Understanding Operating Systems, Seventh Edition 1-1

Chapter 1
Introducing Operating Systems
A Guide to this Instructor’s Manual:

We have designed this Instructor’s Manual to supplement and enhance your teaching
experience through classroom activities and a cohesive chapter summary.

This document is organized chronologically, using the same headings that you see in the
textbook. Under the headings you will find: lecture notes that summarize the section, Teacher
Tips, Classroom Activities, and Lab Activities. Pay special attention to teaching tips and
activities geared towards quizzing your students and enhancing their critical thinking skills.

In addition to this Instructor’s Manual, our Instructor’s Resources also contain PowerPoint
Presentations, Test Banks, and other supplements to aid in your teaching experience.

At a Glance

Instructor’s Manual Table of Contents

• Overview

• Objectives

• Teaching Tips

• Quick Quizzes

• Class Discussion Topics

• Additional Projects

• Additional Resources

• Key Terms
Understanding Operating Systems, Seventh Edition 1-2

Lecture Notes

Overview
To understand an operating system is to begin to understand the workings of an entire
computer system, because the operating system software manages each and every piece of
hardware and software. In the pages that follow, students will explore what operating
systems are, how they work, what they do, and why.

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to describe:

• Innovations in operating systems development

• The basic role of an operating system
• The major operating system software subsystem managers and their functions
• The types of machine hardware on which operating systems run
• The differences among batch, interactive, real-time, hybrid, and embedded operating
systems
• Design considerations of operating systems designers

Teaching Tips
What Is an Operating System?
1. Point out that every computer system consists of software (programs) and hardware.

2. A computer system typically consists of software (programs) and hardware (the tangible
machine and its electronic components). Note that the operating system software is the
chief piece of software, the portion of the computing system that manages all of the
hardware and all of the other software.

Operating System Software

1. Provide an outline of the following essential managers of an operating system: Memory
Manager, Processor Manager, Device Manager, and File Manager.

2. Discuss the importance of the User Interface. Note that this communication mechanism
allows users to interact directly with the operating system. Review Figure 1.1 to
reinforce the abstract view of how the user interface interacts with the four essential
managers in a non-networked environment.
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3. Explain that each manager works closely with the other managers and performs a
unique role. Use the examples on Page 6 of the text and Figure 1.2 to clarify this point.
There are four main tasks each manager performs:
 Monitor its resources continuously
 Enforce the policies that determine who gets what, when, and how much
 Allocate the resource when appropriate
 Deallocate the resource when appropriate

4. Note that the vast majority of major operating systems today, incorporate a Network
Manager to coordinate the services required for multiple systems to work cohesively
together.

Main Memory Management

1. Describe the role of the Memory Manager and explain how it allocates and deallocates
memory.

2. Introduce the terms Random Access Memory (RAM), Read- Only Memory (ROM),
and firmware. Use Figure 1.3 to aid the discussion.

Processor Management

1. Explain that an important function of the Processor Manager is to keep track of the
status of each job, process, thread, and so on.

2. Discuss the Processor Manager’s role as a traffic controller.

Device Management

1. Discuss the role of the Device Manager.

2. Note that good device management requires that this part of the operating system
uniquely identify each device, start its operation when appropriate, monitor its progress,
and finally deallocate the device to make the operating system available to the next
waiting process.

3. Introduce the term device driver.

File Management

1. Describe the various management roles of the File Manager.

2. Discuss access control as it relates to file management.

Network Management

1. Describe the role of the Network Manager.

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2. Point out that regardless of the size and complexity of the network, these operating
systems must be prepared to properly manage the available memory, CPUs, devices,
and files.

User Interface

1. Describe the significance of the user interface.

2. Introduce the terms graphical user interface (GUI) and command line interface. Use
Figure 1.4 to aid the discussion.

3. Discuss the evolution from typed commands to graphical user interfaces. Use Figure 1.5
to aid the discussion.

Cooperation Issues

1. None of the elements of an operating system can perform its individual tasks in
isolation - each must also work harmoniously with every other manager. Use the
example on Page 10 to discuss the actions that occur when someone chooses a menu
option to open a program.

Cloud Computing

1. Introduce the term cloud computing.

2. Note that regardless of where the resource is located - in the box, under the desk, or the
cloud, the role of the operating system is the same - to access those resources and
manage the system as efficiently as possible.

Quick Quiz 1
1. Which of the following are essential managers of every operating system? (Choose all
that apply.)
a. Memory Manager
b. System Manager
c. Directory Manager
d. Process Manager
Answer: a and d

2. The term ____ is used to describe the programming code that is used to start the
computer and perform other necessary tasks.
Answer: firmware

3. (True or False) The contents of ROM are volatile, meaning that they are erased when
the power is turned off, unlike the contents of RAM.
Answer: False
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4. ____ is the practice of using Internet-connected resources to perform processing,

storage, or other operations
Answer: Cloud computing

An Evolution of Computing Hardware

1. Provide an outline of the essential hardware components found in computers, explaining
the basic functions of each. This includes main memory, also known as random access
memory (RAM); the various input/output devices (I/O devices); and the central
processing unit (CPU). Storage devices may also be considered at this time.

2. Use Table 1.1 to explore a brief list of platforms and a few of the operating systems
designed to run on them.

3. Explain that in 1965, Intel executive Gordon Moore observed that each new processor
chip contained roughly twice as much capacity as its predecessor (number of
components per integrated function), and that each chip was released within 18–24
months of the previous chip. Use Figure 1.6 to aid the discussion.

Teaching For additional information on the basics of computer hardware, refer students to
Tip the following Web site:
http://www.infosyssec.net/infosyssec/security/comphard.htm

Teaching For additional information on Moore’s law, refer students to the following Web
Tip site: http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/silicon-innovations/moores-law-
technology.html

Types of Operating Systems

1. Provide an outline of the different categories of operating systems, including batch,
interactive, real-time, hybrid, and embedded systems. Mention that each category is
distinguished by response time and how data is entered into the system.

2. Provide students with an overview of batch systems. Point out that in the past, such
systems relied on a stack of cards or tape for input, and efficiency was measured in
throughput.

3. Discuss the characteristics of interactive systems. Note that these systems offered huge
improvements in response over batch-only systems with turnaround times in seconds or
minutes instead of hours or days.
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4. Real-time systems are used in time-critical environments where reliability is critical and
data must be processed within a strict time limit. Note that there are two types: hard
and soft systems.

5. Provide students with an overview of hybrid systems. Point out that a hybrid system
takes advantage of the free time between high-demand usage of the system and low
demand times

6. Introduce the concepts of networks and network operating systems. Use Figure 1.7 to
aid the discussion.

7. Provide students with an overview of embedded systems, which are computers placed
inside other products to add features and capabilities. Note that operating systems for
embedded computers are very different from those for general computer systems. Each
one is designed to perform a set of specific programs, which are not interchangeable
among systems.

Teaching For additional information on real-time operating systems, refer to the following
Tip Web site: http://www.ni.com/white-paper/3938/en

Brief History of Operating Systems Development

1. Begin this section by explaining that the evolution of operating system software
parallels the evolution of the computer hardware they were designed to control.

1940s

1. Mention that the machines from this era were poorly utilized, i.e., the CPU processed
data and made calculations for only a fraction of the available time. Basically, early
programs were designed to use the resources conservatively at the expense of
understandability.

2. Review Figure 1.8 and discuss the origins of the term computer “bug.”

1950s

1. Outline two major improvements that were widely adopted: computer operators were
hired to facilitate each machine’s operation and job scheduling was instituted.

2. Discuss various factors that helped improve the performance of the CPU, such as the
increase in the speed of I/O devices, the introduction of “blocking” to improve storage,
and the introduction of control units and buffers. Use Figure 1.9 to aid the discussion.
Understanding Operating Systems, Seventh Edition 1-7

1960s

1. Provide students with an overview of third-generation computers dated from the mid-
1960s. Point out that they were designed with faster CPUs, but their speed caused
problems when they interacted with the relatively slow I/O devices. Explain how the
concept of multiprogramming helped solve this problem and discuss the mechanism of
its implementation.

2. Use examples to explain the concepts of passive multiprogramming and active

multiprogramming. Point out the disadvantages of passive multiprogramming and how
these were overcome by active multiprogramming.

1970s

1. Note that during the late 1970s, computers had faster CPUs, thus creating a disparity
between their rapid processing speed and slower I/O time. Multiprogramming schemes
to increase CPU use were limited by the physical capacity of main memory. Use Figure
1.1 to aid the discussion.

2. Discuss how the concept of virtual memory solved the physical limitation issue.

1980s

1. Discuss the various developments in the 1980s, such as improved cost/performance

ratio of computer components, greater flexibility of hardware, and the introduction of
the concept of firmware.

2. Provide students with an overview of multiprocessing, which was introduced during this
time and allowed the parallel execution of programs.

3. Point out that the evolution of personal computers and high-speed communications
sparked the move to distributed processing and networked systems, enabling users in
remote locations to share hardware and software resources.

4. Provide students with an overview of distributed operating systems.

1990s

1. Point out that the demand for Internet capability in the mid-1990s sparked the
proliferation of networking capability. The World Wide Web, conceived by Tim
Berners-Lee, made the Internet accessible by computer users worldwide. Use Figure
1.11 to aid the discussion.

2. Be sure to note that increased networking also created increased demand for tighter
security to protect hardware and software.

3. Point out that the decade also introduced the proliferation of multimedia applications
demanding additional power, flexibility, and device compatibility for most operating
systems.
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2000s

1. The new century emphasized the need for improved flexibility, reliability, and speed.
The concept of virtual machines was expanded to allow computers to accommodate
multiple operating systems that ran at the same time and shared resources. Use Figure
1.12 to aid the discussion.

2. Introduce the term virtualization.

3. Note that processing speed enjoyed a similar advancement with the commercialization
of multicore processors, which can contain two to many cores. Use Figure 1.13 to aid
the discussion.

2010s

1. Increased mobility and wireless connectivity spawned a proliferation of dual-core,

quad-core, and other multicore CPUs with more than one processor (also called a core)
on a computer chip. Discuss the driving force behind this innovation.

Teaching For additional information on the history of operating systems, refer to the
Tip following Web site: http://www.osdata.com/kind/history.htm.

Design Considerations
1. The people who write operating systems are faced with many choices that can affect
every part of the software and the resources it controls. Before beginning, designers
typically start by asking key questions, using the answers to guide them in their work.

2. Point out that no single operating system is perfect for every environment. Some
systems can be best served with a UNIX system, others benefit from the structure of a
Windows system, and still others work best using Linux, Mac OS, or Android, or even a
custom-built operating system.

Quick Quiz 2
1. ____ allows separate partitions of a single server to support a different operating
system.
Answer: Virtualization

2. ____ was developed in the late 1970s and allowed portions of multiple programs to
reside in memory at the same time.
Answer: Virtual memory
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5. ____ are computers that are physically placed inside the products in which they operate
to add very specific features and capabilities.
Answer: Embedded systems

6. ____ allow users to manipulate resources that may be located over a wide geographical
area.
Answer: Networks

Class Discussion Topics

1. Discuss the primary design features of current operating systems and the security
implications.

2. Ask students to discuss the security measures that they would take to protect hardware
and software.

Additional Projects
1. Submit a report that discusses the requirements of operating systems for use in
embedded computers.

2. Submit a report that discusses the advantages and disadvantages of cloud computing
and the security risks involved.

Additional Resources
1. Windows Products and Technologies History:
http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIntro.mspx

2. History of UNIX: http://www.bell-labs.com/history/unix/tutorial.html

3. The untold story behind Apple's $13,000 operating system: http://news.cnet.com/8301-

13579_3-57577597-37/the-untold-story-behind-apples-$13000-operating-system/
Understanding Operating Systems, Seventh Edition 1-10

Key Terms
 batch system: a type of computing system that executes programs, each of which is
submitted in its entirety, can be grouped into batches, and executed without external
intervention.
 central processing unit (CPU): a component with circuitry to control the interpretation
and execution of instructions.
 cloud computing: a multifaceted technology that allows computing, data storage and
retrieval and other computer functions to take place over a large network, typically the
Internet.
 Device Manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use
of devices. It monitors every device, channel, and control unit and chooses the most
efficient way to allocate all of the system’s devices.
 embedded computer system: a dedicated computer system that often is part of a larger
physical system, such as jet aircraft or automobiles. Often, it must be small, fast, and
able to work with real-time constraints, fail-safe execution, and nonstandard I/O
devices.
 File Manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the use of
files.
 firmware: software instructions or data that are stored in a fixed or “firm” way, usually
implemented on some type of read only memory (ROM).
 hardware: the tangible machine and its components, including main memory, I/O
devices, I/O channels, direct access storage devices, and the central processing unit.
 hybrid system: a computer system that supports both batch and interactive processes.
 interactive system: a system that allows each user to interact directly with the
operating system.
 kernel: the primary part of the operating system that remains in random access memory
(RAM) and is charged with performing the system’s most essential tasks, such as
managing main memory and disk access.
 main memory: the memory unit that works directly with the CPU and in which the data
and instructions must reside in order to be processed. Also called primary storage,
RAM, or internal memory.
 mainframe: the historical name given to a large computer system characterized by its
large size, high cost, and relatively fast performance.
 Memory Manager: the section of the operating system responsible for controlling the
use of memory. It checks the validity of each request for memory space, and if it’s a
legal request, allocates the amount needed to execute the job.
 multiprocessing: when two or more CPUs share the same main memory, most I/O
devices, and the same control program routines. They service the same job stream and
execute distinct processing programs concurrently.
 multiprogramming: a technique that allows a single processor to process several
programs residing simultaneously in main memory and interleaving their execution by
overlapping I/O requests with CPU requests.
 network: a system of interconnected computer systems and peripheral devices that
exchange information with one another.
 operating system: the primary software on a computing system that manages its
resources, controls the execution of other programs, and manages communications and
data storage.
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 Processor Manager: a composite of two submanagers, the Job Scheduler and the
Process Scheduler, which decides how to allocate the CPU.
 RAM: random access memory. See main memory.
 real-time system: a computing system used in time-critical environments that require
guaranteed response times, such as navigation systems, rapid transit systems, and
industrial control systems.
 server: a node that provides to clients various network services, such as file retrieval,
printing, or database access services.
 storage: the place where data is stored in the computer system. Primary storage is main
memory. Secondary storage is nonvolatile media, such as disks and flash memory.