is created when distance and
isolation no longer matter because people are connected by technology. Wide-spread telephone
and internet access have been life-changing for many people across the world, especially those in
developing countries. Many are now enrolling in universities across the world without having to
leave their desk chair. Virtual assistant jobs are becoming commonplace, where employees from
developing countries work with companies in North America or Europe, providing administrative
support and other business services that can easily be conducted over the phone or via the
internet.

Globalization and global communication have made it easier to see people on the other side of the
world as a neighbor, instead of a stranger from a faraway land. There is so much knowledge about
other countries and cultures available online, that it’s no longer a complete mystery.

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A Definition of Global Communication

Today, the internet and advances in communication technologies have opened new opportunities
for both large and small businesses that would have been unthinkable 50 years ago. With a single
web page and a cellphone, any business person can reach new customers, partners and suppliers
anywhere in the world. However, communicating with people on a global scale is not the same as
communicating with people locally. Not only are there more technological hurdles to overcome, but
you also need to address language barriers and cultural nuances.

Global Communication Definition

At its root, global communication can be defined just as any communication can: a message is sent
from one person or group to another anywhere in the world., which can be described as a five-step
process:

1. A person or an organization in one country sends a message. 

2. The message is encoded. 
3. The message travels through a channel or medium. 
4. The receiver in another country decodes the message.
5. The recipient receives the message. 

When it comes to communicating globally, it is usually in the encoding and decoding that problems
occur. As with any communication, ensuring that the message is received as it was intended is the
responsibility of the sender.

Examples of Global Communication

One of the most common forms of global communication is an email. A person in one country types
a message and clicks the send button. The message is then encoded into packets which are sent
across the internet to the recipient. In another country, the receiver logs in and decodes the
message by opening the email, and retrieves the message.

When someone from another country reads your company's web page, this too is an example of
global communication. The message is written and encoded in HTML, uploaded to a server, which
is then accessed across the internet and decoded by a web browser – and perhaps a translation
plugin – before the recipient reads it.

In both of these examples, noise can distort the message or make it undecipherable. In electronic
communication, noise can include anything from typos that change the context of a sentence to a
failed internet connection, which could make it appear that you are not communicating anything at
all.

With global communication, encoding and decoding the message can be more complicated than
when you are communicating with someone in your own country due to differences in language and
culture. If either the sender or receiver isn't proficient in the language being used to send the
message, translation issues can add noise, distorting the message. Even small cultural differences
can add noise. While most Americans, for example, associate the word "cheers" with drinking,
someone from the UK may informally use the word as a way of saying thank you, or goodbye. In
Quebec, Canada, a car is often called "un char," which most translation services decode as a
"chariot" or a "tank."

Global communication becomes more complicated when there are multiple recipients from different
cultures with different languages all receiving the same message, as well as when there are more
layers added to the channel. For example, if a world leader makes a speech broadcast across the
globe, people from one region may rejoice at the news, while others may find it offensive. In this
case, the channel itself can involve many different layers, as translators, news, editors and

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 commentators each interpret the message differently before passing it on to the intended
audiences.

Global Communication in Business

Because there are so many different ways communication can fail in a global context, businesses
must be diligent in reducing as many potential errors as possible, especially those related to
differences in language and culture.

Before attempting to do business with people in another country, organizations should become
familiar with cultural differences that can arise in different contexts. It may be necessary to hire
consultants who are experienced with that country.

For large ventures, like a major product launch in a different country, Debra Davenport of Purdue
University recommends hiring a team of local specialists from that country, including:

 a corporate law firm

 a protocol and etiquette specialist
 a media consultant
 a human resources and labor law expert
 a management consulting firm
 a corporate anthropologist
 a market research firm

Each of these specialists is able to give insights into local laws and customs to help ensure the new
venture doesn't result in unnecessary complications or liabilities that could destroy a company's
reputation before they even get started. Small businesses may not have the budget to bring on a
team of specialists. However, they still need to be familiar with local laws, culture and language.

Language Barriers in Global Business Communication

Whenever you are communicating with someone in their language, it is your responsibility to ensure
that the words you use are correct. This includes advertising and marketing. Over the past several
decades there have been many large and successful companies that have made mistakes when
translating what they wanted to say to a different language, often with offensive, or even hilarious,
results. Here are a few examples of some translation misfires:

1. Germany: Clairol marketed a new curling iron named "Mist Stick."  In German, mist means manure.
2. China: Coca-Cola's name was mistranslated when it began selling its product to the Chinese, who
were told to "bite the wax tadpole."
3. Ethiopia: When Gerber began selling its baby food here, they used the same label design as in other
countries, featuring a cute infant. In Ethiopia, however, where not everyone was literate, the custom
was that images on a label only depicted the jar's contents.
4. Mexico: When Parker Pen began marketing its pens to this Spanish country, its motto, "It won't leak
in your pocket and embarrass you" was translated to, "It won't leak in your pocket and make you
pregnant."
5. Thailand: Ikea entered this market using the same Swedish names for its products that it used all
over the world. However, many of these names in Thai mean "sex," or have sexual implications,
like"getting to third base."

Cultural Barriers in Global Business Communication

A common way small businesses first become involved in global operations is by hiring a firm or
consultant from another country, like a company in the United States hiring a software development
team in India with more affordable rates than those who are available locally.

Throughout their initial conversations, the American manager may be focused on the project
requirements, timelines and deliverables. The Indian manager, on the other hand, may be more
focused on building a solid relationship with a new client. After the American manager carefully
explains the project requirements and deliverable in terms she believes are easy to understand, the
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 Indian manager has many questions but does not ask them. Instead, he says, "Yes," and agrees to
take on the project. Weeks later, when the Indian team completes the first phase of the project, it
does not meet the Americans' expectations and the relationship falls apart.

This was caused by a cultural nuance, in which the word "Yes" did not necessarily mean that the
Indian manager understood everything and was in agreement. It was simply a word that he used to
move the relationship forward. Had the American manager understood this, she could have
invested more time in fostering their new relationship before assuming that they were in agreement,
thus avoiding the problem.

Complications Inherent With Global Communication

Increasing communication from a local to a global scale has many ramifications beyond cultural
pitfalls and language barriers. One example is the increase in emails and other messages people
receive every day, many of which are sent from different time zones, often when the recipient is not
even awake to read them in a timely manner. Many business people now receive up to 200 emails
each day, which is too many to read carefully and respond to in a thoughtful manner. The result is
that many emails are merely scanned before being deleted, or filtered away by software, never to
be even read.

Business people must be diligent in trying to ensure that the most important emails don't get lost in
the volume. A legitimate query from a potential new client could get mistaken for spam. An
important question from a business partner could get lost in a series of replies in an unrelated
thread of messages. Additionally, when sending an email, business people have no assurances that
the message will be received and read by the recipient.

Another complication in global communication for businesses is overcoming the disadvantage you
have when competing with local companies. While face-to-face meetings can be replaced with
video conference calls, subtleties of body language can't always be captured on video. A frown from
an executive during a presentation, for example, is a crucial piece of visual information that you
could easily miss on video, particularly when that executive may be off-camera at that moment.

There are many other pieces of important information that get lost when you are interacting with
someone across the globe. When doing business locally, it's usually quite easy to discern between
a company located in the business district, whose ads you have noticed on billboards and local
radio for a number of years, compared to a business located in an apartment building on the
outskirts of town. On the other hand, when you are approached by a company located in a different
country, you may not have much to go with beyond what they state on their website. Finding out
more about a foreign firm usually requires much more time and research.

On top of that, you may also need to spend more time researching the region where a foreign
company is based. You should know, for example:

 How strong is their currency?

 Is the local economy stable?
 Are there trade agreements or tariffs that would affect your business?
 What recourse will you have if they don't pay their bills?
 How will you find out if there are changes in any of these answers?

Benefits of Global Communication

Despite the risks, operating a business on a global level has many benefits that far outweigh those
risks. Not only does doing business on a global level open up new markets for selling products and
services, it can give you access to resources and talent that may not be available locally. While
every business is different, it's worthwhile to note that Coca-Cola didn't stop selling their products
worldwide because of a few translation problems.

As the world has continued to become more tightly connected and communication technologies
have continued to evolve, the benefits as a whole can be illustrated by the market penetration of

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these new technologies themselves. The more globally connected the world has become, the faster
people have adopted new global communication technologies.

The telephone, which was the greatest global communication technology of its time, replacing the
telegraph, took 71 years to reach a market penetration of 50 percent of homes. Electricity took 52
years to reach the same penetration. Radios followed, taking 28 years. Color televisions took 18
years. Personal computers took only 19 years. Cellphones took 14 years, while internet access took
only 10 years to reach 50 percent of all homes in the U.S.

Because a growing number of companies are already competing on a global level, any business
that wants to compete with them must also open its channels to communicate effectively with the
entire world.

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