Tiva PDF

Table
of Contents
About Part One 1.1
Download Part One 1.2
How to Pass 1.3
The SAQ 1.4

The Viva 1.5
Curriculum
Research Methods and Statistics 2.1
Evidence-Based Medicine 2.1.1
Study Types 2.1.2
Clinical Trial Design 2.1.3

Data Types 2.1.4
Bias and Confounding 2.1.5
Frequency Distributions 2.1.6

Sample Size Calculation 2.1.7
Statistical Tests 2.1.8

Statistical Terms 2.1.9
Risk and Odds 2.1.10
Significance Testing 2.1.11

Drug Development 2.1.12
Pharmacology 2.2
Pharmaceutics 2.2.1
Additives 2.2.1.1
Isomerism 2.2.1.2
Pharmacokinetics 2.2.2
Modelling 2.2.2.1
Absorption 2.2.2.2
Distribution 2.2.2.3
Metabolism and Clearance 2.2.2.4
Elimination 2.2.2.5
Bolus and Infusion Kinetics 2.2.2.6
Drug Monitoring 2.2.2.7

Epidural and Intrathecal 2.2.2.8
TIVA and TCI 2.2.2.9
Pharmacodynamics 2.2.3
Receptor Theory 2.2.3.1
2
Receptor Types 2.2.3.2
Dose-Response Curves 2.2.3.3
Mechanisms of Action 2.2.3.4
Variability in Drug Response 2.2.4
Adverse Effects 2.2.4.1

Drug Interactions 2.2.4.2
Alterations to Response 2.2.4.3
Pharmacogenetics 2.2.4.4
Drugs in Pregnancy 2.2.4.5
Toxicology 2.2.5
General Management 2.2.5.1
TCA Overdose 2.2.5.2

Organophosphates 2.2.5.3
Cellular Physiology 2.3
The Cell Membrane 2.3.1

Organelles 2.3.2
Excitable Cells 2.3.3
Transport Across Membranes 2.3.4

Fluid Compartments 2.3.5
Cell Homeostasis 2.3.6
Respiratory System 2.4

Respiratory Anatomy 2.4.1
Airway and Alveolus 2.4.1.1
Chest Wall and Diaphragm 2.4.1.2

Variations in Anatomy 2.4.1.3
Control of Breathing 2.4.2
Mechanics of Breathing 2.4.3
Respiration 2.4.3.1
Compliance 2.4.3.2
Time-Constants 2.4.3.3
Resistance 2.4.3.4
Surfactant 2.4.3.5
Volumes and Capacities 2.4.3.6
Spirometry 2.4.3.7
Work of Breathing 2.4.3.8
Diffusion of Gases 2.4.4
Oxygen Cascade 2.4.4.1

Diffusing Capacity and Limitation 2.4.4.2
V\Q Relationships 2.4.5
West's Zones 2.4.5.1
3
Basics of V\Q Matching 2.4.5.2
Dead Space 2.4.5.3
Shunt 2.4.5.4
Gas Transport 2.4.6
Oxygen Storage 2.4.6.1

Carbon Dioxide 2.4.6.2
Applied Respiratory Physiology 2.4.7
Pulmonary Function Tests 2.4.7.1

Positive Pressure Ventilation 2.4.7.2
Hypoxia 2.4.7.3
Hypo and Hypercapnoea 2.4.7.4
Position and Ventilation 2.4.7.5

Humidification 2.4.7.6
Cough Reflex 2.4.7.7
Non-Respiratory Functions 2.4.7.8

Altitude Physiology 2.4.7.9
Respiratory Changes with Obesity 2.4.7.10
Neonates and Children 2.4.7.11

Respiratory Pharmacology 2.4.8
Anti-Asthma Drugs 2.4.8.1
Cardiovascular System 2.5

Structure and Function 2.5.1
Cardiac Anatomy 2.5.1.1
Coronary Circulation 2.5.1.2

Cardiac Cycle 2.5.1.3
Electrical Properties 2.5.2
Cardiac Action Potential 2.5.2.1
Cardiac Output 2.5.3

Determinants of Cardiac Output 2.5.3.1
Venous Return 2.5.3.2
Myocardial Oxygen Supply and Demand 2.5.3.3

Pressure-Volume Relationships 2.5.3.4
Cardiac Reflexes 2.5.3.5
Peripheral Circulation 2.5.4

Starling Forces 2.5.4.1
Variations in Blood Pressure 2.5.4.2
Pulmonary Circulation 2.5.4.3

Cerebral Blood Flow 2.5.4.4
Hepatic Blood Flow 2.5.4.5
Circulatory Control 2.5.5
4
Baroreceptors 2.5.5.1
Valsalva Manoeuvre 2.5.5.2
CVS Changes with Obesity 2.5.5.3
CVS Effects of Ageing 2.5.5.4
Cardiovascular Pharmacology 2.5.6

Inotropes 2.5.6.1
Adrenoreceptors 2.5.6.2
Antiarrhythmics 2.5.6.3
Renal System 2.6
Renal Physiology 2.6.1
Functional Anatomy and Control of Blood Flow 2.6.1.1
Glomerular Filtration and Tubular Function 2.6.1.2

Handling of Organic Substances 2.6.1.3
Measurement of GFR 2.6.1.4
Endocrine Functions of the Kidney 2.6.1.5

Acid-Base Balance 2.6.1.6
Dialysis 2.6.1.7
Fluids and Electrolytes 2.6.2

Sodium and Water 2.6.2.1
Potassium 2.6.2.2
Acid-Base Physiology 2.7

Principles of Acid-Base Physiology 2.7.1
Compensation 2.7.2
Buffers 2.7.3
Nervous System 2.8
Blood-Brain Barrier 2.8.1
CSF 2.8.2
Spinal Cord Anatomy 2.8.3

Intracranial Pressure 2.8.4
Intraocular Pressure 2.8.5
Sleep 2.8.6
Pain 2.8.7
Autonomic Nervous System 2.8.8
Neuropharmacology 2.8.9
Neurotransmitters 2.8.9.1
Anticonvulsants 2.8.9.2
Local Anaesthetics 2.8.9.3

Neuraxial Blockade 2.8.9.4
Acetylcholine Receptors 2.8.9.5
Opioids 2.8.9.6
5
Inhalational Anaesthetics 2.8.9.7
Endocrine 2.9
A Brief Overview of Hormones 2.9.1
Insulin, Glucagon, and Somatostatin 2.9.2
Control of Blood Glucose 2.9.3

Hypothalmus and Pituitary 2.9.4
Thyroid 2.9.5
Adrenal Hormones 2.9.6

Calcium Homeostasis 2.9.7
Histamine 2.9.8
Prostanoids 2.9.9
Musculoskeletal System 2.10

Skeletal Muscle Structure 2.10.1
Skeletal Muscle Innervation 2.10.2
Neuromuscular Blockers 2.10.3

Nutrition & Metabolism 2.11
Basal Metabolic Rate 2.11.1
Fat Metabolism 2.11.2

Carbohydrate Metabolism 2.11.3
Protein Metabolism 2.11.4
Requirements and Starvation 2.11.5

Anaerobic Metabolism 2.11.6
Thermoregulation 2.12
Regulation of Body Temperature 2.12.1

Immunology 2.13
Inflammation 2.13.1
Innate Immunity 2.13.2
Adaptive Immunity 2.13.3

Hypersensitivity 2.13.4
Microbiology 2.14
Classification of Microorganisms 2.14.1

Antimicrobial Resistance 2.14.2
Antiseptics 2.14.3
Obstetrics & Neonates 2.15

Respiratory Changes 2.15.1
Cardiovascular Changes 2.15.2
Foetal Circulation 2.15.3

The Placenta 2.15.4
Gastrointestinal System 2.16
Oesophagus 2.16.1
6
Gastric Secretions 2.16.2
Control of Gastric Emptying 2.16.3
Swallowing 2.16.4
Physiology of Vomiting 2.16.5
Liver Physiology 2.16.6

Functions of the Liver 2.16.6.1
Laboratory Assessment of Liver Function 2.16.6.2
Bile 2.16.6.3
Haematology 2.17
Erythrocytes 2.17.1
Iron Homeostasis 2.17.2
Platelets 2.17.3
Transfusion 2.17.4
Haemostasis 2.17.5
Haemostatic Regulation 2.17.6

Coagulopathy Testing 2.17.7
Equipment and Measurement 2.18
SI Units 2.18.1
Electrical Safety 2.18.2
Wheatstone Bridge 2.18.3
Neuromuscular Monitoring 2.18.4

Pressure Transduction 2.18.5
Pressure Waveform Analysis 2.18.6
Non-Invasive Blood Pressure 2.18.7

Cardiac Output Measurement 2.18.8
Pulse Oximetry 2.18.9
Oxygen Analysis 2.18.10
End-Tidal Gas Analysis 2.18.11

Blood Gas Analysis 2.18.12
Gas Flow 2.18.13
Principles of Ultrasound 2.18.14

Temperature and Humidity 2.18.15
Electrocardiography 2.18.16
Humidifiers 2.18.17
Supplemental Oxygen 2.18.18
Bispectral Index 2.18.19
Medical Gas Supply 2.18.20

Vaporisers 2.18.21
Circle System 2.18.22
Scavenging 2.18.23
7
Diathermy 2.18.24
Lasers 2.18.25
Procedural Anatomy 2.19
Subclavian Vein 2.19.1
Internal Jugular Vein 2.19.2

Intercostal Catheter 2.19.3
Antecubital Fossa 2.19.4
Tracheostomy 2.19.5
Pharmacopoeia
Toxicology 3.1
Recreational Drugs 3.1.1
Toxic Alcohols 3.1.1.1

Antidotes 3.1.2
Naloxone 3.1.2.1
Flumazenil 3.1.2.2
Respiratory 3.2
Oxygen 3.2.1
Helium 3.2.2
Bronchodilators 3.2.3
Beta Agonists 3.2.3.1
Antimuscarinics 3.2.3.2
Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors 3.2.3.3
Leukotriene Antagonists 3.2.3.4
Corticosteroids 3.2.4
Pulmonary Vasodilators 3.2.5

Cardiovascular Pharmacology 3.3
Adrenergic Vasoactives 3.3.1
Non-adrenergic Vasoactives 3.3.2

Antihypertensives 3.3.3
Centrally Acting Agents 3.3.3.1
Calcium Channel Blockers 3.3.3.2

Direct Vasodilators 3.3.3.3
ACE Inhibitors 3.3.3.4
Angiotensin Receptor Blockers 3.3.3.5

Potassium Channel Activators 3.3.3.6
Antiarrhythmics 3.3.4
Sodium Channel Blockers 3.3.4.1

Beta-Blockers 3.3.4.2
8
Amiodarone 3.3.4.3
Sotalol 3.3.4.4
Digoxin 3.3.4.5
Adenosine 3.3.4.6
Magnesium 3.3.4.7
Atropine 3.3.4.8
Renal 3.4
Diuretics 3.4.1
Intravenous Fluids 3.4.2
Neuropharmacology 3.5
Propofol 3.5.1
Barbiturates 3.5.2
Ketamine 3.5.3
Dexmedetomidine 3.5.4
Local Anaesthetics 3.5.5

Benzodiazepines 3.5.6
Antidepressants 3.5.7
Antipsychotics 3.5.8
Anticonvulsants 3.5.9
GABA Analogues 3.5.10
Inhalational Anaesthetic Agents 3.5.11

Nitrous Oxide 3.5.12
Analgesics 3.6
Opioids 3.6.1
COX Inhibitors 3.6.2
Tramadol 3.6.3
Paracetamol 3.6.4
Autonomic 3.7
Anticholinesterases 3.7.1
Antimuscarinics 3.7.2
Neuromuscular 3.8
Depolarising NMBs 3.8.1
Non-Depolarising NMBs 3.8.2
Dantrolene 3.8.3
Sugammadex 3.8.4
Haematological 3.9
Anticoagulants 3.9.1
Direct Thrombin Inhibitors 3.9.2
Antifibrinolytics 3.9.3
Antiplatelets 3.9.4
9
Antimicrobials 3.10
Penicillins 3.10.1
Glycopeptides 3.10.2
Aminoglycosides 3.10.3
Lincosamides 3.10.4
Metronidazole 3.10.5
Antifungals 3.10.6
Endocrine 3.11
Hypoglycaemics 3.11.1
Insulin 3.11.1.1
Oral Hypoglycaemics 3.11.1.2
Obstetric 3.12
Oxytocics 3.12.1
Tocolytics 3.12.2
Gastrointestinal 3.13
Acid Suppression 3.13.1
Antiemetics 3.13.2
Other Drugs 3.14

IV Contrast 3.14.1
Appendices
Definitions 4.1
Key Graphs 4.2
Laws and Equations 4.3
Structures for SAQs 4.4
10
About Part One
Part One
Part One is a reference for trainees preparing for the CICM and ANZCA Primary Exams.
Part One is:

Designed to cover the assessed sections of the CICM and ANZCA curricula in enough detail to pass
A rough guide for the expected depth of knowledge required on a topic
A tool to correct your written answers
A source of information you might find difficult to find elsewhere
Part One is not:
A textbook
The definitive guide to the primary exam
A complete reference
There will be both omissions and errors. If you find any, please let me know.
Layout
The book is divided into three sections:
Curriculum
Covers statistics, physiology, equipment and measurement, and anatomy.
Pages are laid out using the section title, topic titles, and order from the CICM curriculum
A grey block indicates a topic is from the CICM curriculum OR both curricula
When a topic is only examinable in the ANZCA curriculum, it has been slotted in somewhere sensible
A purple block indicates a topic is ONLY from the ANZCA curriculum
Topics covered by the page are listed at the beginning of each page
Pharmacopoeia
Covers drugs.
For the sake of consistency, the general principles of pharmacology are covered in the curriculum, whilst the specifics
of different agents will be found in the pharmacopia. If lost, use the search box.
Appendices
Includes the key definitions, graphs, and equations you should know, as well as sample structures for SAQs.
Acknowledgements + Technical Stuff

Part One is built with a number of open-source tools:
Written in John Gruber's elegant Markdown

Built and made pretty by the GitBook toolchain
With plugins from:
Ben Lau for automatic timestamps
Michael Jerger for collapsible chapters
Rishabh Garg for top navigation
Equations written in LATEX
Graphs have been:
Written in PGF/Tikz using texworks
11
About Part One
Converted to vector graphics with dvisvgm

Refined with svgo
(Some graphs have been taken from open-source sites such as Wikimedia Commons. These have been credited where
used.)
Additionally, chemical structures have been built in MarvinSketch
About the Author

Jake Barlow is an Anaesthetic and Intensive Care Registrar from Melbourne, Australia. Interested in all things critical care (with a
particular fascination for physiology), as well as biotech, physical computing, teaching, analytics, and outcome prediction in
intensive care. Send all comments, criticism, and complaints about Part One to him here.
Copyright + Legal
Copyright © 2015-2017 C. Jake Barlow
This page is part of Part One.
Part One is free: you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the
Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at your option) any later version.
Part One is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but without any warranty; without even the implied warranty of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. See the GNU General Public License for more details.
Last updated 2018-12-29
12
Download Part One
Download Part One

Part One is also provided with:
A PDF version for offline use

Note that:
The image quality of graphs is reduced in the PDF version
The PDF version is automatically built whenever the site is updated
Therefore:
The download link will always link to the most recent version
This page will appear in the PDF version
A companion set of flashcards, made in Anki
13
How to Pass
How to Pass
The first part exam is:
Painful
The knowledge demanded is huge, and cannot be avoided.
Eminently achievable
Remember, it is not impossible - everybody before you has completed it.
Plan for Success

This is not an exam you want to have to sit more than once - try to give yourself the best chance of success the first time round:
Commit yourself early

Decide when you are going to sit:
Pick a date ~9 months in advance
6 months is probably pushing it
9 months is achievable
12 months is almost too long - you will lose motivation and knowledge will fade.
Accept that the time between now and the exam is not going to be the best time of your life
Consider paying the money as soon as possible - lock yourself in
Your family and friends will forgive you, eventually
Don't lose faith
There will be times that you question why you have to learn this
Those are very legitimate feelings
Accept that part of this exam is an academic hazing you must pass through on your path to fellowship
Be Strategic
The curriculum provided is overwhelming, and probably not achievable for most of us. Have a plan about how you will approach
it:
Have a timetable
Content to cover each week
I found setting a weekly goal would allow me to plan around day-to-day variations (finishing late, good days, bad
days, etc)
A daily timetable was often mangled by life, creating unnecessary stress
Time to start viva practice
Aim to start before the written.
Topics that you can't explain, you probably don't understand fully
This may not be apparent until you try and explain it.
Know the enemy

Syllabus
Read through it so you appreciate the breadth of knowledge required.
Know the style
This allows you to give answers efficiently - the key metric for both the vivas and the SAQs is marks per unit time.
Style of exam questions
Including the style of answers - see the SAQ.
14
How to Pass
Style of vivas
Do practice vivas
Record yourself, so you know your tics
Do a dress rehearsal
Make sure your suit still fits before the day.
Graphs
Be able to draw them while talking about them.
Do past questions
I cannot stress this enough. This is the key to preparing for this exam.
Past questions:
Teach you appropriate structure
Teach you to write to time
Ensure you learn the content in the way it will be recalled
Ensure you don't waste time learning things that are unlikely to be examined
When I sat the CICM exam, I had done almost all the past questions, which covered ~60% of the curriculum. There
was 1 (out of 24) of the SAQs on a topic I had not answered an SAQ on before.
Do questions to time
Keeping to time is vital.
It is almost impossible to write a perfect answer in 10 minutes
In many cases you will need to move on to the next question despite still having things to say
Remember that the marking follows a sigmoid distribution
The first 30% of marks for a question are easy to get
The last 30% of marks are very difficult to get
Therefore, the most efficent use of your time is to aim to get ~60-70% of marks for each question.
Remember the pass mark is 50%

You are not expected to know everything
Breadth tends to be rewarded over depth
It is normal to sit the exam and have a question you have not thought about before
Suggested Approach
There are many equally valid ways to approach these exams. This is how I would do it, if I had to do it again:
1. Read a general physiology and pharmacology textbook

This will help you understand the scope of the undertaking. I would recommend spending 2-3 weeks reading:
Chambers D, Huang C, Matthews G. Basic Physiology for Anaesthetists. Cambridge University Press. 2015.
In my opinion, this is the general physiology text. I believe that if you knew everything in this book, you would pass the
physiology component of both exams.
Peck TE, Hill SA. Pharmacology for Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. 4th Ed. Cambridge University Press. 2014.
The first few chapters are a good introduction to pharmaceutics and pharmacokinetics, which will help you put later
information from more complete texts into context.
2. Start doing practice questions:

This is the key to the exam. I suggest:
Start doing one question at a time
In the beginning, you will not know enough to write for 10 minutes.
After doing the question, check your answer against available past answers
This forces active learning, and is far more efficient than reading. Look at:
Structure
How did you structure your answer? What was the example structure?
15
How to Pass
Content
What did you miss? Are the numbers/graphs you used correct?
Then study the curriculum areas that question covered, and make notes
This would take me ~1-2 hours for a new curriculum area.
Once you start doing questions which you know something about (having answered one similar previously), move up to
three questions in 24 minutes.
This teaches you to keep time, which is vital for success in the SAQ.
Still check each answer afterwards, look over that area of the curriculum, and revise and refine your notes
When you find yourself running out of time before you run out of things to write, give yourself 9 minutes per question
I would suggest not going beyond this - you need to allocate your time strategically on the day, and writing
As this gets easier, start doing 6 or more questions at a time to train your writing hand
Do one or two full exams to time before game day
3. Do a lot of flashcards
Flashcards are less demanding than doing questions, and a simple form of revision.
They are the absolute best way of rote learning facts (in my opinion)
I used anki, but use whatever works for you
My anki deck is available here
4. Do practice vivas
Start before the written. There is a lot of crossover of skills between the viva and the written. Both require a structured
approach, and good content knowledge.
Remember to take a break after the written exams, it is exhausting
The Bottom Line

Pick a date, and commit to it
Work out which times work best for you with respect to study
Different times will be better for different things. I found:
Days off (including weekends) were best for learning new content
Work days were for revising
Post night shift was a write-off
Maintain a positive attitude
Study groups are good for this - share the suffering!
Split large topics into managable chunks
Don't lose your head
Set aside time for relaxation, and don't feel guilty about it.
You don't have to know everything
The pass mark is 50%
References
This is based on a talk I gave at the 2016 VPECC Course, still raw from the CICM primary
16
How to Pass
17
The SAQ
The SAQ
A good response to a short-answer question is constructed from two things:
Structure
Developing a structured approach to answering SAQs is essential to succeeding in this section of the exam. A structured
approach:
Is easily digested by the examiner
Reduces the amount of filler you need to write, meaning you can write more facts
Typically lends itself to bullet points rather than paragraphs
Allows you to recall more information than you would otherwise
Especially if you learnt it in the same format. This is particularly important for pharmacology.
Knowledge
Obviously.
Additionally, a good response will:
Answer the question

This is stated repeatedly in examiner reports. If the question asks for a discussion of the respiratory changes of pregnancy, no
marks will be awarded for cardiovascular changes.
Be legible
Not be perfect
This is often-overlooked.
Examiner reports (and some model answers), assume a perfect response
This not feasible given the time allowed
It is also not actually expected - remember that the pass mark is 50%
The bottom line:
A good response will cover the major points in reasonable detail

Will generally focus on principles rather than specifics
Marks become progressively harder to acquire:
The first one or two marks on a question should be easy
Going from an 8/10 to a 10/10 will require time which you likely cannot spare
Answering the Question

You have exactly 10 minutes per SAQ
You should practice to 8-9 minutes per SAQ
In many cases, the last question (or questions) goes unanswered. This demonstrates poor time management, as easy marks
were thrown away by candidates reaching for harder marks on earlier questions.
During reading time, you should evaluate each question to:
Decide what part of the curriculum it is assessing

Work out the context, if any
Decide what structure would be most appropriate
18
The SAQ
19
The Viva
The Viva
The viva is the part of the exam most candidates seem most stressed about. However:
If you make it to the written, you will most likely pass

Very few people succeed in the written exams to fail at the viva.
The knowledge is there
Examiners want you to pass
They will redirect you if you're off track.
This makes it easier to make up marks than on the written, where you can easily go off down the rabbit hole,
haemorrhaging time and marks
Understanding the Viva

To do well at the viva:
Understand the viva is a performance piece

The viva is a ritualised converation. Success requires you to know and understand the language and structure used, just like
the SAQ.
Structure your answer
As with the SAQ, categorise your answer.
Have a good opening statement
Don't answer more than is asked.
Start broad
Often the viva will go into depth on only one or two areas of a topic. If you start going into detail on only parts of a
topic, it makes it hard for the examiner to redirect you and scores you no marks.
Be confident
Enjoy it if you can.
Learn to think on your feet
The viva assesses knowledge in a different way to the SAQs.
The knowledge will be there, but it may require a different approach to access it This requires practice.
This is also important for delivering a sound answer based on incomplete knowledge
It's okay to say "I don't know"
But probably not on the first question.
If you don't know immmediately, can you work it out from first principles?
Don't get angry
With yourself
With the examiner
Don't argue.
Don't apologise
Apologies:
Make you lose confidence
Don't get you marks
Remember, marks per unit-time.
Don't talk over the examiner
They are interrupting you because what you are saying is gaining no marks. If you keep talking, you will:
Not be getting marks
Irritate them
Potentially losing future marks.
20
The Viva
21
Research Methods and Statistics
Evidence-Based Medicine
Describe the features of evidence-based medicine, including levels of evidence (e.g. NHMRC), meta-analysis, and
systematic review
What is Evidence-Based Medicine?

Evidence-based medicine (EBM) is "the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use and appraisal of current best
evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients."
The purpose of EBM is to provide a framework for acquiring knowledge and making optimal decisions around medical care.
It means integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic
research."
There are five stages of EBM:
1. Ask an answerable question

2. Search
3. Critically appraise the evidence
4. Integrate the evidence with the patients unique circumstances and values
5. Evaluate the result
Levels of Evidence
Levels of evidence grade studies on liklihood of bias and internal validity. The NHMRC defines 6 levels of evidence, graded from
I-IV (with three level III subtypes).
In general:
Level I is evidence from a systematic review of RCTs

Level II is evidence from at least one good RCT
Level III-1 is evidence from a pseudo-RCT
Level III-2 is evidence from a comparative study with concurrent controls, such as a cohort or case-control study
Level III-3 is evidence from a comparative study without concurrent controls, such as a cohort study with historical
controls
Level IV is evidence from a case-series
Note that expert opinion is not part of NHMRC levels of evidence, though it is included on the Oxford Centre for Evidence Based
Medicine system, used by the NHS.
Level Intervention Diagnostic Accuracy Prognostic Aetiology Screening
A systematic
A systematic A systematic A systematic
A systematic review of review of
I review of level II review of level review of level II
level II studies level II
studies II studies studies
studies
A study of test accuracy

with: an independent,
blinded comparison
A
A randomised with a valid reference A prospective A randomised
II prospective
controlled trial standard, among cohort study controlled trial
cohort study
consecutive persons
with a defined clinical
presentation
A study of test accuracy
22
with: an independent,
A blinded comparison A
III-1 pseudorandomised with a valid reference All or none All or none pseudorandomised
controlled trial standard, among non- controlled trial
consecutive persons
with a defined clinical
presentation
Analysis of
A comparison with
prognostic
A comparative reference standard that A comparative
factors amongst A
study with does not meet the study with
III-2 persons in a retrospective
concurrent criteria required for concurrent
single arm of a cohort study
controls Level II and III-1 controls
randomised
evidence
controlled trial
A comparative A comparative
A case-
study without Diagnostic case-control A retrospective study without
III-3 control
concurrent study cohort study concurrent
study
controls controls
Case series, or
Case series with A cross-
Study of diagnostic cohort study of
either post-test or sectional
IV yield (no reference persons at Case series
pre-test/post-test study or
standard) different stages
outcomes case series
of disease
Grades of evidence
Evidence is graded to "indicate the strength of the body of evidence underpinning a recommendation" (e.g. in a clinical
guideline).The NHMRC grades recommendations from A to D as follows:
A: Body of evidence can be trusted to guide practice

B: Body of evidence can be trusted to guide practice, in most situations
C: Body of evidence provides some support, but care should be taken in its application
D: Body of evidence is weak and recommendation must be applied with caution
Study types: Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses

Systematic Review
Process of evaluating all of the (quality) literature to answer a specific clinical question. Does not necessarily involve statistical
analysis. If it involves quantitative analysis of multiple trials, it is known as a meta-analysis.
Meta-analysis
Mathematical technique of combining the results of different trials to derive a single pooled estimate of effect. Can be done by:
Pooling the results of each trial

Pooling all of the raw data and conducting a reanalysis
Meta-analyses usually use random-effects models, which assumes there will be a variety of similar treatment effects
Individual trials are summarised with an odds ratio, and weighted, usually by sample size
Stages of a [meta-analysis] and systematic review:

1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria are predefined
2. Search: including online databases, reference lists, citations, and experts
3. Validation of potentially eligible trials (critique of interval validity, i.e. trial quality)
23
4. [Heterogeneity Analysis]
5. [Meta-analysis]
6. Reliability of result determined
i.e. Consistency accross studies, statistical significance, large effect size, biological plausibility.
7. Sensitivity analysis
Repeating the analysis with an alternative model, excluding borderline trials or outliers. If the result is unchanged, then the
findings are robust.
Heterogeneity
For the pooling of results to be valid, the trials need to be similar. Differences between trials is called heterogeneity, and is
important because:
Heterogeneity analysis affects the type of model that can be used (fixed or mixed effects)
Highly heterogenous data is not appropriate for meta-analysis.
Heterogeneity is divided into:
Statistical Heterogeneity
The effects of the intervention are more different than would be expected to occur through chance alone.
Clinical Heterogeneity
Due to trial design it would be inappropriate to pool the results.
E.g., conducting a meta-analysis on the effects of the same drug in a paediatric and adult population may be
inappropriate, as these two trials had different inclusion criteria.
Methodological Hetreogeneity
Where the methods used in different trials are too different to allow pooling of the data.
Forest Plots
Results of meta-analyses are presented in a blobbogram, or more boringly, a Forest Plot.
Where:
The x-axis plots the odds ratio, remembering that an OR of 1 indicates no difference
The y-axis lists the studies included, and the overall summary statistic
The dot (or square) indicates the point estimate (from its x-location) and the weight given to the study (by its size)
The horizontal line indicates the upper and lower bounds of the confidence interval
The diamond indicates the overall point estimate and (by its width) the confidence interval for the point estimate
The result of the heterogeneity test should also be displayed
P < 0.1 indicates significant heterogeneity.
Funnel Plots
24
Funnel plots are a graphical tool to detect publication bias.
Due to statistical power, larger studies should be a closer representation of the true effect
Therefore, when evaluating an number of studies, one would expect that large studies cluster around the 'true effect', and
smaller studies to scatter further
A graph is then plotted of OR on the x-axis, and standard error on the y-axis
Publication bias is suggested when results cluster on one side of the funnel plot
No evidence of publication bias would have studies clustered around the true effect
Strengths and weaknesses of meta-analyses
Strengths Weaknesses
Enhanced precision of estimates of effect Publication bias
Useful when large trials have not been done or are not feasible Duplicate publication
Generate clinically relevant measures (NNT, NNH) Heterogeneity
Inclusion of outdated studies
Because of these weaknesses:
Positive meta-analyses should be considered largely hypothesis-generating, and should be confirmed by (a large) RCT
Negative meta-analyses can probably be accepted
References
1. Sacket DL, Richardson WS, Rosenberg W, Haynes RB. Evidence-based Medicine: How to practice and teach EBM.
Churchill Livingstone, London 1997.
2. Sackett David L, Rosenberg William M C, Gray J A Muir, Haynes R Brian, Richardson W Scott. Evidence based medicine:
what it is and what it isn't BMJ 1996; 312:71.
3. NHMRC. NHMRC additional levels of evidence and grades for recommendations for developers of guidelines. National
Health & Medical Research Council. 2009.
4. Myles PS, Gin T. Statistical methods for anaesthesia and intensive care. 1st ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.
5. Lalkhen AG, McCluskey A. Statistics V: Introduction to clinical trials and systematic reviews. CEACP 2008.
25
Study Types
Study Types
Describe the features of evidence-based medicine, including levels of evidence (e.g. NHMRC), meta-analysis, and
systematic review
Randomised Control Trial

A prospective randomised controlled trial is the gold standard of experimental research.
It involves allocating patients randomly to either an intervention or a reference (control) group, and measuring the outcome of
interest. Allocation can be performed in three ways:
Simple
Individuals allocated randomly. This may lead to uneven group sizes.
Block
Allocation is performed within blocks such that group sizes will remain close in size
Stratified
Groups are randomised within a category (i.e. men and women are randomised separately).
Strengths
Only study design which can establish causation
Eliminates confounding
Randomisation controls for both known and unknown confounding factors, as these should be randomly allocated between
groups.
Blinding can be performed in a standardised fashion
Decreases selection bias
Weaknesses
Costly
Time-consuming
Not appropriate for all study designs
Ethical concerns
e.g. Adrenaline in ALS
Practical concerns
Small patient population or uncommon disease may cause recruitment difficulties
Systematic Review
The process of evaluating all of the (quality) literature to answer a specific clinical question. This:
Does not necessarily involve statistical analysis

If it involves statistical analysis of multiple trials to generate a combined estimate of effect, it is known as a meta-analysis.
Meta-analysis
26
Study Types
Mathematical technique of combining the results of different trials to derive a single pooled estimate of effect. Can be performed
by:
Pooling the results of each trial

Combining all of the raw data and conducting a reanalysis
Meta-analyses usually use random-effects models, which assumes there will be a variety of similar treatment effects
Individual trials are summarised with an odds ratio, and weighted, usually predominantly by sample size
Stages of a [meta-analysis] and systematic review:

1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria are predefined
2. Search: including online databases, reference lists, citations, and experts
3. Validation of potentially eligible trials (critique of interval validity, i.e. trial quality)
4. [Heterogeneity Analysis]
5. [Meta-analysis]
6. Reliability of result determined
i.e. Consistency accross studies, statistical significance, large effect size, biological plausibility.
7. Sensitivity analysis
Repeating the analysis with an alternative model, excluding borderline trials or outliers. If the result is unchanged, then the
findings are robust.
Heterogeneity
For the pooling of results to be valid, the trials need to be similar. Differences between trials is known as heterogeneity.
Heterogeneity can be either:
Statistical; where the effects of the intervention are more different than would be expected to occur through chance alone.
Heterogenety analysis affects the type of model that can be used (fixed or mixed effects) and highly heterogenous data is not
appropriate for meta-analysis.
Clinical; where, due to trial design, it would be inappropriate to pool the results. For example, conducting a meta-analysis on
the effects of the same drug in a paediatric and adult population would be inappropriate, as these are two different
populations.
Methodological; Where the methods used in different trials are too different to allow pooling of the data.
Forest Plots
Results of meta-analyses are presented in a blobbogram, or more boringly, a Forest Plot.
Where:
The x-axis plots the odds ratio, remembering that an OR of 1 indicates no difference
The y-axis lists the studies included, and the overall summary statistic
27
Study Types
The square indicates the point estimate (from its x-location) and the weight given to the study (by its size)
The horizontal line indicates the upper and lower bounds of the confidence interval
The diamond indicates the overall point estimate and (by its width) the confidence interval for the point estimate
The result of the heterogeneity test should also be displayed. P < 0.1 indicates significant heterogeneity.
Funnel Plots
A graphical tool to detect publication bias. Due to statistical power, larger studies should be a closer representation of the true
effect. When evaluating an number of studies, one would expect that large studies cluster around the 'true effect' and smaller
studies to have more scatter.
Strengths and weaknesses of meta-analyses
Strengths Weaknesses
Enhanced precision of estimates of effect Publication bias
Useful when large trials have not been done or are not feasible Duplicate publication
Generate clinically relevant measures (NNT, NNH) Heterogeneity
Inclusion of outdated studies
Because of these weaknesses, positive meta-analyses should be considered largely hypothesis-generating, and should be
confirmed by (a large) RCT. Negative meta-analyses can probably be accepted.
References
28
Clinical Trial Design
Clinical Trial Design

Describe the stages in design of a clinical trial
1. Determine research question

2. Determine target population
3. Specify outcomes
4. Determine requirement for control group
5. Sample size estimation
6. Control for confounding
7. Control for bias
8. Data handling
9. Statistical analysis plan (pre-specified)
References
1. PS Myles, T Gin. Statistical methods for anaesthesia and intensive care. 1st ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.
29
Data Types
Data Types
Describe the different types of data
Data are a series of observations or measurements. Can be either qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative Data
Using words as data rather than numbers, evaluating meaning and process. Common in the social sciences.
Quantitative Data
Uses numbers, or can be coded numerically. Divided into multiple types, each with multiple subtypes.
Categorical
Data exist in discrete categories without intrinsic order.
e.g. Medical speciality (intensive care, emergency medicine, orthopaedics, cardiology)
Descriptive statistics for categorical data can be reported using the absolute number for each category, percentages, or
proportions
Ordinal
Data exists in discrete categories with an intrinsic order, e.g. age groups (0-5, 6-10, 11-15...)
Descriptive statistics for ordinal data are the same for categorical data, but they can also be summarised by the median
and the range (e.g. median age group, age group range).
Numerical
Data is an actual number. Can be subdivided into discrete or continuous:
Discrete
Can only be recorded as an integer (whole number), e.g. number of hospital admissions.
Dichotomous or binary data, which occurs when there are only two categories
Continuous
Where data can assume any value (including fractions), e.g. white cell count.
Continuous data can be further subdivided into interval or ratio data:
Ratio data
Are expressed with reference to a rational zero, which is where zero means no measurement.
e.g. Temperature in °K is a ratio variable, whilst temperature in °C is not
This is because 0°K means no temperature, whilst 0°C does not; e.g. 50°K is half the temperature of
100°K, but 50°C is not half the temperature of 100°C.
Ratio variables can (unsurprisingly) be expressed as ratios, whilst interval variables can not
Interval data
Do not have a rational 0 - this is just another point on the line (e.g. temperature in °C).
References
30
Data Types
31
Bias and Confounding

Describe bias, types of error, confounding factors and sample size calculations, and the factors that influence them
Bias
Bias is a systematic deviation from truth, and causes a study to lack internal validity.
In a research study, an observed difference between groups may be due to:
A true difference between groups

An error
Error can be due to:
Normal random variation, i.e. chance
A systematic difference, i.e. bias
Unlike error due to chance, the effect of bias cannot be reduced by increasing the sample size.
Types of Bias
Type of
Description Prevention
bias
Where subject allocation results in treatment groups that are

Selection Randomisation
systematically different, apart from in the intervention being studied
Where measurements are taken differently between treatment

Detection Blinding
groups
Observer Where the data collector is able to be subjective about the outcome Blinding, Hard outcomes
When negative studies are less likely to be submitted or published

Publication Clinical trial registries
than positive ones
Altered reporting of symptoms by patients depending on which

Recall Blinding
group they have been allocated to
When patients who enroll for a trial differ from the population,
Response Random sampling
limiting generalisability
Control group, masking study

Hawthorne
When the process of actually doing the study improves the outcome intent from patients and
effect
observers
Confounder
A confounder is "a variable that, if removed, results in a change in the outcome variable by a clinically significant
amount." It is a type of bias which will result in a distortion of the measured effect.
A confounding factor must be:
Associated with the exposure but not a consequence of it

A confounding factor cannot be on the causal pathway between exposure and disease
It must be present unevenly between groups to cause distortion of the measured effect
An independent predictor of outcome
The confounding factor must also be a risk factor for the disease, but independently from exposure.
32
Controlling for confounding
By Design
Randomisation
All confounders (known and unknown) are distributed evenly between groups.
Restriction
Restricts participants to remove confounders.
Results in reduced generalisablility and does not control all factors
Matching
Pairing of similar subjects between groups.
May introduce additional confounding, and matching by multiple characteristics is difficult
By Analysis
Standardisation
Adjust for differences by transforming data.
Stratification
Analyse the data in subgroups for each potential confounding factor.
References
1. Sackett, D. L. (1979). Bias in analytic research. Journal of Chronic Diseases 32 (1–2): 51–63.
3. Stats notes from my MPh (University of Sydney). Probably a Timothy Schlub lecture, circa 2014.
33
Frequency Distributions
Frequency Distributions and Measures of Central Tendency

Describe frequency distributions and measures of central tendency and dispersion
Frequency distributions are a method of tabulating or graphically displaying a number of observations.
The Normal Distribution

The normal distribution is a gaussian distribution, where the majority of values cluster around the mean, and whilst more
extreme values become progressively less frequent.
The normal distribution is common in medicine for two reasons.
Much of the variation in biology follows a normal distribution

When multiple random samples are taken from a population, the mean of these samples follows a normal distribution,
even if the characteristic being measured is not normally distributed
This is known as the central limit theorem.
It is useful because many statistical tests are only valid when the data follow a normal distribution
The formula for the normal distribution is given by:
34
From this, it can bet seen the two variables which will determine the shape of the normal distribution are:
μ (mu): The mean

σ (sigma): The standard deviation
The Standard Normal Distribution

The standard normal distribution is a normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. The equation for the
standard normal distribution is much simpler, which is why it is used.
Any normal distribution can be transformed to fit a standard normal distribution using a z transformation:
The value of z then gives a standardised score, i.e. the number of standard deviations form the mean in a standardised curve.
This can then be used to determine probability.
Binomial distribution
Where observations belong to one of two mutually exclusive categories, i.e.:
If then
If the number of observations is very large and the probability of an event is small, a poisson distribution can be used to
approximate a binomial distribution.
Measures of Central Tendency

As noted above in the normal distribution, results tend to cluster around a central value. Quantification of the degree of
clustering can be done using measures of central tendency, of which there are three:
Mode
The most common value in the sample.
Median
The middle value when the sample is ranked from lowest to highest.
The median is the best measure of central tendency when the data is skewed
Arithmetic mean
The average, i.e:

The mean is common and reliable, though inaccurate if the distribution is skewed.
Measures of Dispersion
Measures of variability describe the degree of dispersion around the central value.
Basic Measures of Deviation
35
Range: The lowest and highest values in the sample

Highly influenced by outliers
Percentiles: Rank observations into 100 equal parts, so that the median becomes the 50% percentile.
Better measure of spread than range.
Interquartile range: The 25th to 75th centile
A box-and-whisker plot graphically demonstrates the mean, 25th centile, 75th centile, and (usually), the 10th and 90th
centiles.
Outliers are represented by dots
Occasionally the range is plotted by the whiskers, and there are no outliers plotted
Variance and Standard Deviation

Variance is a better measure of variability than the above methods. Variance:
Evaluates how far each observation is from the mean, and penalises observations more the further they lie from the mean
Sums the squares of each difference and divides by the number of observations i.e:
is used (instead of ) because the mean of the sample is known and therefore the last observation calculated
must taken on a known quantity
This is known as a degrees of freedom, which is a mathematical restriction used when using one statistical test in
order to estimate another
It is a confusing topic best illustrated with an example:
You have been given a sample of two observations (say, ages of two individuals), and you know nothing about
them
The degrees of freedom is two, since those observations can take on any value.
Alternatively, imagine you have been given the same sample, but this time I tell you that the mean age of the
sample is 20
The degrees of freedom is one, since if I tell you the value of one of the observations is 30, you know that the
other must be 10
Therefore, only one of the observations is free to vary - as soon as its value is known then the value of the
other observation is known as well.
Different statistical tests may result in additional losses in degrees of freedom.
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is the positive square root of the variance.
In a sample of normal distribution:
1 SD either side of the mean should include ~68% of results

2 SD either side of the mean should include ~95% of results
3 SD either side of the mean should include ~99.7% of results
36
Standard error and Confidence Intervals

Standard error of the mean is:
A measure of the precision of the estimate of the mean

Calculated from the standard deviation and the sample size
As the sample size grows, the SEM decreases (as the estimate becomes more precise).
Given by the formula:
Used to calculate the confidence interval
Confidence Interval
The confidence interval:
Gives a range in which the true population parameter is likely to lie

The width of the interval is related to the standard error, and the degree of confidence (typically 95%):
Is a function of the sample statistic (in this case the mean), rather than the actual observations
Has several benefits over the p-value:
Indicates magnitude of the difference in a meaningful way
Indicates the precision of the estimate
The smaller the confidence interval, the more precise the estimate.
Allows statistical significance to be calculated
If the confidence interval crosses 1, then the result is insignificant.
References
1. "Normal distribution". Licensed under Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) via SubSurfWiki.
2. Myles PS, Gin T. Statistical methods for anaesthesia and intensive care. 1st ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001
3. Course notes from "Introduction to Biostats", University of Sydney, School of Public Health, circa 2013.
37
Sample Size Calculation

Samples
A sample is a subset of a population that we wish to investigate. We take measurements on our sample with the aim to make
inferences on the general population. An optimal sample (in quantitative research) will be representative, that is, it has the same
characteristics of the population it is drawn from.
Sampling Error
Due to chance, the sample mean will not equal the population mean. This is called sampling error, and is a form of random error.
A larger sample will more closely approximate the population mean, reducing random error leading to more accurate point
estimates and narrower confidence intervals.
This is why large sample sizes are desirable in research. However, larger studies are also more costly and time consuming to run.
Sample-size calculations are performed to find a happy medium.

All sample size calculations depend on:
Acceptable risk of Type I error (α), typically set at 0.05

A smaller α (lower false positive risk) requires a larger sample size.
Acceptable risk of Type II error (β), typically set at 0.20
A smaller β (lower false negative risk) requires a larger sample size.
Expected effect size
A smaller effect size requires a larger sample size, as the difference between groups will be smaller and harder to detect.
Population variance
A larger population variance requires a larger sample size, as there is more 'noise' in the sample.
Study design
Certain trial designs (e.g. multiple arms) require a larger sample size for a given effect size and power.
Practical considerations
Cost
Increasing sample size increases the cost of a study.
Participant availability
Sample size is limited when the number of eligible participants for a study is small (e.g. rare diseases)
Different formulas for sample size calculations exist for different studies, and can be adjusted for particular study designs, such as
multiple or unequal groups.
References
38
39
Statistical Tests
Statistical Tests
Describe the appropriate selection of non-parametric and parametric tests and tests that examine relationships (e.g.
correlation, regression)
Parametric Tests
Parametric tests are used when data is:
Continuous and numerical

Normally distributed
Remember that due to the central limit theorem - large data sets (n > 100) are typically amenable to parametric analysis,
as sample means will follow a normal distribution
Non-normal data can be transformed so that they follow a normal distribution
Samples are taken randomly
Samples have the same variance
Observations within the group are independent
Independent results are those when one value is not expected to influence another value.
A common example is repeated measures: when serial measures are taken from a patient or a hospital, the results cannot
be treated as independent
Paired tests are used when two dependent samples are compared
Unpaired test are used when two independent samples are compared
Tests may be one-tailed or two-tailed:
A two-tailed test evaluates whether the sample mean is significantly greater or less than the population mean
A one-tailed test only evaluates the relationship in one direction
This doubles the power of the test to detect a difference, but should only be performed if there is a very good reason that the
effect could only occur in one direction.
Common parametric tests include:
Z test
Used to test whether the mean of a particular sample (x̄) differs from the population mean (μ) by random variation.
Assumptions:
Large sample
n > 100.
Data is normally distributed
Population standard deviation is known
Student's T Test
This is a variant of the Z test, used when the population standard deviation is not known.
The results from T test approximate the results of the Z test when n > 100
F Test
40
Statistical Tests
Compares the ratio of variances ( ) for two samples. If F deviates significantly from 1, then there is a significant difference
in group variances.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

ANOVA tests for significant differences between means of multiple groups, in a more efficient manner than multiple comparisons
(doing lots of T tests).
There are several types of ANOVA tests used in different situations.
Non-Parametric Tests
Non-parametric tests are used when the assumptions for parametric tests are not met. Non-parametric tests:
Do not assume the data follows any particular distribution

This is required when:
Non-normality is obvious
e.g. Multiple observations of 0
Possible non-normality
Typically small sample sizes.
Data is ordinal
Are not as powerful as parametric tests (a larger sample size is required to achieve the same error rate)
Are more broadly applicable than parametric tests as they do not require the same assumptions
Non-parametric tests still require that data:
Is continuous or ordinal
Within-group observations are independent
Samples are taken randomly
In general, non-parametric tests;
Take each result and rank them

Calculations are then performed on each rank to find the test statistic
Common non-parametric tests include:
Mann-Whitney U Test/Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test

Alternative to the unpaired T-test for non-parametric data.
Process:
Data from both groups are combined, ordered, and given ranks
Tied data are given identical ranks, where that rank is equal to the average rank of the tied observations
The data are then separated into their original group
Ranks in each group are added to give a test statistic for each group
A statistical test is performed to see if the sum of ranks in one group is different to another
Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test

Alternative to the paired T-test for non-parametric data.
Process:
41
Statistical Tests
As above (for the Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test), except absolute difference between paired observations are ranked
The sign (i.e. positive or negative) is preserved.
The sum of positive ranks is then compared with the sum of negative ranks
If there is no difference between groups, we would expect the net value to be 0
References
42
Statistical Terms
Statistical terms
Understand the terms sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value and how these are affected by the
prevalence of the disease in question
All these terms refer to characteristics of diagnostic tests. The easiest way to approach this is via a 2x2 table, and has been
recommended in previous exams as an approach to questions on this topic.
Types of Error
Draw a 2x2 table of disease state versus test outcome:
Disease Positive Disease Negative Total
Test Positive True Positives False Positives All Test Positives
Test Negative False Negatives True Negatives All Test Negatives
Total All Disease Positives All Disease Negatives
True or false refers to whether the test was correct

Positive or negative refers to the test result
A Type I error is a false positive, when we incorrectly reject the null hypothesis
The type I error rate can be decreased by decreasing α
A Type II error is a false negative, when we incorrectly accept the null hypothesis
The type II error rate can be decreased by decreasing β, usually expressed as increasing power
Power is the chance of detecting a difference if it exists. Power is equal to 1-β.
Sensitivity and Specificity

Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the probability those with the disease test positive, i.e. the true positive rate.
It refers to the ability of a test to detect the condition
A highly sensitive test will likely be positive if the condition is present
Therefore, a negative result on a sensitive test gives a high likelihood the disease is not present
The mnemonic for this is SNOUT - Sensitive, Negative, rule OUT
Sensitivity is the true positive rate, and can be expressed mathematically as:
Specificity
Specificity is the probability those without the disease test negative, i.e. the true negative rate
It refers to the ability of a test to detect absence of the condition
A highly specific test will likely be negative if the condition is not present
Therefore a positive result on a specific test gives a high likelihood the disease is present
The mnemonic for this is SPIN - Sensitive, Positive, rule IN
43
Statistical Terms
Specificity is the true negative rate, and can be expressed mathematically as:
Positive and Negative predictive Values

Positive and negative predictive values describe the proportion of test results which are true
A high value indicates accuracy of the test
Because of how they are derived, they are dependent on population prevalence of the disease
Positive Predictive Value (PPV) is the probability that the disease is present when the test is positive:
Negative Predictive Value (NPV) is the probability that the disease is absent when the test is negative:
Remembering the Difference

Rote learning these formulas is hard
Remember that:
Sensitivity and specificity are the same for any given prevalence of disease
Therefore they look at columns (disease positive or disease negative).
PPV and NPV are not
Therefore they look at rows (test positive or test negative).
Likelihood Ratios
The weakness of PPV and NPV as tools of evaluating the utility of a test in clinical practice is that they do not take into account
the population prevalence, i.e. the prior probability, of a condition.
A classic example is the urine bHCG, which has a high positive predictive value for pregnancy. Tested on an exclusively male
group however, the true positive rate will be 0 (since there are no pregnancies), and so all test positives will be false positives.
Therefore:
The actual utility of a test in decision making is dependent upon the prior probability of the disease being present
Likelihood Ratios relate the pre-test odds to the post-test odds
They are useful because (unlike the above values) they do not assume that the patient you are applying them to is identical to
the sample from which the statistic was derived.
The likelihood ratio multipled by the pre-test odds gives the post-test odds of the disease being present
A positive likelihood ratio is used when the test is positive:
A negative likelihood ratio is used when the test is negative:
44
Statistical Terms
References
45
Risk and Odds
Risk and Odds

Understand the concepts of risk and Odds Ratio
Risk
Absolute Risk is the risk of an event occurring in the exposed group
Relative Risk (or risk ratio) is the risk of an event occurring in the exposed group relative to the unexposed group.
Absolute Risk Reduction is the decrease in risk provided by an exposure:
Is a clinical useful measure of the value of an intervention, however is better expressed as:
Number Needed to Treat (NNT) is the number of individuals who must receive a treatment to prevent one event:
Relative Risk Reduction is the decrease in incidence provided by treatment. It is not as useful a measure of the value of an
intervention, but drug companies like it because the numbers are bigger than absolute risk reduction.
Odds
Odds are the probability of an event happening compared to the probability of it not happening, usually expressed as a
fraction
The Odds Ratio is the ratio of the odds of the outcome occurring in the exposed compared to the odds of it occurring in the
unexposed
An OR < 1 suggests the risk is lower in the exposed group

An OR > 1 suggests the risk is higher in the exposed group
An OR = 1 suggests that the groups are equivalent
In general, the OR overstates risk compared to the RR.

It is approximately equal to the RR when the outcome is rare (< 10%)
It is used when:
The denominator is uncertain, i.e.:
In retrospective designs, such as case-control studies when patients with the disease were identified, and then
exposures ascertained
When it statistically appropriate (ORs are much easier to use in statistical tests), i.e.:
Multivariable regression
Systematic Reviews
Risk versus Odds
46
Risk and Odds
Relative Risk and Odds Ratios are both methods of comparing the likelihood of an outcome occurring between two groups. The
difference, and particularly the concept of odds ratios, are commonly confused. Relative risk tends be much more intuitive than
odds ratios. Imagine a trial has been performed, where group A was exposed group:
In group A, the mortality was 50%

In group B, the mortality was 25%
The relative risk is intuitive:
The odds ratio is not:
A RR of 2 is intuitive, but the OR of 3 is not. Now, imagine another trial where:
In group A, the mortality was 90%

In group B, the mortality was 10%
The relative risk is 9, but the OR is 81!
So why use odds ratios at all? Odds ratios are:
Required when research subjects are selected on the basis of outcome rather than the basis of exposure
Used by many statistical tests because the log odds ratio is normally distributed, which is a mathematically useful property
Relative Risk has a weakness as well - it is dependent on how the question is framed. Using the first trial above, we calculated that
RR for death was 2 and the OR was 3. Rather than calculating mortality, an alternative method could be to look at survival:
In group A, the survival was 50%

In group B, the survival was 75%
Note that the relative risk is not 0.5 (as you may initially assume), however the odds ratio is just the inverse of the previous value.
References
3. Simon S. Odds ratio vs. relative risk. "Steve's Attempt to Teach Statistics (StATS)". Children's Mercy Hospital, 2006.
4. Bland JM, Altman D. Bland J Martin, Altman Douglas G. The odds ratio. BMJ 2000; 320 :1468.
47
Risk and Odds
48
Significance Testing
p#Significance Testing'
Understand concept of significance and testing of significance
Significance testing is:
The process of determining whether a difference between groups in a study is due to a real difference, or chance alone
Performed using p-values
Does not imply clinical significance
For a result to be statistically significant, there must be a 'real' difference between groups.
This difference does not have to be clinically meaningful
e.g. A drug may reliably cause a 5mmHg decrease in SBP - this is unlikely to cause a meaningful drop in
cardiovascular mortality but may be statistically significant
P Values
The p-value is the probability of obtaining a summary statistic (e.g. a mean) equal to or more extreme than the observed
result, provided the null hypothesis is true.
The p-value is commonly (mis)used in frequentist significance testing.
Prior to performing an experiment, a significance threshold (α) is selected

Traditionally 0.05 (5%) or 0.01 (1%)
These values define the "false-positive rate".
When multiple tests are being performed on one set of data, the chance of a false-positive will increase
To reduce the chance of a false positive occurring, the significance threshold for each test can be reduced. One
method of this is the Bonferroni correction, where α is divided by the number of tests being performed.
Then the experiment is performed, and a value for p is calculated
If p < α, it suggests that the results are inconsistent with the null hypothesis (at that significance level), and it should be
rejected.
Problems with P-values

P-values are, when employed correctly, are useful. However, they do have several weaknesses:
Assume the null hypothesis is true

The p-value assumes that there is no real difference between groups.
This may not be the case
Not all hypotheses are created equal
There may be significant prior evidence supporting (or refuting) HA - this will be ignored when interpreting a p-value.
Any study with significant results must therefore be interpreted in the context of:
Biological plausibility of those results
The previous evidence on the topic
It is a common misconception that the p-value estimates the chance that the result is true
This is not the case. The p-value measures how inconsistent the observed results are with the null hypothesis.
A threshold of 0.05 is not always appropriate

The cost of being wrong must be included when interpreting a p-value. If this is a true result, what are the potential benefits?
If this is a false positive, what are the potential harms?
Vulnerable to multiple comparisons

Conducting repeated analyses will eventually find a 'significant' result. At an α of 0.05, we would expect 1/20 analyses to be
a false positive. Conducting 20 analyses would therefore generate one false positive result.
Does not quantify effect size
49
Significance Testing
A significant p-value simply suggests a difference exists, it does not measure how big this difference is.
A result may be statistically significant but clinically unimportant, e.g. an antihypertensive medication causing a
decrease in SBP by 2mmHg may be statistically significant, but clinically unimportant.
Related to sample size p-values are affected by sample size:

A large effect size may be hidden by an insigificant p-value if sample size is small
Similarly, a tiny effect size may be detected (i.e. a significant p-value) if sample size is large
Does not account for bias

Like other statistical test, the p-value cannot account for bias or confounding.
References
1. Wasserstein RL, Lazar NA. The ASA's Statement on p-Values: Context, Process, and Purpose. The American Statistician.
2016 vol: 70 (2) pp: 129-133.
50
Drug Development
Drug Approval and Development

Describe the processes by which new drugs are approved for research and clinical use in Australia, and to outline the
phases of human drug trials (Phase I-IV)
Drug Approval
The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) approves medicine for both research and clinical use in Australia.
Research
Drug trials are approved for research purposes under two schemes:
1. Clinical Trials Exemption

Drugs must be evaluated by an expert committee to evaluate all aspects of pharmacology, toxicology, mutagenicity,
teratogenicity, organ dysfunction, and other side-effects.
2. Clinical Trials Notification
A drug which has been approved in another nation with similarly stringent requirements (New Zealand, Netherlands, UK,
Sweden, US) may be used in a trial with oversight by a local ethics committee.
Clinical Use
The TGA classifies medicines into:
Registered Medicines
Assessed by the TGA for quality, safety, and efficacy.
All prescription (high-risk) medicines. Assessed on:
Quality
Composition of drug substance
Batch consistency
Stability data
Sterility data (if applicable)
Impurities
Non-clinical
Pharmacology data
Toxicology data
Clinical
Efficacy: results of clinical trials
Most OTC (low-risk) medicines
Some complementary medicines
Listed Medicines
Assessed by the TGA for quality, safety, but not efficacy.
Some OTC medicines
Most complementary medicines
Phases of Drug Development

"Phase 0"
Pre-clinical R&D
51
Drug Development
In vitro and animal testing

Phase I
First administration in humans
Basic pharmacokinetic and toxicology data
20 - 100 human subjects
Phase II
Administration to select patient groups
Aim to establish dose-response curve
Evidence of efficacy
Phase III
Full-scale evaluation of benefits, potential risks and costs analysis
2000-3000 patients, usually treated in groups of several hundred for relatively short durations (3-6 months), regardless
of the length of time the drug will be used in practice3
May not reveal uncommon or long-term risks
Phase IV
Post-marketing surveillance
References
2. Medicines and TGA classifications. Therapeutic Goods Administration. Available at: https://www.tga.gov.au/medicines-and-
tga-classifications
3. Chris Anderson. Pharmaceutical Aspects and Drug Development. ICU Primary Prep.
52
Pharmacology
Additives
Describe the mechanisms of action and potential adverse effects of buffers, anti-oxidants, anti-microbial and solubilizing
agents added to drugs
Additives are components of a drug preparation which do not exert the pharmacological effect.
Additives include:
Preservatives
Benzyl alcohol
Antimicrobial when > 2%
Can be used as a solvent when > 5%
Toxic
Antioxidants
Sulfites
Hypersensitivity
Neurotoxic if given intrathecally
Solvents
Water
Appropriate for dissolving polar molecules.
Non-aqueous solvents
Used to dissolve non-polar molecules, or to produce more stable preparations of semi-polar molecules. Examples
include:
Propylene glycol
Hypotension
Arrhythmia
With rapid injection.
Pain on injection
Thrombophlebitis
Mannitol
Diuresis
Soybeal oil
Pain on injection
Allergy
Emulsion
Formed when drops of a liquid are dispersed throughout another liquid in which it is immiscible. Emulsions are:
Unstable
Emulsifers are used to enhance stability.
Prone to contamination
Due to the water component.
Prone to rancidity
Due to the oil component.
Buffers
Maintain pH in a particular range in order to:
Maximise stability
Preserve shelf life.
Maintain solubility
53
Pharmacology
Maximise preservative function
References
1. MacPherson RD. Pharmaceutics for the anaesthetist. Anaesthesia. 2001 Oct;56(10):965-79.
2. Petkov V. Essential Pharmacology For The ANZCA Primary Examination. Vesselin Petkov. 2012.
54
Isomerism
Isomerism
Describe isomerism and provide examples
Isomerism describes groups of compounds which have the same chemical formula but different chemical stuctures. Isomerism is
revelant because different isomers may have different enzymatic and receptor affinities, altering their pharmacokinetic and
pharmacodynamic properties.
Types of Isomerism
Isomers can be divided into:
Structural Isomers
Identical chemical formula but different arrangement of atoms. Structural isomerism is subdivided into:
Static
Further subdivided into:
Chain isomer
The carbon skeleton varies, but position of functional groups is static.
Position isomer
The carbon skeleton is static, but the position of functional groups varies.
e.g. Isoflurane vs. enflurane
Dynamic (also known as tautomere)
The molecule exists in a different molecular structures depending on the environment.
e.g. Midazolam has pH dependent imidazole ring opening. When the pH is less than 4 the ring remains open,
maintaining water solubility. Midazolam is supplied at pH of 3.5, and so is water soluble on injection but (due to its
pKa of 6.5) becomes 89% unionised at physiological pH therefore able to cross lipid membranes.
Stereoisomers
Atoms are connected in the same order in each isomer, but different orientation of functional groups. Stereoisomers are not-
superimposable, meaning the different isomers can't be rotated so that they look the same. Stereoisomers are divided into:
Geometric Isomers
Have a chemical structure (e.g. a carbon-carbon double-bond) prevents free rotation of groups, so different locations of
chemical groups will create an isomer. Geometric isomers are known as cis- or trans- depending on whether the
subgroups are on the same or opposite sides (respectively) of the chemical structure.
e.g. Atracurium
Optical Isomers
Optical isomers are chiral. This means they have no plane of symmetry. Optical isomers:
Were initially named based on how they rotated under polarised light:
(Note this is different from D- and L- molecules, where the D-isomer refers to the molecule synthesised from
(+)glyceraldehyde).
Dextrorotatory
(d- or (+) isomers) molecules rotate clockwise under polarised light.
Levorotatory
(l- or (-) isomers) molecules rotate counter-clockwise under polarised light.
Unfortunately, different molecules were found to rotate in different directions depending on the temperature.
Therefore, a different classification scheme (R/S) is also used:
Based on chemical structure
"Priority" is assigned to each atom in the structure
Highest priority is usually those with the highest molecular weight, but other rules exist for ambiguous or very
55
Isomerism
large molecules
The molecule is arranged in space such that the lowest priority atom is facing "away"
An arrow is then drawn from the highest priority to the lower priority atoms:
If this arrow travels clockwise it is the R (Rectus) isomer
If this arrow travels counter-clockwise it is the S (Sinister) isomer
Optical isomers are divided into:
Enantiomers
Possess one chiral centre.
e.g. levobupivacaine is less cardiotoxic than racemic bupivacaine.
Diastereoisomers
Possess multiple chiral centres, and may have multiple stereoisomers. Since not all are mirror images, these
are not enantiomers.
For a molecule with n chiral centres up to n2 isomers are possible, though some of these may be
duplicates.
Preparations
Drugs can be provided as:
Racemic solutions
A racemic solution is one which where the different enantiomers are present in equal proportions.
Enantiopure preparations
A drug produced with a single isomer, which may be more effiacious or less toxic (and definitely more expensive) than the
racemic preparation.
References
1. Peck TE, Hill SA. Pharmacology for Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. 4th Ed. Cambridge University Press. 2014.
2. CICM. The Mock Exam.
3. ChemGuide. Geometric isomerism
4. ChEBI. Misoprostol. European Molecular Biology Laboratory.
5. ANZCA July/August 2000
6. Day J, Thomson A, McAllister T. Get Through Primary FRCA: MTFs. 2014. Taylor & Francis Ltd.
56
Pharmacokinetics
Modelling
Explain the concept of pharmacokinetic modeling of single and multiple compartment models.
Pharmacokinetics describes what the body does to a drug. Pharmacokinetic models are mathematical concepts used to predict
plasma concentrations of drugs at different time points.
Basic Phamacokinetic Terms

Key concepts in pharmacokinetics include:
Volume of distribution, VD
The volume of distribution is defined as the theoretical volume into which an amount of drug would be distribute to
produce the observed plasma concentration.
Units are ml.kg-1
It is a way to describe what proportion of a drug is confined to plasma, and what proportion distributes to other tissues
It does not correspond to any particular volume, however a VD of:
Less than 40ml.kg-1 indicates a drug is confined to plasma
Up to 200ml.kg-1 indicates a drug is confined to the ECF
Up to 600ml.kg-1 indicates a drug is dissolved into the TBW
Greater than 1L.kg-1 indicates a drug is highly protein bound or lipophilic
Agents which cross the blood brain barrier typically have a VD of 1-2L.kg-1.
Subtypes of the volume of distribution are used to describe drug distribution at different times or with different models
These include:
V1
Volume of central compartment.
VDss
Volume of distribution at steady state.
VDpe
Volume of distribution at peak effect.
Which volume to use depends on the pharmacological question
e.g. Intubating dose for opioid should use a volume between V1 (very small) and VDss (very large) - VDpe is
ideal as it will allow a target concentration to be selected for the time at which intubation will occur relative to
drug administration
Half-life (t1/2)
The time it takes for a process to be 50% complete. With respect to drug clearance, it is the time it takes for concentration
(typically in plasma) to fall by 50%.
A process is considered to be complete after 4-5 half-lives
Concentration will decrease by 50% after each half-life, so after 5 half-lives concentration will be 3.125% of its starting
value.
This also applies to wash in - it will take ~4-5 elimination half-lives of a drug for a constant-rate infusion to reach
its final concentration
Half-life is mathematically related to many other key pharmacokinetic terms:
, where:
is the time constant
57
Pharmacokinetics
is the rate constant for elimination
is the volume of distribution

is the clearance
Various types of half-life are described:
t1/2α describes the rapidity of the distribution phase following drug administration
t1/2β describes the rapidity of the elimination phase occurring after drug distribution equilibrium
This only evaluates clearance from plasma, and so is a composite of both excretion from the body (e.g. renal and
hepatic clearance) and ongoing distribution to peripheral tissues.
The elimination half-life is generally not useful to predict drug offset, as this is affected by many factors
However, it does set an upper limit on how long it will take plasma concentration to fall by 50%.
Time-constant ( )
The time taken for a process to complete if it continued at its initial rate of change. Time constants are related to half-life, but
are better suited when modelling change in exponential processes.
Time constants are discussed in more detail under respiratory time constants
Elimination will be virtually complete after three time constants
A time constant is the inverse of the rate constant for elimination, i.e.
Illustration of the relationship between half-life and time constant:
Clearance
The clearance is volume of plasma completely cleared of a drug per unit time.
In a one compartment model, this can be expressed as: in ml.min-1.
As the time constant is the inverse of k, clearance can also be expressed as:
Since and are constants, clearance is also a constant

Total clearance is a sum of the clearance of each individual clearance organ
Rate of elimination
Amount of drug removed by the body per unit time.
Rate of elimination is the product of the clearance and the current concentration:
-1
, in mg.min
This is not the rate constant for elimination
Compartmental Modelling
The simplest model imagines the body a single, well-stirred compartment.
58
Pharmacokinetics
In a one compartment model, the concentration of a drug ( ) at time is given by the equation:
Where:
is the concentration at time 0

As drug can only be eliminated from the compartment, this is also the peak concentration.
k is the rate constant for elimination
This is the fraction of the Vd from which the drug is removed per unit time. The rate constant determines the slope of the
curve.
A high rate constant for elimination results in a steep curve and therefore a short time constant
Steady state
At steady state, input is equal to output. Therefore concentration at steady state is:
Proportional to the concentration of the infusion and infusion rate

Inversely proportional to the clearance:
Concentration of drug can therefore be determined by the amount infused and the clearance
Note steady state requires peripheral compartments to be saturated, and so will only occur after an infusion of many hours
Multiple Compartment Models

Models with multiple compartments have a better fit with experimental data than single compartment models
Three-compartment models are typically used, as additional compartments typically offer no extra fidelity but are
mathematically more complex
A three-compartment model can be conceptualised as a plasma (or central) compartment, a well-perfused compartment, and a
poorly-perfused compartment
This doesn't mean that they should be thought of in this way - they are a mathematical technique used to calculate plasma
concentration at a given time.
59
Pharmacokinetics
Plasma concentration in multicompartment models is:
Predicted through the net effect of several negative exponential equations x This is covered under two-compartment models
below.
Dependent on the effects of:
Distribution
Distribution describes the movement of drug from the central compartment (V1) to the peripheral compartment(s).
Rapid fall in plasma concentration of a drug after administration is generally due to distribution
Distribution is an important method for drug offset in short-acting drugs.
Redistribution
Redistribution refers to the movement of drug from the peripheral compartment(s) back into plasma.
Drugs which have a large VD in a peripheral compartment tend to distribute quickly along this concentration
gradient, and redistribute slowly back into plasma
Drugs which tend to distribute slowly tend to redistribute quickly once administration has ceased
Excretion
Excretion is the removal of drug from the body.
Clearance in Two-Compartment Models

Removal of drug in two-compartment models is via:
Distribution from the central to the peripheral compartment

Elimination from the central compartment
This produces a bi-exponential fall in plasma concentration
Consists of two phases:
Phase α
Distribution phase: A rapid decline in plasma concentration due to distribution to peripheral tissues.
Phase β
Elimination phase: Slow decline in plasma concentration due to:
Elimination from the body
Redistribution into plasma
60
Pharmacokinetics
This curve is given by the equation , where:
is the concentration of drug in plasma

is the y-intercept of the distribution exponent
Used to calculate distribution half-life.
is the y-intercept of the elimination exponent
Used to calculate elimination half-life.
is the rate constant for distribution
The value of is dependent on the ratio of rate constants for distribution and redistribution (i.e. ).
If distribution greatly exceeds redistribution, the gradient of will be very steep and plasma concentration will fall
rapidly after administration
is the rate constant for elimination
Note that the distribution and elimination curves appear straight because the y-axis is log-transformed
If plasma concentration was plotted on the y-axis, then each of these curves would be a negative exponential (wash-out
curve)
Effect Site
Pharmacokinetic models typically display the plasma concentration.
Clinically however, we are interested in drug concentrations at the site of action (e.g. the brain)
Concentration at the effect site (also known as biophase) is given by Ce
This cannot be measured, and so is a calculated value
Effect site concentration be different from plasma concentration (Cp) prior to reaching steady state
The delay between plasma and effect site concentrations is an example of hysteresis.
The effect site can be modelled as an additional compartment in three-compartment models
The effect site is modelled as a compartment of negligible volume contained within V1, but does have rate constants
Effect site volume changes as V1 changes
The ke1 is the rate constant for drug diffusion from plasma into the effect site
The ke0 is the rate constant for elimination of drug from the effect site
This is a theoretical elimination pathway - drug is not usually metabolised at the effect site.
The t1/2ke0 describes the effect-site equilibration time
It describes how rapidly the effect site reaches equilibrium with plasma.
A large ke0 (rapid drug flow) gives a short t1/2ke0
After one t1/2ke0, 50% of the final effect site concentration will be reached provided plasma concentration
remains constant
A shorter t1/2ke0 indicates that that the effect site concentration will reach equilibrium with plasma more
rapidly, and therefore a more rapid clinical effect following administration is seen
Note that:
The t1/2ke0 is not the time to peak effect
Neither is ke0
For an infusion run at constant plasma concentration the peak effect will be seen at 3-5x the t1/2ke0
The time to peak effect is a function of both plasma kinetics and the t1/2ke0
e.g. adenosine has such a short elimination t1/2
the effect site concentration will reach its peak rapidly
regardless of the ke0
61
Pharmacokinetics
Non-Compartmental Models
Compartment models are not appropriate for describing the behaviours of all drugs. Non-compartmental models are used when
drug:
Clearance is organ-independent
Elimination does not occur solely from the central compartment
These models use AUC, which is calculated by measuring the plasma concentration of a drug at different time intervals, and
plotting the area under the curve (AUC). This can be used to:
Determine clearance
Determine Bioavailability
Difference between the AUC of the same dose of drug administered IV and via another route.
Footnotes
The formula for half-life can be derived from the equation for a wash-in exponential as follows:
Wash in exponential is given by:
can then be substituted and the equation solved for as follows:
References
62
Pharmacokinetics
2. Plasma Volume. Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition. 2009.
3. Stanski RD, Shafer SL. The Biophase Concept and Intravenous Anesthesia.
63
Absorption
Absorption
Describe absorption and factors that will influence it.
Absorption is dependent on the route of administration. Routes of administration are selected based on:
Effect site of the drug

Drug factors
Bioavailability
Available preparations
Patient factors
Ability to take or absorb oral medications
Preference
Key Concepts
Bioavailability is the proportion of drug given which reaches the systemic circulation unchanged, compared to the IV form.
It is affected by:
Formulation
Physicochemical Interactions
Interactions with other drugs and food.
Patient Factors
Malabsorption syndrome
Gastric stasis
First-pass metabolism
First-pass (pre-systemic) metabolism is the extent to which drug concentration is reduced after its first passage through an organ,
prior to reaching the systemic circulation. First pass metabolism is:
Typically used when referring to passage of orally-adminstered drugs through the liver
May also refer to metabolism by the:
Lungs
First pass of intravenously injected drugs prior to entering the arterial side of the circulation, e.g. fentanyl.
Vascular endothelium
Relevant in:
Understanding differences between PO and IV dosing
Alternative routes of administration for drugs with low PO bioavailability
Delivery of prodrugs via PO mechanisms
Increases active drug concentration.
Understanding enzyme interactions
Understanding the effects of hepatic disease
Porto-systemic shunts decrease first pass metabolism
Altered bioavailability of drugs with high hepatic extraction ratios
Routes of administration
Intravenous
Rapid Onset
64
Absorption
100% bioavailability
Some drugs may still undergo metabolism in the pulmonary circulation, such as fentanyl, lignocaine, propofol, and
catecholamines.
Oral
Absorption is through gut mucosa, through either:
Transport mechanisms
Unionised (lipid soluble)
Acidic drugs are absorbed more rapidly in the stomach
The small bowel absorbs both acid (despite being ionised) and alkaline drugs due to high surface area
Lowest bioavailability of any route due to:
First-pass metabolism
Gut metabolism of drugs
Bacterial metabolism of drugs
Drugs must be lipid soluble enough to cross cell-membranes and water soluble enough to cross interstitium
Factors affecting GIT Absorption

Drug Factors
Molecular Weight
Concentration Gradient
Lipid Solubility
pH and pKa
Pharmaceutical Preparation
Physiochemical Interactions
Food
Other drugs
Patient Factors
GIT blood flow
Surface Area
Small bowel has the largest surface area of any GIT organ
pH
Motility
Digestive Enzymes
GIT bacteria and subsequent metabolism
Disease
Critical Illness
Bowel Obstruction
Emesis/Diarrhoea
Epidural
May be via bolus or infusion
Onset determined by proportion of unionised drug available
Lignocaine has a more rapid epidural onset than bupivacaine as it has a pKa of 7.9 (compared to 8.4) and therefore a greater
unionised portion at physiologic pH.
Additional factors include additives and intrinsic vasoactive properties of the delivered drug
Subarachnoid/Intrathecal
65
Absorption
Very small dosing

Minimal systemic spread
Extent of subarachnoid spread is dependent on volume and type of solution
Appropriate positioning of the patient, with higher-specific gravity solutions, is required to avoid superior spread of the block
Additional factors include additives and intrinsic vasoactive properties of the delivered drug
Inhalation
Systemic absorption dependent on particle size
Large particles reach the bronchioles
< 1 micron diameter particles may reach the alveolus
Rapid diffusion to circulation due to high surface area and no first-pass metabolism
Transdermal
Systemic absorption dependent on:
Dose requirement
Large dose requirements cannot be effectively given transdermally
Fick Principle
Amount of drug given
Amount of drug in skin
Regional blood flow
Histamine release
Surface Area
Skin thickness
Lipid solubility
pH of skin and emulsion
pKa of drug
Molecular weight
Advantages
Convenient
Painless
No first pass metabolism
Steady plasma concentration once established
Disadvantages
Slow onset
Variable plasma concentration initially
Overdose and abuse potentials
Subcutaneous
Absorption dependent on regional blood flow
Sublingual
Rapid onset
Bypass portal circulation (drains into SVC)
Rectal
Variable absorption
66
Absorption
Distal rectal absorption bypasses portal circulation

Proximal rectal absorption does not and may result in hepaticfirst pass metabolism
Small surface area for absorption
Intramuscular
Bioavailability close to 1
Absorption dependent on regional blood flow
Potential local complications:
Abscess
Haematoma
References
2. Chong CA, Denny NM. Local anaesthetic and additive drugs.
67
Distribution
Distribution
Describe factors influencing the distribution of drugs.
Drug distribution is dependent on many factors, all of which can be related to Fick's Law of Diffusion:
Concentration gradient
Tissue mass
Molecular Weight
Larger molecules are less able to cross cell membranes, and so a greater portion will remain in the compartment they are
delivered to.
Lipid Solubility
Ionisation
Ionised drugs are polar, and so are less lipid soluble.
Ionisation is a function of:
pKa
The pKa is the pH at which a weak acid or weak base will be 50% ionised.
As solvent pH changes, the proportion of ionised vs. unionised drug will differ
How depends on whether the drug is an acid or base:
Bases are ionised Below their pKa
Acids are ionised Above their pKa
pH
In combination with pKa, affects the ionised portion.
Unionised drugs:
Cross cell membranes more readily than the ionised form
Are typically hepatic metabolised
Are typically not renally eliminated
Ionised drugs:
Are typically renally excreted without undergoing metabolism
Are poorly lipid soluble and do not cross cell membranes readily
May be ion trapped
This occurs when an unionised drug moves across a membrane and becomes ionised due to a change in pH. The
now-insoluble drug is trapped in the new compartment. This is relevant in:
Placenta
Foetal pH is lower than matenal pH, which can trap basic drugs (e.g. LA, opioids) in foetus.
This becomes more significant with a greater divergence of pH (e.g. placental insufficiency)
Renal elimination
Urinary alkalinisation is used to accelerate elimination of acidic drugs, as they become ionised and trapped in
urine.
68
Distribution
Protein binding
Proteins and drugs may be bound together by weak bonds. These include ionic bonds, van der Waal's forces, and hydrogen
bonds.
Drugs may bind to proteins in:
Plasma
Albumin
Binds acid and neutral drugs.
High capacity
Two major binding sites (six total)
Site I (warfarin)
Site II (diazepam)
α1-acid glycoprotein
Binds basic drugs.
Single binding site
Low capacity
Typically results in lower total binding (compared to albumin) of alkaline drugs, despite its increased
affinity.
Lipoprotein
For lipid soluble drugs.
Tissue
Receptor
Protein binding is important as:
Only unbound drugs are able to:
Cross cell membranes
Interact with receptors
Undergo metabolism
Reduced protein binding increases clearance of drugs with low extraction ratios.
Be filtered by the kidney
Highly tissue bound drugs:
Have a long duration of action
Have a high volume of distribution, prolonging their elimination
May build up in tissues, leading to adverse effects
e.g. Corneal deposition, lung fibrosis.
Protein binding is affected by:
Affinity of drug for protein
Ionised drugs do not bind to protein
pH.
Competition between drugs for binding sites
Amount of protein
Disease
69
Distribution
Due to:
Hypoalbuminaemia
Negative acute phase reactant.
Increased α1-acid glycoprotein
Acute phase reactant.
Competition
Source of pharmacokinetic interactions.
Protein binding typically:
Correlates with lipid solubility
Is important only when it is very high
Results in a decreased VDss when plasma binding is high
Results in an increased VDss when tissue binding is high
Is important in duration of action as it also relates to affinity for tissue proteins
Regional blood flow

Affects concentration gradients between blood and tissue, and is affected by cardiac output. Regions include:
Vessel Rich Group
Brain
Heart
Liver
Kidneys
Vessel Poor Group
Connective tissue
Bones
Ligament
Teeth
Hair
Muscle groups
Fat
References
70
Metabolism and Clearance
Metabolism
Describe the mechanisms of drug clearance and metabolism.
Removal of drug from the body requires either:
Metabolism of active drug to an inactive substance

Typically by the liver, but other organs (kidney, lungs) also metabolise some substances.
Excretion of active drug
Often by the kidneys, but may also be in bile, or exhaled.
Removal of drugs from the body is achieved predominantly through renal excretion of water-soluble compounds
As many drugs are lipophilic, metabolism to water soluble compounds is required to clear drugs from the body
Clearance
Clearance describes the elimination of drug from the body. Clearance is:
The volume of plasma completely cleared of a drug per unit time

Measured in ml.min-1.
Discussed further in modelling
Does not include redistribution
Is calculated from the area under the concentration time curve:
Total clearance is the sum of clearances from individual organs, e.g.:
, where:
, where:
is urine concentration in mmol.L-1

Function of glomerular filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
is the urine flow in ml.min-1
-1
is the plasma concentration in mmol.L
, where:
is the hepatic blood flow in ml.min-1
is the extraction ratio
Kinetics
Drug clearance can follow either first order or zero-order kinetics:
First-order Kinetics
A constant proportion of the drug in the body is eliminated per unit time.
Most drugs are eliminated by first order kinetics, as the capacity of the elimination system exceeds the concentration of
drug
71
Zero-order kinetics
A constant amount of drug is eliminated per unit time, independent of how much drug is in the body.
Occurs when there is saturation of enzyme systems
It is also known as saturation kinetics for this reason.
e.g. Phenytoin follows first order kinetics at lower doses, but zero-order kinetics at doses within the therapeutic
range
This is clinically relevant as the narrow therapeutic index means that toxic levels may occur rapidly with a small
increase in dose.
e.g. Ethanol also follows zero-order kinetics within the "therapeutic range", as it is a very weak (doses are in
grams) positive allosteric modulator of the GABAA receptor
Zero-order kinetics is concerning as:
Plasma concentrations will rapidly increase with only modest dose increase
There is essentially no steady state: if drug input exceeds output, plasma levels will continue to rise
Michaelis-Menten
The Michaelis-Menten equation describes the transition from first order to zero order kinetics as drug concentration increases:
Metabolism increases proportionally with concentration as long as the concentration of drug leaving the organ of metabolism
(e.g. in the hepatic vein) is less than half of the maximal concentration of drug that organ can metabolise
rd
72
This is ~1/3rd of the maximal rate of metabolism
Hepatic Metabolism
The principle organ of drug metabolism is the liver. Hepatic metabolism:
Usually decreases the function of a drug, though:

Prodrugs have increased pharmacologically activity after liver metabolism
Some drugs have active or toxic metabolites
Can be divided into two phases
Phase I
Phase one reactions:
Occur in the endoplasmic reticulum

Improve water solubility by exposing a functional chemical group
Typically occur prior to phase II reactions for most drugs
Include:
Oxidation
Loss of electrons.
Main phase I reaction
CYP450 driven
Reduction
Gain of electrons.
CYP450 driven
Hydrolysis
Addition of a water molecule, which may result in two new compounds.
Esterase driven
Therefore rapid, high capacity, organ-independent elimination.
Butylcholinesterase
Non-specific plasma cholinesterase
RBC estearse
CYP450 System
CYP450 enzymes are:
A superfamily of enzymes vital in drug metabolism

Named after the wavelength of light they absorb when:
Reduced
Combined with CO
Located in:
Liver
Endoplasmic reticulum of hepatocytes.
Lungs
Kidney
Gut
Brain
Over 1000 enzymes, with ~50 functionally active
Classified by the degree of shared amino-acid sequence into:
Families
73
CYP1, CYP2, CYP3...

Subfamilies
CYP1A, CYP1B...
Isoforms
CYP1A1, CYP1A2...
CYP2B6 CYP2C9 CYP2C19 CYP2D6 CYP2E1 CYP3A4 CYP3A5
Common
Diazepam, Volatile
Propofol, Codeine, benzodiazepines,
Omeprazole, anaesthetic
Propofol Parecoxib, Metoprolol, Fentanyl, Alfentanil, Diazepam
Clopidogrel, agents,
Warfarin Flecainide Lignocaine,
Phenytoin paracetamol
Vecuronium
Key CYP enzymes include:
CYP2E1
Metabolises volatiles and paracetamol.
CYP3A4
Responsible for 60% of metabolic activity.
CYP2D6
Important because genetic polymorphism leads to significant inter-patient variability
May result in significant over- or under-metabolism of drugs, and therefore significant inter-individual variability in
response.
5-10% of the population are poor metabolisers
2-10% are intermediate metabolisers
1-2% are ultra-rapid metabolisers
Bulk of the population (70-90%) are extensive metabolisers
Clinical effect will depend on the type of drug
Pro-drugs
Extensive/ultra-rapid metabolisers will convert more drug to the active form, and see a greater effect
May lead to overdose.
Poor metabolisers will excrete more pro-drug prior to metabolism, and see a reduced clinical effect
Active drug
Extensive/ultra-rapid metabolisers will inactivate more drug, and see a reduced effect
Poor metabolisers will see a prolonged clinical effect
Clinical effect may be altered by enzyme interactions
e.g. Oxycodone use by an ultra-fast metaboliser, in combination with a CYP3A4 inhibitor (e.g. diltiazem) will
result in a significant increase in the clinical effect of oxycodone
Drugs metabolised by CYP2D6 include:
Analgesics
Codeine (prodrug)
Oxycodone (metabolised to the significantly more potent oxymorphone)
Methadone
Tramadol (metabolised to form with greater MOP selectivity)
Psychiatric drugs
SSRIs
TCAs
Haloperidol
Cardiovascular drugs
Amiodarone
Flecainide
Mexilitine
74
Phase II
Phase II reactions:
Involve conjugation with another compound, producing a highly polar metabolite

This increases water solubility and therefore renal elimination.
Typically occur in the hepatic endoplasmic reticulum
Include:
Glucuronidation
Addition of glucuronic acid.
Sulfation
Addition of a sulfo group.
Acetylation
Addition of an acetyl group.
Also occurs in the lung and spleen.
Methylation
Addition of a methyl group.
Extraction Ratio
Extraction ratio is the proportion of a drug that is cleared from circulation during each pass through the organ, typically the liver:
Extraction ratio is dependent on:
Blood flow
Hepatocyte uptake
Enzyme capacity
Described by the Michaelis Constant: The concentration of a substrate which causes an enzyme to work at 50% of its
maximum capacity.
Drugs can have either a high or low extraction ratio:
High extraction ratio

These drugs have a rapid uptake and high capacity, so elimination is perfusion dependent.
Free drug is rapidly removed from plasma, bound drug is released from plasma proteins and a concentration gradient is
maintained
Metabolism of drugs with a high extraction ratio is:
Independent of protein binding
Dependent on liver flow
Typically doubling liver blood flow will double hepatic clearance.
There is a high variability in plasma concentration between individuals due to the variation in liver blood flow
Drugs with high extraction ratios are generally independent of enzyme activity - decreasing enzyme activity from 99%
to 95% has a minimal effect on hepatic clearance
The key exception is first pass metabolism, as the above change will result in a five-fold difference in dose
reaching the systemic circulation
Therefore drugs with a high extraction ratio have low PO bioavailability.
Low extraction ratio

Elimination is capacity-dependent.
Amount of free drug available for metabolism is greatly affected by the degree of protein binding
Metabolism is:
Largely independent of flow
75
Drugs have good PO bioavailability.

Dependent on hepatocyte function and protein binding
Factors Affecting Hepatic Metabolism
Drug Factors Patient Factors
Lipid solubility Age
Ionisation Obesity
Protein binding Pregnancy
Enzyme competition Genetics: Slow vs. fast acetylators
Hepatic flow/Extraction Ratio
Enzyme Inhibition/Induction
Hepatic disease
Smoking, ETOH
Organ Independent Metabolism

Mechanisms of organ indepedent metabolism include:
Hofmann Degradation
Spontaneous degradation or metabolism of substances occurring in plasma.
e.g. Cisatracurim undergoes Hofmann degradation
Plasma Esterases
Plasma esterases are non-microsomal enzymes which hydrolyse ester bonds. They:
Are typically synthetised in the liver and erythrocytes
Have a high capacity
This, combined with the organ-independent elimination, means drugs metabolised by plasma esterases have a reliable
offset.
e.g. Suxamethonium is hydrolysed by plasma esterases
References
2. Essential pharmacology for the ANZCA primary exam
3. Birkett, DJ. Pharmacokinetics made easy 9: Non-linear pharmacokinetics. 1994. Australian Prescriber.
76
Elimination
Elimination
Describe the mechanisms of drug clearance and metabolism.
Drugs can be eliminated in:
Urine
Bile
Sweat
Breast milk
Tears
Exhaled gas
Renal Elimination
Drugs can be:
Filtered at the glomerulus

Filtered drugs are:
Not protein bound
Only free drug present in filtered plasma will be excreted.
Concentration of filtered drug will be the same as in unfiltered plasma
Highly protein bound drugs are poorly filtered
There is only a weak concentration gradient favouring dissociation from plasma proteins.
Small
Substances less than 7,000 Da are freely filtered
Substances greater than 70,000 Da are essentially impermeable
Hydrophilic/lipophobic
Lipophilic drugs may be filtered at the glomerus but will be freely reabsorbed during their passage down the tubule,
such that only trivial amounts are eliminated in urine.
Secreted in the tubules
Active process allows secretion against concentration gradients
Separate mechanisms for acidic and alkaline drugs
Saturtable process
Saturation may occur of a basic transporter whilst still allowing excretion of acidic drugs, and vice versa.
Reabsorbed in the tubules
Passive diffusion down a concentration gradient.
Hydrophilic molecules can only be reabsorbed by a specialised transport mechanism
Acidic drugs will be become ionised in an alkaline urine (and vice versa), reducing their solubility
This is the physiological justification for urinary alkalinisation.
Hepatic Elimination
Biliary elimination occurs for drugs unable to be filtered by the glomerulus. These are typically:
Large
Greater than 30,000 dalton.
Lipid soluble
77
Elimination
Enterohepatic recirculation
Drugs excreted in bile may:
Be hydrolysed in the small bowel by bacteria and then reabsorbed

Then pass through the portal circulation and get metabolised again
This process may occur many times
References
78
Bolus and Infusion Kinetics

Explain the concepts of intravenous bolus and infusion kinetics. To describe the concepts of effect-site and context
sensitive half time.
Continuous Infusions
Plasma concentrations of an IV infusion are influenced by:
Distribution
Metabolism
Elimination
Onset of Continuous Rate Infusions

Without a loading dose, the concentration of drug infused at a constant increases in a negative exponential fashion:
Plasma concentration initially rises rapidly

Distribution into peripheral compartments is the main method for drugs to leave plasma
This is because at the start of an infusion there is a large concentration gradient between plasma and peripheral
compartments.
Elimination becomes more important in prolonged infusions
As peripheral compartments fill the concentration gradient between plasma and compartments falls, and redistribution
becomes relatively less important.
Steady state is achieved when concentrations in compartments are equal, and input is equivalent to clearance
Concentration at steady state is determined by the ratio of infusion rate to clearance:

Therefore, at steady state with drugs with 100% bioavailability:
For drugs given by a route with less than 100% bioavailability:
If the dosing is given intermittently, then:
Volume of distribution at steady state is termed VDss and is the apparent volume into which a drug will disperse
during a prolonged infusion, and is the sum of all compartment volumes in the model.
Continuous Rate Infusions with Bolus Dosing

As seen, above starting an infusion at the rate required to maintain steady state is inefficient:
For any desired plasma concentration, it will take three time constants (4-5 half-lives) for a continuous infusion to reach this
concentration
If the half-life is long, then achieving a therapeutic level will take some time
A bolus dose aimed to fill the VD will allow steady-state to be reached immediately:
79
Stopping an Infusion
For a bi-exponential model (i.e. only one peripheral compartment), decline in plasma concentration can be modelled by the
equation . In this model:
is the time-constant for redistribution
is the time-constant for terminal elimination

(Provided the infusion has reached steady-state).
Neither or correspond to any individual rate constant
Factors affecting rate of offset of an infusion can be classified into pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, and other drug factors:
Pharmacokinetic factors
Distribution
VD
High VD will decrease clearance from central compartment. Factors affecting VD include:
Ionisation
Ion trapping can cause drug to be sequestered.
Protein binding
Lipid solubility
Affected by body fat.
Speed of distribution
CO
Affects organ blood flow.
Redistribution
During an infusion, peripheral compartments become saturated with drug. When an infusion ceases, drug is
redistributed central compartment.
This is related to context-sensitive half time (see below)
Metabolism
Route of clearance
Organ-dependent
Organ failures
Extraction ratio
Organ blood flow
Organ-independent
Saturatable kinetics
Zero-order kinetics.
Presence of active metabolites
Elimination
Route of excretion of active drug or active metabolites.
80
Organ failures
Pharmacodynamic Factors
Age
Sensitivity
Dose required for effect and dose required for recovery.
Organ failures
Pregnancy
Other drug factors
Pharmacokinetic interactions
Enzyme inhibition/induction
Pharmacodynamic interaction
Drug tolerances
Tachyphylaxis
Drug action
Drugs which alter gene or receptor expression, or bind irreversibly (e.g. clopidogrel) may show ongoing effects even
after the drug has left the system.
Context-Sensitive Half-Time
Context-sensitive half time is:
Defined as the time for plasma concentration to fall to half of its value at the time of stopping an infusion
A method to describe the variability in plasma concentrations after ceasing an infusion
The "context" is the duration of infusion.
Used because terminal elimination half-life has little clinical utility for predicting drug offset
Half-lives are often misleading when discussing drug infusions.
Dependent on:
Duration of infusion
During an infusion, drugs distribute out of plasma into tissues. When the infusion ceases, drug is cleared from plasma
and tissue drug redistributes back into plasma.
The longer an infusion, the more drug has distributed out of tissues, and the longer the redistribution phase
The longest context-sensitive half time occurs when an infusion is at steady-state
Redistribution
The maximal CSHT reached depends on the:
VDss
Drugs with a larger VDss have a longer CSHT, as only a small proportion of the drug in the body will be in plasma
and able to be cleared.
Rate constant for elimination
Drugs with a smaller rate constant for elimination have a longer CSHT.
Drugs with longer context-sensitive half-times will wear off less predictably.
81
Remifentanil has little redistribution and a small Vd, and so has a very short context-insensitive half time
It wears off reliably and quickly following cessation of infusion.
Context-Sensitive Decrement Time

Describe the time it takes for a drug level to fall to a particular percentage of its starting value following cessation of an
infusion
They are used because the half-times do not describe monoexponential decay
i.e. The time taken for drug concentration to reach 25% of its starting value is not twice the context sensitive half-time.
The context-sensitive half-time could also be described as the 50% context-sensitive decrement time
References
2. Hill SA. Pharmacokinetics of Drug Infusions. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain (2004) 4 (3): 76-80.
82
Drug Monitoring
Drug Monitoring
Explain clinical drug monitoring with regard to peak and trough concentrations, minimum therapeutic concentration and
toxicity
Drug monitoring:
Describes the individualisation of dosing by maintaining plasma drug levels within a target range
Is important in adjusting dose to account for inter-patient variability in response
Variability can be:
Pharmacokinetic
Adjusting drug dose by monitoring plasma levels reduces pharmacokinetic variability.
Pharmacodynamic
Drug dose is adjusted by evaluating the clinical effect.
Drug levels are measured to ensure the concentration is above the minimum therapeutic concentration but below toxic levels:
Minimum therapeutic concentration

The ED50, i.e. the dose required to have an effect in 50% of the population.
Determines desired trough levels
Minimum toxic concentration
The LD50, or the dose which is lethal in 50% of the population.
Determines the acceptable peak levels
From these levels two related terms are derived:
Therapeutic range (also known as the therapeutic window)

Difference between these levels.
Therapeutic index
Ratio between these levels, i.e.
A higher therapeutic index gives a greater margin for safety
Indications
Drugs are monitored in order to:
Avoid toxicity
Adjust dosing for efficacy
Monitor compliance or determine failure of therapy
83
Drug Monitoring
Drugs that typically require monitoring have a:
Narrow target range

Significant pharmacokinetic variability
Relationship between the concentration in plasma and clinical effects
Determined concentration range
Validated monitoring assay
Drugs where the effect can be measured clinically (e.g. antihypertensives) tend to be adjusted based on observed effects. This is
not possible when:
The clinical response is the absence of a condition, e.g. antiepileptics

The drug has a narrow therapeutic range
Drugs commonly monitored in the ICU setting include:
Drug Therapeutic Range
Digoxin 0.8-2 microgram/L
Vancomycin 10-20 mg/L*
Tacrolimus 5-20 microgram/L
Serolimus 5-15 microgram/L
Phenytoin 10-20 mg/L
*Trough
Timing of samples
Sampling for toxicity should occur at times of peak concentration
This requires accounting for absorption and distribution
e.g. Digoxin levels should be performed >6 hours following a dose to allow time for distribution to occur
If symptomatic, samples taken at this time may demonstrate toxic concentrations
Sampling for monitoring should ideally occur at steady state

i.e. after 4-5 elimination half-lives
For drugs with very long half-lives (such as amiodarone), sampling tends to occur earlier to ensure toxic levels have not
been reached, as steady state may take months to achieve
For drugs with short half-lives, trough levels (i.e. pre-dose levels) should be taken
This is the least variable point in the dosing interval.
For drugs with long half lives, timing of sampling is less important
Interpretation
Interpretation of drug levels is dependent on:
Timing of sample
Duration of treatment at the current dose and dosing schedule
Individual characteristics that may affect the pharmacokinetics
Age
Physiology
Comorbidities (hepatic, renal, cardiac)
84
Drug Monitoring
Drug interactions
Genetics
Environmental
Protein binding
Assays measure bound and unbound drug
Only unbound drug is pharmacologically active.
If binding is changed by disease or displacement by other drug, the proportion of unbound drug may change and
targeted levels may need to be adjusted accordingly
Active metabolites
Active metabolites are not measured but will contribute to the response.
References
1. Birkett DJ. Therapeutic drug monitoring. Aust Prescr 1997;20:9-11.
2. Ghiculescu RA. Therapeutic drug monitoring, which drugs, why, when, and how to do it. Aust Prescr 2008;31:42-4.
85
Epidural and Intrathecal

Describe the pharmacokinetics of drugs in the epidural and subarachnoid space
In both spaces, speed of onset is determined by Fick's Law.
Epidural Space
Factors important to epidural administration:
Dose given
Volume given
Increased volume increases area of subarachnoid that the drug is in contact with, increasing rate of diffusion.
Solubility
Affected by:
pKa and pH
Determines unionised portion available to cross into CSF.
Protein binding
Determines free drug portion able to cross into CSF.
Lipid solubility
CSF flow
Alters concentration gradient between epidural and subarachnoid space.
Intrathecal
Factors important to intrathecal administration:
Dose
Much smaller doses required.
Volume
Affects extent of spread.
Baricity
Affects direction of spread:
Hyperbaric solutions will sink with gravity
e.g. Heavy bupivacaine (0.5% bupivacaine with 8% dextrose)
Hypobaric solutions will rise against gravity
References
2. ANZCA February/April 2007
3. Factors influencing distribution of bupivacaine after epidural injection - Diaz Notes.
86
87
TIVA and TCI
Total Intravenous Anaesthesia and Target-Controlled

Infusion
Describe the pharmacological principles of and sources of error with target controlled infusion
Total intravenous anaesthesia involves using IV agents alone to achieve hypnosis, analgesia, and muscle relaxation. TIVA:
Advantages
Avoids adverse effects of anaesthetic agents
Nausea/vomiting
Pollution
Increased cerebral blood flow
Disadvantages
Drug must be metabolised
Potential increased liklihood of awareness
Likely related to poor application of technique rather than the technique itself
Mostly related to disconnection of infusion without EEG monitoring
Varible plasma concentration
Target Controlled Infusion

TCI is the use of pharmacokinetic models (typically combined with microprocessor-controlled infusion pumps) to achieve a target
concentration of drug in a particular body compartment.
TCI-systems:
Are open-loop
Effects of drug are not measured (unlike with end-tidal gas monitoring), which introduces a vulnerability that can lead to
awareness.
e.g. Compared to inhalational anaesthetics, where the loop is closed by using end-tidal drug monitoring
Follows the BET (Bolus, Elimination, Transfer) principle:
A loading dose is given to saturate the volume of distribution to achieve target concentration
Infusion rate is then set to maintain a target plasma concentration:
Rate compensates for:

Drug elimination
Drug distribution (transfer)
Target can be adjusted:

For a higher concentration:
A small bolus is given
Infusion rate is increased
For a lower concentration:
Infusion is paused until desired level is reached
Infusion rate restarts at a lower rate
Models can target either:
Plasma concentration,
88
TIVA and TCI
Will not approximate until stead state is reached. Therefore:
Increase during induction, so that will rise more quickly
should be adjusted to the level of the surgical stimulus
Effect-site concentration,
Over-pressure occurs automatically, so there is no requirement to increase target during induction.
TCI Models for Propofol

The Bristol Model:
First pharmacokinetic model

Based on three-compartment model of health patients
Assumes:
Premedication with temazepam
Fentanyl 3μg.kg-1 on induction
Inhaled N2O
A target plasma concentration ( ) of 3μg.ml-1

The model:
1mg.kg-1 induction bolus
10-8-6 maintenance:
10mg.kg-1.hr-1 for 10 minutes
8mg.kg-1.hr-1 for 10 minutes
6mg.kg-1.hr-1 thereafter
Marsh and Schnider Models:
These are computer controlled models

Both were derived on very small groups of patients (18 and 24 respectively)
The models differ mostly in the first 10 minutes after induction, and progressively converge
89
TIVA and TCI
The intial behaviour of the model is key in deciding which model to apply to any particular patient.
Property Marsh Schnider
Typically effect site, but can target plasma

Typically target plasma concentration, but can target concentration.
effect site.
Plasma targeting gives inconsistent results, as
Targets
Effect site targeting is usually done with the modified the fixed size of V1 means any increase in
Marsh model, due to the large bolus dosing given by the desired plasma concentration results in the
standard Marsh model. same size bolus being given, irrespective of
patient parameters.
TBW (overestimates induction (but not maintenance) in

Required Age, height (to calculate lean body mass),
obese patients, consider using IBW), Age (but not used
variables TBW
in calculation)
Fixed V1 (4.27L) and V3, variable V2 and

Values Variable compartment sizes but bigger V1
Keo
The 'modified Marsh' model uses a keo of 0.2L.min-1

Limits BMI to < 42 for males and < 35 for
instead of 0.26L.min-1, which decreases the
females, to prevent absurd compartment sizes
Other
required to achieve the target quickly. The being calculated from the method used to
modified Marsh is therefore preferable in patients at calculate lean body mass
higher risk of overdose.
Faster induction due to larger V1, which results in a Reduced rate of adverse events. Overall less
Overall
larger loading dose propofol used.
References
1. Absalom AR, Mani V, De Smet T, Struys MM. Pharmacokinetic models for propofol--defining and illuminating the devil in
the detail. Br J Anaesth. 2009 Jul;103(1):26-37.
2. Naidoo D. Target Controlled Infusions. Department of Anaesthetics, University of Kwazulu-Natal. 2011.
3. Engbers FH, Sutcliffe N, Kenny G, Schraag S. Pharmacokinetic models for propofol: Defining and illuminating the devil in
the detail. Br J Anaesth. 2010 Feb;104(2):261-2; author reply 262-4.
4. FRCA - Target Controlled Infusions in Anaesthetic Practice
90
Pharmacodynamics
Receptor theory
To explain the concept of drug action with respect to: receptor theory
To define and explain dose-effect relationships of drugs, including dose-response curves with reference to: therapeutic
index, potency and efficacy, competitive and non-competitive antagonists, partial agonists, mixed agonist-antagonists and
inverse agonists
To explain the Law of Mass Action and describe affinity and dissociation constants
A receptor is a component of a cell which interacts with a drug and initiates a sequence of events leading to an observed
change in function.
Existence of receptors is inferred from the response of tissues to drugs, genome sequencing, and molecular biology.
A drug binds to a receptor forming a receptor-drug complex, which initiates a cascade of events to exert a pharmacological
effect.
Dissociation Constants
Interaction between a receptor and a drug is based upon the law of mass action, which states the rate of a chemical reaction is
proportional to the masses of reacting substances. This can be expressed as:
The ratio of the rate constant for the forwards reaction (Kassociation) and the backwards reaction (Kdissociation) is the
dissociation constant. This is the concentration of drug when 50% of receptors are occupied:
A low KD value indicates that a lower concentration of drug is required to occupy 50% of the receptor, indicating that the drug
has a high affinity for the receptor.
Physiological factors which affect the dissociation constant are determined by the Arrhenius equation:
, where:
is a constant
is temperature in kelvin
is the activation energy required, which may be lowered by a catalyst

is the gas constant
Properties of Drugs
Key properties of drugs include:
Potency
The amount of drug required to have an effect.
Given by the (typically the ED50)
This relates to Bowman's principle, which states that the least potent anaesthetic agents have the quickest onset
This is because they are administered in higher doses (as they are less potent, more is required to get an effect), which
91
Pharmacodynamics
results in a high concentration gradient and a rapid distribution into tissues.
Efficacy
The maximal effect that a drug can generate.
Intrinsic activity
The size of effect a drug has when bound, which is graded from 0 to 1.
This is also known as activity
Drug-Receptor Interactions
Drugs can be classified by the way they interact with receptors into:
Agonists
Partial agonists
Inverse agonists
Antagonists
Indirect antagonists
Allosteric Modulators
Mixed Agonist-Antagonists
Agonists
An agonist will generate a maximal response at the receptor site. An agonist has high affinity and an activity of 1. Agonists can
be compared by:
Relative potency implies that if two agonists are equally efficacious, a smaller dose of one is required to get an effect
Relative efficacy implies that the maximal effect of one agonist is greater than the other
Partial agonist
A partial agonist generates a submaximal response at the receptor. A partial agonist has a high affinity and an activity between 0
and 1. A partial agonist can act as an effective antagonist in the presence of a full agonist, as it will prevent maximal binding at a
receptor, even with a high agonist concentration.
Inverse agonist
A drug which has a negative activity (between 0 and -1) producing the opposite response (compared to the endogenous agonist)
at receptor.
Occurs due to loss of constitutive activity at that receptor
92
Pharmacodynamics
Antagonist
An antagonist produces no response at the receptor site, and prevents other ligands binding. Antagonists have high affinity and an
activity of 0.
Antagonists with these properties are also known as direct antagonists, which can be either:
Competitive antagonists
Displace other ligands from a binding site. Competitive antagonists can be:
Reversible
The effect can be overridden by increasing the dose of agonist.
Irreversible
Drug cannot be overriden by increasing dose of agonist. Dose-response curve appears similar to that of the non-
competitive antagonist.
Non-competitive antagonists
Create a conformational change in the receptor. They cannot be overidden by increasing the dose of agonist.
Indirect Antagonist
Indirect antagonists reduce the clinical effect of a drug, but do so via means other than receptor interaction. They include:
Chemical antagonists
Where the drug binds directly to another. Examples include protamine and heparin, and sugammadex and rocuronium.
Physiologic antagonists
A countering effect is produced by agonism of other pathways.
Allosteric Modulator
A drug which binds to an allosteric site on the receptor and produces conformational change that alters the affinity of the receptor
for the endogenous agonist.
Allosteric modulators can be:
Positive
Increases affinity for endogenous agonist.
e.g. Benzodiazepines are positive allosteric modulators at the GABAA receptor
Negative
Decreases affinity for endogenous agonist.
93
Pharmacodynamics
Mixed Agonist-Antagonist
A drug which has different effects on different receptors.
References
1. Pinnock C, Lin T, Smith T. Fundamentals of Anaesthesia. 2nd Ed. Cambridge Universiy Press. 2003.
2. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/science/law-of-mass-action
94
Receptor Types
Receptor Types
To explain the concept of drug action with respect to: receptor theory, enzyme interactions, and physicochemical
interactions.
To explain receptor activity with regard to: ionic fluxes, second messengers and G proteins, nucleic acid synthesis,
evidence for the presence of receptors, regulation of receptor number and activity, structural relationships.
Receptor Types
A receptor is a protein, usually in the cellular membrane, to which a ligand may bind to generate a response.
Intracellular receptors
May be either cytoplasmic or intra-nuclear.
Intranuclear receptors are activated by lipid soluble molecules (such as steroids and thyroxine) to alter DNA and RNA
expression
This results in an alteration of production of cellular proteins, so the effects tend to be slow acting.
Enzyme-linked receptors
Are activated by a ligand and cause enzymatic activity on the intracellular side. They can be either:
Monomers
Dimers
Where two proteins join, or diamerise, on binding of a ligand.
Ion-channel receptors (ionotropic)

Create a channel through the membrane that allows electrolytes to flow down their electrical and concentration gradients.
They can be either:
Ligand-gated channels
Undergo conformational change when a ligand is bound. There are three important families of ligand channels:
Pentameric family
Consist of five membrane spanning subunits. Include:
Nicotinic ACh receptor
GABAA receptor
5-HT3 receptor
Inotropic glutamate receptors Bind glutamate, a CNS excitatory neurotransmitter. Include:
NMDA receptor
2+
95
Receptor Types
High Ca2+ permeability

Inotropic purinergic receptors
2+ + +
Form cationic channels that are permeable to Ca , Na , and K
Activated by ATP
Voltage-gated channels
Open when the threshold voltage is reached, facilitating electrical conduction in excitable tissues.
In their normal physiological state, voltage gated channels do not generally behave as receptors for a ligand,
however some drugs (e.g. local anaesthetics) will bind to voltage gated channels to exert their effect
Have a common 4-subunit structure (each with 6 transmembrane segments) surrounding a central pore
This pore is selective for the particular ion, which include:
Na+
Located in myocytes and neurons
Important in generating and transmitting an action potential by permitting sodium influx into cells
Inhibited by local anaesthetics, anti-epileptics, and some anti-arrhythmics
Ca2+
Divided into subtypes, including:
L
Muscular contraction.
T
Cardiac pacemaker.
N/P/Q
Neurotransmitter release.
K+
Located in myocytes and important in repolarisation following an action potential.
Undergo a conformational change when the threshold potential is reached
This is sensed by the S4 helix, which acts to open and close the channel.
Exist in one of three functional states:
Resting
Pore is closed.
Active
Pore is open, and ions can pass.
Inactive
Transient refractory period where the pore is open, but ions cannot pass. This creates the absolute refractory
period of a cell.
G-protein coupled (metabotropic) receptors:

G-proteins are a group of heterotrimeric (containing three units; α, β, γ) proteins which bind GDP. When stimulated, the GDP
is replaced by GTP and the α-GTP subunit dissociates to activate or inhibit an effector protein. The effect depends on the type
of α-subunit:
Gs proteins
Are stimulatory. These
Increase cAMP, leading to a biochemical effect
Gi proteins
Are inhibitory. These:
Inhibit adenylyl cyclase, reducing cAMP
Gq proteins
Have a variable effect, depending on the cell. These:
Activate phospholipase C
This affects the production of:
Inositol triphosphate (IP3)
2+
96
Receptor Types
Stimulates Ca2+ from the SR, affecting enzymatic function or causing membrane depolarisation.
Diacylglycerol (DAG)
Activates protein kinase C, which has cell-specfic effects.
Activate intracellular second messenger proteins when stimulated
Second messenger systems:
Result in both transmission and amplification of a stimulus, as a single activated receptor can activate multiple proteins
and each activated protein may activate several other intermediate proteins
This is known as a G-protein cascade
Enzyme interaction
Drugs can interact with enzymes by antagonism or by being a false substrate.
Enzyme antagonism
Most drugs which interact with enzymes inhibit their activity. This results in:
Increased concentration of enzymatic substrate

Decreased concentration of the product of the reaction
Drugs can be competitive, non-competitive, or irreversible inhibitors of enzymatic activity. Examples include:
Ramipril is a competitive inhibitor of angiotensin-converting enzyme.

Aspirin is an irreversible inhibitor of cyclo-oxygenase.
False substrates
False substrates compete with the enzymatic binding site, and produce a product. Examples include:
Methyldopa is a false substrate of the enzyme dopamine decarboxylase.
Physicochemical
Drugs whose mechanism of action is due to their physicochemical properties. Examples include:
Mannitol reduces ICP because it increases tonicity of the extracellular compartment (and is unable to cross the BBB),
drawing free water from the intracellular compartment as a consequence.
Aluminium hydroxide reacts with stomach acid to form aluminium chloride and water, reducing stomach pH.
References
1. Anderson, C. Pharmacodynamics 2. ICU Primary Prep.
2. Law of Mass Action. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
3. ANZCA August/September 2001
4. Catterall WA. Structure and Function of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1995. 64:493-531.
97
Receptor Types
98
Dose-Response Curves
To define and explain dose-effect relationships of drugs, including dose-response curves with reference to: graded and
quantal response.
Standard Dose-Response Curves

A dose-response curve is a graph of concentration against the fraction of receptors occupied by a drug.
Log-Dose Response Curves

It is difficult to compare drugs using standard dose-response curves. Therefore, dose is commonly log-transformed to produce a
log-dose response curve.
This curve:
Compares log-dose versus clinical effect

Demonstrates that the blue drug has greater potency than the red drug, though both are full agonists
Responses can be either graded or quantal:
Graded responses demonstrate a continuous increase in effect with dose

E.g. Blood pressure and noradrenaline dose
Quantal responses demonstrate a response once a certain proportion of receptors are occupied
Examples include:
ED95
Median dose of neuromuscular blocker required to produce a 95% loss of twitch height.
MAC
Mean alveolar concentration of agent required to prevent movement in response to a surgical stimulus.
99
References
1. Anderson C. Pharmacodynamics 1. ICU Primary Prep. Available at:
https://icuprimaryprep.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/pharmacodynamics-1.pdf
100
Mechanisms of Action
Mechanisms of Action
Drugs can act in four ways:
Receptors
GPCR
Intracellular
Cytoplasmic
Intranuclear
e.g. Steroids, which alter RNA expression.
Ion Channels
Blockade
Allosteric modulation
Enzyme interaction
An enzyme is a biological catalyst, increasing the speed of reaction. Enzyme interaction can be:
Irreversible inhibition
e.g. Aspirin, which irreversibly inhibits platelet thromboxane production.
Reversible inhibition
Competitive antagonism
e.g. ACE-I.
Non-competitive antagonism
Physicochemically
Osmotic
e.g. mannitol.
Acid-base
e.g. antacids.
Chelation
Redox reactions
References
101
Variability in Drug Response
Adverse effects
Classify and describe adverse drug effects.
An adverse effect is:
A noxious or unintended effect associated with administration of a drug at the normal dose
i.e., not an overdose
Occur:
Mainly in young and middle-aged individuals
Twice as common in women
May be exacerbated by asthma and pregnancy.
Distinct from an adverse event, which is an untoward occurance during treatment that does not necessarily have a causal
relationship to drug administration
Adverse effects can be classified by mechanism as follows:
Type A Adverse Reactions

These are related to the pharmacological action of the drug. They are:
Common
Related to dose (dose-response relationship)
Temporally associated with drug administration
Reproducible
Pharmacologically predictable based on understanding of the drug in question
e.g hypokaleamia secondary to diuretic use
They typically result in:
Organ-selective injury
More pronounced with long-term use and in risk groups:
Extremes of age
Pregnancy
Renal failure
High morbidity but low mortality
Treatment is to decrease dose.
Type B Adverse Reactions

These are patient-specific or idiosyncratic reactions. They are:
Rare
Potentially genetic, but poorly understood.
Indepdendent of dose
Occur with low doses
Do not have a dose-response relationship
Not pharmacologically predictable
Important causes include:
Acetylator status
CYP450 variants
102
Variability in Drug Response
Receptor abnormalities
Enzyme alterations/deficiencies
e.g. Suxamethonium apnoea
Not necessarily reproducable
They typically result in:
Immunoallergic reactions
Pseudoallergy
Idiosyncratic reaction
Low morbidity but high mortality
e.g. Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or anaphylaxis following penicillin administration
Treatment is to cease the medication.
Type C Adverse Reactions

These are 'statistical effects' associated with monitoring. They are:
Typically an increased frequency of background disease that is detected due to increased screening
Atypical for a drug reaction and not pharmacological predictable
No identifiable temporal relationship
Not reproducable
References
1. RHB Meyboom, M Lindquist, ACG Egberts. An ABC of Drug-Related Problems. Drug Safety 2000;22:415-23.
2. Pirmohamed M, Breckenridge AM, Kitteringham NR, Park BK. Adverse drug reactions. BMJ. 1998 Apr 25;316(7140):1295-
8. Open Access Review.
3. Lazarou J, Pomeranz BH, Corey PN. Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients—a meta-analysis of
prospective studies. JAMA 1998;279: 1200-5.
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Drug Interactions
Drug Interactions
Classify and describe mechanisms of drug interaction.
Drug interactions occur "when the action of one drug modifies that of another".
Mechanisms of Drug Interaction

Drug interactions are best classified into three categories:
Physicochemical
Pharmacokinetic
Pharmacodynamic
Physicochemical
Physicochemical interactions occur because of an incompatibility between chemical structures.
e.g. Thiopentone and suxamethonium precipitate out of solution if prepared together or delivered together in the same line
Pharmacokinetic
Pharmacokinetic interactions can be sub-classified into those affecting absorption, distribution, metabolism, or elimination.
Absorption
For oral medications, absorption may be affected by drugs which alter:
Gastric pH
Gastric emptying time
Metoclopramide resolves gastric stasis and improves absorption of orally administered drugs
Distribution
Distribution may be affected by:
Competition for plasma protein binding

Loss of albumin and α1-acid glycoprotein
Medications which alter cardiac output
Displacement from tissue binding sites This typically occurs due to alteration of metabolic capacity of one drug by the other.
Chelation of drug from tissues
Chelting agents bind toxic elements and prevent tissue damage
Phenytoin is usually highly (90%) protein bound. A reduction in protein binding to 80% will double the free phenytoin
level. For drugs with first-order kinetics, metabolism will increase proportionally however phenytoin rapidly saturates the
enzyme system, leading to zero-order kinetics and a high plasma level.
β-blockers reduce cardiac output and will prolong the time to fasciculation of suxamethonium.
Metabolism
Metabolism may be affected by changes to the CYP450 enzymes:
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Drug Interactions
Enzyme induction
Barbiturates
Phenytoin
Carbamazepine
Enzyme inhibition
Amiodarone
Amiodarone inhibits metabolism of S-warfarin by CYP2C9, enhancing it's effect.
Diltiazem
Verapamil
Ciprofloxacin
Macrolides
Metronidazole
Grapefruit juice
Elimination
Renal elimination can be affected by:
Changes in urinary pH
Competition for active tubular transport mechanisms
Sodium bicarbonate increases urinary pH and enhances excretion of weak acids such as aspirin.
Pharmacodynamic
Pharmacodynamic interactions can be direct, due to interaction on the same receptor system; or a indirect, when they act on
different receptor system. These interactions can be classified as either:
Additive
When the effects summate.
e.g. Administering midazolam with propofol reduces the amount of propofol required to generate an effect.
Antagonistic
When the effects oppose each other.
e.g. Neostigmine indirectly antagonises the effect of NDMRs by increasing the level of ACh at the NMJ.
Synergistic
When the combined effect is greater than would be expected from summation alone.
e.g. Co-administration of remifentanil and propofol has a synergistic effect in maintenance of anaesthesia.
These three interactions can be graphically demonstrated using an isobologram, which draws a line of equal activity versus
concentration of two drugs.
105
Drug Interactions
References
2. Khan S, Stannard N, Greijn J. Precipitation of thiopental with muscle relaxants: a potential hazard. JRSM Short Reports.
2011;2(7):58.
106
Alterations to Response
Alterations to Drug Response

Define tachyphylaxis, tolerance, addiction, dependence and idiosyncrasy
There are four mechanisms which result in variable response to drug:
Alteration in drug that reaches the receptor

This is typically due to pharmacokinetic factors.
Relative difference in presence of exogenous and endogenous ligands
Antagonists will have a greater effect in the presence of high endogenous ligand concentration.
Variation in receptor function and number
Up-regulation and down-regulation of receptors may occur as a consequence of prolonged stimulus.
Alteration in function distal to the receptor
Key Terms
Tachyphylaxis is the rapid decrease in response to repeated dosing over a short time period, usually due to depletion of
transmitter
Desensitisation is the loss in response over a long time period, usually due to change in receptor morphology or loss in
receptor numbers
Withdrawal is a pathological response when a drug is ceased
During administration receptors may be:

Up-regulated in the continued presence of an antagonist
Down-regulated in the continued presence of an agonist
Loss of receptor numbers may precipitate withdrawal when the agonist or antagonist is ceased
Addiction is a behavioural pattern characterised by compulsive use and fixation on acquiring and using a drug
Idiosyncrasy is an individual patient response to a drug

Typically mediated by a reactive metabolite rather than the drug itself.
Tolerance
Tolerance is the requirement for a larger dose to achieve the same effect, due to altered sensitivity of the receptors to the
stimulant. Mechanisms can be classified into:
Pharmacokinetic
Altered drug metabolism
Metabolism may be increased or decreased:
Enzymatic induction and increased drug metabolism
Increased hepatic enzyme pathway capacity increases metabolism and lowers plasma concentration.
Decreased metabolism
Decreased metabolism of a prodrug can result in a reduced effect.
Pharmacodynamic
Change in receptor morphology
Can occur with ion-channel receptors and GPCRs:
Ion-channel receptors bind the ligand but do not open the channel
GPCR become 'uncoupled' - phosphorylation of the receptor makes it unable to activate second messenger cascade,
though it can still bind the ligand.
107
Receptor down-regulation
Prolonged exposure to agonists causes transmembrane (typically hormone) receptors to become internalised. This
occurs more slowly than uncoupling.
Receptor up-regulation
Prolonged exposure to antagonists causes an upregulation of receptor.
Can lead to rebound effects when a drug is ceased (e.g. hypertension with cessation of clonidine)
Exhaustation of mediators
Similar to tachyphylaxis - depletion of a mediating substance decreases the effect.
Physiological adapation
Actions of a drug may be countered by a compensatory homeostatic response.
Active removal of the drug from the cell
Alterations in Drug Response: Patient Factors

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics are affected in pregnancy and at extremes of age.
Pregnancy
Absorption
Decreased gastric emptying
Nausea and vomiting
Increased cardiac output
Increases IM and SC absorption
Volatiles:
Increased onset due to increased MV and reduced FRC
Decreased onset due to increased CO
Distribution
Increased VD due to:
Increased TBW
Increased plasma volume
Increased fat mass
Decreased albumin and α1-glycoprotein
Metabolism
No change to HBF
Progesterone induces enzymes
Oestrogen competes for enzymes
Decreased plasma cholinesterase activity
Elimination
Increased RBF
Increased GFR
Pharmacodynamic
Decreased MAC
Increased LA sensitivity due to decreased α1-glycoprotein
Foetus
Drugs that cross the placenta can be teratogenic to the foetus, besides exerting their usual pharmacological effects.
Pharmacokinetic factors predominantly affect placental transfer, and include:
108
Lipid solubility
Lipid soluble drugs diffuse more rapidly.
Molecular size
Drugs with a molecular weight >1000 dalton cross the placenta slowly.
Protein binding
Placental transporters
Some medications are actively removed from foetal circulation.
Placental metabolism
The placenta can metabolise some medications, although in some cases results in toxic metabolites.
Maternal pharmacodynamic factors predominantly affect the uterus and breast, but major organ systems are not significantly
affected.
Drugs that cross the placenta can have dramatic effects in the foetus. These include:
Teratogenesis
A drug which adversely affects foetal development causing a permanent abnormality. Multifactorial mechanisms that are not
well understood.
Neonates
At < 1 year of age, pharmacokinetics are significantly altered:
Absorption
Delayed gastric emptying, increasing absorption of drugs metabolised in the stomach
Decreased secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile salts impairs absorption of lipid soluble medications
Smaller muscle mass and higher relative muscle blood flow increases IM onset
Increased VA:FRC ratio increases onset of volatiles
Distribution
TBW is 70-75% (compared to 50-60% for an adult), and extracellular water is 40% (compared to 20%), which typically
increases VD
Preterm infants have reduced body fat
Greater proportion of cardiac output goes to head, increasing onset of centrally acting (e.g. anaesthetic) drugs
Decreased albumin and α1-glycoprotein
Immature BBB increases uptake of partially ionised drugs
Metabolism
Enzymatic capacity of all pathways is reduced, which prolongs elimination half-lives and reduces clearance.
Hepatically metabolised drugs must be dose adjusted accordingly
The glucuronide pathway may not mature until age 4
Excretion
GFR is proportionally lower and dose not reach adult equivalence until 6-12 months
GFR is further reduced in pre-term infants
GFR is increased in 1-3 year olds
Pharmacodynamic
Smaller ACh reserves increase sensitivity to NMBs
Increased MAC but more rapid onset
NSAIDs cause closures of ductus arteriosus
Geriatric
109
Though there is a linear decrease in functional capacity of major systems beginning at 45, alterations are predominantly a
consequence of polypharmacy and drug interactions.
Absorption
Laxatives and prokinetics increase gastric emptying and reduce absorption of oral agents
Distribution
There is a proportional increase in fat
There is a proportional decrease in:
Lean body mass
Total body water
Albumin
Metabolism
↓ Hepatic blood flow
↓ Enzymatic activity
Phase I > Phase II.
Elimination
Loss of nephron number with age reduces renal clearance
Pharmacodynamic
Increased sensitivity to sedatives, opioids, and hypnotics
Decreased sensitivity to β-agonists and antagonists
Decreased MAC
Polypharmacy increases potential for drug interactions
Alterations in Drug Response: Disease Factors

Cardiac Disease
Absorption
Decreased cardiac output decreases PO absorption due to decreased gradient
Distribution
Decreased CO prolongs arm-brain circulation time
Increased α1-glycoprotein increasing binding of basic drugs
Decreased VD
Metabolism
Low-cardiac output states reduce hepatic flow and will reduce metabolism of drugs with a high extraction ratio
High-output states have the opposite effect
Elimination
Decreased renal blood flow
Hepatic Disease
Absorption
Porto-caval shunting
Decreased first pass metabolism.
Distribution
Impaired synthetic function reduces plasma proteins and increases unbound fraction
Increased VD due to fluid retention
110
Metabolic acidosis changes ionised fraction
Metabolism
Impaired phase I and II reactions
Reduced plasma esterase levels
Elimination
Reduced biliary excretion
Pharmacodynamics
Hepatic encephalopathy increases sensitivity to sedatives and hypnotics
Renal Disease
Absorption
Uraemia prolongs gastric emptying
Distribution
Increased VD due to fluid retention
Metabolic acidosis adjusts ionised fraction
Metabolism
Buildup of toxic metabolites may inhibit drug transporters
Uraemic toxins inhibit enzymes and drug transporters
Elimination
Reduced clearance of active metabolites/active drug cleared renally
Obesity
Absorption:
Delayed gastric emptying
Decreased subcutaneous blood flow
Practical difficulty with IM administration
Distribution:
Increased VD of lipid soluble drugs
Dosing of lipid-soluble drugs by actual body weight
Dosing of water-soluble drugs by lean body weight
Increased CO
Increased α1-glycoprotein
Increased blood volume
Greater lipid binding to plasma proteins, increasing free drug fractions
Metabolism:
Increased plasma and tissue esterase levels
Normal or increased hepatic enzymes
Elimination
Increased renal clearance due to increased CO
Non-Specific Alterations to Drug Response

Absorption:
Site of administration
111
Drugs given centrally will act faster than those given into peripheral veins.
Rate of administration
Faster rate of administration will increase rate of onset.
Pharmacodynamic
Drug tolerance Increase requirement of drug.

e.g. induction anaesthetic agents in patients tolerant to CNS depressants.
Drug interaction
May be:
Synergistic
Additive
Antagonistic
References
1. Anderson C. Variability in Drug Response 1. ICU Primary Prep.
2. Rang HP, Dale MM, Ritter JM, Flower RJ. Rang and Dale's Pharmacology. Sixth Edition. Churchill Livingstone.
4. CICM Examiner Report: Sep/Nov 2012
5. Alfred Anaesthetic Department Primary Exam Tutorial Series
112
Pharmacogenetics
Pharmacogenetics
Outline genetic variability.
Explain the mechanisms and significance of pharmacogenetic disorders (eg malignant hyperpyrexia, porphyria, atypical
cholinesterase and disturbance of cytochrome function).
Genetic polymorphism occurs when several functionally distinct genes exist within a population. Genetic polymorphism is:
Common
Important in determining an individuals susceptibility to adverse drug reactions
A goal of personalised medicine
Aims to adjust drug therapies for interpatient variability.
Pharmacogenetic disorders
Pseudocholinesterase
A condition where plasma cholinesterase is unable to breakdown suxamethonium, prolonging its duration of action. This disease:
May be congenital or acquired

Congenital is autosomal recessive
Has four alleles
Usual
Atypical (dibucaine-resistant)
Silent (absent)
Fluoride-resistance
Acquired is due to a loss of plasma cholinesterase
Pregnancy
Organ failure
Hepatic
Renal
Cardiac
Malnutrition
Hyperthyroidism
Burns
Malignancy
Drugs
OCP
Ketamine
Lignocaine and ester local anaesthetics
Metoclopramide
Lithium
Has been traditionally measured using the dibucaine number
Dibucaine is:
An amide local anaesthetic which inhibtis plasma cholinesterase
Different forms are inhibited to different extents, with greater inhibition indicating a less severe mutation.
Percentage inhibition correlates with different genotypes, e.g.:
Normal (Eu:Eu) has a dibucaine number of 80 (80% inhibited)
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Pharmacogenetics
Dibucaine resistant (Ea:Ea) has a dibucaine number of 20 (20% inhibited)

Note that acquired disease will have a normal dibucaine number, as the enzyme itself is working correctly, however
does not exist in a large enough quantity to metabolise suxamethonium rapidly
G6PD
A common x-linked recessive condition that may cause haemolysis following administration of oxidative drugs. These include:
Aspirin
Sulfonamides
Some antibiotics
Malignant Hyperthermia
Autosomal dominant deficiency in the skeletal muscle ryanodine receptor gene resulting in a defect of intracellular calcium
regulation. This mutation:
Causes massive calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum in the presence of volatile anaesthetic agents (and potentially
suxamethonium)
Leads to:
Increased muscle activity
Rapid increase in body temperature and lactic acidosis
High mortality from hyperthermia, hyperkalaemia/rhabdomyolysis, leading to ventricular arrhythmia and cardiac arrest
Mutation present in 1:5,000 - 1:50,000
Presents with:
Initially:
Tachycardia
Masseter spasm
Hypercapnoea
Arrhythmia
Intermediate:
Hyperthermia
Sweating
Combined metabolic and respiratory acidosis
Hyperkalaemia
Muscle rigidity
Late:
Rhabdomyolysis
Myoglobinuria
Elevated CK
Coagulopathy
Cardiac arrest
Management consists of:
Cease administration of volatile
Start TIVA
Give dantrolene
2.5mg.kg-1 increments up to 10mg.kg-1
20mg vials reconstituted with 60ml sterile water
3g mannitol as additive
Highly alkaline
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Pharmacogenetics
Damaging if extravasation occurs.

Treat complications:
Hyperkalaemia
Hyperthermia
Acidosis
Arrhythmias
Renal failure
Porphyria
Autosomal dominant deficiency in the first step of haeme synthesis. These mutations:
Result in a partial deficiency of enzymes

Lead to accumultion of porphyrin precursors
May be precipitated by many drugs:
Ketamine
Clonidine
Ketorolac
Diclofenac
Phenytoin
Erythromycin
Barbiturates
References
1. Rang HP, Dale MM, Ritter JM, Flower RJ. Rang and Dale's Pharmacology. Sixth Edition. Churchill Livingstone.
115
Drugs in Pregnancy
Drugs in Pregnancy
The Therapeutic Goods Administration classifies drugs for suitability in pregnancy based on the potential of a drug to cause:
Birth defects
Detrimental effects at birth
Problems in later life
The classification system is:
Valid only for the dose and route of administration listed

Does not apply in overdose
Not hierarchical
'B' drugs are not safer than 'C' drugs
Categories
Category A
Taken by large number of women without detrimental effects.
Category B
Subclassified into:
Category B1
Taken by a limited number of women without detrimental effect
Animal studies show no evidence of detrimental effect to the foetus
Category B2
Animal studies are inadequate or lacking, but available data shows no evidence of detrimental effect to the foetus
Category B3
Animal studies show evidence of foetal damage, but the significance of this in humans is unknown
Category C
Drugs which have caused (or a suspected to cause) detrimental foetal effects, but without malformations
These effects may be reversible
Category D
Drugs which have caused (or are suspected to cause) an increased incidence of foetal malformations or damage
May also have detrimental effects
Category X
Drugs which have a high risk of causing permanent damage

Should not be used in pregnancy, or when pregnancy is possible
References
1. Australian categorisation system for prescribing medicines in pregnancy. Therapeutic Goods Administration.
116
Drugs in Pregnancy
117
Toxicology
General Management of Poisoning

Understanding of the general principles of poisoning and its management.
Principles of management of poisoning:

1
"Recognition-Resus-RSI-DEAD"
Recognition
Degree of emergency
Getting senior help
Application of 100% oxygen early
Resuscitation
A: Control in any patient with significantly impaired conscious state
B: Oxygen if not previously applied. Mechanical ventilation if required.
C: Intravenous access is always required. Central venous access may be required.
D: Glucose level. Control seizures.
E: Control hypothermia
Risk assessment
History including timing, amount, coadministered drugs, current patient status.
Supportive care
Investigations
ECG
Invasive monitoring may be required if haemodynamics are unstable.
Drug levels
Decontamination
Activated charcoal may be appropriate if recent ingestion (<1 hour) and the airway is secured
Enhanced Elimination
Used in severe poisoining when supportive care is likely to be inadequate. Includes:
Urinary alkalinsation
Filtration
Antidotes
E.g. naloxone for opiates
Disposition
Footnotes
LITFL has a fantastic section on the approach to the poisoned patient if you want more information.
References
1. Nickson, C. Approach to the Acute Poisoning. LITFL.
2. Leslie RA, Johnson EK, Goodwin APL. Dr Podcast Scripts for the Primary FRCA. Cambridge University Press. 2011.
118
Toxicology
119
TCA Overdose
Tricyclic Antidepressant Overdose

Tricyclic antidepressants are weak bases typically used for depression and as an adjunct for analgesia. They have a complex
mechanism of action, competitively inhibiting noradrenaline and serotonin reuptake, and also blocking muscarinic receptors,
histaminergic receptors, α-adrenoreceptors, GABA-a receptors, and fast sodium channels.
Toxicity
In overdose, toxicity is predominantly due to cardiac and central effects, though there are effects on most of the major organ
systems.
Cardiac toxicity
Cardiac toxicity is due to antagonism of α-adrenoreceptors use-dependent blockade of fast sodium channels.
α-antagonism results in vasodilatation and subsequent hypotension. Hypotension may also be due to myocardial depression from
sodium channel blockade.
Blockade of fast sodium channels occurs in the His-Purkinje system, as well as the atrial and ventricular myocardium. This results
in decreased myocardial impulse conduction. They block channels in the inactivated state, resulting in a use-dependent
blockade such that the effect is greater at faster heart rates. This results in an increased depolarisation and repolarisation time.
ECG findings are consistent with this and are essentially pathognomnic:
Widened QRS
Right axis deviaiton of the terminal QRS
>3mm terminal R wave in aVR
Additional ECG findings include:
Tachycardia
Any degree of heart block
Ventricular arrythmias
Central toxicity
Central toxicity is predominantly due to anticholinergic effects, though antihistamingergic effects contribute.
Anti-cholinergic effects tend to occur prior to cardiac effects, and include:
Confusion
Agitation
Seizures
Pupillary dilatation and blurred vision
Antihistaminergic effects include obtundation.
Management
Standard management of poisoning applies. TCAs are not dialysable and as they are weak bases are not amenable to urinary
alkalinsation.
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TCA Overdose
Cardiac toxicity
NaHCO3 and hyperventilation to a pH >7.5 is used to manage cardiac toxicity. There are a number of proposed mechanisms of
action for the benefit of alkalinsation:
Plasma alkalosis results in less ionised drug and increases distribution into tissues
Plasma alkalosis increases protein binding of drug
Intracellular alkalosis results in less bound intracellular drug, favouring its movement out of cells
Extracellular alkalosis results in reduced H+/K+ exchange, increasing intracellular potassium and hypopolarising the cell.
In addition to the alkalinising effects, sodium load from the NaHCO3 improves the sodium concentration gradient into cells
α-adrenoreceptor antagonism can be countered with use of an α-agonist such as noradrenaline.
Arrythmias should be managed with drugs that do not prolong the action potential - so amiodarone and beta-blockers are
contraindicated. Initial management should be using NaHCO3, though MgSO4 and lignocaine can be considered in refractory
cases.
Central toxicity
Seizures should be managed with benzodiazepines, phenytoin, propfol, and phenobarbital. Avoid agents which result in QRS
prolongation.
References
2. Rang HP, Dale MM, Ritter JM, Flower RJ. Rang and Dale's Pharmacology. 6th Ed. Churchill Livingstone.
3. CICM July/September 2007
4. Salhanick SD, Traub SJ, Grayzel J. Tricyclic Antidepressant Poisoning. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham,
MA, 2017.
5. Nickson, C. Toxicology Conundrum 22. LITFL.
6. Nickson, C. Tricyclic Antidepressant Toxicity. LITFL.
7. UpToDate. Tricyclic antidepressant poisoning
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Organophosphates
Organophosphate Poisoning
Organophosphates are substances bind irreversibly to acetylcholinestersase, causing cholinergic excess. Examples include
fertilisers and sarin gas.
Toxicity
Effects (as expected) are signs of muscarininc and nicotinic overactivation. This can be remembered by 'BLUDGES' for the
muscarinic effects:
Bradycardia (and subsequent hypotension)

Lacrimation
Urination
Defecation
GIT upset
Emesis
Sweating and Salivation
and 'M' for the nicotinic effects:
Muscular spasm
Management
Management is aimed at reducing ACh burden:
Atropine
Competitive antagonises ACh at the muscarinic receptor.
Atropine is preferred over glycopyrrolate as it will cross the blood brain barrier and treat central ACh toxicity
Pralidoxime
Reactivates acetylcholinesterase by luring the organophosphate away from the enzyme with a tantalising oxime group.
Pralidoxime must be used within the first few hours of poisoning
Aafter which the organophosphate-enzyme group 'ages' and is no longer susceptible.
Does not cross the blood-brain barrier and so cannot treat central effects
References
1. CICM March/May 2009
122
Cellular Physiology
The Cell Membrane

Describe the cell membrane and cellular organelles and their properties.
Cell membranes are:
Formed by a phospholipid bilayer

Separates the intracellular and extracellular fluid.
Semi-permeable
Leads to different ionic concentrations (and therefore electrical charge) on either side of the membrane.
Alteration in charge means the membrane acts as a capacitor, with most cells having a resting potential 70-80mV
lower than extracellular fluid
Ion Permeability
At rest, the cell is:
Permeable to potassium
Potassium flows out down its concentration gradient
This makes the resting potential becomes more negative.
This negative charge opposes the further movement of potassium and so an equilibrium is established between
opposing electrical and chemical gradients
Impermeable to other cations
The membrane is not perfectly impermeable to sodium, and Na+ will leak in down its concentration gradient.
The 3Na+-2K+ ATPase pumps three sodium ions outside in exchange for two potassium ions in order to maintain
these gradients
As there is an unequal exchange of charge, this pump is electrogenic.
Ion [Intracellular] [Extracellular]
Na+ 15 140
K+ 150 4.5
-
Cl 10 100
References
1. Barrett KE, Barman SM, Boitano S, Brooks HL. Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology. 24th Ed. McGraw Hill. 2012.
2. Chambers D, Huang C, Matthews G. Basic Physiology for Anaesthetists. Cambridge University Press. 2015.
123
Organelles
Organelles
Describe the cell membrane and cellular organelles and their properties
Organelles are specialised fucntional subunits within a cell, typically contained within their own lipid bilayer.
Key organelles include:
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondria
Mitochondria:
Produce ATP via aerobic metabolism

Only method of aerobic metabolism in the body.
Mitrochondria exist in greater numbers in more metabolically active cells
Consist of two membranes (outer and inner), which create three spaces,
Cytoplasm
Outside the outer membrane.
Intermembrane space
Between the membranes.
Outer membrane separates mitochondria from cytoplasm, but contains pores allowing some substances (pyruvate,
amino acids, fatty acids) to pass
Inner membrane:
Isolates the electron transport chain from the intermembrane (space between inner and outer membranes)
space.
Proteins on the inner membrane conduct the redox reactions important for ATP production
Electron transport chain pumps hydrogen ions into the intermembrane space
Inner mitochondrial matrix
Contents important in many metabolic processes:
Citric acid cycle
Fatty acid metabolism
Urea cycle
Haeme synthesis
References
124
Excitable Cells
Excitable Cells
Explain the basic electro-physiology of neural tissue, including conduction of nerve impulses and synaptic function.
Membrane Potential
At rest, membranes are:
Permeable to potassium
Impermeable to other cations
Generation of membrane potential:
Intracellular potassium concentration is much higher than extracellular potassium concentration

Due to the action of the Na+-K+ pump.
As the membrane is permeable to potassium, potassium will attempt to diffuse down this gradient, generating a negative
intracellular charge which opposes further diffusion
At some point, an electrochemical equilibrium is reached between:
The concentration gradient dragging potassium out of the cell
Negative electrical charge pulling it in
This equilibrium is the resting membrane potential
RMP is determined by:
Permebility of the membrane to different ions
Relative ionic concentrations on either side of the membrane
Impermeable ions do not contribute to the resting membrane potential
Altering membrane permeability causes a flow of ions and a change in voltage.
Nernst Equation
The potential difference generated by a permeable ion in electrochemical equilibrium when there are different concentrations on
either side of the cell can be calculated via the Nernst Equation:
, where:
is the equilibrium potential for the ion

is the gas constant (8.314 J.deg-1.mol-1)
is the temperature in Kelvin
is Faraday's Constant
is the ionic valency (e.g. +2 for Mg+2, -1 for Cl-)
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation
The Nernst equation describes the equilibrium potential for a single ion, and assumes that the membrane is completely permeable
to that ion.
However, calculation of membrane potential requires examining the effects of many different ions with different permeability.
This can be performed with the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation:
125
Excitable Cells
, where:
is the permeability constant for the ion,
If the membrane is impermeable to , then .
Note that:
This model does not consider valency

The concentrations of negative ions are reversed relative to positive ions
Action Potential
Excitable cells can respond to a stimulus by a changing their membrane potential. This may be mediated:
Chemically
e.g. ACh receptors causing Na+ channels to open.
Physically
Pressure receptors physically deforming and opening Na+ channels.
Stimulating an excitable cell increases Na+ permeability

This increases (i.e. makes less negative) membrane potential
If several stimuli, or a large enough stimuli raises the membrane potential above the threshold potential, then an action
potential will be generated
This is due to fast Na+ channels
Also known as voltage-gated Na+ channels
Open when membrane potential exceeds threshold potential
Threshold potential is typically -55mV.
Fast sodium channels generate the all-or-nothing response:
Stimuli below the threshold potential do not generate an action potential
Stimuli above threshold potential generate an action potential
The size of the stimulus does not affect the magnitude of the action potential, as this is determined by the fast
sodium channels.
Key Players in the Action Potential

Fast Na+ channels are responsible for depolarisation. They exist in three states:
Closed
Impermeable to Na+.
Open
Permeable to Na+. Occurs when the membrane potential reaches threshold potential.
Different voltage-gated channels may have slightly different opening (threshold) potentials
Inactivated
Impermeble to Na+. Occurs shortly after the open state, and lasts until the membrane potential falls below -50mV.
Voltage-gated K+ channels:
Are vital for repolarisation

Open slowly with depolarisation
This increases potassium permeability and reduces membrane potential.
Phases of the Action Potential
126
Excitable Cells
This describes the peripheral nerve action potential. The heart is covered under the cardiac action potential.
1. Rising Phase
A stimulus which rises above the threshold potential opens fast Na+ channels, increasing Na+ influx.
Additional Na+ has a positive feedback effect, causing additional Na+ channels to open and further depolarisation
This drives the membrane potential towards the Nernst equilibrium for Na+
2. Peak Phase
Inactivation of fast-channels and delayed activation of K+ channels slows depolarisation.
Membrane potential peaks at 30mV
3. Falling Phase
As potassium exits the cell, membrane potential continues to fall.
Voltage-gated K+ channels start to close at -50mV
Inactivation of fast sodium channels defines the absolute refractory period
No Na+ can be conducted, regardless of the intensity of the stimulus, and so an action potential cannot be generated
The absolute refractory perioid lasts ~1ms
4. Hyperpolarisation
As potassium channels close slowly, the membrane potential slightly undershoots resting potential, causing slight
hyperpolarisation of the cell.
This is the relative refractory period
A large enough stimulus may overcome the additional hyperpolarisation and generate a second action potential.
The relative refractory period lasts 10-15ms
5. Resting
Cell is stable at resting membrane potential.
Propagation of the Action Potential

An increase in Na+ in one region will diffuse down the cell, raising the membrane potential above the resting potential in the
adjacent membrane
This causes local fast Na+ channels to open, and the cell depolarises
This results in a propagating wave of depolarisation and repolarisation
Regions of a nerve cell covered by a myelin sheath do not have ion channels
In these cells, propagation is saltatory
This describes the "jumping" of the action potential between gaps in the myelin sheath.
These gaps are known as nodes of Ranvier
Ion channels generate an action potential at the nodes in the usual manner.
Between nodes, conduction is via local electrical currents
Myelination:
Increases conducting velocity
Reduces energy expenditure
Via reduction in total ion flux.
Classification of Nerve Fibres

Classified on their diameter and conduction velocity:
Type A
Myelinated, 12-20μm in diameter, conduct at 70-120m.s-1. Subdivided into:
Aα
Motor fibres.
Aβ
Touch fibres.
127
Excitable Cells
Aγ
Intrafusal (proprioceptive) muscle fibre.
Aδ
Pain fibres.
Type B
Myelinated, < 3μm, conduct at 4-30m.s-1. Innervate pre-ganglionic neurons.
Type C
Unmyelinated, 1μm, conduct at 0.5-2m.s-1. Pain fibres.
References
1. Kam P, Power I. Principles of Physiology for the Anaesthetist. 3rd Ed. Hodder Education. 2012.
128
Transport Across Membranes
Transport Across Cell Membranes

Explain mechanisms of transport of substances across cell membranes, including an understanding of the Gibbs-Donnan
effect.
Substances can cross cell membranes by diffusion, active transport, and exo- or endocytosis.
Diffusion
There are several types of diffusion:
Simple diffusion
Molecules pass through the cell membrane or via a channel. This process is passive, and occurs down a concentration
gradient.
Only lipid soluble molecules (gases, steroids) can pass directly through the lipid bilayer without a specialised channel
Voltage-gated and ligand-gated channels facilitate simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion (uniporters)

Molecules bind to a carrier protein, and move together through the lipid bilayer, before separating on the other side.
Facilitated diffusion is concentration gradient-dependent, and limited by the amount of carrier protein available..
The rate and extent of diffusion is affected by:
Hydrostatic pressure gradients

Concentration gradients
Electrical gradients
Active Transport
Substances that are moved against a concentration gradient require active transport, and requires energy in the form of ATP.
Active transport mechanisms may be:
Primary active transport

The substance itself is moved.
Secondary active transport
The substance moves against a concentration gradient with another molecule that had a gradient established by active
transport.
This molecule is typically sodium
Co-transporters (symporters)
Uses carrier proteins and moves two substances (e.g. sodium and an amino acid) across a membrane.
This process will be passive if the energy gained moving one substance down its concentration gradient is greater than
the energy required to move the other substance up its concentration gradient
Counter-transporters (antiporters)
Use carrier proteins and moves two substances in opposite directions across the membrane.
May be active or passive
Key transporters include:
The Na+-K+ ATP-ase pump

This moves three sodium ions out of a cell and two potassium ions in, cleaving one ATP in the process. This pump has many
functions:
129
Maintenance of cellular volume (which would otherwise burst from the influx of water with changing ECF tonicities) by
net loss of osmoles
Maintenance of the potential difference across the membrane
Establishment of chemical gradients to be used in secondary active transport mechanism
e.g. Reabsorption of glucose in the kidney via the S-GLUT transporter
Exo- and Endocytosis

These processes describe the formation of a vesicle (typically from membrane phospholipid) to transport substances:
Exocytosis
Vesicle containing a substance to be secreted fuses with the cell membrane when activated by calcium, depositing the
substance outside the cell.
Endocytosis
The cell membrane invaginates around the substance, absorbing the substance into the cell. A vesicle (or vacuole) may or
may not be created. Endocytosis may be subdivided into:
Phagocytosis, where leukocytes engulf bacteria into a vacuole
Pinocytosis, where substances are endocytosed but not into a vacuole
Gibbs-Donnan Effect
Describes the tendency of diffusable ions to distribute themselves such that the ratios of the concentrations are equal when they
are in the presence of non-diffusable ions.
The Gibbs-Donnan Effect:
Occurs when:
A semi-permeable membrane separates two solutions
At least one of those solutions contains a non-diffusable ion
The distribution of permeable charged ions will be influenced by both their valence and the distribution of non-diffusable
ions, such that at equilibrium the products of the concentrations of paired ions on each side of the membrane will be
equal:
Alters tonicity on either side of the cell membrane, causing movement of water which then upsets the Gibbs-Donnan effect
This results in no 'steady' stable state.
The two main contributors to the Gibbs-Donnan effect in the body are sodium and protein. This occurs because cell membranes:
Are impermeable to protein

Intracellular protein concentration is high.
Effectively impermeable to sodium
Due to the Na+-K+ ATP-ase pump.
Changing Gibbs-Donnan equilibriums also change the tonicity on each side of the cell membrane, causing movement of water
which then upsets the Gibbs-Donnan effect - therefore there is no stable state.
The Gibbs-Donnan Effect is important for:
Maintenance of cell volume

Na+ acts as an effective osmole, reducing cellular swelling.
Plasma oncotic pressure
Increased plasma ion concentration increases oncotic pressure.
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Resting Membrane Potential
References
2. Eaton DC, Pooler JP. Vander's Renal Physiology. 6th Ed (Revised). McGraw-Hill Education - Europe. 2004.
131
Fluid Compartments
Fluid Compartments
To describe the composition and control of intracellular fluid ~and the mechanisms by which cells maintain their
homeostasis and integrity~
On average, the human body is ~60% water. Distribution of water content can be divided conceptually into:
Intracellular fluid
Composes 2/3rds of total body water. ICF is:
Not a contiguous fluid space
Useful as the composition of cellular contents is relatively uniform:
Potassium is the dominant intracellular cation
Sodium concentrations are low.
The dominant anion is protein
Chloride concentration is relatively low.
Low in magnesium
Extracellular fluid
Composes the remaining 1/3rd of total body water, and is further divided into:
Intravascular fluid
Composes ~20% of ECF. This refers solely to plasma volume (as the volume of blood from cellular components is
ICF). The ICF is:
Vital for transporting nutrients, waste, and chemical messengers between the plasma and cells
Transcellular fluid
Composes ~7% of ECF, and describes the volume of CSF, urine, synovial fluid, gastric secretions, and aqueous humour.
Interstitial fluid
Composes the bulk of ECF volume, and describes the fluid that occupies the volume between cells.
Variations
Actual total body water content varies predominantly with fat content. This leads to differences concentrations in:
Neonates
~75-80%.
Elderly
~50% by the age of 60, due to increased adiposity.
Women
Typically ~55%.
Measuring Volumes of Fluid Compartments

All methods rely on the indicator-dilution method:
A known amount (i.e. known volume of a known concentration) of indicator with affinity to a particular compartment is
given and allowed to equilibrate
The concentration of the indicator is then measured
The difference between the measured concentration and the initial concentration is proportional to the volume of the
compartment
Indicators used for calculation of:
132
Fluid Compartments
Plasma volume
A colloid that will be retained in the vascular compartment; e.g. radio-labelled albumin.
ECF volume
A substance which can enter the interstitium but not cells; e.g. thiosulphate.
Total body water
A substance which can enter all compartments frelly; e.g. heavy water ( ).
ICF volume
Can be measured by the difference between calculated ECF volume and TVW.
References
1. Brandis, K. Fluid Compartments. Anaesthesia MCQ.
133
Cell Homeostasis
Cell Homeostasis
To describe the ~composition and control of intracellular fluid and the~ mechanisms by which cells maintain their
homeostasis and integrity
Cellular respiration describes the production of ATP through a series of redox reactions. Oxygen is used as the oxidising agent,
whilst the catabolic fuel may be glucose, fat, or protein.
Cellular respiration can be broken down into:
Glycolysis/Lipolysis/Proteolysis
Citric Acid Cycle
Electron Transport Chain
Glycolysis
Glycolysis, or the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, describes the production of pyruvate from glucose. Glycolysis:
Occurs in the cytoplasm

Begins with the phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosophate
Produces:
2 ATP
2 Pyruvate
2 NADH
Note that oxygen is not consumed and carbon dioxide is not produced
In aerobic conditions:
NADH exchanges electrons across the mitochondrial wall, regenerating NAD+ and allowing glycolysis to continue
In anaerobic conditions:
NAD+ is regenerated through the production of lactate
When aerobic conditions are restored, lactate can be oxidised back to pyruvate and enter the CAC
Transported to the liver and converted back to pyruvate (and enter the CAC), or produce glucose (Cori cycle)
Citric Acid Cycle/Kreb's Cycle

Takes place in the mitochondria
Complicated
Can take many various substrates:
Acetyl CoA
Produced by β-oxidation of fatty acids and pyruvate.
Pyruvate
Ketoacids
Does not consume oxygen but also doesn't function under anaerobic conditions, due to its requirement on fresh NAD+
from the ETC
Produces:
NADH
FADH2
CO2
134
Cell Homeostasis
Electron Transport Chain

Final stage of carbohydrate, fat, and protein catabolism
ETC consists of five protein complexes
Electrons are passed along the chain and combine with oxygen, releasing energy which stimulates the movement of hydrogen
ions
Each time a hydrogen ion crosses the mitochondrial matrix, an ATP is produced
This is called coupled phosphorylation
Uncoupled phosphorylation allows hydrogen ions to travel down their gradient without generating ATP, which produces
excess heat instead
36-38 ATP are produced by aerobic glycolysis
Sources disagree on exactly how much ATP is produced.
2 from the Embden-Meyerhof pathway
34-36 from the CAC and ETC
References
135
Respiratory System
Airway and Alveolar Anatomy

Describe the function and structure of the upper, lower airway and alveolus.
Upper Airway
The upper airway consists of the:
Mouth
Nasal cavity
Hairs filter large particles
Olfactory receptors detect harmful gases prior to inhalation
Pharynx
Larynx
Breathing can be oral or nasal. Nasal breathing offers:
Good humidification and filtration of inhaled particles because the septum and turbinates have:
High mucosal surface area
High muscosal blood flow
Generate turbulent flow
High resistance to flow
At a high minute ventilation, oral breathing is favoured.
Structures
Pharyngeal dilator muscles
Including glenioglossus and levator palati. Prevent pharnygeal collapse during negative-pressure ventilation and during sleep.
Larynx
Important for airway protection, speech, and effort closure.
Prevents aspiration during swallowing by elevating the epiglottis and occluding of the aryepiglottic folds
Phonation is achieved by adjusting tension (and therefore resonance) of the vocal cords by action of the cricothyroid
During inspiration, cricoarytenoid muscles rotate the arytenoid cartilage and abduct the vocal cords to reduce
resistance to airflow
During expiration, the thyroarytenoid muscles adduct the cords and increase resistance, providing intrinsic PEEP
3-4 cmH2O of PEEP is generated
Maintains patency of small airways
Prevents alveolar collapse and therefore maintains FRC.
Effort closure is tighter occlusion of the laryngeal inlet, in which the aryepiglottic muscles contract strongly to act as a
sphincter, allowing the airway to withstand up to 120cmH2O of pressure.
Lower Airway
The lower airway consists of the tracheobronchial tree:
From trachea to alveolus, the airways of the lungs divide 23 times

The tracheobronchial tree is divided into two zones, based on whether they contain alveoli and therefore are able to
participate in gas exchange:
The conducting zone is the first 16 divisions
136
Respiratory System
The respiratory zone is the last 7 divisions
Conducting Zone
The first 16 divisions constitute the conducting zone:
Anatomically, the conducting zone consists of:

Trachea
Mean diameter of 1.8 cm and a length of 11cm
D-shaped cross section
Curved cartilages anteriorly and longitudinal muscle (trachealis) posterioly. External pressure of 40cmH2O is
sufficient to occlude the extrathoracic trachea.
Flow is typically turbulent in the trachea and large airways
Bronchi
Comprise the first four divisions of the trachea
Right main bronchus is wider and deviates less from the axis of the trachea (the left main bronchus has a tighter
turn over the heart), which is why foreign bodies will tend to the right side
The two main bronchi divide into a total of 5 lobar bronchi, which in turn divide into a total of 18 segmental
bronchi
Cross-sectional area of the respiratory tract is lowest at the third division
These bronchi will collapse when intrathoracic pressure exceeds intraluminal pressure by ~5cmH2O.
Segmental bronchi travel with branches of the pulmonary artery and lymphatics
These are the bronchi that demonstrate peribronchial cuffing and perihilar haze in early pulmonary oedema.
Flow is typically transitional in the smaller bronchi and bronchioles
Bronchioles
Embedded in the lung parenchyma
Do not have cartilage in their walls to maintain patency - are held open by lung volume
Resistance to flow tends to be negligible due to large cross sectional area, unless there is spasm of helical muscle
bands in bronchial wall
Terminal bronchioles
Flow may become laminar in the smallest bronchioles as flow decreases
Flow in the conducting zone during inspiration is fast and turbulent

No gas exchange occurs in the conducting zone
The volume of the conducting zone therefore contributes to anatomic dead space.
Blood supply to the conducting zone is via the bronchial circulation
Mucous is secreted by goblet cells in the bronchial walls to trap inhaled particles
Cilia in the bronchial walls move rhythmically to drive the mucociliary elevator, driving mucous up to the epiglottis, where it
is then swallowed or expectorated
137
Respiratory System
Respiratory Zone
The remaining 7 divisions make up the respiratory zone. This region:
Makes up the majority of lung volume

All non-anatomical dead space volume is in the respiratory zone, and is ~30ml.kg-1 (FRC) at rest
Blood supply is via the pulmonary circulation
Gas flow in the terminal respiratory zone is slow due to the exponential increase in cross-sectional area with each airway
division
Diffusion is the predominant mechanism of gas movement
Alveolus
The alveolus is optimised for gas exchange:
Spherical shape maximises surface area to volume ratio

Total surface area of lung alveoli is 50-100m2
Alveolar walls are extremely thin (0.2-0.3μm)
Consequently, they are fragile and can be damaged by increases in capillary pressure
Alveolar walls contain a dense mesh of capillaries 7 to 10μm thick, which is just large enough for an erythrocyte to pass
through
The alveolar-capillary barrier consists of three layers:
138
Respiratory System
Type I pneumocytes
Extracellular matrix
Pulmonary capillary endothelium
Alveoli are composed of three types of cells:
Type I pneumocytes
Thin-walled epithelial cells optimised for gas exchange.
Form ~90% of the alveolar surface area
Type II pneumocytes
Specialised secretory cells.
Secrete surfactant
Alveoli are inherently unstable, and surface tension of alveolar fluid favours collapse of the alveoli. Surfactant reduces
surface tension, allowing the alveoli to expand.
Form ~10% of alveolar surface area
Alveolar macrophages
Alveoli have no cilia - inhaled particles are phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages in alveolar septa and lung interstitium.
References
1. Lumb A. Nunn's Applied Respiratory Physiology. 7th Edition. Elsevier. 2010.
2. West J. Respiratory Physiology: The Essentials. 9th Edition. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. 2011.
139
Chest Wall and Diaphragm

Describe the structure of the chest wall and diaphragm and to relate these to respiratory mechanics.
The chest wall is formed by the ribs and intercostal muscles:
Ribs
Slope anteroinferiorly, and are connected by the external, internal, and innermost intercostal muscles.
Intercostal muscles
External intercostals slope anteroinferiorly
Internal and innermost intercostals slope inferoposteriory
Diaphragm
Complex dome-shaped membranous structure, consisting of a central tendon and peripheral muscles
Performs the majority of inspiratory work of breathing
Able to dramatically increase intraabdominal pressure, so is essential in:
Coughing
Vomiting
Sneezing
Role in maintaining lower oesophageal sphincter tone
It has three perforations:
T8 for the vena cava (eight letters)
T10 for the oesophagus (ten letters)
T12 for the aorta, thoracic duct, and azygos vein
Inspiration
During inspiration, the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
Diaphragm pushes the intrabdominal contents down, increasing thoracic volume and generating a negative intrathoracic
pressure
Diaphragm is supplied by the phrenic nerves from C3/4/5.
External intercostals pull the ribs anterosuperiorly, which increases the cross-sectional area of the chest, further
increasing thoracic volume (and negative pressure)
Intercostal muscles are supplied by intercostal nerves from the same spinal level
Paralysis of the external intercostals does not have a dramatic effect on inspiratory function provided the
diaphragm is intact
Accessory muscles include sternocleidomastoid and the scalene, which elevate the sternum and first two ribs respectively.
They are active in hyperventilation.
140
Expiration
Expiration is passive during quiet breathing as elastic recoil of the lung will return them to FRC
When minute ventilation is high, expiration becomes an an active process:
Abdominal wall muscles (rectus abdominis, internal oblique, external oblique, transversus abdominis) contract, raising
intrabdominal pressure and forcing the diaphragm up
Internal and innermost intercostals contract, pulling the ribs downwards and inwards, further decreasing thoracic
volume
Respiratory Mechanics in Spinal Injury

Paralysis of the abdominal wall muscles (e.g. spinal injury) has significant affect on respiratory mechanics:
In the initial phases of injury, spinal shock results in a flaccid paralysis of the abdominal wall
Intrabdominal pressure is low, and so the diaphragm moves inferiorly
This results in a higher FRC but limits tidal volumes, as contraction of the diaphragm only increase thoracic
volume by a small fraction.
Nursing in a supine position causes the abdominal contents to push the diaphragm superiorly, causing:
Lower FRC
Greater proportional expansion with respiration, improving tidal volumes
Once spastic paralysis ensues, the abdominal wall is rigid and the patient can be sat up
References
141
Variations in Anatomy
Variations in Upper Airway Anatomy

Understand the differences encountered in the upper airway for neonates, children and adults.
Neonates and Children

Changes are most obvious below 1 year of age. They typically resolve by ~8 years of age.
Head and neck changes

Obligate nose breathers
Nasal obstruction may significantly impair respiration.
Proportionally enlarged head and occiput
Optimal intubating position is neutral rather than ramped.
Proportionally short neck
Favours airway obstruction when flexed.
Laryngeal changes
Disproportionately large tongue that complicates laryngoscopy
Epiglottis is u-shaped, longer, and stiffer
Larynx lies at C4 (rather than C6 in adults)
Narrowest part of the upper airway is at the cricoid
Oedema due to trauma may rapidly cause airway obstruction.
Intrathoracic changes
Intrathoracic trachea is also shorter
May be only 4cm long, so there is little margin for error in tube placement.
Left and right bronchi arise at similar angles, so endobronchial intubation may occur on either side
Airways themselves are narrower, and have a higher resistance to flow.
References
1. Nickson, C. Paediatric Airway. LITFL.
2. Anderson, C. Anatomy of the Respiratory system.. ICU Primary Prep.
142
Control of Breathing
Describe the control of breathing
Ventilation is controlled by a feedback loop involving:
Inputs
Integration and control centres
Effectors
Inputs
Inputs to the respiratory centre comes from a number of sensors:
Chemoreceptors
Chemoreceptors act synergistically. Chemoreceptors are divided into:
Peripheral
Central
Mechanoreceptors
Other effects
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
Peripheral chemoreceptors are divided into:
The carotid body

Located at the bifurcation of the common carotid artery, and are innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX).
The aortic body
Located in the aortic arch, and innervated by the vagus (CN X).
Peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated by:
Low PaO2
Peripheral chemoreceptors are stimulated by low O2 tension
High PaCO2
Peripheral receptors have a rapid (~1-3s) but weaker (~20% of response) to changes in CO2, compared to central
chemoreceptors
143
Acidaemia
(Carotid bodies only)
Hypotension
Central Chemoreceptors
Central chemoreceptors are located on the ventral medulla, and are stimulated by a fall in CSF pH
H+ and HCO3- are ionised, and cannot cross the BBB by diffusion
Because of this, central chemoreceptors respond indirectly to changes in arterial PaCO2
Carbon dioxide is lipid soluble and freely diffuses into CSF
In CSF, carbon dioxide combines with water (catalysed by carbonic anydrase) to form H+ and HCO3-
This gives the central chemoreceptors a number of special properties:

Increased sensitivity
Increased relative to plasma due to minimal buffering (as there is less protein in CSF)
Respond to respiratory acidosis
Fixed acid does not cross the blood brain barrier and so have a minimal response on CSF pH. Cerebral hypoxia
increases CSF lactate, which will stimulate respiration.
Mechanism of CO2 Retention

Prolonged respiratory acidosis (i.e. prolonged CSF acidosis) stimulates active secretion of bicarbonate into the CSF
When pH normalises, the stimulation of central chemoreceptors ceases
Similarly, renal absorption of bicarbonate increases, which normalises arterial pH and reduces peripheral chemoreceptor
stimulation
Mechanoreceptors
Stretch receptors in bronchial muscle are stimulated by overinflation, and stimulate the apneustic centre to reduce inspiratory
volumes. This is the Hering-Breuer reflex.
Other Stimulants
Other inputs which stimulate respiration include:
Juxtacapillary receptors (J-receptors)

Receptors in alveolar walls, potentially stimulated by oedema and emboli.
Irritant receptors
Inhalation of noxious gases stimulates respiration.
Pain receptors
144
Thalamus
Increased core temperature stimulates respiration.
Limbic system
Emotional responses.
Cerebral cortex
Conscious control of breathing.
Muscle spindles
Ventilatory response to exercise.
Integration and Control

The respiratory centre is located in the medulla and the pons. It consists of four groups:
Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)

Controls the diaphragm, and is so only involved with inspiration.
Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)
Controls the intercostal muscles, and so is involved in inspiration and expiration.
Apneustic Centre
Modulates DRG function to prevent overexpansion. Loss of this area causes abneusis - long, deep breaths.
Pneumotaxic Centre
Also modulates the DRG, increasing RR and decreasing VT to maintain MV.
References
1. CICM February/April 2015
4. Brandis K. The Physiology Viva: Questions & Answers. 2003.
145
Mechanics of Breathing
Respiration
Describe the inspiratory and expiratory process involving the chest wall, diaphragm, pleura and lung parenchyma
Explain the significance of the vertical gradient of pleural pressure and the effect of positioning
Change in lung volume occurs due to change in intrapleural pressures. Therefore, respiration relies on the thoracic cavity being
airtight, with the trachea being the only method gas can enter or exit the chest.
Intrapleural pressure (PPl)

Intrapleural pressure is the pressure in the space between the visceral and parietal pleura, or (physiologically) between the lungs
and the chest wall.
Usually negative, typically -5cmH2O at rest

Balance between the:
Outwards recoil of the chest wall
Inwards recoil of the lungs (Pel)
Varies with vertical distance in the lung
Gravity pulls the lung parenchyma inferiorly
Intrapleural pressure is therefore:
More negative in the apex
Typically -10cmH2O at FRC
Less negative in the base
Typically -3cmH2O at FRC
This changes the degree of inflation at FRC
Apical alveoli are maximally inflated
Basal alveoli are relatively deflated
During inspiration, the pleural pressure changes evenly throughout the lung, however the basal alveoli are better ventilated
because their compliance is increased (due to lower resting volume)
Inspiration
Diaphragmatic and external intercostal/accessory muscle contraction causes an increase in the volume of the thorax
Intrapleural pressure becomes more negative, typically to -8cmH2O
When Ppl > Pel, the lungs expands
Alveolar pressure (PA) becomes subatmospheric, and inspiration occurs
At end inspiration:
Ppl = Pel
PA = Patmospheric
Expiration
Muscular relaxation causes the chest wall to passively return to their resting position
Thoracic volume falls
Ppl falls to -5cmH2O
The elastic recoil of the lung causes it to collapse until PA = Patmospheric
146
Mechanics of Breathing
References
147
Compliance
Compliance
Define compliance (static, dynamic and specific), its measurement, and relate this to the elastic properties of the respiratory
system.
Compliance is the change in volume for a given a change in pressure

Compliance is measured in ml.cmH2O-1.
It occurs due to the tendency of a tissue to resume its original position after removal of an applied force
It is the inverse of elastance, which is the force at which the lung recoils for a given distension
A decreased compliance means the transpulmonary pressure must change by a greater amount for a given volume, which
increases elastic work of breathing
Compliance of the Respiratory System

Compliance of the respiratory system is a function of both lung and chest wall compliance:
The curve is not linear as compliance varies with lung volume In the normal range however, (-5 to -10cmH2O) compliance
of the lung and chest wall independently is typically stated as ~200ml.cmH2O-1.
Compliance of the respiratory system as a whole is therefore ~100ml.cmH2O-1
Measurement of Lung and Chest Wall Compliance

Lung compliance is calculated form the alveolar-intrapleural pressure gradient
Chest-wall compliance is calculated from the intrapleural-ambient pressure gradient
Total compliance is calculated from the alveolar-ambient gradient
Measuring ambient and alveolar pressure is straightfoward, as is calculating compliance of the respiratory system
Alveolar pressure is measured by taking a plateau pressure
Separating lung and chest wall compliance requires measurement of intrapleural pressure
This is performed by measuring oesophageal pressure (using a balloon) with an open glottis, as oesophageal pressure
approximates intrapleural pressure.
Measurement of compliance of each system individually determines what proportion of plateau pressure is distributed to
each
If the lung is significantly less compliant than the chest wall, a greater pressure is required to distend the lung
Therefore, the alveolar-intrapleural gradient will be much greater than the intrapleural-ambient gradient
This can be expressed by the equation:
Static Compliance
Static compliance is the compliance of the system at a given volume when there is no flow
Therefore there is no pressure component due to resistance
A static compliance curve is made by measuring the pressure across a range of lung volumes, with patient taking incremental
breaths
Static compliance is a function of:
148
Compliance
Elastic recoil of the lung

Surface tension of alveoli
Dynamic Compliance
Dynamic compliance is the compliance measured during respiration, using continuous pressure and volume measurements
Therefore, dynamic compliance includes the pressure required to generate flow by overcoming resistance forces
This means it is also a bit of misnomer
Dynamic compliance is always less than static compliance, as there will always be a degree of airway resistance
Dynamic compliance is a function of respiratory rate
In normal lungs at normal respiratory rates it approximates static compliance.
Reduced in in lung units with unequal time constants at high respiratory rates
Due to incomplete filling of alveoli - the portion of pressure that is used to overcome airways resistance is therefore
proportionally greater
Specific Compliance
Specific compliance is the compliance per unit volume of lung, expressed as:
Specific compliance is used to compare different lungs
Hysteresis
In general, hysteresis refers to any process where the future state of a system is dependent on its current and previous
state
Specific to the lung, it means the compliance of the lung is different in inspiration and expiration
149
Compliance
There is hysteresis in both static and dynamic curves:

In dynamic compliance curves:
Airways resistance is a function of flow rate. Flow rate (therefore resistance) is maximal at the beginning of inspiration
and end-expiration.
In static compliance curves:
There is no resistive component. Hysteresis is due to viscous resistance of surfactant and the lung.
Changes in Compliance
Respiratory system compliance can be affected by changes to either lung or chest wall compliance, and can be increased or
decreased.
Increased Lung Compliance

Normal aging
Asthma attack
Emphysema
Decreased Lung Compliance

Alterations in lung volume and consolidation
Compliance is reduced at extremes of lung volume. It is highest at FRC.
Children
Pneumonectomy/lobectomy
Atelectasis/collapse
Pneumonia
ARDS
Increased pulmonary blood volume/venous congestion
APO
Increased surface tension
Reduced surfactant
Hyaline Membrane Disease
Impaired parenchymal compliance
Pulmonary fibrosis
Increased Chest Wall Compliance

Collagen disorders
Decreased Chest Wall Compliance

Chest wall restriction/structural abnormalities
Obesity
Spastic paralysis of chest wall musculature
Ossification of costal cartilages
Kyphosis/scoliosis
Scarring/constriction (e.g. circumferential burns)
Position
Prone (60% reduced compliance)/supine
This is due to the effect of position on lung volume.
150
Compliance
References
2. Kenny JE. Heart-Lung Interaction Lecture Series. From heart-lung.org.
151
Time-Constants
Time-Constants
Explain the concepts of time constants
A Refresher on Time Constants

The time-constant is:
The time that a process would take to complete if its initial rate of change remained constant
Relevant when modeling a process using exponential functions
Remember an exponential function is a curve where the rate of change is proportional to the current value
For a quantity that decreases1 overtime, the general case is:
, where:
is the value of at
is the rate constant ( plots a curve that grows)

is time
Importantly:
is the reciprocal of the time constant,

In a negative exponential, time-constant is the time it would take for to reach 0 if the original rate of change was
maintained.
Other fun facts about the time constant (for an exponential decay) include:
After 1 , will be 37% ( ) of its initial value
After 2 , will be 13.5% ( ) of its initial value
Physiological Signifiance
The time-constant is used in respiratory physiology in:
Timing inspiration and expiration

Elimination of inhalational anaesthetics
The change in PaO2 and PaCO2 after changes in ventilation
In ventilation:
The time constant is affected by:

Compliance
Resistance
Inflation pressure
At a constant inflation pressure, the time constant is equal to the product of resistance and compliance, i.e.
152
Time-Constants
.
For two lung units of equal compliance and resistance
Inflation will occur as per the exponential growth function
Time-constants of each lung unit will be equal
No redistribution of gas will occur at end-inspiration as the pressure and volume of each unit is the same
For two lung units, where one has half the compliance but twice the resistance
The time constants are equal, therefore both reach peak filling at the same time
However, the poorly compliant unit will only reach half the volume
No redistribution of gas will occur at end-inspiration as the pressure and volume of each unit is the same
For two lung units, where one has twice the resistance of the other
The time-constants are unequal
The resistant unit will fill at half the rate of the other
If inspiration is prolonged both will reach the same volume
If inspiration his halted early, and expiration prevented, there will be a pressure gradient between the units (as
compliance is the same), and gas will redistribute from the low-resistant unit to the high-resistant unit
For two lung units where one has half the compliance
The time constants are unequal
The poorly compliant unit will fill at half the rate of the other
If inspiration is prolonged they will both reach the same pressure
The volume in the poorly compliant unit will be half that of the more compliant unit.
During inspiration, the pressure rises more rapidly in the poorly compliant unit, and if inspiration is stopped and
expiration prevented, this will result in redistribution into the more compliant unit until pressures are equal
In general:
Rate of filling is determined by time constants

High-resistance lung units have longer time constants and take longer to fill
Final volume (assuming an indefinite inspiration) is a function of compliance
Poorly compliant units with empty and fill rapidly
This creates the concept of fast and slow alveoli, depending on their time constants.
At a sustained inflation pressure:

A low-resistance unit shows initial greater volume change but rapidly approaches equilibrium volume
A high-compliance unit takes a greater overall volume over a longer period
At end-inspiration:
Pressure in units with a shorter time-constant rises more rapidly and if a breath is held will result in redistribution to
those units with a longer time-constant.
Clinical Signifiance
If time-constants are equal:
The pressure in each unit is identical throughout inspiration and distribution

Therefore, dynamic compliance will be independent of respiratory rate.
If time-constants are unequal:
Long-time constant units may still be inhaling whilst the rest of the lung has stopped, or begun exhalation
This is called pendelluft.
In pendelluft, distribution of inspired gas is dependent on respiratory rate
As respiratory rate increases, the proportion of the tidal volume that is delivered to the region with a long time-constant
decreases
Fast alveoli are preferentially inflated, causing V/Q scatter or shunt in the unventilated slow alveoli.
153
Time-Constants
Dynamic compliance will decrease as respiratory rate rises and be markedly different from static compliance
Footnotes
1. For a curve that grows overtime, the time constant is the time it would take for to reach 63% of its final value, i.e.
. ↩
References
154
Resistance
Resistance
Explain the relationship between resistance and respiratory gas flow
Describe the factors affecting airway resistance, and its measurement
Resistance (measured in cmH2O.L-1.sec-1) comprises the energy lost as frictional and inertial impedance to gas flow, where
energy is lost as heat. Flow is a function of pressure gradient, resistance, and type of flow.
Types of Flow
Flow can be either laminar or turbulent. In laminar conditions flow is proportional to driving pressure, whilst in turbulent
conditions flow is proportional to the square root of driving pressure.
Reynolds' Number
Type of flow can be predicted by Reynolds's Number, a dimensionless index where:
, where:
= Radius
= Gas density
= Velocity
= Gas viscosity
A Reynolds' Number of < 2000 is predominantly laminar flow, whilst >4000 is predominantly turbulent.
Laminar Flow
In laminar flow:
Gas moves in a series of concentric cylinders which slide over one another
Gas in the centre moves twice as fast compared to the outside, where it is almost stationary
Gas appears in cross-section as an advancing cone
Gas may reach the end of the tube when the volume of flow is less than the volume of the tube.
This is the mechanism of alveolar ventilation when tidal volumes are less than anatomical dead space volume
In a straight unbranched tube, flow can be quantified by the Hagen-Poiseuille Equation:
, where:
= Flow
= Driving pressure
= Radius
= Length
= Viscosity
However, as in laminar conditions flow is proportional to the driving pressure and inversely proportional to resistance, flow can be
substituted and the equation solved for resistance:
155
Resistance
This can be used to describe the factors affecting resistance:
Length
Fixed constant.
Viscosity
Varies with the particular gas mixture being used.
Radius
Main determinant. May be divided into:
Extraluminal factors
Compression:
Haemorrhage, tumour, dynamic hyperinflation, atelectasis compressing airways, etc.
Lung volume:
Airway radius increases when lung volume expands due to radial traction on airways (until dynamic
hyperinflation occurs, at which point airways are compressed again)
Luminal constriction
Bronchospasm, bronchoconstriction.
Intraluminal obstruction
Sputum plugging, aspiration.
Note that airway resistance:
Peaks at the 5th generation

Rapidly decreases with each airway division thereafter
This is due to the total cross-sectional area increasing dramatically.
Reduces with increasing lung volume, as radial tension distends airways, increasing their cross sectional area
Turbulent Flow
156
Resistance
High flow rates and branching of airways disrupt disciplined laminar flow. Turbulent flow: is:
Dominant in the upper airway (where velocity is high)

Dominant in early-generation airways due to regular branching, changes in diameter, and sharp angles
Reduces after the 11th generation bronchioles
Proportional to the square root of the driving pressure
Therefore, resistance is higher in turbulent flow than in laminar flow.
Driving pressure is proportional to gas density, and independent of viscosity
Resistance in turbulent flow is managed by making flow less turbulent:
Achieved by reducing Reynolds number

Helium mixtures reduce gas density
Of greater benefit in upper airway than lower airway disease.
Transitional Flow
Transitional flow occurs at branches and angles in the airways, as occur in most of the bronchial tree.
References
157
Surfactant
Surfactant
Describe the properties, production and regulation of, surfactant and relate these to its role in influencing respiratory
mechanics
Surface Tension
Surface tension describes the tendency of a fluid to minimise its surface area
It is related to the attraction between particles in the fluid relative to particles outside the fluid
Surface tension is why:
Water scattered on a surface forms rounded droplets
Why multiple droplets will tend to coalesce into a single larger droplet
This relationship is described by La Place's Law
, where:
is pressure
is surface tension
is radius
Alveoli obey Laplace's Law

High surface tension causes three problems with alveoli
Compliance falls when the alveolus is empty
As the radius falls, the pressure required to open it (at a given surface tension) will be increased. This increases work of
breathing.
Smaller alveoli will preferentially empty into bigger alveoli
Smaller alveoli require greater transmural pressures to remain inflated. This causes smaller alveoli to empty into larger
ones.
Fluid transudation
Surface tension draws fluid from interstitial spaces and contributes to pulmonary oedema.
Overall, high surface tension is detrimental to the lungs
Surfactant
Surfactant is a substance which substantially reduces work of breathing by reducing alveolar surface tension
Surfactant is produced by type II alveolar cells in response to lung inflation and respiration
It is composed of:
85% phopholipid
5% neutral lipid
10% protein
Surfactant is amphipathic
Each component has a hydrophobic and hydrophlic end.
This causes the molecules to orient themselves along the air-liquid interface, disrupting the attractive bonds between
water molecules
Surface tension is reduced in proportion to the concentration of molecules
The concentration of surfactant changes throughout the respiratory cycle
During expiration alveoli collapse
The decrease in alveolar radius is offset by the increase in surfactant concentration, so the fall in radius is mitigated by
158
Surfactant
the drop in surface tension.
References
1. CICM September/November 2012
159
Volumes and Capacities

Explain the measurement of lung volumes and capacities, and factors that influence them
State the normal values of lung volumes and capacities
Define closing capacity and its clinical significance and measurement
The lung has four volumes and four (main) capacities:
A volume is measured directly

A capacity is a sum of volumes
Volumes
Tidal volume (VT)
Volume of air during normal, quiet breathing.
Normal is 7ml.kg-1, or 500ml
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

Volume of air that can be inspired above tidal volume.
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

Volume of air that can be expired following tidal expiration.
Residual volume (RV)

Volume of air in the lungs following a maximal expiration.
Normal is 15-20ml.kg-1, or 1500ml
Capacities
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
FRC = RV + ERV.
Normal is 30ml.kg-1 or 3000ml
FRC decreases 20% when supine, and a further 20% under general anaesthesia
Vital Capacity (VC)

VC = ERV + VT + IRV.
Normal is 4500ml
160
Inspiratory Capacity (IC)

IC = VT + IRV.
Normal is 3000ml
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

TLC = RV + ERV + VT + IRV.
Normal is 6000ml
Functional Residual Capacity

The FRC has many important physiological functions:
Gas exchange
The FRC allows blood in the pulmonary circulation to become oxygenated throughout the respiratory cycle (if there was no
FRC, then at expiration the lungs would be empty and no oxygenation would occur).
Oxygen Reserve
FRC is the only clinically modifiable oxygen store in the body, and allows continual oxygenation of blood during apnoeic
periods.
Minimise Work of Breathing

Work of breathing is a function of lung resistance and compliance.
The lung sits on the steepest part of the compliance occurs at FRC
Compliance is optimised as:
Alveoli are open and minimally distended
Below FRC, some alveoli collapse and the volume of lung available to receive the tidal volume decreases
Re-expansion of collapsed alveoli requires more work than expanding open alveoli.
Above FRC, some alveoli will become overdistended and their compliance will fall
Airway resistance decreases as airway radius increases as lung volume increases
Minimise RV Afterload
PVR is minimal at FRC.
Above FRC, compression of intra-alveolar vessels occurs and PVR increases
Below FRC, extra-alveolar vessels collapse and PVR increases
Maintain lung volume above closing capacity

If closing capacity (see below) exceeds FRC, then shunt will occur.
Factors affecting FRC:
FRC is reduced by:

Supine positioning
Falls by ~20%.
Anaesthesia
Falls by ~20%.
Raised intra-abdominal pressure
Impaired lung and chest wall compliance
FRC is increased by:
PEEP
Extrinsic
Intrinsic (gas trapping)
PEEP
Emphysema
Acute asthma
Age
161
May increase slightly.
Measurement of Lung Volumes and Capacities

ERV, VT, and IRV can all be measured directly using spirometry
A spirometer is a flow meter
The patient exhales as fast as possible through the flow meter
A flow-time curve is produced
This curve can be integrated to find volume
Any capacity which is a sum of these (IC, VC) can therefore be calculated
RV cannot be measured by spirometry, as it can't be exhaled

Therefore FRC and TLC cannot be calculated
RV can be measured using:
Gas dilution
Body plethysmography
Gas Dilution
Gas dilution relies on two principles:
Conservation of Mass
Helium has poor solubility and will not diffuse into circulation
Limitations of gas dilution:

Only gas communicating gas can be measured - will underestimate FRC in gas-trapping
Method:
Patient takes several breaths from a gas mixture containing a known concentration of helium (giving time for
equilibration)
The concentration of expired helium is then measured
From the law of conservation of mass:
is equal to the volume of the gas mixture the patient was breathing from ( ) and the patients FRC
Therefore:
Body Plethysmography
Body plethysmography relies on:
Boyles law
Pressure and volume are inversely proportional at a constant temperature, i.e. ( ).
Method:
Patient is placed in a closed box, with a mouthpiece that exits the box
The patient inhales against a closed mouthpiece:
When the patient inhales, the volume of gas in the box decreases (the patient takes up more space) and therefore
the pressure increases
The change in volume of the box is given by:
162
, where:
is the change in box volume, or

Therefore:
As is the only unknown value, it can be calculated.

The change in volume of the lung must be the same as the volume of the box ( )
In the case of the lung, the initial volume ( ) is FRC

Therefore:
Closing Capacity
Closing capacity is volume at which small airways begin to close
Closing capacity is the sum of residual volume and closing volume.
Because dependent lung is compressed by gravity, dependent (typically basal) airways are of smaller calibre than non-
dependent (typically apical) airways
During expiration, these airways are compressed first
Alveoli connected to these airways are isolated, and V/Q scatter or shunt occurs.
If closing capacity exceeds FRC, then airway closure occurs during normal tidal breathing
This occurs when:
FRC is decreased
CC is increased
Increases with age
CC exceeds FRC in the supine patient at 44
CC exceeds FRC in the erect patient at 66
This is clinically relevant during preoxygenation, as it will limit the denitrogenation that can occur
Measurement of Closing Capacity

Closing capacity is measured using Fowlers Method, and is covered under Dead Space.
References
163
164
Spirometry
Spirometry
Describe the pressure and flow-volume relationships of the lung, chest wall and the total respiratory system
Describe the measurement and interpretation of pulmonary function tests, including diffusion capacity.
Pulmonary function tests are performd with a spirometer, which measures either volume or flow (integrated for time) to quantify
lung function.
Basic spirometry can be used to quantify:
Lung volumes and capacities

All except residual volume (and therefore FRC and TLC).
Dynamic measurements
FEV1
Volume of air forcibly exhaled in one second.
FVC
Forced vital capacity.
PEFR
Peak expiratory flow rate.
Flow-volume loop
Additional testing can be performed to measure:
Residual volume
FRC and TLC can therefore be calculated.
Diffusion capacity
Basic Spirometry
Basic spirometry includes:
Forced spirometry
Patient forcibly exhales a vital capacity breath, producing a exponential (wash-in) curve. This calculates:
PEFR from the gradient at time 0 (assuming maximal effort)
FEV1 is the volume expired in 1s
Normal is > 80% of predicted.
FVC is the total volume exhaled.
The FEV1/FVC ratio
Normal is > 0.7.
These values also quantify disease severity:
In obstructive airways disease:
FEV1 <80% predicted
FEV1/FVC ratio
Restrictive disease:
FEV1 <80% predicted
FVC
FEV/FVC ratio >0.7
The ratio is normal as the FEV1 and FVC fall proportionally.
165
Spirometry
Volume-Time Graph (also known as a spirograph or spirogram)

Quantifies static lung volumes by having a patient perform:
Normal tidal breathing
Vital capacity breath
Vital capacity exhalation
Flow-Volume Loops
Normal
Peak expiratory flow of ~8L.s-1
Initial flow is highest as the increased lung volume increases the calibre of lung airways, reducing airways resistance.
This is called the effort dependent part of the curve
Flow tails off later in expiration
Lungs collapse, and airway calibre falls
Small airways are compressed
Any increase in expiratory pressure will increase airway resistance proportionally.
This is called dynamic airways compression, and results in a uniform flow rate that is independent of
expiratory effort*
This is therefore labelled the effort independent** part of the curve.
166
Spirometry
Obstructive lung disease

RV and TLC are increased due to gas trapping
Peak flow is limited
Effort-independent portion becomes concave
Restrictive lung disease

TLC is reduced, but residual volume is unchanged
Peak flow may be reduced (as seen here)
However, this reduction is proportional to the decrease in volume, such that the FEV1:FVC ratio is normal. If peak
flow is preserved, the FEV1:FVC ratio will be increased.
Effort independent part is linear
Fixed upper airway obstruction

Describes an upper airway obstruction that does not change calibre during the respiratory cycle.
Peak inspiratory and expiratory flow rates are limited by the stenosis
Variable extrathoracic obstruction

Variable as the obstruction changes during the respiratory cycle:
During (negative pressure) inspiration the lesion is pulled into trachea, reducing inspiratory flow
During expiration the lesion is pushed out of the trachea
The way to remember this is an extrathoracic obstruction impedes inspiration
The reverse effect occurs in positive pressure ventilation
167
Spirometry
Variable intrathoracic obstruction

The opposite to extrathoracic obstruction.
During inspiration the airway calibre increases and inspiratory flow is unimpeded
During expiration the airway calibre falls and expiratory flow is reduced
References
168
Work of Breathing
Work of Breathing
Describe the work of breathing and its components
Work of breathing is the energy used by the muscles for respiration. It is defined as:
, measured in Joules.
This gives the work for a single respiratory cycle

Energy expenditure over time is better described as the "power of breathing".
It does not take into account respiratory rate or flow rate
These factors have a significant effect on energy requirement.
This would be given by the rate of work, or power, where:
, measured in Watts.
Tidal breathing is efficient and uses < 2% of BMR
The oxygen requirement of breathing at rest is ~2-5% of VO2, or ~3ml.min-1
Determinants of Work of Breathing

Work of breathing is divided into:
Elastic work
About 65% of total work, and is stored as elastic potential energy. Energy required to overcome elastic forces:
Lung elastic recoil
Surface tension of alveoli
Resistive work
About 35% of total work, and is lost as heat. This is due to the energy required to overcome frictional forces:
Between tissues
Increased with increased interstitial lung tissue
Between gas molecules
Increased at high flow rates
Increased with turbulent flow
High respiratory rates
Upper airway obstruction
Increased airway density
Hyperbaric
Diving
Increased with decreased airway radius
Low lung volume
Inadequate PEEP
Decreased respiratory muscle tone
Bronchoconstriction
Dynamic airway compression
Effort-independent expiration.
Apparatus
Endotracheal Tube
HME filters
Airway resistance varies depending on airway division:
Resistance peaks at the 3rd airway division (lobar bronchi)
169
Work of Breathing
Falls with increasing airway divisions due to increased cross-sectional area
Graphing Work of Breathing

Work of breathing can be evaluated with a dynamic lung compliance curve:
If there were no resistive forces, then this curve would be a straight line
The triangular area is the elastic work done
The resistive work of brathing causes the deviation of the inspiratory and expiratory lines:
The area between the compliance line and the inspiratory line is additional resistive inspiratory work done
The area between the compliance line and expiratory line is additional resistive expiratory work done
This work is typically done by elastic recoil of the lungs
If this area falls within the area of elastic work of breathing, it is a purely passive process, using the stored elastic
potential energy of inspiration
If part of this area falls outside the area of elastic work of breathing, it demonstrates additional active work of
expiration which may occur in obstructive lung disease or when minute ventilation is high
Active expiratory work:
Minimising Work of Breathing
170
Work of Breathing
Work of breathing can be minimised by optimising the determinants:
Elastic work
PEEP
Keep lung volume at FRC and maximise number of ventilated alveoli.
Positioning
Optimise lung volume.
Surfactant
Minimising surface tension.
Optimise respiratory rate
Elastic work of breathing typically decreases with increased respiratory rate.
Resistive work
Decrease respiratory rate
Respiratory rate is directly proportional to resistive work.
Increase laminar flow
Laminar flow is more efficient than turbulent flow. Laminar flow can be increased by:
Reducing gas density
Heliox.
Increase Radius
Increase lung volume
Bronchodilators
Derivation
Work is defined as:
, where:
= Work in Joules
= Force in Newtons
= Distance in Metres
Additionally, pressure is defined as:
, where:
= Pressure in Pascal
= Area in Meters squared
Therefore:
Substituting:
, where:
= Volume
Therefore:
171
Work of Breathing
References
172
Diffusion of Gases
Oxygen Cascade
Describe and explain the oxygen cascade
The oxygen cascade describes the transfer of oxygen from air to mitochondria.
In each step of the cascade the PaO2 falls

It demonstrates that oxygen delivery to tissues relies on the passive transfer of gas down partial pressure gradients.
The steps of the cascade are:
Dry atmospheric gas
Humidified tracheal gas
Alveolar gas
Arterial blood
Mitochondria
Venous blood
Remember:
Partial pressure determines rate and extent of gas transfer

Oxygen content is what is important for cellular function
Atmospheric Gas
Atmospheric partial pressure of oxygen is a function of barometric pressure and the FiO2:
, where:
is 760mmHg
is 0.21
Therefore, = 160mmHg
173
Diffusion of Gases
Humidified Tracheal Gas

Gas is humidified during inspiration
Gas in the proximal trachea is heated to 37°C and has 100% relative humidity
The saturated vapour pressure of water at 37°C is 47mmHg
Therefore:
, where:
and are as above
is 149mmHg
Alveolar Gas
Ideal alveolar PO2 is calculated using the alveolar gas equation:
, where:
is the alveolar partial pressure of oxygen
is the inspired partial pressure of oxygen
is the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide
is the respiratory quotient, where

R is used in the alveolar gas equation to correct for the change in inspired relative to expired volume
As generally less CO2 is produced than O2 consumed, expired volumes are typically less than inspired volumes
R is dependent on the metabolic substrates used for metabolism:
Pure fat ≈ 0.7
Pure protein ≈ 0.9
Pure carbonhydrate ≈ 1
The normal value for a Western diet is quoted as 0.8
is a correction factor, usually equal to ~2mmHg, and is given by
Alveolar oxgygen is therefore dependent on:
PiO2, which is a function of:

FiO2
Air pressure
Alveolar ventilation
As .
Arterial Blood
The difference in partial pressure of oxygen between alveolar and arterial blood is called the A-a gradient:
A normal A-a gradient is
174
Diffusion of Gases
Normal arterial PO2 is 100mmHg

It occurs due to:
Shunt/VQ scatter
A small shunt is normal due to blood from the bronchial circulation and thebesian veins.
Diffusion abnormality
Mitochondria
PO2 varies with metabolic activity, but typically quoted as 5mmHg
The Pasteur point is the partial pressure of oxygen at which oxidative phosphorylation ceases, and is ~1mmHg
Venous Blood
PO2 is greater than mitochondrial PO2
Mixed venous blood typically quoted as 40mmHg.
Higher than mitochondria as not all arterial blood travels through capillary beds
References
175
Diffusing Capacity and Limitation

Explain perfusion-limited and diffusion-limited transfer of gases
Define diffusing capacity and its measurement
Describe the physiological factors that alter diffusing capacity
Rate of diffusion of gases is given by Fick's Law:
, where:
is the pressure gradient across the membrane

is the area of the membrane
is the solubility of the substance
is the thickness of the membrane
is the molecular weight of the substance
These can be divided into pressure, lung factors, and substance factors:
Pressure gradient
In the lung, this is a function of:
Partial pressure of the gas in the alveolus
This is affected by:
Atmospheric pressure
Ventilation
Alveolar hypoventilation will:
Increase PACO2
Decrease PAO2
Partial pressure of the gas in blood
This is affected by:
Solubility of the gas in blood
CO2 is ~20 times as soluble as O2 in blood.
Binding of gas to protein:
Particularly haemoglobin
Affects the rate of uptake of O2 and CO, and is why calculated DLCO is corrected for haemoglobin.
The shape of the oxy-haemoglobin dissociation curve allows a large volume of oxygen to be bound
before PaO2 begins to rise substantially.
Formation of carbamino compounds
Anaesthetic agents to plasma contents
e.g. albumin, cholesterol.
Lung factors
Surface Area
Affected by:
Parenchyma volume
Body size
Pathology
Many lung diseases will reduce surface area for gas exchange.
V/Q mismatch
Both shunt and dead space reduce the surface area available for gas exchange.
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Pulmonary blood volume

Vascular distension and recruitment also affects surface area. Factors affecting pulmonary blood volume include:
Cardiac output
Increased recruitment of vasculature in high output states
Decreased recruitment and increased V/Q mismatch in shock states.
Posture
Increased surface area when supine relative to sitting or standing.
Thickness
Increasing alveolar-capillary membrane thickness impedes gas exchange. Causes of this include:
Pathology
e.g. Pulmonary oedema and cardiac failure.
Substance factors
Solubility
More soluble substances will diffuse more quickly.
Molecular weight
Smaller substances will diffuse more quickly.
Diffusion and Perfusion Limitation

Limitation refers to what process limits gas uptake into blood:
Gases which are diffusion limited fail to equilibrate, i.e. the partial pressure of a substance in the alveolus does not equal
that in the pulmonary capillary
e.g. Carbon Monoxide
Gases which are perfusion limited have equal alveolar and pulmonary capillary partial pressures, so the amount of gas
content transferred is dependent on blood flow
e.g. Oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen diffusion takes ~0.25s
Pulmonary capillary transit time is 0.75s
Therefore, under normal conditions oxygen is a perfusion limited gas
However, oxygen may become diffusion limited in certain circumstances:
Alveolar-capillary barrier disease
Decreases the rate of diffusion.
Decreased surface area
Increased thickness
High cardiac output
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Decreases pulmonary transit time.

Altitude
Decreases PAO2.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is ventilation limited, rather than diffusion or perfusion limited
This is because it is:
20x more soluble in blood than oxygen
Rapidly produced from bicarbonate and carbamino compounds
Present in far greater amounts than oxygen
1.8L.kg-1 exist in the body (though 1.6L-1 of this are in bone and other relatively inaccessible compartments).
Impairment of diffusion capacity causes type 1 respiratory failure as oxygen is affected to a much greater extent than carbon
dioxide
Other Gases
Carbon monoxide
Diffusion limited due to:
High affinity for haemoglobin
Continual uptake into Hb results in a low partial pressures in blood.
Nitrous oxide Perfusion limited as equilibrium between alveolus and blood is rapidly reached as it is:
Not bound to haemoglobin
Relatively insoluble
Diffusion Capacity
Measurement of the ability of the lung to transfer gases
Measured as DLCO or diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is used as it is a diffusion limited gas.
Process:
Vital capacity breath of 0.3% CO
Held for 10s and exhaled
Inspired and expired CO are measured
Difference is the amount of CO which is now bound to Hb
DLCO is corrected for:
Age
Sex
Hb
DLCO is decreased in:
Thickened alveolar-capillary barrier
Interstitial lung disease
Reduced surface area
Emphysema
PE
Lobectomy/pneumonectomy
DLCO is increased in:
Exercise
Recruitment and capillary distension.
Alveolar haemorrhage
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Hb present within the lung binds CO.

Asthma (may be normal)
Potentially due to increased apical blood flow.
Obesity (may be normal)
Potentially due to increased cardiac output.
References
3. ANZCA March/April 1999
4. Deranged Physiology - Carbon Dioxide Storage and Transport
179
V\Q Relationships
West's Zones
Describe West's zones of the lung and explain the mechanisms responsible for them
West's Zones take into account the effect of alveolar pressure on pulmonary blood flow. The lung is divided into four zones:
West Zone 1: PA > Pa > Pv

Alveolar pressure exceeds arterial pressure.
The alveolus compresses the capillary, and no blood flow occurs
As there is ventilation but no perfusion, this can also be thought of as dead space
This occurs when:
Alveolar pressure is high
PEEP
Arterial pressure is low
Shock
Hypovolaemia
West Zone 2: Pa > PA > Pv

Arterial pressure exceeds alveolar pressure, which exceeds venous pressure.
Blood flow occurs intermittently during the cardiac cycle
Alveolar pressure acts as a Starling resistor
Flow is proportional to the Pa - PA gradient.
When Pa falls below PA (e.g. in diastole), then no blood flow will occur
West Zone 3: Pa > Pv > PA

Arterial pressure exceeds venous pressure which exceeds alveolar pressure.
Blood flow occurs throughout the cardiac cycle
Flow is proportional to the Pa - Pv gradient.
For an accurate measure of PCWP, a PAC must be placed in West Zone 3 (so there is a continual column of blood)
This tends to happen naturally as the majority of pulmonary flow is to this region
West Zone 4: Pa > Pi > Pv > PA

Interstitial pressure acts as a Starling resistor for pulmonary blood flow.
It is seen when interstitial pressure is high (e.g due to pulmonary oedema).
References
180
Basics of V\Q Matching
Basics of V/Q Matching

Optimal gas exchange occurs when regions of lung are ventilated in proportion to their perfusion, i.e. V/Q = 1
Uneven distribution of ventilation and perfusion causes inefficient gas exchange:

Excessive ventilation causes excessive work
Inadequate ventilation causes inadequate gas exchange
Distribution of Ventilation
The right lung is slightly better ventilated than the left
In an erect patient the bases of the lung are better ventilated
The weight of lung above compresses the lung below, improving the compliance of dependent lung whilst stretching the non-
dependent lung.
This is only significant at low inspiratory flow rates
The V/Q ratio in the bases is ~0.6
The V/Q ratio in the apices is >3
In a lateral position:
The dependent lung is better ventilated in a spontaneously breathing patient
The non-dependent lung is better ventilated in a ventilated patient
Distribution of Perfusion
The pulmonary circulation is a low pressure circulation
Gravity therefore has a substantial effect on fluid pressure
Consequently, the distribution of blood throughout the lungs is uneven:
The bases perfused better than the apices
This is affected by lung volume, with the effect:
Becoming more pronounced at TLC (with apical perfusion falling precipitously)
Reversing slightly at RV
V/Q Ratios
The global V/Q ratio for normal resting lung is 0.9

The global V/Q ratio improves to 1.0 during exercise
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Basics of V\Q Matching
V/Q Mismatch and Etymology

V/Q mismatch occurs when V/Q ≠ 1:
V/Q >1 (Dead Space)
Ventilation in excess of perfusion.
However, pulmonary blood is passing ventilated alveoli and PaO2 is normal
V/Q 0 to 1 (V/Q scatter)

Perfusion in excess of ventilation.
Increasing in PAO2 will increase PaO2
This is commonly referred to by the general term of V/Q mismatch
V/Q = 0 (Shunt)
Mixed venous blood entering the systemic circulation without being oxygenated via passage through the lungs. PaO2
falls.
References
182
Dead Space
Dead Space
Dead space is the proportion of minute ventilation which does not participate in gas exchange.
Types of Dead Space

Dead space can be divided into:
Apparatus dead space

Dead space from equipment, such as tubes ventilator circuitry. Some apparatus dead space may actually reduce total dead
space, as an ETT bypasses the majority of anatomical dead space of the patient (nasopharynx).
Physiological dead space

Dead space from the patient. Physiological dead space is divided into:
Anatomical dead space
The volume of the conducting zone of the lung. Anatomical dead space is affected by:
Size and Age
3.3ml.kg-1 in the infant, falls to 2.2ml.kg-1 in the adult
Posture
Decreases when supine.
Position of the neck and jaw
Increased with neck extension.
Lung volumes
Increases by ~20ml per litre of additional lung volume.
Airway calibre
Bronchodilation increases airway diameter and therefore VD.
Pathological/Alveolar Dead Space
Dead space caused by disease. Causes of pathological dead space include:
Erect posture
Decreased pulmonary artery pressure/impaired pulmonary blood flow
Hypovolaemia
RV failure/Increased RV afterload:
HPV
MI
PE
Increased alveolar pressure
Increases West Zone 1 physiology.
PEEP
COAD
Calculation of Dead Space

Two methods exist to allow dead space volumes to be calculated:
Physiological dead space may be measured with Bohr's method

Anatomical dead space may be measured by Fowlers method
Pathological dead space may be calculated by substracting anatomical dead space (Fowler's method) from physiological dead
space (Bohr's Method)
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Dead Space
Fowler's Method
Fowler's Method is a single-breath nitrogen washout test, used to calculate anatomical dead space and closing capacity.
Method:
At the end of a normal tidal breath (at FRC) a vital-capacity breath of 100% oxygen is taken
The patient then exhales to RV
Expired nitrogen concentration and volume is measured.
A plot of expired nitrogen concentration by volume is generated, producing a graph with four phases:
Phase 1 (Pure Dead Space)
Gas from the anatomical dead space is expired. This contains 100% oxygen - no nitrogen is present.
Phase 2
A mix of anatomical dead space and alveolar (lung units with short time constants) is expired. The midpoint of phase 2
(when area A = area B) is the volume of the anatomical dead space.
Phase 3
Expired nitrogen reaches a plateau as just alveolar gas is exhaled (lung units with variable time constants).
Phase 4
Sudden increase in nitrogen concentration, which indicates closing capacity. This increase occurs because:
Basal alveoli are more compliant than apical alveoli
Therefore, during inspiration basal alveoli inflate more than apical alveoli
The single 100% oxygen breath therefore preferentially inflates the basal alveoli. At the end of the vital capacity
breath, the oxygen concentration in basal alveoli is greater than that of apical alveoli.
In expiration, the process is reversed:
Basal alveoli preferentially exhale
At closing capacity, small basal airways close and now only apical alveoli (with a higher concentration of
nitrogen) can exhale
Measured expired nitrogen concentration increases
Bohr's Method
Physiological dead space is measured using the Bohr equation. This calculates dead space as a ratio, or proportion of tidal volume:
The Bohr equation is based on the principle that all CO2 exhaled must come from ventilated alveoli.
Note that:
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Dead Space
is the mixed-expired carbon dioxide

Partial pressure of CO2 in an expired tidal breath.
The Bohr equation requires alveolar PCO2 to be measured
As this is impractical, the Enghoff modification is typically used, which assumes that PACO2 ≈ PaCO2. The equation then
becomes:
A normal value for physiological dead space during normal tidal breathing is 0.2-0.35
Physiological Consequences of Increased Dead Space

In dead space:
The V/Q ratio approaches infinity as alveolar perfusion falls

This results in a rise in PaCO2
In a spontaneously-ventilating individual, this stimulates the respiratory centre to increase minute ventilation to return
alveolar ventilation (and therefore CO2) to normal
There is minimal effect on PaO2, as in pure dead space all blood is passing through ventilated alveoli and therefore
undergoes gas exchange
Relationship between Alveolar Ventilation and PaCO2

Atmospheric air contains negligible CO2. As MV increases, PaCO2 will fall, as will the gradient for further CO2 diffusion. This
can be expressed by the equation:
Note that this graph:
Describes the change in PaCO2 for a change in alveolar ventilation

A doubling of alveolar ventilation will halve PaCO2.
Does not describe the change in ventilatory drive for a given change in PaCO2
This is covered under removal of CO2.
Footnotes
Note that West Zone 1 (where PA > Pa > Pv) physiology is increased dead space.
185
Dead Space
The PaCO2-ETCO2 difference is a consequence of dead space, as dead space gas dilutes alveolar gas.
References
186
Shunt
Shunt
Explain the concept of shunt and its measurement
Shunt is blood reaching the systemic circulation without being oxygenated via passage through the lungs.
Factors Contributing to Shunt

Normal shunt
Anatomical shunt
Thebesian veins, which drain directly into the left cardiac chambers
Bronchial circulations, which drain into the pulmonary veins
Functional shunt
Blood draining through alveoli with a V/Q between 0 and 1.
This may not be true shunt, as blood may have some oxygen content but not be maximally oxygenated
Pathological shunt
Pathological shunting can be anatomical (e.g congential cardiac malformations), or physiological (e.g. pneumonia causing
alveolar consolidation).
Intra-cardiac e.g. VSD
Extra-cardiac
e.g. Pulmonary AVM, PDA
Calculation of Shunt
Shunt cannot be directly measured
This is because we cannot separate true shunt (V = 0) from V/Q scatter (V/Q < 1) when sampling blood entering the left heart
Venous admixture is used instead
Venous admixture is the amount of mixed venous blood that must be added to pulmonary end-capillary blood to give
the observed arterial oxygen content. Venous admixture:
Is a calculated, theoretical value
Assumes that alveoli have either complete shunt (no ventilation at all, i.e. V/Q = 0) or no shunt (V/Q = 1)
Is expressed as a ratio, or shunt fraction:
, where:
= Shunt blood flow
= Cardiac output
= Pulmonary end-capillary oxygen content, assumed to have an oxygen tension equal to PAO2 (with the
corresponding oxygen saturation)
= Arterial oxygen content
= Mixed venous oxygen content
Physiological Consequences of Shunt

Effect on Carbon Dioxide
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Shunt
No CO2 can diffuse from shunted blood

Therefore PaCO2 might be expected to rise, however:
In a spontaneously breathing patient the increased PaCO2 increases respiratory drive, and alveolar ventilation increases
Therefore, shunt does not tend to increase PaCO2 unless:
The shunt fraction is large and
The patient is unable to increase their alveolar ventilation to compensate
Additionally, the steepness of the CO2 dissociation curve at the arterial point means that although CO2 content
increases, the increase in PaCO2 is small
Effect on Oxygen
PaO2 falls proportionally to shunt fraction
As shunted alveoli are perfused but not ventilated, true shunt is said to be unresponsive to an increase in FiO2
This is where technical definitions become important to avoid confusion.
For an alveoli with a V/Q between 0-1 (V/Q mismatch or V/Q scatter, but not true shunt):
There is perfusion, but relatively less ventilation
Therefore blood passing through this alveoli will be partially oxygenated
Increasing PAO2 will improve oxygenation (assuming no diffusion limitation):
Administration of supplemental oxygen
Hyperventilation
As per the alveolar gas equation
For an alveoli with a V/Q of 0 (true shunt)
There is no ventilation. Regardless of the increase in PAO2, PaO2 will not improve.
The Isoshunt Diagram

Isoshunt diagram plots the relationship between FiO2 and PaO2 against a set of 'virtual shunt lines'
These 'shunt fractions' are calculated from the above equation and so are actually V/Q admixture fractions
References
188
Shunt
189
Gas Transport
Oxygen Storage
Describe the oxygen and carbon dioxide stores in the body
The standard textbook 70kg male contains ~1.5L of oxygen, split between:
~850ml in blood
There is 20.4ml of oxygen per 100ml of blood, divided up as:
20.1ml bound to haemoglobin
0.3ml dissolved
~250ml bound to myoglobin
~450ml contained in FRC (21% of 2.4L)
This is why preoxygenation increases safe apnoea times, as the nitrogen washout increases the volume of oxygen stored.
Oxygen-Haemoglobin Dissociation Curve

The sigmoid shape of the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve offers many physiological advantages:
Buffering in case of low PaO2

The plateau allows oxygen content to remain high, even if the PaO2 falls
Maintenance of diffusion gradient to tissues
The steep section allows a large amount of oxygen to be delivered with only a small drop in PaO2, which allows the rate of
oxygen delivery to be maintained (as the blood-tissue partial pressure gradient is steep) with an increase in oxygen demand.
The sigmoid shape exists due to cooperative binding

Each oxygen which binds to Hb causes conformational changes which allow it bind additional oxygen molcules more easily.
When the fourth oxygen molecule has bound, Hb is said to be in the relaxed conformation (R state)
When no oxygen is bound, Hb is said to be in the tense state (T state)
The curve can be right or left-shifted by changes in temperature, pH, CO2, and 2-3 DPG
190
Gas Transport
Note that the mixed venous point is not on the arterial curve (unlike how it is displayed above), as the venous dissociation
curve is right-shifted relative to the arterial curve
Haemoglobin Species
Haemoglobin is a four-tetramer molecule, and its species can be physiological or pathological:
Physiological
HbA
Most common
2 alpha and 2 beta subunits (α2β2)
HbA2
Less common
2 alpha and 2 delta subunits (α2δ2)
HbF
Foetal Hb
Higher affinity for oxygen due to lack of 2,3-DPG
2 alpha and 2 gamma subunits (α2γ2)
Pathological
HbS
Sickle-cell disease.
Abnormal beta subunit
Unable to deform as they pass through capillaries
Increases blood viscosity, thrombus, and ischaemia through capillary occlusion
Often causes splenic infarction
Reduced red cell lifespan to 10-20 days
MetHb
Methaemoglobinaemia.
Ferrous iron (Fe2+) is oxidised to ferric iron (Fe3+)
Cannot bind oxygen, and left-shifts the oxyHb curve for normal Hb which reduces oxygen offloading at tissues
Normally prevented by:
Glutathione in red cell reduces oxidising agents
Methaemogobin reductase enzyme uses NADH to reduce MetHb
Occurs due to:
Oxidising agents overwhelm capacity of glutathione system, e.g.:
SNP
NO
Amide local anaesthetics
191
Gas Transport
Sulphonamides
Failure of the methaemoglobinaemia reductase enzyme
G6PD
COHb
Carboxyhaemoglobin.
Haemoglobin binds carbon monoxide with greater affinity than oxygen
CyanoHb
Haemoglobin irreversibly binds cyanide molecules, causing a functional anaemia
Cyanide inhibtis cytochrome oxidase in the electron transport chain, preventing oxidative phosphorylation occuring
Oxygen Saturation
Oxygen Saturation can be defined in two ways:
Functional Saturation
However, additional haemoglobin species exist in varying amounts, and this definition may deceptively imply good oxygen
delivery when this is not the case.
Fractional Saturation
Fractional saturation includes carboxy- and met-haemoglobin, and so is a more accurate estimator of oxygen saturation.
Note that pulse oximetry doesn't measure either of these and is dependent on the calibration, but will typically measure functional
saturation.
Myoglobin
Muscle is highly metabolically active and has a large O2 demand. Myoglobin serves as an O2 store for muscle. It is similar to Hb
in that it is a large O2-binding iron-containing protein myoglobin, and is different because it:
Contains one globin chain and one haeme group (binding one O2 molecule), and so does not exhibit cooperative binding
The myoglobin dissociation curve therefore has a rapid upstroke and an early plateau.
Has a P50 of 2.7mmHg
This allows it to take up oxygen from haemoglobin (as the partial pressure gradient favours diffusion into the cell), and
unload it into the cell (so it can actually be used).
Is found in skeletal and cardiac muscle
References
192
Gas Transport
193
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide
Describe the oxygen and carbon dioxide stores in the body
Describe the carbon dioxide carriage in blood including the Haldane effect and the chloride shift
Explain the carbon dioxide dissociation curve
Describe the movement of carbon dioxide from blood to the atmosphere
CO2 is produced in the mitochondria during the citric-acid cycle as a product of metabolism.
There is ~120L of carbon dioxide in the body

A total of 1.8L.kg-1, 1.6L.kg-1 of which is in relatively inaccessible compartments.
Normal elimination (and, at steady state, production) of carbon dioxide is 200ml.min-1
Carbon Dioxide in Blood

In blood, CO2 is stored as:
Bicarbonate (90%)
Dissolved gas
Carbamino compounds
Form Arterial Blood Additional CO2 in venous blood
Bicarbonate 90% 60%
Dissolved 5% 10%
Carbamino compounds 5% 30%
Bicarbonate
CO2 diffuses freely into erythrocytes, where it can be catalysed by carbonic anhydrase to produce bicarbonate:
To maintain bicarbonate production, the products (H+ and HCO3-) are then removed:
H+ ions are buffered to haemoglobin
Intracellular HCO3- is then exchanged with extracellular Cl- via the BAND3 membrane protein
This is called the Hamburger, or Chloride Shift
Chloride entering the cell draws water in along its osmotic gradient, increasing the haematocrit of venous blood
relative to arterial blood
Dissolved Gas
As per Henry's Law, the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in blood is proportional to the PaCO2
As carbon dioxide is 20x as soluble as oxygen in water, dissolved carbon dioxide contributes much greater proportion of
carbon dioxide content than dissolved oxygen does to oxygen content
Carbamino Compounds
194
Carbon Dioxide
CO2 can bind directly to proteins (predominantly haemoglobin), which displaces a H+ ion:
The H+ ion is then buffered by another plasma protein (also predominantly haemoglobin)
Bound CO2 does not contribute to the partial pressure gradient

Carbamino compounds are only a small contributor to overall CO2 carriage, but contribute about one third of the arterio-
venous CO2 difference due to the Haldane effect
The Haldane effect states that deoxyHb binds CO2 more effectively than oxyHb. This is because:
DeoxyHb is a better buffer of H+
pKa of deoxyHb is 8.2, compared to that of oxyHb which is 6.6.
Enhanced buffering contributes ~30% of the Haldane effect
DeoxyHb forms carbamino compounds more easily Deoxy-Hb has 3.5x the affinity for CO2 than Oxy-Hb.
This forms ~70% of the Haldane effect
CO2 Dissociation Curve

This curve plots PCO2 against blood CO2 content in ml.100ml-1.
Key points:
Mixed venous CO2 content is 52ml.100ml-1, at a PCO2 of 46mmHg

Arterial CO2 content is 48ml.100ml-1, at a PCO2 of 40mmHg
Approximately 50% of the arterial-mixed venous difference occurs due to the upwards shift of the curve, which is due to the
Haldane effect
This is the mechanism for changes in PO2 affecting the CO2 dissociation curve.
Removal of CO2
CO2 dissolves from pulmonary arterial blood into the alveolus down a concentration gradient. As inspired CO2 is negligible,
PACO2 is a function of alveolar ventilation and CO2 output, given by the equation:
Simplified, PaCO2 is inversely proportional to alveolar ventilation:
195
Carbon Dioxide
Distribution of Carbon Dioxide

CO2 in the body can be considered as a three-compartment model:
Well-perfused (blood, brain, kidneys)

Moderately-perfused (resting muscle)
Poorly-perfused (bone, fat))
Each of these tissues has a different time-constant, such that a mismatch of ventilation with metabolic activity may take 20-
30 minutes to equilibrate across compartments
Therefore hypoventilation and hyperventilation have different effects on PCO2:

Hyperventilation causes a rapid decrease in PCO2 in blood, subsequent (slower) redistribution from peripheral
compartments
Hypoventilation causes a rise in PaCO2, the rate of which is determined both by production and distribution into
plasma
With no ventilation, PCO2 rises at 3-6mmHg.min-1
Due to the Haldane effect the PaCO2 will rapidly increase during passage through the pulmonary capillary
(despite the fact that carbon dioxide content is unchanged) as the proportion of OxyHb increases
Therefore:
PaO2 is more sensitive at detecting early hypoventilation provided PAO2 is normal
Steady-state PCO2 gives the best indication of adequacy of ventilation
In acute hypoventilation, produced CO2 is preferentially stored in tissues, decreasing CO2 elimination
In acute hyperventilation, CO2 is mobilised from tissues resulting in increased CO2 elimination
CO2 Cascade
Region Value (mmHg)
Mixed Venous 46
Alveolar 40
(Arterial) 40
Mixed-expired 27
Venous CO2 diffuses into the alveolus, reaching equilibrium with arterial PCO2
Alveolar CO2 is then diluted by dead space gas, resulting in a lower ME'CO2
References
196
Carbon Dioxide

2. FRCA: Anaesthesia Tutorial of the Week - Respiratory Physiology
197
Applied Respiratory Physiology
Hypoxia
Explain the physiological effects of hyperoxia, hypoxaemia, hypercapnia, hypocapnia, and carbon monoxide poisoning.
Hypoxaemia is a low partial pressure of oxygen in blood

Hypoxia is an oxygen deficiency at the tissues, due to:
Impaired oxygen delivery
Impaired oxygen extraction
Oxygen delivery is given by the equation:
, where:
1.34 is Hüfner's constant

This is the oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin, in ml.g-1 (of Hb).
The theoretical maximum is 1.39
In vivo it is 1.34 due to the effect of carboxyhaemoglobin and methaemoglobin compounds, which limit O2 binding
0.03 is the solubility coefficient of O2 in water at 37ºC, in mls.mmHg-1
Can also be expressed as 0.003 mls.dL-1.mmHg-1 (mls per deciliter per mmHg). Different texts use different values,
depending on whether haemoglobin is reported in g.L-1 or g.100ml-1.
Classifications and Causes of Hypoxia

Hypoxia can be categorised into four types:
Hypoxic hypoxia
Anaemic hypoxia
Ischaemic hypoxia
Histotoxic hypoxia
Hypoxic Hypoxia
Hypoxic hypoxia, or hypoxaemia, is hypoxia due to low PaO2 (and therefore low SpO2), typically defined as a PaO2<60.
Causes of hypoxaemia can be further classified based on their A-a gradient:
Causes of hypoxaemia with a normal A-a gradient:

Low PiO2
Decreased alveolar ventilation
Causes of hypoxaemia with a raised A-a gradient:
Diffusion limitation
Shunt
(Increased oxygen extraction)
Low FiO2
Hypoxaemia occurs at high altitudes when the PO2 is decreased.
Decreased alveolar ventilation
198
A fall in alveolar ventilation ( ) causes a rise in PACO2, and

therefore decreases PAO2. Decreased VA can occur with:
Respiratory centre depression:

Drugs
Head injury (Raised ICP, closed head injury)
Encephalopathy
Fatigue
Nerve dysfunction:
Spinal cord injury
GBS
MND
NMJ dysfunction:
Paralysis
MG
Musular dysfunction:
Myopathy
Fatigue
Malnutrition
Dystrophy
Chest wall abnormalities:
Kyphoscoliosis
Ankylosing Spondylitis
Pleural fibrosis
Diffusion Limitation
Impaired diffusion of O2 across the membrane results in a lowered PaO2. Diffusion limitation occurs due to:
Decreased alveolar surface area

Increased alveolar capillary barrier thickness
Pulmonary fibrosis
ARDS
Shunt
Shunt occurs when blood reaches the systemic circulation without being oxygenated via passage through the lung. As the
alveolus is perfused but not ventilated, thus the V/Q ratio is 0.
Administration of 100% O2 has less effect on PaO2 as shunt fraction increases

Oxygen content of shunted alveoli is identical to mixed venous content
Oxygen content of non-shunted alveoli does not increase appreciably at high partial partial pressures as haemoglobin is
already fully saturated
Shunt physiology is explored in more detail under shunt.
Increased Oxygen Extraction

Increased oxygen extraction (VO2) will not typically cause hypoxia
This is because:
Normal VO2 is 250ml.min-1
Normal DO2 is 1L.min-1
199
Maximal oxygen extraction ratio is ~70% (though it varies between organs)

Therefore VO2 can increase until it reaches 70% of the DO2, a point called critical DO2.
However, it may worsen hypoxia in the presence of a supply-side (DO2) pathology
Anaemic Hypoxia
Impaired oxygen delivery due to low Hb
Typically asymptomatic at rest but limits exercise tolerance
Compensation occurs by increasing levels of 2,3-DPG, causing a right-shift in the Hb-O2 dissociation curve to favour
oxygen off-loading at tissues
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

CO poisoning is classified as a subset of anaemic hypoxia as carboxyhaemoglobin reduces the effective amount of
haemoglobin in solution
CO has 210 times the affinity for Hb than O2
CO rapidly displaces O2 from Hb and is liberated slowly
CO poisoning causes headache and nausea, but no increased respiratory drive since the PaO2 is unchanged
Ischaemic Hypoxia
Ischaemic hypoxia is due to impaired cardiac output resulting in impaired oxygen delivery
Histotoxic Hypoxia
Histotoxic hypoxia is due to impaired tissue oxidative processes, preventing utilisatioin of delivered oxygen
Most common cause of histotoxic hypoxia is cyanide poisoning, which inhibits cytochrome oxidase and prevents oxidative
phosphorylation
Managed by using methylene blue or nitrites, which form methhaemoglobin, in turn reacting with cyanide to form the non-
toxic cyanmethaemoglobin
Effects of Hypoxia
With a normal PaCO2, PaO2 must fall to 50mmHg before an increase in ventilation occurs
With a rising PaCO2, a fall in PaO2 below 100mmHg will stimulate ventilation via action on carotid and aortic body
chemoreceptors
The effects of each stimuli are synergistic, and greater than what is seen with either effect alone
Prolonged hypoxaemia will also lead to cerebral acidosis (via anaerobic metabolism), which will stimulate central pH
receptors and stimulate ventilation
Acid-Base Changes
Hypoxia results in both fixed and volatile acid-base disturbances
Anaerobic metabolism results in lactate production
Production of fixed acid results in a base deficit, and a low bicarbonate
Hypoxia and metabolic acidosis stimulate ventilation and hypocarbia
CO2 retention
In chronic hypercarbia the CSF pH normalises (as bicarbonate is secreted into CSF), with a raised CO2
200
Fall in PaO2 becomes the predominant stimulus for ventilation
References
4. ICU Basic Book.
201
Positive Pressure Ventilation

Describe the physiological consequences of intermittent positive pressure ventilation and positive end-expiratory pressure.
Physiological effects of positive pressure ventilation are mostly related to the increased mean airway pressure. This is a function
of:
Ventilation mode
Tidal volume and peak (and plateau) airway pressure
Respiratory rate
I:E ratio
PEEP
PEEP has a much larger effect than the other factors.
PEEP is defined as a positive airway pressure at the end of expiration
PEEP is distinct from positive airway pressure (which is not confined to a phase of the respiratory cycle) and CPAP
(which is a mode of ventilation)
iPEEP refers to intrinsic PEEP, auto PEEP or dynamic hyperinflation
iPEEP is PEEP generated by the patient, and occurs when expiration stops before the lung volume reaches FRC.
Application of external PEEP may limit the generation of iPEEP by maintaining airway patency in late expiration
Respiratory Effects
Decreased work of breathing
Decreased VO2
More important when work of breathing is high.
Alteration in anatomical/apparatus dead space
Intubation typically reduces dead space, as the additional apparatus dead space is of smaller volume than the anatomical
dead space it replaces
Non-invasive ventilation masks cause a large increase in dead space
Increases lung volume (and FRC, for PEEP) by an amount proportional to the compliance of the system
Improves oxygenation via alveolar recruitment
Improves lung compliance via alveolar recruitment, reducing work of breathing
Elevated airway pressures may increase the proportion of West Zone 1 physiology and alveolar dead space
In healthy lungs an increase in the ratio is seen when PEEP exceeds 10-15cmH2O.
Reduces airway resistance
Airway resistance decreases as lung volume increases.
Cardiovascular Effects
Alteration in cardiac output
PEEP and IPPV generally decrease CO via decreasing VR due to the increase in intrathoracic pressure.
Leads to reduction in RV filling pressure, LV filling, and CO.
This is the predominant reason why CO falls with the application of PEEP
In a well patient, CO falls by:
10% with IPPV and ZEEP
18% with IPPV and 9cmH2O of PEEP
36% with IPPV and 16cmH2O of PEEP
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These changes are:

More marked in hypovolaemia
Changes are reversed with volume expansion.
Less severe with poor lung compliance
Reduced compliance greatly reduces the effect of PEEP and IPPV on the vasculature, as the change in
intrapleural pressure is reduced.
LV preload may also be reduced due to increased RV afterload
Increased RV afterload may increase RV EDV, displacing the interventricular septum into the LV
The bulging septum decreases LVEDV, causing LV diastolic function and reduced LV filling
This is an example of ventricular interdependence.
Reduced LV afterload due to reduced LV transmural pressure
In some cases, IPPV augments circulatory function by reducing LV afterload to a greater extent than preload.
Effects in a well patient are minimal, as PEEP is relatively small in magnitude compared to systemic arterial
pressures
In patients generating highly negative intrathoracic pressures, the LV transmural pressure can increase markedly,
increasing LV afterload and reducing cardiac output
Reduction in MAP
MAP decreases as PEEP increases.
Changes to oxygen flux

PEEP will tend to improve PO2 whilst reducing CO.
Changes to pulmonary vascular resistance and RV afterload

If lung volume is lower than FRC, then PVR will reduce as PEEP stretches open extra-alveolar vessels
Alveolar recruitment will reduce hypoxic-pulmonary vasoconstriction, further reducing PVR
If lung volume is higher than FRC, then PVR will increase as PEEP compresses alveolar vessels
Therefore, PEEP has variable effects on RV afterload depending on how it changes lung volume with respect to FRC
End-Organ Effects
Reduced urine output due to:
Reduced CO and renal blood flow
ADH release as a consequence of reduced atrial stretch and ANP release
May worsen oedema in patients with prolonged periods of ventilation.
Reduced hepatic blood flow due to:

Increased CVP and decreased CO lowering the pressure gradient for hepatic flow
May result in circulation only intermittently throughout the cardiac cycle
References
2. Luecke T, Pelosi P. Clinical review: Positive end-expiratory pressure and cardiac output. Critical Care. 2005;9(6):607-621.
doi:10.1186/cc3877.
3. Yartsev, A. Positive End-Expiratory Pressure and it's consequences. Deranged Physiology.
4. Yartsev, A. Positive Pressure and PEEP. Deranged Physiology.
5. Yartsev, A. Indications and Contraindications for PEEP. Deranged Physiology.
6. Yartsev, A. Effects of Positive Pressure and PEEP on Alveolar Volume. Deranged Physiology.
7. Yartsev, A. [PEEP and Intrinsic PEEP}(http://www.derangedphysiology.com/main/core-topics-intensive-care/mechanical-
203
ventilation-0/Chapter%202.1.6/peep-and-intrinsic-peep). Deranged Physiology.
204
Hypo and Hypercapnoea

Explain the physiological effects of hyperoxia, hypoxaemia, hypercapnia, hypocapnia, and carbon monoxide poisoning
Carbon dioxide is lipid soluble and can rapidly cross membranes, allowing it affect acid-base status in any compartment.
Hypercapnoea
Respiratory Effects
Increased respiratory drive via chemoreceptor stimulation

CVS effects
Peripheral vasodilation
May cause tachycardia from sympathetic stimulation
Pulmonary vasoconstriction
Myocardial depression
Intracellular acidosis.
Arrythmogenic
CNS effects
Increased CBF
Increased ICP secondary to increased CBF
SNS activation
CNS depression
When PaCO2 > 100mmHg
Hypocapnoea
Respiratory Effects
Left-shift of oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve
Respiratory depression
CVS effects
Intracellular alkalosis.
CNS effects
Decreased cerebral blood flow

Electrolyte effects
Decreased serum K+
Decreased serum Ca2+
Leads to paresthesias and twitches.
Ca2+ binds to H+ binding site on albumin
References
205
206
Position and Ventilation
Position and ventilation

Explain the effect of changes in posture on ventilatory function
Altered patient position can cause significant changes to V/Q matching.
Lateral Decubitus
In the lateral position in a spontaneously ventilating patient:
Dependent lung ventilation improves by ~10%

Due to impaired compliance of the non-dependent lung (it hyperinflates) and improved compliance of the dependent lung (it
is less expanded).
Dependent lung corresponds more to West Zone 3
Non-dependent lung corresponds more to West Zone 2
Dependent lung perfusion improves by ~10%
Due to the effect of gravity.
In the lateral position in a positive-pressure ventilated patient:
The majority (~55%) of the tidal volume is delivered to the non-dependent lung
The majority of pulmonary blood flow is delivered to the dependent lung
The compliance of the dependent lung falls due to compression from the:
Mediastinum
Abdominal organs
These move cephalad in a paralysed patient.
The dependent lung typically receives greater blood flow due to the effect of gravity
This may worsen V/Q matching
Blood flow is also affected by:
HPV
Anatomical factors
Blood flow is greater in central than peripheral portions.
Lung volume
Alterations is extra-alveolar and intra-alveolar pressures at FRC may alter regional blood flow.
When both lungs are being ventilated, V/Q matching can be improved with selective application of PEEP to the dependent
lung, which improves compliance
Thoracotomy
Opening of a non-dependent hemithorax causes:
Increased compliance and FRC of the non-dependent lung

Reduced compliance and FRC of the dependent lung
References
1. Dunn, PF. Physiology of the Lateral Decubitus Position and One-Lung Ventilation. Thoracic Anaesthesia. Volume 38(1),
Winter 2000, pp 25-53.
207
Position and Ventilation
2. Graph from Benumof JL, ed. Anesthesia for thoracic surgery. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company, 1995.
208
Humidification
Humidification
Define humidity and give an outline of the importance of humidification
Humidification describes the amount of water vapour present in air:
Absolute Humidity is the amount of water vapour in a given volume of air (g.m-3)
Relative Humidity is the ratio between the amount of water vapour in a sample of air (absolute humidity) and the amount of
water required to fully saturate that sample at its current pressure and temperature
Moisture is the water produced by condensation when relative humidity exceeds 100%.
Humidification of inspired air is important to avoid drying out mucosa and sputum, which leads to tissue damage and failure
of the mucociliary elevator
Optimal function requires a relative humidity of greater than 75%
Mechanism
The nose is:
Optimised for humidification

The septum and turbinates increase contact of air with mucosal surfaces by:
Increasing surface area
Generating turbulent flow
The preferred orifice for breathing unless airways resistance becomes a significantly limiting factor
This is relevant in:
Airway obstruction (e.g. polyps)
At high minute ventilations (> 35L.-1)
Humidifies inspired gas to 90%, compared to 60% for the mouth
Method of humidification:
Fluid lining the airway acts as a heat and moisture exchanger

In inspiration:
Relatively dry air is evaporates water from the airway lining
Relative humidity is increased to 90% in the nasopharynx and 100% BTPS by the second generation of bronchi
This gives a water vapour pressure of 47mmHg at BTPS, with an absolute humidity of 44g.m-3.
In expiration:
Air cools in the upper airway
As cooler air has a lower saturated vapour pressure, moisture condenses on the airway.
Moisture is reabsorbed
This reduces potential water losses from the airway from 300ml.day-1 to 150ml.day-1.
References
2. WeatherFaqs. Absolute and Relative Humidity.
209
Humidification
210
Cough Reflex
Cough Reflex
Explain the pathways and importance of the cough reflex
Coughing:
Is an airway protection reflex

Involves deep inspiration followed by forced expiration against a closed glottis
The sudden opening of the cords causes a violent rush of air at >900km.h-1, removing irritants and secretions from the
airways.
Sensation
Vagus afferents have exquisitely sensitive light touch and corrosive chemical receptors in the larynx, carina, terminal bronchioles,
and alveoli.
Integration
Vagal afferents synapse in the medulla, which coordinates the effector response.
Effector
A series of processes occur in three phases:
Inspiratory phase
A close to vital capacity breath is taken.
Compressive phase
Effort closure of the epiglottis to seal the larynx, followed by a violent contraction of abdominal musculature and internal
intercostals, causing a rapid rise in intrapleural pressure to >100mmHg.
Expulsive phase
Wide-opening of the cords and epiglottis, causing a violent expiration.
Compression of the lungs causes narrowing of the noncartilagenous airways and increases turbulent flow, removing
adherent material from the tracheobronchial tree
References
211
Non-Respiratory Functions
Outline the non-ventilatory functions of the lungs
The lungs are a unique organ as:
The entire cardiac output passes though the pulmonary circulation

They have a huge capillary bed which blood is in contact with
They have a large interface with the external environment
Consequently they are adapted to a number of non-respiratory functions, which include:
Filtration
Immune defence
Blood resevoir
Metabolism
Drug Delivery
(Taking up drugs)
Inhalational Anaesthetics
Synthetic
Endocrine
Filtration
The entire cardiac output passes through the 7μm pulmonary capillaries, which act as an effective sieve for particulate matter. This
function may be impaired by intra-cardiac shunting (e.g. PFO) or pre-capillary anastomses.
Complementing this role, the lungs are able to clear thrombi more rapidly than other organs as pulmonary endothelium has a high
concentration of plasmin activator and heparin.
Metabolism
The pulmonary endothelium has a variety of effects on drugs and endogenous hormones:
Class Activated Inactivated
Amines 5-HT, Noradrenaline
Peptides Angiotensin I (via ACE) Bradykinin, ANP
Arachidonic acid derivatives Arachidonic acid Many prostaglandins
Other Drugs Lignocaine, fentanyl
Blood Resevoir
The highly compliant pulmonary circulation contains a resevoir of ~500ml of blood which acts as a volume reserve for the LV.
Defence
212
The large surface area required for gas exchange leaves the lung vulnerable to invasion by airborn substances. This is attentuated
by:
Mucous
A mucous layer protects large airways, as large (>8μm) particles impact into the mucous.
Mucous is exocytosed by goblet cells in reponse to noxious stimuli including chemical irritation as well as inflammatory
and neuronal stimulation
The efficacy of the mucous-cilia system is enhanced by bronchoconstriction, which reduces flow velocity and causes
particulate matter to settle
Cilia
Cilia are projections from epithelium which beat rhythmically at ~12Hz to propel mucous out of the airway at a rate of
~4mm.min-1.
Ciliary function can be impeded by pollutants, smoke, and infection
Ciliary function is stimulated by anaesthetic agents
Inhaled particles which reach the respiratory zone are not trapped by mucous, but instead phagocytosed by alveolar
macrophages
Bronchoconstriction reduces flow velocity and causes particlate particles to settle in the mucous
Drug Delivery
The same properties that optimise the lung for gas exchange optimise it for delivery of inhaled agents. Drugs absorbed in the
pulmonary circulation are:
Lipophilic
Alkaline (pKa >8)
Endocrine
Important endocrine functions of the lung include:
Release of inflammatory mediators such as histamine, endothelin, and eicosanoids

Release of nitric oxide to regulate smooth muscle
ACE metabolises angiotensin I to angiotensin II
References
213
Altitude Physiology
Altitude Physiology
Altitude causes a number of physiological effects, related to:
Reduce atmospheric pressure

Reduced temperature
Reduced relative humidity
Increased solar radiation
Pressure Effects
Reduced air pressure results in a proportional decrease in PO2:
At 3,000m, alveolar PO2 is 60mmHg

At 5,400m, consciousness is lost in unacclimatised individuals
At 10,400m, air pressure is 187mmHg
With 47mmHg of water vapour and an alveolar PCO2 of 40, breathing 100% O2 gives an alveolar PO2 of 100mmHg.
At 14,000m, consciousness is lost despite 100% O2
At 19,200m, the ambient pressure is so low that the boiling point of water is 37°C
This is the Armstrong limit.
Respiratory
Fall in PaO2 is compensated by increasing minute ventilation, which decreases PACO2 and therefore increases PAO2
Limits of compensation are reached on 100% oxygen at 13,700m
Effective compensation is limited by the respiratory alkalosis, this is known as the braking effect:
Peripheral chemoreceptors detect hypocapnoea
Central chemoreceptors detect alkalosis
The subsequent respiratory alkalosis generates a compensatory metabolic acidosis
This acidosis relaxes the braking effect and allows further hyperventilation, and is therefore am important part of
acclimatisation.
There is an initial left-shift of the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve due to alkalosis

This stimulates a comepensatory increase in 2,3-DPG to right-shift the curve and improve oxygen offloading at the tissues
Cardiovascular
PVR increases due to HPV
Heart rate increases due to increased SNS outflow
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Altitude Physiology
Stroke volume falls (cardiac output remains the same) due to decreased preload:
Plasma volume falls due to:
Pressure diuresis
Insensible losses from hyperventilation and reduce relative humidity
Myocardial work increases
Increased HR
Increased viscosity of blood due to high haematocrit
Increased RV afterload from high PVR
Increased pulmonary capillary hydrostatic pressures lead to fluid transudation and pulmonary oedema
Haematological
Increased risk of thrombotic events to due increased haematocrit
Increased red cell mass due to EPO secretion
References
215
Respiratory Changes with Obesity

Discuss the effect of morbid obesity on ventilation
Obesity is a multisystem disorder defined by an elevated body mass index (BMI):
Normal: BMI < 25

Overweight: BMI 25 - 30
Obese: BMI > 30
Morbidly Obese:
Obesity related disease and a BMI > 35
BMI > 40
Characteristics of obesity include:
Complex genetic and environmental causes

Increased caloric intake
Increased metabolic rate (normal for BSA)
Morbid obesity causes several changes to the respiratory system:
Airway
Increased risk of OSA
Increased risk of GORD and aspiration
Increased risk of difficult bag-mask ventilation
Increased risk of difficulty laryngoscopy
Changes to respiratory pattern

Increased minute ventilation
Secondary to increased VO2 and VCO2
Due to the increase in LBW and adiposity.
Increased airway reactivity
Central adiposity increases circulating cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-6, leptin.
Changes to volumes and capacities

Reduced respiratory system compliance
Decreased chest wall compliance
Due to abdominal and chest wall fat.
Fat distribution may be more important than absolute BMI
Decreased lung compliance
Basal atelectasis due to abdominal compression and reduced respiratory compliance.
Decreased ERV and FRC
Note that RV is generally relatively unchanged
Increased airway resistance
Due to decreased airway radius at lower lung volumes.
Increased work of breathing
Due to reduced respiratory compliance and increased airway resistance.
Closing capacity encroaches on FRC
As FRC falls, closing capacity becomes closer to FRC.
If closing volume exceeds expiratory reserve volume, then small airways will collapse during normal tidal
breathing, causing shunt
Changes to blood gases
216
Increased A-a gradient

Occurs when closing capacity exceeds FRC.
Changes to respiratory circulation

PVR increases due to reduced FRC causing increased HPV
May lead to secondary PHTN and right heart dysfunction.
References
1. Alvarez A, Brodsky J, Lemmens H, Morton J. Morbid Obesity: Peri-operative Management. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. 2010.
2. Lotia S, Bellamy MC. Anaesthesia and morbid obesity. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2008; 8 (5): 151-156.
217
Respiratory Changes in Neonates and Children
Transition at Birth
Transition from placental gas exchange to pulmonary gas exchange occurs within 20s after birth:
Compression of the thorax through the vaginal canal expels foetal lung water
Elastic recoil, combined with cooling of the skin and mechanical stimulation (which stimulate the respiratory centre),
facilitate first breath
The rapid drop in pulmonary vascular resistance with spontaneous breathing drives the changes in the cardiac circulation
The first three breaths establish functional residual capacity

Large changes in intrathoracic pressure in the first three breaths pressure drive alveolar amniotic fluid into the circulation,
and establish FRC.

Compliance
Neonatal chest walls are highly compliant relative to their lungs (due to both a reduced lung compliance and increased chest
wall compliance), as compared to adults where lung and chest compliance is equal. Therefore elastic work of breathing is
largely determined by the lungs.
Oxygenation
O2 consumption is ~10ml.kg-1.min-1 in neonates, and 6ml.kg-1.min-1 in children
There is a ~10% shunt after birth which contributes to a greater A-a gradient
Ventilation
Obligate nose breathers
Increased CO2 production due to higher metabolic rate
Increased minute ventilation, which is due to increased respiratory rate (25-40 breaths per minute)
Neurological control of breathing

Respiratory patterns change following birth, and complete change to adult respiratory patterns may take some weeks.
Patterns include:
Periodic breathing is a slowly oscillating respiratory rate and VT
Periodic apnoea is intermittent apnoea interspersed with normal breathing.
Volumes and capacities
218
Closing capacity is increased relative to adults, causing shunt

Functional residual capacity is unchanged
Tidal volume and dead space are unchanged
Laryngeal anatomy
Large head
Large tongue
Large, stiff, U-shaped epiglottis
Elevated larynx
Glottis is at C-3C4 (C6 in adults).
Upper airway is narrowest at the cricoid ring (rather than the glottis).
Trachea is shorter and narrower
4-5cm long, 6mm diameter in the neonate.
Small airways
Reduced bronchial smooth muscle so bronchospasm is uncommon
Bronchioles contribute 50% of airways resistance
Bronchiolitis much more distressing in neonates and children.
References
219
Respiratory Pharmacology
Anti-Asthma Drugs
Describe the pharmacology of anti-asthma drugs.
Oxygen
Increases FiO2 and improves saturation.
Heliox
Reduces specific gravity of inhaled gas mixtures, improving laminar flow.
β2-agonists
Acts on a G-protein coupled receptor to ↑ cellular levels of adenylyl cyclase, ↑ cAMP, which results in smooth muscle
relaxation and bronchodilatation.
Corticosteroids
Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones that bind to specific intracellular receptors and translocate into the nucleus, where they
regulate gene expression in a tissue-specific manner. They are used in asthma as they cause:
Bronchodilatation by increasing bronchial smooth muscle response to circulating catecholamines
Decreased airway oedema by decreasing inflammatory responses and transudate production
Muscarininc antagonists
Anti-muscarinics are synthetic quaternary ammonium compounds which competitively inhibit M3 muscarinic receptors on
bronchial smooth muscle, antagonising the bronchoconstrictor action of vagal impulses.
Methylxanthines
Methylxanthines are phosphodiesterase inhibitors, reducing levels of cAMP hydrolysis and increased intracellular levels of
cAMP (via a different mechanism, so they are synergistic with β2 agonists) and causing smooth muscle relaxation.
Ketamine
Increases sympathetic outflow and relaxes bronchial smooth muscle.
Volatile Anaesthetic Agents
Volatile anaesthetic agents reduces bronchial smooth muscle constriction where this is prexisting (such as asthma).
Leukotriene Antagonists
Selectively inhibits the cysteinyl leukotriene receptor, increased activity of which is involved in airway oedema and bronchial
smooth muscle constriction.
References
2. Smith S, Scarth E, Sasada M. Drugs in Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. 4th Ed. Oxford University Press. 2011.
220
Cardiovascular System
Cardiac Anatomy
Describe the anatomy of the heart, the pericardium and coronary circulation
Echocardiographic Anatomy
The left ventricle is:
Divided into four parts

From base to apex, in equal thirds along the long axis of the ventricle:
Basal
Mid-cavity
Identified by presence of the papillary muscles.
Apical
Apex
Tip of the ventricle, beyond where the cavity ends.
Each part is divided into segments
Total of seventeen segments between:
6 basal and mid-cavity segments
Inferior
Mid-cavity contains the postero-medial papillary muscle.
Inferoseptal
Inferolateral
Anterior
Antero-septal
Antero-lateral
Mid-cavity contains the anterolateral papillary muscle.
4 apical segments
Inferior
Anterior
Lateral
Septal
Apical cap
Coronary Supply
The segments of the basal and mid-cavity parts are supplied by all three vessels:
221
In the apical part, the:
LAD
Supplies:
Anterior
Septal
LCx
Supplies:
Lateral
RCA
Supplies:
Inferior
The apical cap is supplied by the LAD.
References
2. AHA 17 Segment Model. PMOD.
222
223
Coronary Circulation
Describe the anatomy of the heart, the pericardium and coronary circulation
Vascular Anatomy
Coronary Artery Anatomy
The left main coronary artery:
Arises from the posterior aortic sinus superior to the left coronary cusp of the aortic valve
Eddy currents produced in the sinuses of Valsalva (out-pouchings of the aortic wall) prevent the valves occluding the os of
the LM and RCA during systole, so they remain patent throughout the cardiac cycle.
The left main is 5-10mm long, and bifurcates to form the LAD and LCx
The LAD:
Courses along the anterior interventricular groove to the apex of the heart
Here, it anastomoses with the posterior descending artery from the RCA.
Supplies the anterolateral myocardium and anterior 2/3 of the interventricular septum
Branches of the LAD include:
Diagonal vessels
Branches are named successively from proximal to distal, i.e. LADD1, LADD2, etc.
224
Septal perforators
The LCx:
Courses along the left antrioventricular groove between the LA and LV in the epicardial fat pad
Supplies the inferolateral wall of the LV
Gives off three obtuse marginal branches (OM1, OM2) which follow the left margin of the heart
Runs in close approximation with the coronary sinus for much of its course
The RCA:
Arises from the anterior aortic sinus, superior to the right coronary cusp of the aortic valve
Courses vertically downwards in the right atrioventricular groove
Supplies the RA and RV
The posterior descending artery:
Arises from either the LCx or RCA

These vessels travel in opposite directions around the atrioventricular groove.
Descends in the posterior interventricular groove before coursing along the base to anastomose with the LAD at the apex of
the heart
Is also known as the posterior interventricular artery
Coronary Dominance
Coronary dominance refers to which vessel gives rise to the PDA:
In a right-dominant circulation the PDA is supplied by the RCA

In a left-dominant circulation the PDA is supplied by the LCx
Additionally:
The SA node is supplied by the RCA in 60% of individuals

The AV node is supplied by the RCA in 90% of individuals
Venous Anatomy
85% of venous drainage occurs via the coronary sinus, which is formed from the cardiac veins:
The great cardiac vein runs with the LAD
The middle cardiac vein follows the PDA
The small cardiac vein runs with the RCA
The oblique vein follows the posterior part of the LA
Most of the remainder is via anterior cardiac veins which drain directly into the RA
A small proportion of blood from the heart is drained via the thebesian veins directly into four the cardiac chambers
Most into the right atrium, and least into the left ventricle. The portion of blood draining into the left side of the circulation
contributes to physiological shunt.
Coronary Blood Flow

Coronary Blood Flow:
Normal is ~250ml.min-1 (~5% of resting CO)

May increase 4x during strenuous exercise
Myocardial work may increase up to 9x, though as myocardial oxygen extraction is unchanged efficiency is actually
improved during exercise.
225
CBF is dependent on:
Coronary vascular resistance

Coronary perfusion pressure
The difference between aortic root pressure and the greater of RAP or intracavity pressure: i.e.
Note that the pressure gradient is usually Aorta-Cavity rather than Aorta-RA
This is because the pressure in the ventricle acts as a Starling resistor - coronary flow is independent of RAP whilst
Heart rate
LV CBF is affected in systole due to the changes in perfusion pressure, and compression of intramuscular vessels (causing an
increase in CVR).
RV CBF is less affected, as the force of contraction is significantly smaller and a pressure gradient is maintained
Tachycardia reduces diastolic time and subsequently LV CBF
Control of Coronary Blood Flow

CBF is autoregulated:
Myogenic autoregulation
This is common to many organ systems, and occurs within the coronaries.
Increasing transmural pressure increases the leakiness of smooth muscle membranes, depolarising them
Resistance increases proportionally to pressure, such that flow remains constant
Metabolic autoregulation
Anaerobic metabolism results in production of vasoactive mediates such as lactate and adenosine, which stimulate
vasodilation and therefore increase flow (and oxygen delivery).
This is the predominant means for autoregulation in the heart
Typical myocardial oxygen extraction is 70% and raising this further is difficult
Therefore, increasing oxygen supply requires an increase in blood flow.
226
Autonomic mechanisms also control some aspects of coronary blood flow:
Direct effects include:

Parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation of coronary vessels, with release of ACh or NA and A decreasing or
increasing coronary blood flow
Indirect effects
Are more important than direct effects
Are related to autoregulation occurring with changing levels of myocardial work in response to parasympathetic or
sympathetic stimuli
References
1. Hall, JE, and Guyton AC. Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. 11th Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders
Elsevier. 2011.
3. McMinn, RMH. Last's Anatomy: Regional and Applied. 9th Ed. Elsevier. 2003.
4. Coronary Artery Graph based on Coronary Arterial Circulation - es. 2/3/2013. (Image). By Addicted04 (Own work) CC BY
3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.
227
Cardiac Cycle
Cardiac Cycle
Describe the normal pressure and flow patterns (including velocity profiles) of the cardiac cycle
The cardiac cycle:
Describes sequence of events that occur in the heart over one beat
Consists of two phases divided into six stages
Typically is descried as beginning in late diastole when the myocardium is relaxed and the ventricles are passively filling
Phases of the cardiac cycle:
Diastole
Isovolumetric Ventricular Relaxation
Rapid Ventricular Filling
Slow Ventricular Filling
(The cycle begins here).
Atrial Contraction
Systole
Isovolumetric Ventricular Contraction
Ejection
Phases of the Cardiac Cycle

Events during each phase of the cardiac cycle are represented on Wigger's Diagram:
228
Cardiac Cycle
Slow Ventricular Filling (Diastasis)

In slow ventricular filling:
The AV valves are open and the semi-lunar valves are closed
The ventricle is relaxed completely and fills slowly
The ventricles have been mostly filled during rapid ventricular filling and so the pressure gradient is reducing.
The pressure in each ventricle is almost zero
Arterial pressure is falling, as it is end-diastole
CVP is slowly rising as the ventricle and atria fill
This period occurs after the y descent.
The ECG will show the beginnings of a P-wave at the end of this phase
Atrial Contraction
The atria contract, and remaining blood in the atria is ejected into the ventricle. This supplies 10% of the ventricular filling at
rest, but up to 40% in tachycardia.
In atrial contraction:
Arterial pressure is still falling

The CVP waveform demonstrates the a wave as atrial contraction also causes blood to reflux into the SVC
The ECG will show the PR interval
Isovolumetric Ventricular Contraction
229
Cardiac Cycle
Once the action potential passes through the AV node and bundle of His, ventricular contraction begins.
In isovolumetric contraction:
Ventricular pressure rises, and the AV valves close

This gives rise to the first heart sound, S1.
As ventricular pressure is still less than systemic vascular pressure, the semilunar valves remain closed
Arterial pressure is still falling
The CVP waveform shows the C (closure) wave, as the tricuspid valve herniates back into the RA during ventricular
contraction
There is a similar spike in LA pressure as the mitral valve also bulges back into the LA.
The ECG will show the remainder of the QRS or the start of the QT interval
Atrial repolarisation occurs at this stage, but is typically masked by ventricular depolarisation
Ejection
When ventricular pressure exceeds arterial pressure, the semilunar valves open and ejection occurs. Initial ejection is rapid, but
as ventricular pressure falls and systemic pressure rises the gradient falls ejection becomes slower.
During ejection:
Arterial pressure rises rapidly, and is slightly less than ventricular pressure during this stage
The CVP waveform shows the x descent, as the shortening RV pulls the RA down, rapidly lowering CVP
The ST segment shows on the ECG as the ventricles are fully depolarised, though the T wave may appear in late ejection
Isovolumetric Relaxation
When contraction is complete, the ventricles begin to relax. Inertia means that ejection continues for a short time.
During isovolumentric relaxation:
The semilunar valves close

This gives rise to the second heart sound, S2, and marks the beginning of isovolumetric relaxation.
This occurs when ventricular pressure falls below vascular pressure
Arterial pressure begins to fall, interrupted by the dicrotic notch which is a brief increase in arterial pressure as the
semilunar valves close
The v wave is visible on the CVP waveform
Due to atria filling against closed AV valves.
The end of the T wave is visible on the ECG as ventricular repolarisation occurs
Rapid Ventricular Filling

Most of ventricular filling occurs in this phase. This is because in early ventricular diastole the ventricle is still relaxing and so a
pressure gradient is maintained between the atria and ventricle.
During rapid ventricular filling:
The AV valves open and ventricular filling occurs

This occurs when atrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure.
Arterial pressure is falling
The y descent occurs when the AV valves open, causing a rapid drop in CVP as the ventricles fill
No electrical activity is produced - the ECG shows the TP interval
230
Cardiac Cycle
References
Elsevier. 2011.
3. Wigger's Diagram (with some modifictions) from Wigger's Diagram. 21/3/2012. (Image). By DanielChangMD (revised
original work of DestinyQx); Redrawn as SVG by xavax. CC BY 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons.
231
Electrical Properties
Cardiac Action Potential

Explain the ionic basis of spontaneous electrical activity of cardiac muscle cells
Describe the normal and abnormal processes of cardiac excitation and electrical activity
An action potential is a propagating change in the membrane potential of an excitable cell, used in cellular communication and to
initiate intracellular processes. It is caused by altering the permeability of a membrane to different ions.
Pacemaker Potential
This pattern of electrical activity is seen in the SA and AV nodes. It has no resting state, and is continually depolarising.
Phases of the Pacemaker Potential
Phase 0
Begins at the threshold potential of -40mV, with a peak membrane potential of 20mV. Driven predominantly by the voltage-
gated L-type (long-lasting) Ca2+ channels causing an influx of calcium ions.
Phase 3
Repolarisation phase, which occurs as K+ channels open and Ca2+ channels close. The nadir is called the maximum
diastolic potential and is -65mV.
Phase 4
Phase 4 consists of:
The funny current
A steady influx of Na+/K+ which gradually depolarises the cell.
Sympathetic stimulation increases the funny current, increasing the rate of depolarisation.
Parasympathetic stimulation increases K+ permeability, hyperpolarising the cell and flattens the gradient of phase
4.
232
Calcium current
In phase 4, this is the transient calcium current, driven by T-type calcium channels. They open when the membrane
potential reaches ~-50mV, also causing depolarisation.
Ventricular Action Potential

To prevent tetanic contraction (which would be bad) ventricular muscle has a long plateau prior to repolarisation, which lengthens
the absolute refractory period to 250ms. The relative refractory period is 50ms.
Phases of the Ventricular Action Potential

Phase 0: Depolarisation
At the threshold potential, voltage-gated fast-Na+ channels open briefly, causing depolarisation. The membrane potential
peaks at 30mV.
Phase 1: Partial Repolarisation
The closure of Na+ channels results in K+ fleeing the cell down its electrochemical gradient, causing a slight drop in voltage
called partial repolarisation.
Phase 2: Plateau
L-type Ca2+ channels open, causing a slow inward Ca2+ current which maintains depolarisation and facilitates muscle
contraction.
Phase 3: Repolarisation
Membrane permeability normalises, and outward potassium current returns the membrane potential to normal.
Phase 4: Resting Potential
Membrane potential returns to its resting -85mV.
Propagation of the Cardiac Action Potential

Pacemaker cells:
233
Are responsible for automaticity and rhythmicity of the heart

The fastest pacemaker is the focus for myocardial conduction
This is typically the SA node.
Should the SA node fail, the next fastest pacemaker will take over
This provides an element of redundancy
Conduction pathway:
Atrial Conduction
From the SA node, the impulse travels at ~1m.s-1, depolarising the atria.
Current travels down Bachmann's Bundle, which connects the right atrium to the left atrium
AV node
The AV node is the only (normal) site of connection between the atria and ventricles. AV nodal cells:
Transmits with a delay of 0.1s
This allows time for atrial contraction to finish before ventricular contraction begins.
Have a prolonged refractory period and cannot conduct more than 220 impulses per minute
This period is prolonged by vagal stimulation, which increases potassium permeability and hyperpolarises the cell
Conversely, sympathetic stimulation increases calcium permeability and allows more rapid transmission
Conducts via three pathways:
Bachmann Pathway
Also conducts to the LA.
Wenckebach pathway
Thorel pathway
Ventricular Conduction
From the AV node, the signal propagates:
Initially via the Bundle of His to the right and left bundles
Secondly via the Purkinje fibres which conduct at 1-4m.s-1
Purkinje fibres have a long refractory period, and spontaneously depolarise with an intrinsic rate of 30-40 bpm.
Lastly, ventricular muscle is depolarised
Endocardium, papillary muscle and septum contract first, followed by apex, followed by the chambers.
Autonomic Control
Parasympathetic Innervation
SA node by the right vagus
There is continual PNS input ("Vagal tone") via inhibitory ACh GPCR, reducing the SA node from its intrinsic rate of
90-120bpm to a more sedate 60-100bpm.
AV node by the left vagus
The atria are innervated by parasympathetic neurons, whilst the ventricles are only minimally innervated
PNS stimulation therefore has little effect on inotropy, but does affect chronotropy.
PNS stimulation may have no direct effect on inotropy, instead acting indirectly via changes in chronotropy
Sympathetic Innervation
SNS activity causes release of noradrenaline (at post-ganglionic synapse) and adrenaline from adrenal medulla which
stimulate cardiac β1 receptors causing:
Positive chronotropy at the SA node
Positive inotropy at ventricular muscle
Positive luisotropy
Shorter action potential duration (due to opening of rectifying K+ channels
Increased AV conduction
234
Cardiac Transplant
The transplanted heart has no vagal/parasympathetic innervation but still expresses β1 receptors, so it:
Defaults to a resting heart rate of ~100bpm

Becomes highly preload dependent as it cannot respond quickly to changes in SVR
Not responsive to parasympatholytics (atropine, glycopyrrolate) or ephedrine (as this is indirectly-acting) to increase
chronotropy - isoprenaline may be used
Gradual response to demands in exercise (lacks local SNS innervation, but will still respond to circulating catecholamines)
Increased sensitivity to catecholamines due to increased expression of β1 receptors
References
3. Matsuura W, Sugimachi M, Kawada T, Sato T, Shishido T, Miyano H, Nakahara T, Ikeda Y, Alexander J Jr, Sunagawa K.
Vagal stimulation decreases left ventricular contractility mainly through negative chronotropic effect. Am J Physiol. 1997
Aug;273.
235
Cardiac Output
Determinants of Cardiac Output

Define the components and determinants of cardiac output
Cardiac output a function of Heart Rate (HR) and Stroke Volume (SV):
.
Heart rate is fairly intuitive
Stroke volume is defined as the difference between ESV and EDV, i.e.
Stroke volume is a function of three factors:
Preload
Afterload
Contractility
Preload and afterload have almost as many definitions as there are textbooks
For the purpose of the exam, it's good to have both a laboratory and a clinical definition
These definitions are those which have appeared in old examiner reports, or given to me by cardiac anaesthetists
Preload
Preload is defined as the myocardial sarcomere length just prior to contraction.
As this is not measurable without removing the heart and cutting it into tiny pieces, clinically it is usually approximated by
EDV or, less appropriately, by EDP
EDV is typically calculated on echocardiography
EDP is typically measured using a CVC or PAC
CVP ≈ RVEDP
PCWP ≈ LVEDP
Determinants of Preload
Preload is a function of:
Venous Return
Intrathoracic Pressure
MSFP
Venous compliance
A decrease in venous compliance will increase LVEDP.
Volume state
Ventricular compliance
Reduced in diastolic dysfunction.
Pericardial compliance
Valvular disease
AV valve disease will impair preload
Semilunar valve disease will increase preload
Atrial kick
Wall thickness
Increased ventricular wall thickness decreases preload.
HOCM/Hypertrophy
236
Cardiac Output
Preload and the Respiratory Cycle

Negative intrathoracic pressure causes RAP and PCWP to fall
This increases RA filling, so and RVEDP and RVEDV increase relative to the pleural pressure (though absolute pressure is
still low)
LV effects are more variable
Negative intrapleural pressures:
Increase LV transmural pressure
This impairs ejection.
Cause bowing of the interventricular septum into the LV
This reduces LVEDV.
Frank-Starling Mechanism
The Frank-Starling Law of the Heart states that the strength of cardiac contraction is dependent on initial fibre length
At a cellular level, additional stretch increases:
The number of myofilament crossbridges that can interact
Myofilament Ca2+ sensitivity
This law is represented by the ventricular function curve

Plot of preload against stroke volume (or cardiac output, assuming a constant heart rate).
Right shift of the curve demonstrates negative inotropy
Left shift of the curve demonstrates positive inotropy
The failing ventricle:
In cardiac failure, the ventricle becomes overstretched

This reduces the number of overlapping crossbridges, reducing contractility.
This is limited in the acute setting by constriction of the pericardium, which prevents excessive ventricular dilation
Afterload
237
Cardiac Output
Afterload is the sum of forces, both elastic and kinetic, opposing ventricular ejection
This definition is a bit wordy but avoids using the words "resistance" and "impedance", which are strictly defined in physics
(and crudely applied in medicine), and may be leapt on by the cruel examiner
Determinants of Afterload
Afterload is equal to ventricular wall stress, which is given by the equation:
, where:
is ventricular wall stress

is ventricular transmural pressure
is ventricular chamber radius
is ventricular wall thickness
Each of these factors are in turn influenced by:
Ventricular transmural systolic pressure

Transmural pressure is the difference between intrathoracic pressure and the ventricular cavity pressure during ejection.
Intrathoracic Pressure
Negative intrathoracic pressure will increase afterload, as the ventricle has to generate a greater change in pressure to
achieve ejection.
PEEP reduces LV afterload
Negative-pressure ventilation with a high work of breathing increases afterload
This is why APO deteriorates - increased work of breathing increases LV afterload and worsens LV failure,
increased pulmonary oedema, causing increased work of breathing...
Ventricular cavity pressure

To facilitate ejection, the ventricle must overcome:
Outflow tract impedance
Valvular disease
e.g. aortic stenosis
HOCM
Systemic arterial impedance
Determined by resistance (SVR), inertia, and compliance:
Determinants of resistance are stated in the Poiseuille Equation:
, where:
η = Viscosity
Affected by haematocrit (e.g. increased in polycythaemia)
l = Vessel length
Essentially fixed.
r = Vessel radius
Greatest determinant
Function of degree of vasoconstriction of resistance vessels
Inertia
Given by the mass of blood in the column
Affected by heart rate
Arterial compliance
Decreased arterial compliance increases afterload.
During ejection, the aorta and large arteries distend, reducing peak systolic pressure (impedance to
238
Cardiac Output
further ejection)
Decreased arterial compliance increases the change in pressure for any given volume, increasing
afterload during ejection
Decreased arterial compliance increases the speed of propagation of reflected pressures waves
returning to the aortic root
Wave arrival in diastole augments coronary blood flow
Wave arrival during systole further increases afterload
In diastole the arteries recoil and blood pressure and flow are maintained - the Windkessel effect.
Ventricular chamber radius

End-Diastolic Volume
Increased EDV increases ventricular radius and therefore wall tension.
Myocardial wall thickness

Increasing wall thickness (seen clinically as ventricular hypertrophy) decreases afterload by sharing wall tension (the product
of pressure and radius) between a larger number of sarcomeres.
Contractility
Contractility describes the factors other than heart rate, preload, and afterload that are responsible for for changes in
myocardial performance.
Determinants of Contractility
Contractility is primarily dependent on intracellular Ca2+. Determinants include:
Drugs
Disease
Ischaemia
Reduced ATP production secondary to hypoxia, which impairs sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ function. Further
exacerbated by intracellular acidosis from anaerobic metabolism.
Heart Failure
Impaired contractility reserve, i.e. minimal increase in contractility with sympathetic stimulation.
Reduced peak Ca2+ and sarcoplasmic reticulum uptake of Ca2+
Autonomic Tone
Bowditch Effect
Contractility improves at faster heart rates. This is because the myocardium does not have time to remove calcium, so it
accumulates intracellularly.
Anrep Effect
Contractility increases as afterload increases.
Measuring Contractility
As with the other determinants of cardiac output, there has been some difficulty in developing measurable indicies for
contractility
All measures of contractility are affected by preload or afterload to some extent
dP/dtmax ( )
The rate of rise of LVP, assuming a constant preload and afterload
This index is preload dependent but afterload independent
Typically, the dP/dtmax in isovolumetric ventricular contraction is used
239
Cardiac Output
A greater rate of rise indicates a more forceful contraction

Measurement requires LV catheterisastion
End-Systolic Pressure-Volume Relationship

Uses the ventricular Pressure-Volume Relationship
Line plotted at the tangent to the curve from the end-systolic point (when isovolumetric ventricular relaxation begins)
The steeper the gradient the greater the contractility
Ejection Fraction
Most common method used clinically is ejection fraction:
Footnotes
The use of wall stress for preload and afterload comes from the Cardiovascular Haemodynamics text, but is not used in the
CICM texts
This site has a nice overview of wall tension, and the relationship of pressure to radius
This article discusses the wall stress definition for preload and afterload
Changes with ventilation are described with pretty graphs here
References
2. Deranged Physiology - Haemodynamic changes during mechanical ventilation
3. Anwaruddin S, Martin JM, Stephens JC, Askari AT. Cardiovascular hemodynamics: an introductory guide, contemporary
cardiology. New York: Springer; 2013. p. 29–51.
4. Norton JM. Toward Consistent Definitions for Preload and Afterload. Advances in Physiology Education Mar 2001, 25 (1)
53-61.
5. ANZCA July/September 2006
240
Venous Return
Venous Return
Define the components and determinants of cardiac output
The venous system has two key cardiovascular functions:
Blood resevoir
Contains 65% of blood ovolume.
Conduit for return of blood to the heart
Venous return is the rate at which blood is returned to the heart (in L.min-1). At steady state, venous return is equal to cardiac
output, and can be expressed as:
, where:
is venous return
is the mean systemic filling pressure
This is the mean pressure of the circulation when there is no flow. It is an indicator of circulatory filling, and is a function of
circulating volume and vascular compliance.
Normal mean systemic filling pressure is ~7mmHg
is the right atrial pressure
An elevated RAP reduces rvenous return.
is the resistance to venous return
This relationship can be expressed graphically:
When venous return is 0, the measured right atrial pressure is an indication of mean systemic filling pressure
Alterations to circulating volume and compliance affect both venous return and mean systemic filling pressure
241
Venous Return
Alterations to the resistance to venous return affect venous return but mean systemic filling pressure is unchanged
Factors Affecting Venous Return

Venous return will be altered by any of the variables in the above equation:
MSFP
Volume
e.g. Haemorrhage, resuscitation.
Compliance
RAP
Respiratory pump
Negative intrathoracic pressure reduces RAP, improving venous return.
Positive pressure ventilation
Constriction
Tamponade
Resistance to Venous Return
Posture
Vascular compression
Obesity
Pregnancy
Laparoscopy
Other factors affecting venous return

Skeletal muscle pump
Contraction of leg muscles in combination with an intact venous system propels blood back towards the heart.
Interaction between Venous Return and Cardiac Function Curves

Guyton's curve can be superimposed on Starling's curve to examine the interaction between venous and cardiac function over a
range of conditions:
242
Venous Return
References
3. Henderson WR, Griesdale DE, Walley KR, Sheel AW. Clinical review: Guyton - the role of mean circulatory filling pressure
and right atrial pressure in controlling cardiac output. Critical Care. 2010;14(6):243. doi:10.1186/cc9247.
243
Myocardial Oxygen Supply and Demand

Describe myocardial oxygen demand and supply, and the conditions that may alter each
Myocardial oxygen supply is a function of coronary blood flow

Myocardial oxygen demand is determined by myocardial work
Myocardial ischaemia occurs when demand exceeds supply
Myocardial Oxygen Supply

Myocardial oxygen supply is dependent on:
Coronary artery flow
Oxygen content of blood
Oxygen extraction
Functionally, coronary artery flow is the determinant. This is because:

Oxygen content in individuals without pulmonary disease is maximal
Resting myocardial oxygen extraction is near-maximal (~70%)
This high ER makes the heart less tolerant of anaemia than organs with a low ER.
Therefore coronary blood flow is the limiting factor

Coronary blood flow is given by the equation:
Aortic root pressure is the driving pressure for coronary flow

Cavity (ventricular) pressure acts as a Starling resistor for coronary flow
Note that if RAP exceeds cavity pressure, RAP will be the pressure opposing coronary flow (due to
downstream pressure at the coronary sinus)
Note that cavity and aortic root pressure change throughout the cardiac cycle, therefore:
The flow to each ventricle is different during the cardiac cycle
The left ventricle is best perfused in diastole
Therefore heart rate is an important determinant of coronary blood flow, as tachycardia will decrease
coronary blood flow
Flow to each ventricle is a function of how relationships change over the cardiac cycle
Left Ventricular Coronary Blood Flow:
Right Ventricular Coronary Blood Flow:
244
Myocardial Oxygen Demand

Normal myocardial oxygen consumption (MVO2) is 21-27ml.min-1. The three major determinants are:
Heart rate
A change in heart rate will change the number of tension-generating cycles, causing a proportional change in MVO2.
Contractility
Refers to the rate of tension development as well as its magnitude. Changing will change MVO2.
Ventricular wall tension

Ventricular wall tension is pressure work, or the work done by the ventricle to generate pressure but not to eject volume.
Wall tension is given by the Law of LaPlace
, where:
= Pressure during contraction
= Radius
Wall tension is therefore a function of:
Afterload
Increasing afterload will increase the pressure during contraction.
Preload
Increasing preload will increase radius, but to a lesser extent than increasing afterload.
This is because volume and radius are not directly proportional
Minor determinants of myocardial work are:
External work
External work can also be thought of as volume work, or the energy expended to eject blood from the ventricle.
This is encompassed by the area enclosed by the pressure-volume loop
Conversely, internal work is defined as the work required to change the shape of the ventricle and prepare it for
ejection
On the pressure-volume loop internal work is represented by a triangle between the point of 0 pressure and volume,
the end systolic point, and the beginning of rapid ventricular filling.
This is a minor determinant because the majority of ventricular work is generating the pressure required to eject blood,
not actually move volume
External work is of greater importance at high CO
External work is used to calculate cardiac efficiency, given by the equation:
Basal oxygen consumption

-1 -1
245
Basal oxygen consumption (~8ml.min-1.100g-1) comprises ~25% of MVO2.
References
1. Grossman W, Baim DS. Grossman's Cardiac Catheterization, Angiography, and Intervention. 7th Ed (revised). 2006.
Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
4. Miller RD, Eriksson LI, Fleisher LA, Weiner-Kronish JP, Cohen NH, Young WL. Miller's Anaesthesia. 8th Ed (Revised).
Elsevier Health Sciences.
246
Pressure-Volume Relationships
Describe the pressure-volume relationships of the ventricles and their clinical applications
Left Ventricular P-V Loop:
Plot of left ventricular volume versus pressure

Time is not directly demonstrated on this graph, but the stages of the cardiac cycle can be inferred:
A-B is isovolumetric relaxation
Ventricular pressure is less than aortic pressure but greater than atrial pressure, so both mitral and aortic valves are
closed.
B-C is rapid and slow ventricular filling, followed by atrial systole
Atrial systole is sometimes demonstrated by a sharp 'bump' towards C, as ventricular pressure will briefly rise out of
proportion to ventricular volume
C-D is isovolumetric contraction
The ventricle contracts. As ventricular pressure is greater than atrial pressure but less than aortic pressure, the mitral
valve closes (point C) and the aortic valve remains closed. Pressure increases without a change in volume.
This slope of this line is known as the dP/dtmax ( ), and is an index of contractility
D-A is ventricular ejection
When ventricular pressure exceeds aortic pressure, blood is ejected into the aorta and ventricular volume decreases.
The slope of the line B-C gives the elastance of the ventricle
This is also known as the End-Diastolic Pressure Volume Relationship (EDPVR), and is often (erronously) referred to as
ventricular compliance.
Elastance of the ventricle increases as it is filled
This is demonstrated by the dashed line.
The ventricle only overfills at high filling pressures
Increased elastance (such as in diastolic dysfunction) is demonstrated by an increased slope of this line, such that
ventricular pressure will be higher at any given volume
Both ventricular and arterial elastances are low in normal circumstances (a state known as ventricular-arterial coupling),
as this allows the ventricle to achieve a wide range of volume transfers in ejection with minimal change in filling
pressure.
The horizontal distance between point B (ESV) and C (EDV) give the stroke volume
Ejection fraction can then be calculated.
Preload is given by the EDV
Afterload is:
Technically given by the pressure-volume relationship throughout the entirety of ejection
i.e. the slope D-A.
247
This comes from La Place's law:
Usually assumed to given by the slope of a line drawn from the EDV (on the x-axis) to the end-systolic point (point A)
This is also known as the arterial elastance line.
The gradient of the arterial elastance line can be worked out from the loops
This is different from the above formula because it only considers the pressure-volume relationship at end-systole,
not throughout the entirety of ejection
is a good substitute for afterload because it is relatively independent of preload and contractility, and will
vary with changes in afterload
i.e. For a given stroke volume, an increase in leads to an increase in SBP. Similarly, if the ventricle is unable
to maintain a given stroke volume as increases, then SBP will fall.

Contractility is given by the slope of the end-systolic pressure volume-relationship
Also known as elastance at end-systole, or , and is given by the tangent to the curve at end-systole.
This measurement is not entirely independent of other factors, as it is influenced by afterload
Basic Pressure-Volume Loops

These loops:
Show isolated changes to one factor only

Are not accurate of real-world physiology
In reality:
Changing one factor will influence other factors
These values change beat-to-beat
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Increased Preload:
EDV is increasd, by definition

The slope of the ESPVR remains unchanged (as contractility is unchanged)
The slope of the afterload line ( ) is unchanged (as afterload is unchanged), but it is right-shifted due to the increased
end-diastolic volume
ESV is increased, though less than EDV, such that stroke volume increases
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Increased Afterload:
248
EDV is unchanged (as preload is unchanged)

The slope of the ESPVR remains unchanged (as contractility is unchanged)
The slope of the afterload line ( ) has increased, but its x-intercept is unchanged
Note that the pressure-volume relationship throughout ejection is also steeper, and diastolic pressure has increased.
ESV is increased, causing a reduction in stroke volume
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Increased Contractility:
EDV is unchanged (as preload is unchanged)
The slope and x-intercept of the afterload line ( ) is unchanged (as afterload is unchanged)
The slope of the ESPVR has increased, though its x-intercept is the same
ESV is decreased, causing an increase in stroke volume
Advanced Pressure Volume Loops

The easiest way to approach more complicated pressure-volume loops is to address each of the basic factors before trying to draw
the curve:
How is preload changed?

How is afterload changed?
How is contractility changed?
How are isovolumetric contraction and isovolumetric relaxation changed?
These show the loop for the primary physiological change, without compensatory responses:
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Aortic Stenosis:
249
Preload is increased due to the higher ESV, as the ventricle starts filling from a higher point
Outflow tract impedance increases ventricular wall stress and therefore afterload
This leads to the decrease in stroke volume.
Contactility is unchanged
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Aortic Regurgitation:
Preload is dramatically increased as the ventricle fills from both the aorta and atria during diastole
Afterload is increased due to the greater wall stress during ejection
Contractility is unchanged
There is no true isovolumetric relaxation, as the ventricle will begin to fill from the aorta at the completion of ejection
Diastolic pressure is decreased and so the period of isovolumetric contraction is brief
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Mitral Stenosis:
Preload is reduced due to the increased gradient aross the mitral valve
The effect of this is heart rate dependent, and will worsen as heart rate increases.
Afterload is unchanged
Afterload may fall due to the reduction in ventricular wall stress.
250
ESV decreases (due to the reduced preload), though less than EDV, such that stroke volume is reduced
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Mitral Regurgitation:
Preload is increased as the regurgitant volume increases left atrial pressure and therefore ventricular filling pressure
Afterload is reduced as blood is ejected into the low-pressure atrial system
There is no true isovolumetric contraction phase as blood is ejected into the atria while ventricular pressure exceeds atrial
pressure
There is no true isovolumetric relaxation phase, as once atrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure the ventricle will begin to
fill
Apparent stroke volume is increased due to the large difference between EDV and ESV, however effective stroke volume is
reduced as only a portion of this is forward flow
Right Ventricular P-V Loop:
The right ventricular curve is very different to the left ventricular curve
RV preload is increased relative to LV preload
Note that stroke volume is the same (as both sides should have the same cardiac output).
RV afterload is dramatically reduced due to the low-resistance pulmonary circulation
Much of the RV ejection occurs after systolic pressure is reached
The right ventricle is very sensitive to changes in afterload
Contractility is reduced
Right heart contractility is partially dependent on coordinated contraction with the LV (particularly the septum), and therefore
is decreased with LV systolic failure or conducting system disease (such as bundle brach block).
Footnotes
251
The Khan Academy series Changing the Pressure-Volume Loop is a fantastic introduction to the topic.
References
2. Klabunde, RE. [Ventricular Pressure-Volume Relationship(http://www.cvphysiology.com/Cardiac%20Function/CF024).
Cardiovascular Physiology Concepts. 2015.
3. Desai, R. Arterial elastance (Ea) and afterload. Khan Academy.
4. Redington, AN. Cardiopulmonary and Right–Left Heart Interactions. Thoracic Key.
5. Borlaug BA, Kass DA. Ventricular-Vascular Interaction in Heart Failure. Heart failure clinics. 2008;4(1):23-36.
252
Cardiac Reflexes
Cardiac Reflexes
Describe the cardiac reflexes
Cardiac reflexes are fast-acting reflex loops between the CVS and CNS which contribute to the maintenance of cardiovascular
haemostasis.
They include:
Baroreceptor reflex
Aortic arch and carotid sinus reflexes.
Bainbridge reflex
Atrial stretch receptor reflexes.
Chemoreceptor reflex
Decreased PaO2 < 50mmHg or decreased pH sensed by peripheral chemoreceptors causes subsequent tachycardia and
hypertension.
Cushing reflex
Brainstem compression causes ischaemia of the vasomotor centre leading to Cushings' Triad:
Hypertension
May have a wide pulse pressure.
Bradycardia
Due to baroreceptor response from hypertension.
Irregular respirations
Bezold-Jarisch reflex
Stimulation of C fibres of the vagus nerve in the cardiopulmonary region.
This causes:
Significant bradycardia
Hypotension
Apnoea, followed by rapid shallow breathing. These fibres can be stimulated by a number of substances, including:
Capsaicin
Serotonin
Those produced in myocardial ischaemia
Oculocardic reflex
Pressure on the globe or traction on ocular muscles causes a decrease in heart rate. This is mediated by the:
Trigeminal nerve (afferent limb)
Vagus nerve (efferent limb)
Increased vagal tone reduces SA nodal activity.
References
3. Open Anaesthesia - Oculocardiac reflex: afferent path
253
Cardiac Reflexes
254
Peripheral Circulation
Starling Forces
Describe the essential features of the micro-circulation including fluid exchange (Starling forces) and control mechanisms
present in the pre- and post-capillary sphincters
Interstitial fluid is an ultrafiltrate of plasma, with the net filtration pressure determined by the net effect of opposing hydrostatic
and oncotic pressures:
These four variables are known as Starling's forces.
Actual fluid movement is (of course) more complicated. Hydrostatic pressure falls along the capillary, and movement of solute
and water are affected by other factors. Some of these are described by the:
Reflection coefficient (σ)

This describes the fact that a small amount of protein leaks from the capillary, slightly increasing interstitial oncotic pressure
and slightly decreasing capillary oncotic pressure. It is dependent on the interstitial protein content, and has a value between
0 and 1.
Filtration coefficient (Kf)

Encompasses membrane permeability (to water) and membrane surface area. Varies between tissues:
The Starling Equation becomes:
Typical Values for Pressures (mmHg)
Arteriolar end Venous end
Capillary hydrostatic pressure 25 10
Interstitial hydrostatic pressure -6 -6
Capillary oncotic pressure 25 25
Interstitial oncotic pressure 5 5
Organ-Specific Values
In the glomerulus:
Reflection coefficient is close to 1 due to the impermeability of the glomerulus to protein

Kf is high due to both high permeability and a large surface area.
Hydrostatic pressure is high
Glomerular oncotic pressure is essentially 0
In the liver:
Reflection coefficient is close to 0 in hepatic sinusoids as they are very permeable to protein
In the lungs:
Reflection coefficient of ~0.5 in the lungs due to significant leak of protein

Protein leak decreases as interstitial oncotic pressure rises, limiting further oedema formation
The oncotic pressure gradient is small, and favours reabsorption
255
Peripheral Circulation
Hydrostatic pressure gradient is small, but favours extravasation of fluid

Interstitial hydrostatic pressure becomes more negative closer to the hilum, drawing fluid into the pulmonary lymphatics
Causes of Oedema
Oedema can be localised or generalised, and in both cases caused by:
Increased Filtration Pressure

Occurs when capillary hydrostatic pressure exceeds interstitial hydrostatic pressure. Causes:
Increased Venous pressure
This includes an increase in CVP:
CCF
TR
Increased venoconstriction
Increased MSFP
Impaired venous return
Obstruction
Respiratory muscle pump
Skeletal muscle pump
Positioning
Decreased Oncotic Pressure Gradient

Decreased plasma protein
Hepatic failure
Critical Illness
Increased interstitial oncotic pressure
Mannitol/starch extravasation
Increased capillary permeability
Inflammatory proteins
Substance P
Histamine
Kinins
Inadequate Lymph Flow
References
2. Brandis, K. Starling's Hypothesis. Anaesthesia MCQ.
256
Variations in Blood Pressure

Describe the physiological factors that may contribute to pulse variations in blood pressure
Blood pressure is not uniform throughout the circulation. Ventricular ejection generates two waves:
A blood flow wave

Travels at ~20cm.s-1.
An arterial pressure wave
Distends the elastic walls of the large arteries during systole, which then recoil during diastole to facilitate continual blood
flow. This is the Windkessel effect.
This wave travels at 4m.s-1
This is what is felt when pulses are palpated, and what is seen on the arterial line waveform
Key pressures measured are:
Systolic blood pressure

Maximal pressure generated during ejection.
Determined by:
Stroke volume
Systolic time
Arterial compliance
Reflected pressure wave
Relevant for:
Bleeding
Clot disruption
Aneurysmal wall pressure
Diastolic pressure
Pressure exerted by the circulation upon the aortic valve.
Determined by:
Circulatory compliance
Circulating volume
Aortic valve (in)competence
Relevant for:
Coronary perfusion
Mean arterial pressure
Average pressure in the circulation throughout the cardiac cycle, as measured by the area under the curve of the arterial line
waveform.
Determined by:
Systolic blood pressure
Diastolic blood pressure
Heart rate
Increasing HR will tend to increase MAP, as overall systolic time (and therefore time spent at higher circulator
pressure) is increased.
Shape of the arterial waveform/diastolic runoff
The slow decrease in pressure after peak systolic pressure represent elastic recoil of large arteries, increasing the
pressure driving blood into the peripheral circulation. A longer diastolic runoff period leads to a larger area under
the curve, and a higher MAP.
Relevant for:
Organ perfusion
257
Changes by Site of Measurement

Measured pressure changes predictably at more distal sites:
All gradients are increased

Arterial upstroke and falloff are both steeper.
The SBP increases
DBP decreases
MAP is constant
The dicrotic notch occurs later and becomes less sharp
This occurs due to reflections in arterial pressure waves.
Respiratory Variation
Ventilation causes variation in peak systolic pressure due to dynamic changes in cardiac loading conditions:
Negative pressure respiration (i.e. regular breathing) generates a negative intrathoracic pressure during inspiration
Leads to increased VR, but also pooling of blood in the pulmonary circulation and relative underfilling of the LV, leading to a
decrease in SV and peak systolic blood pressure.
Positive pressure ventilation causes the reverse
Increased intrathoracic pressure during inspiration results in a decreased venous return but increases LV filling via
compression of the pulmonary circulation.
When this change is >10mmHg, it is known as pulsus paradoxus
The magnitude of this effect varies with:
Magnitude of intrathoracic pressure change
Large changes in intrathoracic pressure cause correpondingly larger changes in ventricular filling.
Other factors affecting cardiovascular function
Preload
Volume state
Compliance
Constriction
Tamponade
Cardiac compliance
Diastolic dysfunction
Afterload
PE
Raised intrathoracic pressure
PEEP
Tension PTHx
These differences can be measured:
Qualitatively
By looking at respiratory swing on an arterial line or plethysmograph; or by palpation.
Quantitatively
Using pulse pressure or stroke volume variation.
Pulse Pressure Variation

Describes the variation in pulse pressure over the course of a respiratory cycle. Pulse pressure variation is:
Mathematically defined as:
258
Therefore, it is calculated as a percent

Used as an indicator of fluid responsiveness
Patients higher on the Frank-Starling curve will have less change in stroke volume with an increase in preload, and
therefore:
Reduced PPV
Be less fluid responsive
A PPV of >12% suggests volume responsiveness.
Note that this does not necessarily mean a fluid responsive patient needs fluid.
Reliant on several assumptions:
Regular sinus rhythm
Irregular heart rates (particularly AF) lead to significant alterations in ventricular filling and therefore pulse pressure,
independent of the respiratory cycle.
Controlled mechanical ventilation
No spontaneous efforts.
Adequate tidal volumes
Must be >8ml.kg-1.
Normal chest wall compliance
Requires a closed chest.
Stroke Volume Variation

SVV is:
Alternately defined as:

The percent change in stroke volume during inspiration and expiration over the previous 20 seconds
Variation of beat-to-beat SV from the mean value over the previous 20 seconds
Calculated by specialised devices from an invasive arterial waveform Calculation incorporates:

Pulse pressure
Vascular compliance
Estimated from nomograms based on patient age, gender, height, and weight.
Vascular resistance
Estimated from arterial waveform shape.
An alternative to PPV in measuring fluid responsiveness
Relies on similar principles.
Probably less specific but more sensitive than PPV for identifying fluid responders
Circulatory Factors
Changes in circulatory function:
Inotropy
The rate of systolic upstroke is related to , and therefore contractility.

SVR
The gradient between the peak systolic pressure and the dicrotic notch gives an indiciation of SVR. E.g., a steep downstroke
suggests a low SVR, as the pressure in the circulation rapidly falls when ejection ceases.
Preload
259
A beat-to-beat variation is seen with the respiratory cycle, due to the change in preload occurring with changes in
intrathoracic pressure.
Pathological Changes
Some pathological causes include:
Aortic Stenosis
Causes a reduction in:
Pulse pressure
Due to reduced stroke volume.
Gradient of upstroke
Due to reduced stroke volume.
Aortic Regurgitation
Wide pulse pressure
Combination of:
Increased SBP due to the increased force of ejection due to increased preload (Starlings Law), which occurs due to
high ESV
Decreased DBP due to part of the stroke volume flowing back into the ventricle through the incompetent valve
References
2. Buteler, Benjamin S. The relation of systolic upstroke time and pulse pressure in aortic stenosis. British Heart Journal. 1962.
3. Mark, Jonathan B. Atlas of cardiovascular monitoring. New York; Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1998.
4. Marik PE. Techniques for assessment of intravascular volume in critically ill patients. J Intensive Care Med. 2009;24(5):329-
37.
5. Soliman RA, Samir S, el Naggar A, El Dehely K. Stroke volume variation compared with pulse pressure variation and
cardiac index changes for prediction of fluid responsiveness in mechanically ventilated patients. Egypt J Crit Care Med.
2015;3(1):9-16. doi:10.1016/J.EJCCM.2015.02.002
260
Pulmonary Circulation
Outline the anatomy of the pulmonary and bronchial circulations
Describe the physiological features of the pulmonary circulation and its resistance
Understand the differences between the pulmonary and systemic circulation
The pulmonary circulation is:
A low-pressure, high-flow, high-pulsatility circulation

Supplied by the pulmonary trunk (pressure 25/8 mmHg), driven by the RV (pressure 25/0 mmHg)
Arteries and veins run with the bronchi as far as the terminal bronchioles, dividing at the same points
Beyond this, they form a capillary bed so thin it is essentially sheet of flowing blood punctuated by alveoli
The bronchial circulation:
Arises from the systemic circulation, and supplies blood to the conducting zone of the lung
A third drains back to the systemic circulation
The remainder drains into the pulmonary vessels - this is a physiologic shunt
Supply to tumours is predominantly from the bronchial circulation (rather than the pulmonary circulation) as these
vessels respond to angiogenic factors.
Differences between Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations

Blood Pressure
Pulmonary arterial pressure is 25/8 mmHg (MAP 15 mmHg) compared to 120/80 mmHg (MAP 100 mmHg) in the systemic
circulation. This is because the systemic circulation must:
Regulate flow to different organs at different times

It therefore contains resistance vessels which allow it to allocate cardiac output accordingly.
Maintain flow to organs far above the heart
Conversely, the pulmonary circulation must:
Accept the entirety of cardiac output, with little capacity to regulate flow (hypoxic vasoconstriction being the exception)
Minimise extravasation of fluid
As per Starlings Law, fluid movement out of the capillary is given by the difference in hydrostatic gradients and oncotic
gradients
The net oncotic gradient is small (but favours reabsorption), however the pulmonary interstitium has no hydrostatic
pressure
Increased pulmonary capillary presure therefore causes extravasation of large volumes of fluid
Consequently, pulmonary vessels are thin walled and contain minimal smooth muscle
This makes the pulmonary circulation highly compliant - the volume of blood is able to change substantially with minimal
change in pressure
Pulmonary Vascular Resistance

Vascular resistance follows Ohms law, i.e.:
th
261
Pulmonary vascular resistance is ~1/10th that of the systemic circulation

This is because the pressure drop across the pulmonary circulation is 10mmHg (MPAP - LAP), ~1/10th that of the
systemic circulation, and flow is the same
Determinants of pulmonary vascular resistance are:
Pulmonary Artery Pressure

Increased PAP causes a decrease in PVR. This occurs because:
Previously closed pulmonary capillaries are recruited when their critical opening pressure is reached
This is more important when MPAP is low.
Vessels distend at higher pressures
This is more important when MPAP is high.
Lung volume Lung volume has a variable effect on PVR.
At large lung volumes:

Resistance in large extra-alveolar vessels decreases as the vessels are pulled opening by distension of elastic tissues
Resistance in small intra-alveolar vessels increases as they are compressed by the high lung volumes
At small lung volumes, the reverse occurs
Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction

Low PAO2 causes a vasoconstriction in the vessels supplying that alveolus, increasing PVR and directing blood to better
ventilated alveoli.
Low alveolar PO2 is the primary determinant
Low mixed venous PO2 also contributes
Constriction begins when PAO2 falls below 100mmHg, and becomes dramatic below 70mmHg
This is important in:
Foetal circulation
Alveolar consolidation
Pneumonia
Cardiogenic pulmonary oedema
262
Raised LVEDP increases pulmonary venous pressures. Basal alveoli are more affected. HPV causes
constriction of basal vessels, increasing blood flow to apical alveoli and resulting in upper lobe diversion
seen on chest x-ray.
High altitude
HPV is attenuated by:
Elevated LAP
Greater than 25mmHg.
High CO
Minor factors which affect PVR:

Increase PVR:
Hypercarbia
Hypothermia
Acidaemia
Pain
Decrease PVR:
Bronchodilators
Volatiles
Response to Substances
Oxygen:
The pulmonary circulation constricts when PO2 falls, whilst the systemic circulation dilates
Carbon Dioxide:
The pulmonary circulation constrictions when PCO2 rises, whilst the systemic circulation dilates
Distribution of Pulmonary Flow

Gravity has a significant effect on pulmonary blood flow:
In the upright lung, flow decreases almost linearly with height

In the supine lung, flow to posterior regions exceeds that of anterior regions
This occurs due to the low driving pressure of the pulmonary circulation, which means gravity has a much more significant
affect on pulmonary blood flow than systemic blood flow.
West's Zones
The lung is divided into four zones, based on the relationship between alveolar and vascular pressures:
West's Zone 1
In West's Zone 1, PA > Pa > Pv.
This should not occur in normal conditions, because a normal pulmonary artery pressure is normally (just) sufficient
This is because in the upright lung, the hydrostatic pressure difference will be about 30cmH2O.
However, if alveolar pressure is raised (e.g. IPPV), or arterial pressure falls (shock), there may be a region where
alveolar pressure exceeds arterial pressure
West's Zone 2
In West's Zone 2, Pa > PA > Pv.
Here, flow is determined by the arterial-alveolar pressure gradient rather than the arterial-venous gradient
Alveolar pressure acts as a Starling Resistor, where flow is independent of downstream pressure.
263
West's Zone 3
Occurs when alveolar pressure falls below venous pressure, i.e. Pa > Pv > PA. Flow is dependent on the arterial-venous
pressure gradient. Capillary pressure increases along their length, increasing transmural pressure and mean width.
West's Zone 4
Occurs at low lung volumes, as extra-alveolar vessels collapse and shunt occurs. The interstitium is acting as a Starling
resistor, which can be expressed as: Pa > Pint > Pv > PA.
Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction

As discussed above, HPV allows redirection of blood flow from poorly ventilated regions of the lung, and so improve V/Q
matching. HPV is relevant in disease states, as well as specific physiologic circumstances:
At high altitude, the PAO2 is globally reduced, leading to high pulmonary artery pressures
In utero, PAO2 is negligible, and PVR is therefore very high
This diverts blood from the pulmonary circulation into the left side of the heart via the foramen ovale. When the first breath
is taken, pulmonary vessels dilate and the right-to-left shunt is reversed.
References
1. Dunn, PF. Physiology of the Lateral Decubitus Position and One-Lung Ventilation. Thoracic Anaesthesia. Volume 38(1),
Winter 2000, pp 25-53.
264
Cerebral Blood Flow
Cerebral Blood Flow

Describe the distribution of blood volume and flow in the various regional circulations and explain the factors that
influence them, including autoregulation. These include, but not limited to, the cerebral and spinal cord, hepatic and
splachnic, coronary, renal and utero-placental circulations
With respect to cerebral blood flow:
Normal is ~750ml.min-1 or ~15% of resting cardiac output

Note that the brain makes up only ~2% of body weight.
A relatively high blood flow is required due to the high cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen (CMRO2) of 50ml.min-1
The brain is sensitive to interruptions in flow as it has:
A high metabolic rate
No capacity to store energy substrates
The factors affecting cerebral blood flow can be classified by the factors in the Hagan-Poiseuille Equation:
, where:
is the pressure difference driving flow, i.e. CPP

is the radius of the blood vessels
is the blood viscosity
These are also called rheologic factors.
is the length of the tube, a fixed quantity
Factors Affecting Perfusion Pressure{#cpp)

Cerebral Perfusion Pressure is the difference between mean arterial pressure and intracranial pressure:
A normal CPP is ~80mmHg

In normal individuals, CBF is classically thought to be autoregulated over a CPP range of 60-160mmHg
This occurs by myogenic means, similar to the kidney
In normal circumstances, this is dependent on MAP (i.e., with a normal ICP < 10mmHg, CBF is regulated over a MAP
range of 50-150mmHg).
Note that more recent evidence would suggest that CBF is autoregulated over a much narrower range of perfusion pressures,
and has a greater capacity to buffer an increased rather than decreased perfusion pressure
At the lower limit, the reduced perfusion pressure means flow cannot be maintained even with maximal vasodilation
265
Cerebral Blood Flow
At the upper limit, the high perfusion pressure overcomes maximal vasoconstriction
Additionally, the increased CBF may result in damage to the blood-brain barrier
The curve is left-shifted in neonates and children (due to lower normal MAP)
The curve is right-shifted in chronic hypertension
The curve is probably inaccurate in the pathological conditions where it would otherwise be useful, such as malignancy,
subarachnoid haemorrhage, CVA, or TBI
This may be due to damage to either the feedback mechanisms, or the effectors (vasculature)
Flow may become pressure-dependent, and small changes in MAP can have large changes in CBF
Factors Affecting Vessel Radius

Vasodilation and constriction affect both cerebral blood flow and ICP, as vasodilatation increases cerebral blood volume and
therefore may increase ICP through the Monroe-Kellie doctrine.
Vessel calibre is affected primarily by four factors:
Cerebral metabolism
PaCO2
PaO2
Neurohormonal factors
Temperature
Cerebral Metabolism
Cerebral metabolism (typically given by the cerebral metabolic requirement for oxgygen, CMRO2) has a linear association with
cerebral blood flow - this is known as flow-metabolism coupling. This is controlled locally through the release of vasoactive
mediators, such as H+, adenosine, and NO. Determinants of cerebral metabolism include:
Drugs
Cerebral metabolism may be decreased by use of drugs such as benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and propofol.
Temperature
CMRO2 decreases linearly by ~7% per degree centigrade, allowing prolonged periods of reduced CBF without ischaemic
complications.
PaCO2
Carbon dioxide acts as a cerebral vasodilator.
CBF is almost linear between 20mmHg and 80mmHg

Above 80mmHg, the circulation is maximally dilated
Below 20mmHg, the circulation is maximally constricted
Additionally, the alkalosis causes a left-shift of the oxyhaemoglobin curve. This reduces offloading of oxygen, causing
266
Cerebral Blood Flow
hypoxia and subsequent vasodilation.

There is a right-shift in chronic hypercapnoea
+
The mechanism of action is complex, but involves local increase in H ions.
Changes to CBF with CO2 are dependent on current arteriolar tone - vasodilatory effects of CO2 are significantly
reduced when the perfusing pressure is low.
PaO2
CBF increases rapidly when PaO2 falls below 60mmHg so that cerebral oxygen delivery is maintained
Hypoxia causes a release of adenosine and reduced calcium uptake, with subsequent vasodilation
Neurohormonal
Autonomic control of cerebrovascular tone is limited, though is responsible for the right-shift in the autoregulation curve
with sustained hypertension
Factors Affecting Blood Viscosity

Blood viscosity is dependent on haematocrit
Reduced haematocrit is associated with increased CBF, but reduced O2-carrying capacity
The optimal haematocrit is ~0.3-0.35, which provides the best balance between reduction of viscosity to improve cerebral
blood flow, without reducing DO2.
References
2. Hill L, Gwinnutt C. Cerebral Blood Flow and Intracranial Pressure. FRCA Website.
267
Cerebral Blood Flow
3. Willie CK, Tzeng YC, Fisher JA, Ainslie PN. Integrative regulation of human brain blood flow. J Physiol. 2014 Mar
1;592(5):841-59.
4. Muizelaar JP. CBF and management of the head-injured patient. In: Narayan RK, Wilberger JE, Povlishock JT, eds.
Neurotrauma. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996:553–561.
268
Hepatic Blood Flow
Hepatic Blood Flow

Describe the distribution of blood volume and flow in the various regional circulations and explain the factors that
influence them, including autoregulation. These include, but not limited to, the cerebral and spinal cord, hepatic and
splachnic, coronary, renal and utero-placental circulations
The liver serves as a blood resevoir (30ml per 100g, half of which may be mobilised in hypovolaemia), and receives 25% of
cardiac output from a unique dual blood supply:
Hepatic arterial system, which supplies about one-third of blood, but 40-50% of O2
Hepatic arterial blood has an SpO2 of ~98%, as would be expected. It is a high-pressure, high-resistance, high-flow system
(average velocity 18cm.s-1), with the capacity to autoregulate.
Portal venous system, which supplies the remaining two-thirds of blood.

It is a low-resistance, low-pressure, low-velocity system (average flow 9cm.s-1), with no capacity to autoregulate.
The SpO2 of portal venous blood varies depending on gut activity:
In the resting gut, SpO2 is ~85%
In the active gut, SpO2 is ~75%
Regulation of Flow
As with other organs, blood flow is autoregulated via intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms, and may be affected by external factors.
Intrinsic Autoregulation
Hepatic arterial buffer response
This is also known as the "hepatic artery-portal venous semi-reciprocal interrelationship".
Hepatic arterial resistance is proportional to portal venous blood flow, such that a reduction in portal venous flow causes
a decrease in hepatic arterial resistance and increases hepatic arterial flow
This is probably mediated by adenosine.
Extrinsic Autoregulation
Autonomic Nervous System
Both the hepatic and portal vasculature have sympathetic innervation:
The hepatic artery has dopamine receptors, as well as β- and α-adrenoreceptors
The portal vein has only α-adrenoreceptors
Activation of these receptors causes venoconstriction, reducing the compliance of the hepatic vasculature and
mobilising up to 250ml of blood in times of sympathetic stress.
Endocrine and hormonal effects

A number of substances affect portal flow:
Hormone Portal Vein Effect Hepatic Artery Effect Overall Effect on Flow
Adrenaline Constriction Constriction (α), then dilation (β) Reduced
Glucagon Dilation - Increased
Secretin - Dilation Increased
Angiotensin II Constriction Constriction Reduced
269
Hepatic Blood Flow
Vasopressin Constriction Constriction Reduced
PCO2 Constriction - Reduced
External Factors
Flow in the hepatic vein is dependent on venous return:
Increased venous return (e.g. negative-intrathoracic pressure) increases hepatic flow

Decreased venous return (e.g. positive-pressure ventilation, tamponade, haemorrhage), reduces hepatic flow, and in extreme
cases flow may only occur intermittently thoughout the cardiac cycle
Exercise reduces both portal vein and hepatic arterial flow
Microvasculature
Hepatic arterioles and portal venules form the hepatic triad with a bile canaliculi. Hepatic arterioles and venules anastomose to
form sinusoids, which create a specialised low-pressure (~2mmHg) capillary system which drains into the central veins of the
hepatic acinus.
This arrangement:
Optimises hepatic O2 extraction

Increased hepatic O2 demand is met by increasing O2 extraction, rather than by increasing flow (as occurs in the heart).
Prevents shunting and retrograde flow
References
4. Kogire M, Inoue K, Sumi S, Doi R, Yun M, Kaji H, Tobe T. Effects of gastric inhibitory polypeptide and glucagon on portal
venous and hepatic arterial flow in conscious dogs. Dig Dis Sci. 1992 Nov;37(11):1666-70.
270
Circulatory Control
Baroreceptors
Describe the function of baroreceptors and to relate this knowledge to common clinical situations.
Baroreceptors are stretch receptors which monitor changes in arterial pressure. Arterial pressure is monitored by receptors in
the:
Aortic arch
Innervated by CNX
Carotid sinus
Small dilation of the ICA at the level of the bifurcation.
Innervated by CNIX
Remember the carotid sinus is a baroreceptor, the carotid body is a chemoreceptor
Low-pressure stretch receptors:
Respond to increased venous return

Are inhibited by positive pressure ventilation
Act by stretch and typically described as volume receptors
Are located in the:
Atrial walls
SVC and IVC
Pulmonary circulation
Baroreceptor Control
Afferent fibres from CNIX and CNX travel to the NTS in the medulla. Effector neurons from the RVLM are GABAergic and
therefore inhibitory, i.e. increased baroreceptor discharge reduces tonic sympathetic tone and increases vagal tone.
Increased baroreceptor activity therefore results in:
Arterial and venous vasodilation

Hypotension
Bradycardia
Decreased cardiac output
Decreased respiratory rate
Conversely, increased activity of low-pressure stretch receptors results in an increase rather than a decrease in heart rate.
Baroreceptor Activity
Baroreceptors are:
More sensitive to pulsatile pressure than constant pressure

A decrease in pulse pressure without a change in MAP will decrease baroreceptor firing.
Active throughout the cardiac cycle
Rapid compensatory responses are vital in the short-term control of blood pressure, e.g. with posture.
Active over the range from 50mmHg to 200mmHg
271
Circulatory Control
This curve is left-shifted in children and neonates, and right-shifted in chronic hypertension, though this is reversible
Hormonal control
Activation of atrial/ventricular stretch receptors stimulates ANP/BNP release respectively, which act to reduce blood pressure in
the following ways:
Increased GFR
Act to constrict the efferent arteriole and dilates of the afferent arteriole. This subsequently inhibits renin secretion through
increased hydrostatic pressure at the JGA and increased Na+ and Cl- delivery to the macula densa.
Decreased aldosterone
Via inhibition of aldosterone secretion.
Vasodilation
Causes vasodilation of peripheral smooth muscle.
References
272
Valsalva Manoeuvre
Valsalva Manoeuvre
Explain the response of the circulation to situations such as changes in posture haemorrhage, hypovolaemia, anaemia,
intermittent positive pressure ventilation, positive end-expiratory pressure, and the Valsalva manoeuvre.
A Valsalva is forced expiration against a closed glottis. This can be achieved by increasing PAW to 40mmHg for 15 seconds. This
increase in intrathoracic pressure alters many haemodynamic parameters.
Phases
A Valsalva manouvere consists of four phases:
Phase I
PAW is increased to 40cmH2O, with a corresponding increase in PThoracic
SBP and DBP increase due to:
Compression of the aorta
Increased LV preload due to ejection of blood in the pulmonary vasculature
Phase II
VR falls due to increased PThoracic
CO falls due to decreased VR
SBP and DBP fall due to decreased CO
Baroreceptors are activated by the fall in BP, and SNS outflow increases, causing:
Increased HR
Increased SVR
BP therefore starts to recover late in Phase II
Phase III
The Valsalva ceases, and PAW returns to 0cmH2O
PVR rapidly drops as alveolar vessels re-expand
SBP and DBP rapidly fall due to:
Decreased PVR causing decreased LV preload
Loss of high intrathoracic pressure compressing the aorta
Phase IV
VR normalises
CO normalises due to normal VR and PVR
SBP and DBP transiently increase due to a normal CO entering a baroreceptor-driven high-SVR vascular bed
Baroreceptors respond to high SBP an DBP by increasing vagal tone:
HR falls (reflex bradycardia)

BP falls
273
Valsalva Manoeuvre
Abnormal Responses
Abnormal responses occur in cardiac failure and autonomic neuropathy.
CCF
In CCF a square-wave patten is produced:
Increasing PAW resulting in a sustained increase in SBP and DBP

There is a slight decrease in SBP and DBP for the few seconds in phase III when airway pressure is released
Appears to be due to the increased circulating volume, as this difference resolves in venesected cardiac patients, and is
demonstrated in normal individuals who are transfused to a high circulating volume.
Autonomic Neuropathy
Baroreceptor response to the Valsalva is minimal in both phase II and IV:
In phase II, there is no compensatory increase in sympathetic outflow, so BP continues to fall until PAW returns to 0mmHg
In phase IV, there is no compensatory increase in vagal tone and so BP returns to normal without overshooting
References
2. Judson WE, Hatcher JD, Wilkins RW. Blood Pressure Responses to the Valsalva Maneuver in Cardiac Patients with and
without Congestive Failure. Circulation. 1955;11:889-899.
274
CVS Changes with Obesity

Describe the cardiovascular changes that occur with morbid obesity
Obesity is a multisystem disorder defined by an elevated body mass index (BMI):
Normal: BMI < 25

Overweight: BMI 25 - 30
Obese: BMI > 30
Morbidly Obese:
Obesity related disease and a BMI > 35
BMI > 40
Characteristics of obesity include:
Complex genetic and environmental causes

Increased caloric intake
Increased metabolic rate (normal for BSA)
The effect of obesity on the cardiovascular system is complex, and can be classified into:
Hormonal changes
Abdominal visceral fat is responsible for secreting a large number of hormones which affect cardiovascular parameters:
Increased leptin
Contributes to cardiac remodelling and LVH.
Angiotensinogen
Leads to systemic hypertension and LV remodelling.
Small amounts are produced in adipocytes, which increases as fat volume increases
Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1
Reduces fibrinolysis and predisposes to VTE.
Inflammatory adipokines
Impair endothelial function, leading to increased SVR.
Catecholamines
Increased contractility, SVR, and worsen endothelial function.
Released with:
Hypoxia
Hypercapnoea
Negative intrathoracic pressure
Fragmented sleep
Due to OSA.
Changes in key cardiovascular parameters

Increased VO2
Due to increased LBM and fat mass.
Increased Blood Volume
Due to increased angiotensin II and aldosterone.
Increased Stroke Volume
Due to:
Increased preload (major factor)
Increased contractility (minor factor)
Due to increased circulating adrenal hormones.
Increased Cardiac Output
275
To maintain DO2.
Initially with preserved ejection fraction
Cardiac changes
Diastolic dysfunction
Due to myocardial fibrosis impairing relaxation.
Fatty infiltration of myocardium and conducting system
Predisposes to arrhythmias
Risk is worsened by change in myocardial architecture, hypoxia, and increased circulating catecholamines.
Biventricular hypertrophy as a response to increased afterload
LV afterload increased due to systemic hypertension
LVH is much more common than RVH.
Eccentric hypertrophy due to volume overload
Concentric hypertrophy due to pressure overload or hormonal changes
RV hypertrophy due to:
LV diastolic failure
Increased PVR
Hypoxia
Due to:
Effects of OSA
Increased shunt through collapsed lung bases
Acidosis
References
1. Alvarez A, Brodsky J, Lemmens H, Morton J. Morbid Obesity: Peri-operative Management. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. 2010.
2. Lotia S, Bellamy MC. Anaesthesia and morbid obesity. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2008; 8 (5): 151-156.
276
CVS Effects of Ageing
Cardiovascular Effects of Ageing

Describe the cardiovascular changes that occur with ageing.
CVS effects of ageing can be divided into cardiac, vascular, and autonomic changes:
Cardiac changes
Decreased receptor density and number
Decreased maximum heart rate
Due to fibrosis of the SA node causing reduced pacemaker cell number and funtion, and reduction in catecholamine
receptor density.
Decreased inotropy
Minor.
Increased reliance on atrial kick
Reduced ventricular compliance increases the reliance on atrial kick to achieve adequate preload.
Decreased diastolic compliance
Due to hypertrophy from increased afterload
Vascular changes
Reduced compliance
Due to loss of elastic tissue in the large arteries.
Increased SVR
Reduced compliance results in increased vascular resistance.
Reduced endothelial cell function (decreased NO)
Impairs the ability of the vascular tree to adapt to changes in pressure/volume leading to:
Elevated SBP
Reduced DBP
Reduced elastic recoil causes diastolic run off and a fall in diastolic blood pressure.
Reduced catecholamine receptor density
Reduced responsiveness to (and increased number of) circulating catecholamines.
Autonomic
Impaired autonomic function
Due to decreased catecholamine responsiveness.
Impaired baroreceptor response
Decreased exercise tolerance
Reliance on preload to maintain cardiac output.
References
2. Cheitlin MD. Cardiovascular physiology-changes with aging. Am J Geriatr Cardiol. 2003 Jan-Feb;12(1):9-13.
277
CVS Effects of Ageing
278
Cardiovascular Pharmacology
Inotropes
Understand the detailed pharmacology of inotropes and vasopressors
Inotropes are agents which alter myocardial contractility.
Positive inotropes increase contractility

Negative inotropes decrease contractility
Classes of Positive Inotrope

Class I: Increase Class II: Calcium
Classes Class III: Metabolic/Endocrine
Intracellular Calcium Sensitisers
Adrenaline, milrinone,
Examples Levosimendan T3, Insulin
glucagon, digoxin
General Increase sensitivity Variable. T3 potentiates the effect (or

Increase intracellular Ca2+ by
Mechanism of actomyosin to increases expression of) cardiac β1
a variety of different pathways
of Action Ca2+ receptors
References
2. Tielens ET, Forder JR, Chatham JC, Marrelli SP, Ladenson PW. Acute L-triiodothyronine administration potentiates
inotropic responses to P-adrenergic stimulation in the isolated perfused rat heart. Cardiovascular Research 32 (1996) 306-
310.
279
Adrenoreceptors
Adrenoreceptors
Understand the pharmacology of adrenoreceptor blocking drugs.
This covers the pharmacology of adrenoreceptors. The production and metabolism of endogenous catecholamines is covered
under adrenal hormones. Detailed information on specific sympathomimetic agents, including structure-activity relationships, is
in the pharmacopeia.
Adrenoreceptors are classified by their varying sensitivity to different catecholamines. Additionally:
All adrenoreceptors are G protein-coupled receptors

Each receptor contains seven transmembrane α-helical subunits, three extracellular loops, and three intracellular loops
Alpha receptors have different subunits and mechanisms of action
All beta receptors are:
Gs coupled
Activate adenylate cyclase increasing cAMP, leading to increased Na/K<sup+ ATPase activity and hyperpolarisation
Adrenoreceptor Subtypes
α1-receptors:
Are present in smooth muscle

Agonism causes vasoconstriction, relaxation of GIT muscle (via presynaptic receptors), and contraction of GU muscle.
They are:
Gq coupled
Phospholipase C activated increases IP3, increase calcium
α2-receptors:
Are present in the CNS, arterioles, pancreas

Agonism causes sedation, analgesia, vasodilatation, and inhibition of insulin release.
They are:
Gi coupled
Inhibits adenylate cyclase, decreasing cAMP
β1-receptors:
Are present in cardiac muscle and the JGA

Cardiac agonism increases inotropy, chronotropy, and dromotropy
JGA agonism increases renin release
Increase in cAMP increases intracellular calcium
β2-receptors:
Are present in skeletal vascular and bronchial smooth muscle, the liver, and on cell membranes
Agonism causes:
Vasodilation and bronchodilation
Hepatic glycogenolysis
Increases activity of the Na+-K+ ATPase pump, increasing intracellular potassium
Increase in cAMP increases Na+/K+ ATPase activity and hyperpolarisation
β3-receptors:
Are present in fat
280
Adrenoreceptors
Agonism causes lipolysis and thermogenesis.
References
281
Antiarrhythmics
Antiarrhythmics
Understand the pharmacology of antiarrhythmic drugs
Antiarrhythmic drugs are typically classified using the Vaughan Williams classification system, which divides drugs into four
classes based on their effect on the cardiac action potential. Many drugs will act via multiple mechanisms.
Class I: Block voltage-gated Na channels

Class Ia: Intermediate dissociation
Class Ib: Fast dissociation
Class Ic: Slow dissociation
Class II: β-Blockers
+
Class III: Prolong the action potential (Usually via K channel blockade)
2+
Class IV: Ca antagonists
This classification is notably incomplete, as some drugs (such as amiodarone) fit into multiple categories, and others (such as
digoxin, adenosine, and magnesium) fit into none.
Class I
Na+-channel blockade inhibits action potential prolongation by blocking active and refractory sodium channels in a use-
dependent fashion
This inhibits tachyarrythmias whilst allowing normal conduction
Extent of block depends on the heart rate, membrane potential, and the subclass of drug
Sodium channel blockade increases pacing threshold and defibrillation energy requirement
Class Ia
Class Ia drugs have mixed properties of Ib and Ic, and also have Class III effects
As they prolong the AV conduction and prolong the action potential they increase both QRS duration and the QT
interval
Examples include procainamide
Pro-arrhythmic effects may result because AV nodal conduction may be increased, so despite decreased atrial activity increased
ventricular conductance results in a potentially fatal shortening of diastolic time
282
Antiarrhythmics
Class Ib
Class Ib drugs bind to open sodium channel, and will associate and dissociate from a sodium channel in the course of a
normal beat
Tachyarrhythmias are prevented because dissociation occurs too slowly for a further action potential to be generated
Class Ib drugs will bind selectively to refractory channels, such as occurs in ischaemia
As they have little effect on normal cardiac tissue they have little effect on the ECG
Examples of class Ib agents include include phenytoin and lignocaine
Class Ic
Class Ic drugs associate and dissociate slowly creating a steady-state level of block
This causes indiscriminate blockade and general reduction in excitability
Class Ic agents are used to suppress unidirectional or intermittent conduction pathways
As they markedly slow conduction velocity they increase QRS duration
Examples of Class Ic agents include flecainaide
283
Antiarrhythmics
Class II
Normal β-adrenergic stimulation has a number of pro-arrhythmic effects:
Increased pacemaker potential current

Increased slow-inward Ca2+ current
Increased repolarising K+ and Cl- currents
Increased Ca2+ stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which may be spontaneously released causing a delayed-after-
depolarisations
Reduced serum [K+]*
β-blockers have an antiarrhythmic effect by antagonising these mechanisms. They are useful for treatment of arrhythmias
occuring with sympathetic overactivation, such as post MI.
Class III
Blocking of outward K+ channels slows cardiac repolarisation, which increases the cardiac refractory period. This has a number
of beneficial effects:
Decreased automaticity
Decreased ectopy
Reduced defibrillation energy requirement
Increased inotropy
Due to the prolonged repolarisation, they will also cause a long QT (though in the case of amiodarone this is not associated with
an increased risk of TPD).
Class IV
2+
284
Antiarrhythmics
Class IV drugs inhibit L-type Ca2+ channels, inhibiting the slow inward calcium current, which:
Slows SA and AV nodal conduction

AV blockade slows transmission of supra-ventricular arrythmias.
Reduces inotropy
Prevents after-depolarisations
This suppresses ectopy by reducing calcium leak from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Alternatives to Vaughan Williams

As the Vaughan Williams classification system does not neatly divide agents, and some agents do not fit into any category, they
may also be classified by their uses:
Indication Examples
SVT Digoxin, adenosine, verapamil, β-blockers
VT Lignocaine, mexiletine
SVT/VT Amiodarone, flecainide procainamide, sotalol
Digoxin toxicity Phenytoin
References
2. Brunton L, Chabner BA, Knollman B. Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 12th Ed.
McGraw-Hill Education - Europe. 2011.
285
Renal System
Functional Anatomy and Control of Renal Blood Flow

Describe the functional anatomy of the kidneys and renal blood flow.
Functional Anatomy
The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Nephrons:
Are composed of the glomerulus, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, and collecting duct
Are divided by their location into:
Superficial cortical nephrons
Have short loops of Henle.
Juxtamedullary nephrons
Have long loops of Henle, and the efferent arteriole forms the vasa recta for the kidney.
Mid-cortical nephrons
May have either long or short loops.
Control of Renal Blood flow

The kidneys:
Receive 22% of cardiac output at rest

Extract only 10% of delivered O2
Have a high renal blood flow exceeds that required for metabolism
High flow is instead needed to produce the large volume of glomerular filtrate (125ml.min-1) required for excretion of
waste.
Autoregulation
Renal blood flow is autoregulated over a wide range of mean arterial pressures (60-160mmHg) via:
Tubuloglomerular feedback
Myogenic autoregulation:
Describes the intrinsic constriction of the afferent arteriole in response to an increased transmural pressure
This increases vascular resistance in proportion to the increase in pressure, keeping flow constant
286
Renal System
Tubuloglomerular feedback is more complicated, and describes the constriction or dilation of the afferent arteriole in response to
adenosine or NO (respectively) release from the macula densa:
The macula densa lies in the wall of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle
It detects change in tubular flow rate (probably via changing Na+ flux across its membrane)
Increased flow in the loop indicates an increased perfusion pressure, prompting release of adenosine and constriction of
the afferent arteriole
Decreased flow indicates a decreased perfusion pressure, reducing adenosine release and prompting the release of NO
and renin, which causes the afferent arteriole to dilate
Notably, flow to juxtamedullary nephrons is not autoregulated. High blood pressure increases juxtamedullary flow, increasing
GFR and impairing renal concentration, resulting in a pressure diuresis.
Neuronal Control
The kidneys are innervated by noradrenergic sympathetic nerves, which causes:
Afferent and efferent arteriolar constriction

This increases capillary hydrostatic pressure (increasing filtration) and also increases capillary oncotic pressure (decreasing
filtration).
This leads to an overall slight reduction in GFR
Hormonal Control
Renin:
Is released from the juxtaglomerular apparatus by β1 stimulation

Catalyses the production of angiotensin I from circulating angiotensinogen
Angiotensin I is then converted into Angiotensin II by circulating ACE.
The actions of the RAAS are described in more detail in the endocrine functions of the kidney.
References
Elsevier. 2011.
287
Glomerular Filtration and Tubular Function

Describe glomerular filtration and tubular function.
Glomerulus
The glomerulus is a set of capillaries which invaginate Bowman's capsule
Fluid filters out of the capillary bed into Bowman's space based on Starling forces:
Membrane permeability
Hydrostatic pressure gradients
Oncotic pressure gradient
Reflection coefficient
Glomerular Filtration Rate

Glomerular Filtration Rate is:
The volume of plasma filtered by the glomerulus each minute

Normal renal blood flow is 1.1 L.min-1, however renal plasma flow is less (600 ml.min-1 for a normal haematocrit).
Therefore, the normal filtration fraction (proportion of renal blood flow which is filtered) is ~20%.
Typically 125ml.min-1
Decreases with age (partially due to loss of nephron number)
GFR can be expressed as the product of Net Filtration Pressure and the combination of membrane permeability and membrane
surface area, designated Kf (the filtration coefficient):
Net Filtration Pressure is given by opposing Starling Forces across the glomerular membrane:
As protein is not filtered in normal states, the oncotic pressure in Bowman's Space is usually assumed to be 0mmHg.
The average capillary NFP is ~17mmHg
Hydrostatic pressure
Determined by renal blood flow and the relative constriction of the afferent and efferent arterioles. Hydrostatic
pressure decreases along the capillary. Affected by:
MAP
Catecholamines
Local autoregulation
Myogenic
Tubuloglomerular Feedback
Hormones
Angiotensin II constricts the efferent arteriole more than the afferent arteriole, causing an increase in
renal resistance with only a small decrease in GFR.
Prostaglandin E2 dilates the afferent arteriole, increasing GFR
Osmotic pressure
Increases along the capillary, as protein free-fluid is filtered leaving a higher concentration of protein within the
capillary. This change in capillary oncotic pressure is proportional to the filtration fraction - a greater filtration fraction
will cause a higher oncotic pressure of fluid in the capillary.
288
Overall permeability is:
A function of:
Membrane permeability, in turn affected by:
Capillary endothelium
Basement membrane
Negatively charged molecules have reduced filtration as the basement membrane is also negatively charged
which opposes movement out of the capillary.
Foot processes of podocytes
Molecules less than 7000 Dalton are freely filtered, whilst larger molecules are filtered less.
Membrane Surface Area
Typically very high for water and solutes.
Affected by:
Glomerulonephritis
Change in basement membrane or podocyte foot processes
Angiotensin II causing contraction of mesangial cells
Tubular Function
Proximal Tubule
The proximal tubule reaborbs 60% of glomerular filtrate. It reabsorbs basically everything, including protein, and secretes H+,
organic ions (such as uric acid and salicylates), ammonium, and up to 60% of filtered urea load.
Loop of Henle
The loop of Henle consists of a thin descending limb and a thick ascending limb;
The descending limb reabsorbs water only

The thick ascending limb:
Reabsorbs common ions (Na+, K+, Cl-) and HCO3-
Excretes H+
The function of the loop is to concentrate urine in states of water deprivation
This is done via the countercurrent mechanism.
Countercurrent Multiplier
The countercurrent concentrating system is:
Formed from the loop of Henle and collecting ducts

Driven entirely by the removal of NaCl from the ascending limb
Most easily understood in stages:
NaCl is actively transported out of the thick ascending limb, increasing interstitial osmolality at that level
Increased interstitial osmolality results in water reabsorption from the descending limb, increasing tubular osmolality at
that level
This more concentrated tubular fluid then flows to a deeper, more concentrated level, and more water is reabsorbed
The effect is progressive concentration of tubular and interstitial fluid, but with a low and stable energy cost as the
relative gradients that each transport pump works against is small
The end result is a dilute urine leaving the ascending limb, but a highly concentrated medullary interstitium
Countercurrent Exchange
289
The vasa recta are peritubular capillaries that:
Surround the loop of Henle of juxtamedullary nephrons

Follow the loop into the medulla
Have typically low blood flow
This prevents "washout" of the countercurrent multiplier, as the slow blood flow allows solute concentrations to equalise at
each level of the loop.
In hypovolaemic situations, renal blood flow falls and vasa recta flow decreases, further reducing washout
When renal blood flow is high, vasa recta flow increases
This washes out part of the medullary concentration gradient and reduces the concentrating ability of the kidney.
Distal tubules
Fluid entering the distal tubule has about one-third the osmolarity of plasma. The distal tubule:
Reabsorbs: Na+, Cl-, HCO3-, Ca2+

Secretes: K+, H+
Collecting Ducts
The collecting ducts lie in the interstitium (concentrated by the loop of Henle)
In the absence of aquaporins, the collecting ducts are impermeable to water
Osmolality can fall as low as 50 mmol.L-1 due to continued reabsorption of solute
In the presence of aquaporins, water flows down the osmotic gradient into the concentrated interstitium, resulting in a
highly concentrated urine
ADH also increases collecting duct permeability of urea
Urea moves via solvent drag with water
References
2. Greger R, Windhorst U. Comprehensive Human Physiology: From Cellular Mechanisms to Integration. Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg. 1996.
290
Handling of Organic Substances

Describe the role of the kidney in the handling of glucose, nitrogenous products and drugs
Broadly speaking, the kidney:
Reabsorbs important substances

Filters and secretes waste products
Methods of Reabsorption
Reabsorption from tubule to blood can occur via two mechanisms:
Transcellular reabsorption
Substance is absorbed into tubular epithelium and then secreted into blood. This is typically achieved by symporters, which
rely on the low intracellular sodium concentration to move substances out of the tubule against their concentration gradient.
Paracellular reabsorption
Substance passes through the matrix of tight junctions between epithelial cells.
Rate Limitation
There are functional upper limits on the rate of reabsorption of substances from the tubule. There are two limits:
Tubular Maximum (Tmax) Limited

Saturation of transporters occur, so a further increase in solute concentration does not increase the rate of substance
reabsorption.
The maximum solute concentration for a Tmax system is a function of the transporter.
Gradient Limited
Leaks in the tight junctions will result in solute moving from the interstitium back into the tubule if the tubular concentration
falls too low.
The maximum solute concentration for a gradient limited system is related to the permeability of the tight junctions.
Glucose
Glucose is:
Freely filtered at the glomerulus

Completely reabsorbed via the transcellular route in the proximal convoluted tubule under normal circumstances
Actively transported via the SGLUT (Sodium-dependent Glucose symporter) transmembrane protein
Secondary active transport (down the established Sodium gradient)
There are two subtypes of the SGLUT protein:
Low-affinity, high-capacity
Rapidly reabsorbs glucose, but is ineffective when glucose concentration is low. It is located early in the PCT, and
reabsorbs ~90% of filtered glucose.
High-affinity, low-capacity
Slowly reabsorbs glucose, but remains effective even when glucose concentration is low. It is located late in the
PCT, where glucose concentration is lower (having already been reabsorbed by the high-capacity transporter), and
reabsorbs ~10% of filtered glucose.
291
As GFR increases, glucose filtration and therefore glucose absorption increase

As glucose is co-transported with Na+, absorption of Na+ and H2O also increase
This phenomenon is known as glomerulo-tubular balance
Glucose reabsorption is a Tmax system, and is overwhelmed when filtered glucose exceeds 300mg.min-1 or 16mmol.min-1
This typically occurs when plasma (and therefore filtered) glucose concentrations exceed 12mmol.L-1
Consequences of Glycosuria
Glycosuria occurs when filtered glucose exceeds the capacity of the PCT to reabsorb it, and causes:
Increased urine volume

Glucose acts as an osmotic diuretic by:
Reducing Na+ reabsorption in the PCT
As some glucose is not absorbed, the sodium that would normally be reabsorbed with (tubuloglomerular balance) is
remaining in the tubule.
Reducing water and salt reabsorption in the Loop of Henle
Due to high tubular flow rates.
Impairs the formation of the medullary concentration gradient, limiting concentrating capacity
Stimulates ADH release
Electrolyte derangements
Hypokalaemia due to:
+
Reduced K reabsorption due to high tubular flow rates
Aldosterone release due to hypovolaemia, increasing Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion
ADH release in response to hypovolaemia
Loss of substrate for ATP generation
Increase risk of urinary infections
Nitrogenous Products
Amino acids are reabsorbed by amino-acid transporters
These are not (entirely) selective, and reabsorb several structurally similar amino acids.
These shared pathways create competition for binding sites between amino acids
Excess of one substance will lead to both excretion of this substance in urine, as well as inappropriate excretion of
related substances
Larger proteins (such as albumin) are in fact filtered at the glomerulus (though in very small amounts)
Reuptake occurs in several stages:
Endocytosis at the luminal membrane
This is an energy-dependent process, requiring protein to bind to membrane receptors.
Degradation of protein into individual amino acids
292
Reuptake across the basolateral membrane
Smaller proteins and peptides (e.g. insulin, angiotensin II) are completely filtered
Catabolisation occurs in the tubular lumen by membrane-surface peptidases
Amino acids are reabsorbed by standard amino-acid transporters
Urea
Urea is a small, water soluble molecule produced in the liver from ammonia as a method for eliminating nitrogenous waste.
Urea excretion is complex, as it has an important role in the counter current multiplier. This means that in the short term (hours to
days) elimination may not match production, although over weeks they will be equal. Urea is:
Freely filtered
~50% of filtered load is reabsorbed in the PCT by solvent drag (with water reabsorption)
Urea concentration is slightly increased as more water is reabsorbed than urea.
The urea reabsorbed in the PCT is then secreted into the Loop of Henle via UT uniporters
Luminal concentration of urea is much higher in the ascending limb due to the absorption of water
~50% is reabsorbed (again) in the medullary collecting ducts
Here, urine becomes so concentrated that luminal concentration of urea exceeds medullary concentration.
Overall, 50% of filtered load is excreted
pH Dependent Drug Reabsorption

Many substances, such as drugs, are weak acids or bases
Reabsorption of these substances is pH dependent
Weak acids are proportionally more ionised at a pH above their pKa
Weak bases are proportionally more ionised at a pH below their pKa
Unionised substances are lipid soluble, and able to diffuse into tubular cells down concentration gradients
Ionised substances are trapped within the lumen
References
1. Eaton DC, Pooler JP. Vander's Renal Physiology. 6th Ed (Revised). McGraw-Hill Education - Europe. 2004.
293
Measurement of GFR
Measurement of GFR
Describe the principles of measurement of glomerular filtration rate and renal blood flow
Renal clearance of a substance quantifies the effectiveness of kidneys in excreting substances. The definition of clearance is the
volume (typically of plasma) cleared of a drug per unit time. Renal clearance can therefore be expressed as:
, where:
= Clearance
= Urine concentration
= Urine flow rate
= Plasma concentration
Clearance and GFR

As the elimination of most substances is dependent on glomerular filtration, clearance of a substance can be used to estimate GFR.
Methods include:
Inulin
Inulin is a naturally occcurring polysaccharide.
Inulin clearance accurately measures GFR as it is:
Freely filtered by the glomerulus
Not secreted at the tubules
Not reabsorbed
However, inulin is not produced by the body and so must be given by IV infusion
This limits its clinical utility.
Creatinine
Creatinine is a byproduct of muscle catabolism.
Creatinine is used clinically to measure renal function because it is:
Produced at a relatively constant rate
Factors affecting creatinine production include:
Race
Muscle mass
Age
Sex
Diet
Not metabolised
Freely filtered by the glomerulus
Minimally secreted
As GFR falls the proportion of creatinine secreted by renal tubules increases, so plasma creatinine will
overestimate GFR when GFR is low.
Not reabsorbed
GFR can be approximated by creatinine clearance
This is given by the equation:
294
Measurement of GFR
Serum Creatinine
This formula demonstrates that GFR is inversely proportional to serum creatinine concentration.
This is only true when both creatinine production and glomerular filtration are at steady-state
A sudden drop in glomerular filtration (e.g. aortic cross-clamp) will not result in an immediate rise in creatinine.
During acute changes in GFR, serum creatinine will underestimate GFR until a new steady state is reached
Creatinine must be produced and not eliminated for it to rise.
Estimating Creatinine Clearance

Using the above formula requires measurement of urine volume. This is:
Typically performed by taking a 24 hour urine collection

Tedious, and so creatinine clearance is often estimated
A common method is the Cockcroft-Gault formula, which has a correlation of ~0.83 with creatinine clearance:
, where:
= Clearance
= Age
= Sex coefficent (Male = 1, Female = 0.85)
= Creatinine in µmol.L-1
Alternative formulas are MDRD and CKD-EPI. These equations have two advantages of Cockcroft-Gault:
They are better predictors of GFR

They do not require weight, and so can be calculated by the laboratory automatically Other required data (e.g. age) can be
taken from hospital records.
These estimates have similar weaknesses to the above:
Dependent on serum creatinine, which can be highly variable. Formulas are derived from average values of dependent
variables, and so will be unreliable at extremes of:
Age
Muscle mass
Critically ill
Malignancy
Diet
References
295
Measurement of GFR
Elsevier. 2011.
2. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of Creatinine Clearance from Serum Creatinine. Nephron 1976;16:31-41
3. Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, Zhang YL, Castro AF 3rd, Feldman HI, Kusek JW, Eggers P, Van Lente F, Greene T,
Coresh J; CKD-EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration). A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration
rate. Ann Intern Med. 2009 May 5;150(9):604-12.
4. MD Calc - Cockcroft-Gault Equation.
5. NIDDK. Estimating Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
296
Endocrine Functions of the Kidney

Outline the endocrine functions of the kidney
The kidney is involved in a number of endocrine processes and produces or metabolises a number of hormones:
RAAS
Vitamin D
EPO
Prostaglandins
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
The RAAS is a signaling pathway involved in blood pressure control. It involves a number of hormones:
Angiotensinogen is produced by the liver in response to:

Glucocorticoids
Thyroid hormones
Oestrogens
Angiotensin II
Various inflammatory proteins
Renin is a protease produced by the kidneys in response to β1 stimulation or hypotension, and exists to cleave
angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
ACE cleaves angiotensin I to angiotensin II, and also cleaves bradykinin into inactive metabolites
Angiotensin II increases blood pressure via a number of mechanisms:

Simulates aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex, increasing sodium and water retention
Vasoconstriction of efferent greater than the afferent arterioles
Results in slight decrease in GFR at a lower perfusion pressure, but increases filtration fraction.
NB: Different sources quote different changes (increase or decrease) in GFR
The final effect may vary depending on the contribution of other autoregulatory processes.
Reduces Kf through constriction of glomerular mesangial cells
Increased SNS activity and central and peripheral vasoconstriction
Increases thirst via hypothalamic stimulation
Stimulates ADH release, reducing renal water excretion
Stimulates release of angiotensinogen
Aldosterone acts on the distal convoluted tubule to:

Increase reabsorption of Na+ and water
Increase elimination of K+ and H+
Vitamin D
Vitamin D has a complex metabolic pathway which meanders through a number of organ systems:
Vitamin D3 may be absorbed in diet or produced in skin by the action of UV light on 7-dehydrocholesterol
Vitamin D3 is then hydrolysed in the liver by CYP450 enzymes to form 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OHD3)
25-OHD3 is then converted in the proximal tubule to calcitriol - the active form
297
Erythropoietin
Erythropoiesis is stimulated by EPO release:
In adults, EPO is released from the:

Peritubular capillary fibroblasts (85%)
Liver (15%)
EPO is released in response to:
Hypoxia
Hypotension
Low Hct
Erythropoiesis is inhibited by:
High red cell volume
Renal failure
Production of EPO is decreased in renal failure, which is why patients with end-stage renal disease require exogenous
EPO.
References
298
Acid-Base Balance
Acid-Base Balance
Describe the role of the kidneys in the maintenance of acid/base balance
Acids produced by the body can be:
Volatile (CO2)
Body produces and eliminates ~13-20mol.day-1
Removed by the lungs
Fixed (everything else)
Include lactate, sulphate, phosphate, and ketones
Body produces and eliminates 10mmol.kg-1.day-1
Eliminated by the kidney
Mechanisms for elimination of acid include:
Reabsorption of HCO3-
This is equivalent to the removal of the same amount of H+.
As there is usually a net production of acid, under normal circumstances all filtered HCO3- is reabsorbed
Note that removal of an acid load is associated with greater HCO3- generation and reabsorption, not increased
H+ secretion
Bound to filtered buffers
As ammonium
The rate and extent of these reactions is dependent on ECF pH and ion concentrations, which gives the kidney control
over ion concentrations
Urinary pH can fall as low as ~4.4, before the active transport of H+ is inhibited
Bicarbonate and the Kidney

Buffer systems minimise changes in pH until the kidney can eliminate excess hydrogen.
Bicarbonate is the predominant ECF buffer system (see Acid-Base physiology for more on buffers). By adjusting the level of
HCO3- the kidney is able to adjust pH, as per the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:
Where:
= 6.1, the pKa of HCO3-
- -1
= 24, the normal [HCO3 ] in mmol.L
= 1.2, the normal [CO2] in mmol.L-1
Bicarbonate is:
Freely filtered
4320 mmol.day-1 of HCO3- is filtered (24mmol.L-1 x 180 L.day-1, normal range is 4-5mol.day-1)
Reabsorbed in the PCT (90%), thick ascending limb, DCT, and CT
-
299
Acid-Base Balance
Adjusting rate of absorption allows correction of an acidosis or alkalosis. All HCO3- reabsorption is equivalent to a loss of
H+.
Reabsorption of Bicarbonate
Reabsorption of bicarbonate involves several steps:
H+ is secreted into the lumen in one of three ways:

Primary H+ ATPase in the PCT and DCT
H+-Na+ antiporter in the PCT and ascending limb
H+-K+ ATPase in the CT
Secreted H+ combines with filtered HCO3- to form CO2 and H2O
CO2 and H2O diffuse into the tubular cell
CO2 and H2O are converted back into HCO3- and H+ in the tubular cell
HCO3- is reabsorbed into the capillary via the HCO3--Cl- antiporter, and the H+ ion is available to be secreted into the
tubule (in exchange for K+ in the collecting ducts and Na+ in the proximal tubule)
This complicated process allows HCO3- to be moved from the tubule to the tubular cell and then to the capillary. There is no
elimination of H+ by this method - the purpose of H+ secretion is to facilitate the reabsorption of HCO3- into the tubular cell.
Ammonia
Glutamine provides a mechanism for elimination of a large number of H+ ions:
This is important in:

Elimination of excess metabolic acid
Renal compensation for acidosis
This occurs via:
Filtered glutamine is absorbed into proximal tubular cells and metabolised to NH4+ (ammonium) and HCO3-
HCO3- diffuses into blood, and the NH4+ is secreted into the tubule via the NH4+-Na+ antiporter and eliminated in
urine
The reaction has a pKa of 9.2 meaning:

Ammonia cannot act as an effective urinary buffer
Ammonia is not a titrateable acid, as it will not release H+ ions as urinary pH increases
This means filtered ammonia does not contribute to the lower limit of urinary pH (4.4), which is why it is so
important in the renal correction of severe metabolic acidosis.
Bound to Filtered Buffers

Secreted H+ may also combine with a filtered buffer (e.g. PO43-). These H+ ions are not reabsorbed. About 36mmol of H+ is
eliminated with filtered PO43- each day, with each PO43- binding two H+ ions.
References
1. CICM Sep/Nov 2014
2. ANZCA Feb/April 2012
4. Acid-Base Online Tutorial, University of Conneticut
5. Brandis, K. Renal Regulation of Acid-Base Balance, in 'Acid-base pHysiology'.
300
Acid-Base Balance
301
Dialysis
Dialysis
Dialysis is the separation of particles in a liquid based on their ability to pass through a membrane.
Indications
Failure of normal renal functions, i.e.:
Acid
Electrolyte derangement
Particularly hyperkalaemia.
Intoxications
Overload
Ureamia
Physical Mechanisms
Fluid and electrolytes can be removed by four different mechanisms:
Diffusion
Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of substances from a higher concentration to a lower concentration, where rate
of movement is proportional to the concentration gradient (as per Fick's Law).
Ultrafiltration
Movement of water, as determined by Starling's Forces.
When a solvent passes through a membrane, the process is called osmosis. The frictional forces between solutes and
water molecules will pull dissolved substances along, a process known as bulk flow or solvent drag.
Implementation
Haemodialysis
Uses diffusion.
Blood is pumped through an extracorporeal circuit that contains a dialyser.
Dialysate flow is countercurrent, which maximises the gradient for diffusion.
Solutes move across a membrane between blood and dialysate, as per Fick's Law:
Concentration gradient between blood and dialysate
Flow rate of blood and dialysate
Solubility of the solute
Mass
Charge
Protein binding
Dialysis membrane permeability
Thickness
Porosity
Surface area
Haemofiltration
Uses ultrafiltration.
Both a positive hydrostatic pressure in blood and a negative hydrostatic pressure in dialysate is generated, causing
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Dialysis
ultrafiltration and removal of solutes via solvent drag.

Elimination via bulk flow is independent of solute concentration gradients across the membrane.
Transport is dependent on Starling Forces:
The transmembrane pressure generated
This is a function of:
Blood flow to the membrane
Determines hydrostatic pressure.
Oncotic pressure gradient
Porosity of the membrane
Additionally, a high filtration fraction will cause excessive haemoconcentration, and clotting of the filter
The filtered fluid (ultrafiltrate) is discarded, and replaced with another fluid depending on the desired fluid balance.
Differences
Renal Replacement Therapy (RTT) can be via:
Peritoneal dialysis (PD)
Intermittent haemodialysis (IHD)
IHD causes greater cardiovascular instability compared to CRRT as the fluid and electrolyte shifts occur more rapidly.
Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (CRRT)
Continuous Veno-Venous Haemofiltration (CVVH)
Continuous Veno-Venous Haemodiafiltration (CVVHDF)
Method chosen depends desired effect:
Small molecules (<500 Da) and electrolytes can be removed by filtration or dialysis
Medium-sized molecules (500-5000 Da) are best removed by filtration
Low molecular weight proteins (5000-50000 Da) are removed by filtration
This includes removal of inflammatory proteins, which may be benficial in sepsis.
Water is best removed by filtration
Pharmacokinetics of RRT
Pharmacokinetics are unpredictable, but are broadly affected by:
Drug factors
Free drug in plasma
Drugs with a small proportion of free drug in plasma are (unsuprisingly) poorly removed by RRT (but may be removed
via plasmapheresis). These include:
Highly (> 80%) protein bound substances
Examples included phenytoin, warfarin, and many antibiotics.
Not that this may not apply in overdose
Once protein binding sites are saturated, both free drug fraction and efficacy of dialysis is increased.
Drugs with a VD greater than 1L.kg-1
Size/Molecular Weight
Small molecules (< 500 Da) are more easily cleared by diffusive methods of RTT
Molecules > 15kDa are poorly dialysed
This includes proteins, heparins, and monoclonal antibodies.
Volume of distribution
Drugs with high volumes of distribution are poorly dialysed, as removal of drug from plasma only removes a small
proportion of total-body drug content.
Dialysis factors
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Dialysis
Dose/Flow rates
Reduced flow rates will reduce clearance.
Conventional high-flux haemodialysis has more rapid clearance compared to lower-flux haemoperfusion or CRRT
Timing
Drugs given between IHD or SLED sessions will not be cleared until the next session.s
Patient factors
Residual renal function
Patients residual GFR will also affect pharmacokinetics.
An Incomplete List of Drugs
Drugs Removed on RRT Drugs not removed on RRT
Barbiturates Digoxin
Lithium TCAs
Aspirin Phenytoin
Sotalol/Atenolol Other beta-blockers
Theophylline Gliclazide
Ethylene Glycol Benzodiazepines
Methanol Warfarin
Aminoglycosides, metronidazole, carbapenems, cephalosporins, penicillins Macrolides, quinolones
References
1. Johnson CA, Simmons WD. Dialysis of Drugs. Nephrology Pharmacy Associates.
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Fluids and Electrolytes
Sodium and Water

Describe the function, distribution, regulation and physiological importance of sodium, chloride, potassium, magnesium,
calcium and phosphate ions
Normal total body Na+ is 60mmol.kg-1, 70% of which is exchangeable. Total body Na+ is distributed as:
50% in ECF
Sodium is the dominant extracellular cation.
Typical ECF [Na+] of 140mmol.L-1.
45% in bone
5% in ICF
A minor intracellular cation.
ICF [Na+] varies with cell type, but is typically 12-20mmol.L-1.
Concentration is kept low by the action of the 2Na+-3K+ ATPase exchange pump and the low permeability of the
cellular membrane to Na+
Function of Sodium
Regulation of ECF volume
Principal ECF cation. Changes in sodium levels cause compensatory fluid shifts. Loss of sodium content will result in
hypotension/hypovolaemia, with consequent baroreceptor stimulation and activation of the RAAS. Baroreceptors will
activate with a 7-10% change in volume.
Osmolarity
Changes in sodium concentration affect osmoreceptors and will affect ADH and thirst mechanisms. Osmoreceptors will
activate with a 1-2% change in osmolality.
Acid-Base balance
Na+-H+ exchange pumps in the kidney are stimulated in acidosis.
Resting Membrane Potential

Alterations in sodium concentration will affect intracellular potassium to a similar degree, which will alter the RMP.
Regulation of Sodium and Water

Regulation of any system is typically a balance between input and output:
Sodium intake is essentially unregulated

Therefore, sodium concentration is a function of:
Sodium elimination
Sodium reabsorption
Water homestasis
Control of total body water is a major mechanism to regulate sodium concentration.
Sodium Elimination
Sodium is eliminated in:
Sweat and GIT

Obligatory and not amenable to regulation.
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Acclimatisation to hot environments improves the efficiency of sweating by reducing its tonicity, reducing sodium loss
GIT
Urine
Adjust renal elimination is the main mechanism to regulate sodium concentration
Can be performed in two ways:
Changes in GFR
Changes in GFR due to hyper or hypovolaemia will (indirectly) adjust sodium elimination. Increased plasma
volume increases GFR, and vice versa.
Changes in sodium reabsorption
This is the main mechanism for controlling sodium in euvolaemia, and is mediated primarily by aldosterone.
Sodium Reabsorption
Given that:
Normal glomerular filtrate is ~180L.day-1

The dominant osmole in glomerular filtrate is sodium
Normal urine output is ~1.5L-1
The majority of filtered sodium must be reabsorbed. This is called bulk reabsorption and occurs in the PCT and LOH:
60% of total reabsorption is by the Na+-K+ ATPase pump in the PCT

30% of total reabsorption is by the Na+-K+-2Cl- co-transporter in the LOH
The remaining 10% of sodium reabsorption occurs in the DCT and CT. As it is under the influence of aldosterone, it is the
component which is important in regulation. Aldosterone increases Na+ reabsorption by increasing the number or activity of these
pumps:
Na+-Cl- pumps in the DCT

Na+-K+ ATPase pumps in principal cells of the DCT
Na+-H+ pumps in intercalated cells of the CT
Water Homeostasis
Body water homeostasis involves:
Sensors
Osmoreceptors present in the:
Macula densa
Circumventricular organs
Subfornical organ and the vascular organ of the lamina terminalis.
Change in cellular volume secondary to changes in osmolality alter hormone secretion.
Effectors
Predominantly hormonal:
ADH
RAAS
Natriuretic peptides
References
306
4. National Research Council. Recommended Dietary Allowances. 10th Ed. 1989. National Academies Press.
307
Potassium
Potassium
calcium and phosphate ions.
Potassium is the major intracellular cation, with 90% of total body potassium present in the ICF. A further 8% is sequestered in
bone, with 2% present in the ECF.
Normal ECF concentration is 3.5-5mmol.L-1

Normal ICF concentration is ~150mmol.L-1
Function and Dysfunction

Potassium is important for:
Regulation of intracellular pH
Control of intracellular volume
DNA and protein synthesis
Enzymatic function
Resting membrane potential
The resting membrane potential is determined by the ratio of intracellular:extracellular potassium, as per the Nernst equation:
Small changes in extracellular ion concentration produce large changes in voltage

This has significant effect on excitable tissues.
Rapid changes in potassium concentration cause symptoms at lower levels than chronic changes
Symptoms are related to the change in action potential generation.
Ventricular Action Potential in Hyperkalaemia:
Hyperkalaemia
Hyperkalaemia causes:
The resting membrane potential to become less negative

As per the Nernst equation.
This results in the resting membrane potential being closer to the threshold potential, increasing irritability
Several symptoms, including:
Weakness
Paralysis
Parasthesias
ECG findings are those of prolonged depolarisation and rapid repolarisation:
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Potassium
Serum [K+] (mmol/L) ECG Findings
5.5-6.5 Tall tented T waves
6.5-7.5 Loss of P wave, lengthening PR interval
7.5-8.5 Widening QRS
>8.5 Sine-wave QRS
Hypokalaemia
Hypokalaemia:
Causes the resting membrane potential to become more-negative

This makes it more difficult for a stimulus to reach the threshold potential, and therefore it is harder to generate and
propagate action potential.
ECG findings are those of rapid depolarisation and prolonged repolarisation, and include:
Prolonged PR
Long QT
Flat T waves or TWI
U waves
ST depression
Severe hypokalaemia may result in:
Frequent supraventricular and ventricular ectopics
Supraventricular arrhythmias
Ventricular arrhythmias
Regulation
Serum potassium is dependent on intake, sequestration, and elimination.
Intake
Dietary intake may be highly variable. Potassium is completely absorbed from the upper GI tract.
Sequestration
Several factors affect potassium sequestration:
Insulin and β2-agonism results in increase activity of the Na+-K+ ATPase pump, shifting potassium into cells following a
meal and during exercise
Acidosis causes an extracellular shift of potassium, as hydrogen ions are exchanged for potassium ions
The reverse occurs in alkalosis.
Cell lysis may release a large amount of potassium into circulation and cause significant hyperkalaemia if a large number of
cells are destroyed
Aldosterone increases uptake of potassium into cells
Elimination
Elimination of potassium occurs via the kidneys, and is dependent on production of large volumes of glomerular filtrate and
secretion by the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.
In normal conditions:
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Potassium
The PCT and ascending limb reabsorb the majority of absorbed potassium
This is essentially fixed.
PCT absorbs ~55%
Ascending limb absorbs ~30%
The principal cells of the DCT and collecting duct secrete potassium
Altering potassium secretion is the main method by which the kidney regulates serum potassium.
The collecting duct has a much greater role than the DCT
With normal dietary intake, more potassium is secreted than reabsorbed
This changes in conditions of potassium depletion.
Control of Tubular Secretion

Tubular potassium secretion is mainly a function of:
Plasma [K+]
Increased plasma [K+] stimulates the Na+-K+ ATPase pump in the principal cells, and also stimulates aldosterone release
from the adrenal cortex.
Tubular flow rate
Movement of potassium out of principal cells occurs down a passive concentration gradient. Increasing tubular flow rate
increases the concentration gradient for potassium
Aldosterone
Aldosterone increases production of the Na+-K+ ATPase pump, which increases potassium secretion and uptake into cells.
Minor contributors include:
Sodium and water content

High sodium content inhibits aldosterone release, reducing potassium elimination
High water content inhibits ADH excretion and reduces secretion of potassium, however high water content also
increases flow through the renal tubule, which indirectly increases tubular secretion of potassium.
Alkalosis
Alkalosis increases elimination of potassium as the Na+-K+ ATPase pump is stimulated by low H+ ion concentration.
References
Elsevier. 2011.
3. Nickson,C. Hyperkalaemia. Life in the Fast Lane.
4. Parham WA, Mehdirad AA, Biermann KM, Fredman CS. Hyperkalemia Revisited. Texas Heart Institute Journal.
2006;33(1):40-47.
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Acid-Base Physiology
Principles of Acid-Base Physiology

Explain the principles underlying acid-base chemistry
There have been several different theories of acid-base chemistry. The one most relevant for the primary exam is the Brønsted–
Lowry definition, which defines:
An acid as a proton donor

A base as a proton acceptor
pH
Stands for the power of hydrogen
Is a measure of hydrogen ion activity in a solution
Activity can be approximated by concentration
Therefore, pH can be expressed as a function of hydrogen ion concentration:

Using pH rather than concentration makes it easier to compare different solutions.
pKa
Strong acids (and bases) dissociate completely in solution
Weak acids (and bases) only partially dissociate
They have a dissociated state (A-) and an undissociate state (HA)
The ratio of concentrations on each side can be used to calculate the acid dissociation constant, Ka
This equation describes the strength of an acid by indicating how readily the acid gives up its hydrogen.
Similar to pH, this value is often log transformed to pKa produce an index, which allows easy comparison of different
substances:
pKa has several useful properties:

An acid of base will be 50% ionised when the pH of its solution equals its pKa
Acids are more ionised above their pKa
Bases are more ionised below their pKa
An increase in pH of 1 above the pKa will result in that substance being either 90% (for an acid) or 10 % (for a base)
ionised
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Systemic Effects of Acid-Base Disorders

pH disturbance affects many organ systems:
Respiratory
Increased
Peripheral and central chemoreceptors increase ventilation in response to a fall in pH.
Oxyhaemoglobin-Dissociation Curve
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Right-shifted by a fall in pH.

Bronchoconstriction
Hypercapnoea causes parasympathetically-mediated bronchoconstriction.
Cardiovascular
Inotropy
Inotropy falls in acidosis due to a direct myocardial depressant effect. May be offset by increased SNS tone in low-grade
acidosis. Alkalosis may increase inotropy by increasing responsiveness to circulating catecholamines.
Decreased response to catecholamines
When pH < 7.2.
Arrhythmias
Secondary to altered SNS tone and electrolytes.
Vasodilation
Directly due to hypercapnoea.
CNS
H+ ions cannot cross the BBB, however CO2 can.
Fluid and Electrolyte
Plasma K+ increases by 0.6mmol.L-1 for every 0.1 unit fall in pH
This is due to impairment of the Na+/K+-ATPase
H+ ions bind to the same site on albumin as calcium, so ionised calcium will increase
MSK
Bones
Chronic metabolic acidosis consumes bone phosphate to buffer H+ ions, causing osteoporosis.
Cellular
Enzyme function
Denaturation and functional impairment.
Molecular ionisation
Change in ionisation may change a molecules ability to cross cell membranes (e.g. reducing dose of thiopentone in
acidosis), or affect their function
Resting membrane potential
Change in ion permeability will alter RMP, and therefore how easy it is to generate an action potential.
Change with Temperature

pH is temperature dependant:
pH increases by 0.015 for every 1°C fall in temperature

Due to decreased ionic dissociation of water.
Gas solubility almost always increases when temperature falls
Dissolving is typically (not always) an exothermic reaction. As the kinetic energy content of a molecule falls, its ability to
dissociate from solution decreases.
As CO2 dissolves, PaCO2 falls
As blood gas machines operate at 37°C, a measurement error will occur if a patient is not close to 37°C
A hypothermic patient will have a higher pH and CO2 than measured
There are two common methods for managing pH of significantly hypothermic patients (e.g., those on CPB): pH-stat and alpha-
stat.
pH-stat
CO2 is added to the circuit so that pH and PaCO2 are normal when corrected for temperature
This theoretically improves oxygen delivery by preventing the left-shift in the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve
The increased CO2 also causes cerebral vasodilation, which:
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Increases speed and uniformity of cerebral cooling

Increases risk of cerebral embolic events
alpha-stat
pH and CO2 values are maintained at 'normal for 37°C'
Measured values will be different, as:
pH will be increased
CO2 will be decreased
Cellular autoregulation is preserved
Unlike pH-stat, this does not cause cerebral vasodilation
Referenecs
3. Chemlab. Solubility. Florida State University.
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Compensation
Compensation
Explain the principles underlying acid-base chemistry
Metabolic Acidosis
Compensation to metabolic acidosis includes:
Buffering
Occurs over minutes to hours. Includes:
ECF buffers
Bicarbonate
Plasma proteins
Albumin
ICF buffers
Include phosphate, proteins
Leads to hyperkalaemia due to H+/K+ exchange
K+ increases by 0.6mmol.L-1 per 0.1 unit fall in pH.
Bone
Exchange of Na+ and Ca2+ in bone.
Leads to demineralisation and release of alkaline compounds
Respiratory compensation
Occurs in minutes.
Rapid response
Cannot compensate completely
Renal compensation
Occurs over days to weeks. Includes:
Elimination of H+ bound to filtered buffers
Include ammonium, phosphate
Reabsorption of bicarbonate
Active secretion of H+ in the DCT/CT
Under control of aldosterone.
References
1. Diaz, A. Describe how the body handles metabolic acidosis. Primary SAQs.
315
Buffers
Buffers
Describe the chemistry of buffer mechanisms and explain their relevant roles in the body
A buffer is a solution which consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base, that can resist a change in pH when a stronger acid
or base is added.
Buffering:
Is a key part of acid-base homeostasis

Allows compensation for large changes in acid or alkali load with minimal change in hydrogen ion concentration
-1 + +
In one experiment, dogs were infused with 14,000,000 nmol.L of H , with a corresponding rise in H of only 36
nmol.L-1
Efficacy of a buffer system is determined by:
pKa of the buffer

80% of buffering occurs within 1 pH unit of the pKa of the system.
pH of the solution
Amount of buffer
Whether it is an open or closed system
An open buffer system can have the amount of chemical at one (or both) ends adjusted by physiological means.
This alters the concentration of reactants at either end of the equation, thus altering the speed of the reaction via the Law
of Mass Action
Buffer Systems
Important buffer systems include:
Bicarbonate buffer system

Protein buffer system
Haemoglobin buffer system
Phosphate buffer system
All buffer systems are in equilibrium with the same amount of H+. This is known as the isohydric principle.
Bicarbonate Buffer System

The bicarbonate buffer system is:
The most important ECF buffer system

Bicarbonate is formed in the erythrocyte and then secreted into plasma
Bicarbonate diffuses into the interstitium and is also the dominant fluid buffer in interstitial space
Formed in the erythrocyte
A buffer pair consisting of bicarbonate and carbonic acid
Carbonic acid is exceedingly short lived in any environment even remotely compatible with life and it rapidly dissociates to
HCO3- and H+.
Hydrogen ions are consumed or released by the following reaction:
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Buffers
Carbonic anhydrase (present in erythrocytes) is an enzyme which allows rapid conversion of H2O and CO2 to H2CO3 (and
back again)
Each stage of the reaction has an individual pKa:
As the pKa of the system is 6.1, these substances predominate at physiological

pH
The pKa for the second stage of the reaction is 9.3 and so essentially no CO32- exists in blood
Clincically this reaction can be ignored.
In clinical conditions, the reaction becomes:
Addition of a strong acid drives the above reaction to the left, forming (briefly) H2CO3 before it dissociates to CO2 and
H2O
CO2 is then able to be exhaled, which prevents equilbration and allows the system to buffer more acid
Bicarbonate is an effective buffer because it is:
Present in large amounts

Open at both ends
CO2 can be adjusted by changing ventilation
Bicarbonate can be adjusted by changing renal elimination
This prevents the bicarbonate buffer system from equilibrating and allows it to resist large changes in pH despite its low
pKa
However, because it relies heavily on changes in pulmonary ventilation it is unable to effectively buffer respiratory
acid-base disturbances.
Protein Buffer System

All proteins contain potential buffer groups
However, the useful one at physiological pH is the imidazole groups of the histidine residues.
Extracellularly, proteins have a small contribution which is entirely due to their low pKa
Intracellularly proteins have a much greater contribution because:
Intracellular protein concentration is much greater than extracellular concentration
Intracellular pH is much lower (~6.8) and closer to their pKa
Haemoglobin Buffer System

Haemoglobin is:
A protein buffer system

Quantitatively the most important non-bicarbonate buffer system of blood
This is because haemoglobin:
Exists in greater amounts than plasma proteins (150g.L-1 compared to 70g.L-1)
Each molecule contains 38 histidine residues
This results in 1g of Hb ~3x the buffering capacity of 1g of plasma protein.
In the cell:
Haemoglobin exists as a weak acid ( ) as well as its potassium salt ( )

In acidosis:
Additional H+ ions are bound to Hb molecules
HCO3- diffuses down its concentration gradient into plasma
Electroneutrality is maintained through the inwards movement of Cl-.
Dissolved CO2 will also form carbamino compounds by binding to the terminal amino groups
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Buffers
The pKa of Hb is variable depending on whether it has bound oxygen:

Deoxyhaemoglobin has a pKa of 8.2
+
Because of its higher pKa, deoxyhaemoglobin will more readily accept H ions which makes it a better buffer of acidic
solutions.
Oxyhaemoglobin has a pKa of 6.6
Both are essentially equidistant from normal pH, and are equally effective buffers
Quantitatively, per mmol of oxyhaemoglobin reduced, ~0.7mmol of H+ can be buffered
Therefore 0.7mmol of CO2 can enter blood without a change in pH.
This is the mechanism behind the Haldane effect, and why venous blood is only slightly more acidic than arterial
blood
Phosphate Buffer System

Phosphoric acid is:
Tribasic and can therefore potentially donate three hydrogen ions

However, only one of these reactions is relevant at physiological pH, with a pKa of 6.8:
The quantitative effect is low despite the optimal pKa due to the low plasma concentration of phosphate
At higher concentrations, such as intracellularly and in urine, it is a significant contributor
In prolonged acidosis, CaPO4 can be mobilised from bones and can be considered as an alkali reserve
Footnotes
1. Alex Yartsev offers an excellent discussion on buffering in his excellent trademark prose at Deranged Physiology
2. Brandis's anaesthesia MCQ is required reading
References
318
Nervous System
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Describe the physiology of cerebrospinal fluid
CSF is a transcellular fluid in the ventricles and subarachnoid space. ~150ml (2ml/kg) of CSF exist in a normal individual,
divided evenly between the head and spinal column.
Functions
Mechanical Protection
Due to its low specific gravity, CSF reduces the effective weight of the brain (by a factor of 30) and therefore reduces trauma
caused by the acceleration and deceleration of the brain.
Buffering of ICP
CSF can be displaced to the spinal subarachnoid and have its rate of reabsorption increased in order to offset an increase in
ICP by another space-occupying lesion.
Stable Extracellular Environment
Neurons are sensitive to ionic changes in the extracellular environment. Ionic concentrations in CSF are tightly controlled,
which ensures stable neuronal activity. Additionally, toxins are actively removed from CSF.
pH Regulation
pH of extracellular fluid is important in the control of respiration, and is also tightly regulated.
Nutrition
Supply of O2 and simple sugars and amino acids, and removal of CO2 occurs occurs in CSF.
Formation
CSF is produced in the choroid plexus (70%) and brain capillary endotheilial cells (30%) at a rate of 0.4 ml.min-1 (500ml.day-
1). It is produced by a combination of ultrafiltration and secretion from plasma:
Na+ is actively transported

Drives flow of Cl- ions and water.
Glucose is transported via facilitated diffusion down its concentration gradient
Factors Affecting Formation

Formation is relatively constant within normal parameters (altering the rate of absorption is the predominant means to control
pressure), though it is reduced by:
Decreased Choroidal Blood Flow

CPP <70mmhg reduces="" CSF formation.
Contents
Content Relative Change [CSF]

+ -1
Na - 140 mmol.L
- -1
Cl ↑ 124 mmol.L
K+ ↓ 2.9 mmol.L-1
Gluc ↓ 3.7 mmol.L-1
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Nervous System
pH ↓ 7.33
PCO2 ↑ 50mmHg
Protein ↓ Variable*
Ca2+ ↓ 1.12 mmol.L-1
Mg2+ ↑ 1.2 mmol.L-1
* CSF [protein] is variable:
Highest in the lumbar sac

Lowest in the ventricles
Always lower than plasma [protein]
This means CSF is a poor buffer solution, which increases its sensitivity to derangements in respiratory acid-base status.
In summary:
[Na+] is unchanged
[Mg2+] and [Cl-] are increased
Concentrations of everything else is less
Circulation
CSF flow is driven by respiratory oscillations, arterial pulsations, and ongoing production in the choroidal plexus.
Production in the choroidal plexus in the lateral ventricles

To the third ventricle via the Foramen of Munro
To the fourth ventricle via the Aqueduct of Sylvius
To the cisterna magna via the two lateral Foramina of Luschka and the midline Foramen of Magendie
It may now pass either:
Cranially, to the basilar cisterns and via the Sylvian fissure to the cortical regions
Caudally, to the spinal subarachoid space via the central canal
Reabsorption
Reabsorption of CSF:
Occurs in the arachnoid villi, which are located in the dural walls of the sagittal and sigmoid sinuses
85% of reabsorption occurs in intracranial arachnoid villi
Remainder by spinal arachnoid villi
Is predominantly via pinocytosis and opening of extracellular fluid spaces
Is pressure-dependent
Reabsorption occurs when the CSF pressure is 1.5mmHg greater than venous pressure
Typically an ICP < 7mmHg results in minimal CSF reabsorption. Above this, CSF absorption increases in a linear
fashion up to 22.5mmHg.
References
Elsevier. 2011.
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Nervous System
321
Blood-Brain Barrier
Blood-Brain Barrier
The blood-brain barrier is a physiological barrier which prevents substances in the ECF of the body moving freely into the ECF
of the brain. The functions of the BBB are:
Maintain a stable extracellular milieu

Optimises neuronal function by preventing fluctuations in plasma K+, Na+, and H+ affecting cerebral cells.
Protection of the brain
Isolates the brain from toxins.
Protection of the body
Isolates the rest of the body from CNS neurotransmitters.
Anatomy
The BBB occurs in three layers:
Capillary endothelial cells

Joined with tight junctions, preventing free movement of solvent and solute.
Substances must move through capillary endothelium to reach the brain
Capillary endothelial cells contain high numbers of mitochondria, due to the higher energy cost of the active transport
mechanisms.
Basement membrane
Astrocytes
Glial cell which extends foot processes around the basement membrane, and reduce permeability of endothelial cells.
Due to their function, several important CNS structures must exist outside of the BBB. These are known as the circumventricular
organs, and include:
Sensing structures
Chemoreceptor trigger zone (Area Postrema)
Identifies toxins in the systemic circulation, triggering vomiting.
Hypothalamus
Osmoreceptors detect systemic osmolarity.
Subfornical organ
Role in CVS and fluid balance.
Organum vasculosum
Secreting structures
Pituitary
Secretes hormones.
Pineal gland
Secretes melatonin.
Choroid plexus
Produces CSF via secretion and ultrafiltration of plasma.
Movement of Substances
Substances can move via:
Diffusion
For lipid soluble molecules only; e.g:
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Blood-Brain Barrier
CO2
O2
Facilitated diffusion
For movement of larger/less soluble molecules down their concentration gradient, e.g:
Glucose
Water
Active transport
Responsible for movement of most small ions; e.g:
Na+
Cl-
K+
Mg2+
Ca2+
Other substances are specifically excluded:
Catecholamines
Metabolised by MAO in capillary endothelium, preventing their action as CNS neurotransmitters.
Amino acids
Prevent action as neurotransmitters.
Ammonia
Metabolised in astrocytes to glutamine, limiting its neurotoxic effects.
References
1. Lawther BK, Kumar S, Krovvidi H. Blood–brain barrier. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain, Volume
11, Issue 4, 1 August 2011, Pages 128–132.
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Spinal Cord Anatomy
Spinal Cord Anatomy

Describe the major sensory and motor pathways (including anatomy)
Spinal Cord Anatomy

The spinal cord in transverse section consists of a central section of grey matter containing neuronal cell bodies and synapses, and
a peripheral section of white matter containing myelinated ascending and descending pathways. Important pathways are:
Corticospinal tract
Motor function. Crosses at the brain stem.
Dorsal column
Light touch and proprioception. Crosses at the brain stem.
Spinothalamic tract
Pain and temperature. Crosses within two vertebral segments.
Spinocerebellar tract
Unconscious proprioception. Does not cross.
Spinal Cord Syndromes

Lesions to certain anatomical regions of the spinal cord produce a particular constellations of findings.
Complete Transection
A complete transection results in loss of movement and sensation below the level of the lesion. Initially, paralysis is flaccid (and
other signs, such as priapism, may be absent in this 'spinal shock' phase) becomes spastic after a few weeks. Bowel and bladder
function is lost.
Lesions above T10 will result in impaired cough in the initial stage as the abdominal wall is unable to contract (intercostal muscle
function may be impaired as well, but this is of less importance clinically).
Central Cord Syndrome

Central cord syndrome results in a flacid paralysis and loss of sensation of the upper limbs greater than the lower limbs.
Anterior Cord Syndrome

Anterior cord syndrome spares the dorsal columns only, therefore motor function and pain and temperature sensation are affected
below the level of the lesion.
Brown-Sequard Syndrome
Hemisection of the cord results in:
Ipsilateral loss of motor function below the level of the lesion

Ipsilateral loss of light touch and proprioception below the level of the lesion
Contralateral loss of pain and temperature sensation below the level of the lesion
Ipsilateral loss of pain and temperature sensation at the level of the lesion
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Spinal Cord Anatomy
Cauda Equina
Cauda Equina syndrome results from compression of lumbosacral nerve roots below the level of the conus medullaris. It may
produce a combination of UMN and LMN signs:
Radiculopathy
Sacral sensory loss
Asymmetric LMN weakness and atrophy
Erectile dysfunction and inability to ejaculate
Urinary retention and overflow incontinence
Constipation and overflow incontinence
References
1. Goldber S. Clinical Neuroanatomy Made Ridiculously Simple. 3rd Ed. Medmaster. 2005.
325
Intracranial Pressure
Explain the control of intra-cranial pressure
Normal ICP is
P1 is the first peak, and represents arterial pulsation

P2 is the second peak, and represents intracranial compliance
If P2>P1, this is suggestive of poor intracranial compliance
P3 is the third peak, and is a dicrotic wave representing valve closure
In addition, a second set of Lundberg waves are described:
A waves are pathological, and consist of square-wave plateaus up to 50mmHg lasting 5-20 minutes. They are suggestive of
herniation, and are always pathological.
B waves are variable spikes in ICP at 30-120 second intervals, suggestive of cerebral vasospasm
C waves are oscillations that occur 4-8 times per minute, and are a benign phenomena occurring with respiratory and blood
pressure variations
Raised intracranial pressure may cause focal ischaemia when ICP >20mmHg, and global ischaemia when the ICP >50mmHg:
Monroe Kellie Doctrine

This states that:
The skull is a rigid container of a fixed volume, containing approximately 8 parts brain, 1 part blood, and 1 part CSF
As it has negligible elastance, any increase in volume of one substance must be met with a decrease in volume of another
or a rise in ICP
Elastance is technically correct as we are discussing a change in pressure for a given change in volume
Compliance is a change in volume for a given change in pressure.
Physiological Responses to an Increase in ICP

Displacement of CSF into the spinal subarachnoid space
Compression of vascular bed
Increased CSF reabsorption
The Cushing reflex may occur in brainstem herniation

This is a triad of hypertension, bradycardia, and irregular respiration secondary to SNS activation, and is a reflexive response
to medullary ischaemia.
Hypertension
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To improve CPP.
Bradycardia
Due to a baroreceptor response.
Irregular respiration
Due to respiratory centre dysfunction.
Physiological Basis of Treatment

Treatment can be classified as per the Monroe Kellie doctrine:
Brain
Osmotic agents such as mannitol and hypertonic saline
Increase plasma osmolality and expand blood volume, creating an osmotic gradient between brain parenchyma and blood
with a resulting reduction in brain oedema and ICP.
Timely evacuation of mass lesions and intracranial haemorrhage
CSF
External Ventricular Drain
Facilitates removal of CSF.
Blood
Reducing cerebral metabolic rate
Results in reduced blood flow due to flow-metabolism coupling. May be achieved with:
CNS depressants such as propofol, benzodiazepines, or barbiturates
Have several beneficial effects:
Depress cerebral metabolism which reduces oxygen requirements
Reduce seizure risk, which is detrimental because it greatly increases cerebral O2 demand and impairs venous return
Improves ventilator dyssyncrhony, limiting coughing and bearing down, and subsequent rises in ICP
Hypothermia
Causes a reduction in cerebral metabolism and risk of seizures.
Prevention of hypoxia or hypercapnoea
Hypoxia and hypercapnoea both cause vasodilatation, with a subsequent increase in cerebral blood volume, blood flow,
and ICP.
Induced hypocarbia
Causes vasoconstriction and a subsequent reduction in cerebral blood flow and blood volume. This leads to:
Reduction in ICP
Reduction in cerebral oxygen delivery
Consequently, a low-normal ETCO2 target is used to avoid tissue hypoxia.
References
2. Cross ME, Plunkett EVE. Physics, Pharmacology, and Physiology for Anaesthetists: Key Concepts for the FRCA. 2nd Ed.
Cambridge University Press. 2014.
3. Stocchetti N, Maas AI. Traumatic intracranial hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2014 May 29;370(22):2121-30.
327
328
Intraocular Pressure
Normal intraocular pressure is ~15mmHg, with a range of 12-20mmHg. Regulation of intraocular pressure is important for:
Vision
Sustained high (>25mmHg) can lead to blindness due to compression of axons of the optic nerve and the optic artery at the
optic disc.
Determinants of Intraocular Pressure

As the globe has typically poor compliance, a small increase in volume can cause a large increase in intraocular pressure. Factors
affecting volume include:
Volume of aqueous humor

Aqueous humor is a clear fluid that fills the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye, and provides avascular tissues with
nutrients and oxygen whilst still allowing light to pass freely between the lens and retina. Volume of aqueous humor is a
function of:
Production
Aqueous humor is produced by secretion and filtration from capillaries in the ciliary body in the posterior chamber, and
circulates through into the anterior chamber.
Production is accelerated by β22 agonism
Production is inhibited by α2 agonism
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors decrease aqueous humor production probably by decreasing sodium secretion into
the eye
Reabsorption
Aqueous humor is reabsorbed into venous blood in the canal of Schlemm.
The trabeculae meshwork is the main source of resistance to reabsorption
If this is blocked, a significant reduction in reabsorption can occur and IOP will increase.
Reabsorption is affected by:
Haemorrhage
Blocks trabecular meshwork.
Muscarinic antagonism
Dilates pupil, which brings the iris closer to canal and decreases absorption.
α1 agonism
Dilates the pupil, decreasing absorption.
PGF2α
Relaxes ciliary muscle, increasing absorption.
Volume of blood within the globe

Affected by:
MAP
Venous obstruction
External factors
Other factors affecting volume or compliance of the globe:
Extraocular muscle tension
Extraocular compression
329
Refrences
Elsevier. 2011.
3. Goel M, Picciani RG, Lee RK, Bhattacharya SK. Aqueous Humor Dynamics: A Review. The Open Ophthalmology Journal.
2010;4:52-59.
330
Sleep
Sleep
Describe the physiology of sleep
Sleep is a naturally occuring state of unconsciousness from which one can be aroused by an external stimuli.
Sleep is important in:
Homeostasis of many organ systems

Memory formation
Preservation of cognitive function
Stages of Sleep
Stages of sleep are classified based on EEG changes:
REM sleep
Characterised by EEG activity resembling that of awake individuals. REM sleep:
Lasts for 5-30 minutes
Event frequency decreases with age.
In REM sleep:
Irregular eye movements
Dreaming occurs
Irregular HR and RR
Muscle contraction occurs (but muscle tone is decreased)
Non-REM sleep
Deep sleep, characterised by depression of HR, SVR, BP, RR, and metabolic rate (~0.9 METs) It is divided into four stages
on EEG:
Stage 1: 4-6Hz θ waves replace α-waves
Dosing, easily roused.
Stage 2: Similar to stage 1 with occasional high frequency 50μV bursts (sleep spindles)
Stage 3: 1-2Hz high-voltage δ waves appear
Stage 4: Large δ waves become synchronised
Deep sleep.
Periods of REM sleep alternate with non-REM sleep during the night, with an average of 4-5 cycles of REM sleep per night.
Respiratory Effects
GABAergic neurons depress the respiratory centre, leading to respiratory depression:
Decreased MV
Decreased VT
Greatest decrease occurs during REM sleep, where it falls by ~25%.
Unchanged RR
Increased PaCO2
Decreased PO2
More pronounced in elderly.
Collapse of airway soft tissue
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Sleep
Due to reduced tonic activity of pharyngeal muscles.
References
332
Pain
Pain
Describe the physiology of pain, including the pathways and mediators
Key definitions:
Pain
Pain is an "unpleasant sensory or emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in such
terms." Pain can be broadly classified by:
Aetiology
Nociceptive pain
Stimulation of nociceptors by noxious stimuli.
Visceral pain
Neuropathic pain
Nervous system dysfunction.
Duration
Acute pain
Pain due to symptoms of current pathology.
Chronic pain
Pain occurring after the pathological process has resolved.
Hyperalgesia
Increased response to a normally painful stimulus.
Primary hyperalgesia
Local reduction in pain threshold.
Secondary hyperalgesia
Hyperalgesia away from the site of injury due to alteration in spinal cord signaling.
Allodynia
Painful response to a normally painless stimuli. Occurs due to pathological synapse between second-order neurones in the
spinal cord.
Anaesthesia dolorosa
Pain in an area which is anaesthetised.
Peripheral Nociception
Nociceptors are receptors which respond to a noxious stimulus. Nociceptors:
Can be stimulated or sensitised by:

Chemical signals
See table.
Mechanical signals
Shear stress
Thermal signals
Hot nociceptors activate above 43°C
Cold nociceptors activate below 26°C
Stimulation initiates a nervous impulse
Sensitisation increases a receptors sensitivity to a stimulating mediator
Key chemical stimulating and sensitising mediators include:
333
Pain
Stimulating Mediators Sensitising Mediators
H+ Prostaglandins
K+ Leukotrienes
ACh Substance P
Histamine Neurokinin A
5-HT Calcitonin GRP
Bradykinin
Nociceptors
Impulses are conducted by two types of primary afferent fibres:
Aδ fibres:
Small (~2-5μm diameter)
Myelinated
Conduct sharp pain at up to 40m.s-1
Mediate initial reflex responses to acute pain
Synapse in laminae I in the dorsal horn
Substance P is the neurotransmitter at the NK1 receptor.
C fibres:
<2μm diameter
Unmyelinated
Conduct dull pain at 2m.s-1
Synapse in laminae II in the dorsal horn
Substance P is the neurotransmitter at the NK1 receptor.
Pain Pathway and Site of Action of Analgesics

The response to a painful stimulus requires a cascade of processes:
Activation of nociceptors
Membrane depolarisation in response to stimulus. If the stimulus is great enough to reach the threshold potential, an action
potential is generated.
NSAIDS reduce nociceptor mediated inflammation
Opiates act on peripheral MOP receptors
Local anaesthetics prevent signal propagation
Synapse in the dorsal horn
Input from both Aδ and C fibres, and descending interneurons.
Descending inhibitory input reduces nociceptive transmission
Basis of "gate control" theory. Descending input increased with:
Touch
Aβ 'touch' fibres stimulate inhibitory interneurones in the dorsal horn, 'closing the gate' by increasing descending
inhibition and prevent signals from peripheral C fibres from rising to the thalamus.
Arousal
Opioid receptors
Particularly MOP (pre- and post-synaptically).
Opioids act presynaptically to reduce Substance P and glutamine release.
α2 receptors
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Pain
Clonidine, tricyclic antidepressants, noradrenaline-reuptake inhibitors, and endogenous catecholamines.

Gabapentin and pregabalin inhibit presynaptic neurotransmitter release
Wide dynamic range neurones
Receive afferent input from chemical, thermal, and mechanoreceptors.
Typically more difficult to stimulate
Important in wind-up
Mediated by NMDA agonism.
Ketamine reduces windup and central sensitisation
Lead to secondary hyperalgesia
Lead to allodynia
Via additional synpases to sensory neurones in lamina III and IV.
Interneuron synapses with a second-order neurones fibre
These secondary afferents:
Cross within 1-2 vertebral segments and ascends in the spinothalamic tract
Receives input from descending fibres
Opioids act post-synaptically to hyperpolarise second-order neurones
Reflex arc
Higher centres
Pain perception occurs in the somatosensory cortex.
Neuropathic Pain
Pain due to a lesion of the somatosensory system, rather than a stimulus itself. Neuropathic pain is divided into:
Central neuropathic pain

From CNS injury, e.g. spinal cord injury, CVA, multiple sclerosis.
Peripheral neuropathic pain
Damage from:
Diabetes
Ischaemia of Schwann cells causes demyelination, causing the exposed axon to generate action potentials
inappropriately.
Trauma
Transected axons may regrow with endings that spontaneously fire or that have altered threshold potentials.
Mechanisms of Neuropathic Pain

Neuroma
Healing of damaged nerves leads to neuroma formation. Neuromas:
Are more sensitive to painful stimuli
Cause spontaneous pain
May sprout and innervate local tissues
Movement of these tissues may lead to pain.
Windup
Phantom limb pain
Neurons damaged in removal of a limb develop additional synapses, leading to phantom sensations.
Features of Neuropathic Pain

Neuropathic pain is associated with:
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Pain
Injury or disease that causes nerve injury

Burning or electrical quality
Reduced or absent sensation
Poor response to typical analgesia
Chronic Regional Pain Syndrome

Damage to the SNS can lead to abnormalities in autonomic function:
Change in temperature due to vasomotor dysfunction

Altered sweating
Reduced hair growth
Osteoporosis
Hyperalgesia and allodynia
Pain in the Elderly

Nervous System Changes:
Peripheral Nervous System

Nerve deterioration
Decreased myelination
Decreased conduction velocity
Reduced range and speed of ANS responses
Increased resting sympathetic tone
Central Nervous System
Decreased pain perception
Increased sensitivity to anaesthetic and analgesics
Reach ceiling effects more rapidly.
Degeneration of myelin
Subsequent cognitive dysfunction due to neuronal circuit dysfunction.
Generalised atropy
Decreased neurotransmitter production
References
2. Schug SA, Palmer GM, Scott DA, Halliwell R, Trinca J. Acute Pain Management: Scientific Evidence. 4th Ed. 2015.
Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists and Faculty of Pain Medicine.
5. Merskey H, Bogduk N. Classification of Chronic Pain. 2nd Ed. 1994. IASP Task Force on Taxonomy. IASP Press, Seattle.
6. Halaszynski T. Influences of the Aging Process on Acute Perioperative Pain Management in Elderly and Cognitively
Impaired Patients. The Ochsner Journal. 2013;13(2):228-247.
7. Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain mechanisms: a new theory. Science. 1965. 19;150(3699):971-9.
8. Gibson S. Pathophysiology of Pain.
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Pain
337

Describe the autonomic nervous system, including anatomy, receptors, subtypes and transmitters (including their synthesis,
release and fate)
The ANS is the section of the nervous system which regulates involuntary and visceral functions. These include:
Haemodynamics
Digestion
Urination and defecation
Thermoregulation
Sexual function
The autonomic nervous system can be divided into
Central ANS
Control occurs in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and spinal cord.
Peripheral ANS
Divided anatomically and functionally into the:
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
GRAPH FROM PAGE 258 of GANONG
Central Control
The hypothalamus controls autonomic functions by neural and endocrine mechanisms. It is subdivided anatomically into four
regions:
Anterior hypothalamus
Controls the PNS and thermoregulation. It also releases ADH in response to increased plasma osmolality, and oxytocin.
Medial hypothalamus
Inhibits appetite in response to increase in blood glucose.
Lateral hypothalamus
Contains the thirst centre and drive to seek food.
Posterior hypothalamus
Controls vasomotor centres, modulating sympathetic vasoconstriction, as well as positive and negative inotropy and
chronotropy. Also modulates wakefulness in response to sympathetic stimuli.
Signals from the hypothalamus have a tonic output to:
All smooth muscle

Heart
Exocrine organs
Endocrine organs
GIT
GU
Central Anatomy
338
In the grey matter of the spinal cord, efferent nerves synapse with two other nerves connected in series. This maintains tonic
autonomic outflow.
FIGURE FROM PAGE 67 - POWER AND KAM
Efferent nerves exit the spinal root anteriorly, and form the ventral root.
Conversely, afferent nerves exit posteriorly, forming the dorsal root and then dorsal root ganglion, before synapsing in the
spinal cord.
Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system optimises the body for short-term survival.
Sympathetic innervation is from the sympathetic trunks. These:
Are a paired bundle of sympathetic neurons which run lateral to the vertebral bodies from T1 to L2
The trunk is subdivided into four parts:
The cervical part innervates the head, neck, and part of the thorax
The thoracic part is further subdivided into:
Upper thoracic from T1-T5, which innervates the aorta, heart, and lungs
Lower thoracic from T6-T12, which innervates the foregut and midgut
The lumbar part forms the coeliac plexus
The pelvic part innervate the pelvic visceral and lower limb vasculature
Contain the sympathetic ganglion, which is a synapse between the:
Short pre-ganglionic fibre
Cell body is located in the lateral horn of the spinal cord, and connects to the sympathetic ganglion.
Releases ACh to stimulate the post-ganglionic fibre.
Long post-ganglionic fibre
Cell body is located in the sympathetic ganglion, and stimulates the effect site.
Has a nicotinic ACh receptor
Releases NA at the effect site
Sensitivity (for ACh) and activity (for NA release) is modulated by a number of other substances:
Enkephalin
Neuropeptide Y
Dopamine
Adrenaline
Prostaglandin
GABA
Neurotensin
There are three exceptions to the above structure:
The adrenal gland is a modified sympathetic ganglion. It is:

Directly innervated by preganglionic neurons releasing ACh
Sweat glands have muscarinic receptors, and are stimulated by ACh rather than noradrenaline
Skeletal muscle metarterioles also have muscarinic ACh receptors, and are stimulated by ACh
Effect
Sympathetic stimulation has a number of effects by either direct neural innervation or adrenaline release. They are consistent with
a 'fight or flight' response, and optimise the body for short-term stress conditions.
Effector Sympathetic
339
Organ Innervation
Eye Cervical Pupillary dilatation
Lungs Thoracic Bronchodilation
Heart Thoracic ↑↑↑ Chronotropy, ↑↑↑ inotropy, ↑↑↑ lusiotropy, ↑↑ dromotropy
Vasculature Sacral Constriction
MSK Sacral Sweating, contraction, lipolysis
Endocrine Lower thoracic Adrenaline and noradrenaline release
Decreased salivation and GIT motility, increased sphincter tone,

GIT Thoracic, lumbar
gluconeogenesis
GU Pelvic Detrusor relaxation, sphincter contraction, ↑ uterine tone
Parasympathetic Nervous System

Parasympathetic innervation arises from the:
Cranial nerves
From CN III, VII, IX, and (mostly) X.
The vagus is the major cranial parasympathetic, innervating the:
Heart via the cardiac plexus
The SA node is innervated by the right vagus
The AV node is innervated by the left vagus
The ventricles are also sparsely innervated from the left vagus.
Lungs via the pulmonary plexus
Stomach, liver, spleen, and pancreas, and gut proximal to the splenic flexure via the gastric plexus.
Hypogastric plexus
Arises from S2-S4, and innervates the bladder, uterus, and gut distal to the splenic flexure.
The parasympathetic nervous system ganglia site close to the target organ. This means that the:
Pre-ganglionic fibre is long

Preganglionic cell body sits within the brainstem (cranial nerves) or sacral grey matter (hypogastric plexus)
Releases ACh to stimulate the post-ganglionic neurone at a nicotinic ACh receptor
Post-ganglionic fibre is short
Releases ACh to stimulate the target organ at a muscarinic ACh receptor
Effect
Effector
Parasympathetic Innervation Response
Organ
Pupillary constriction (CN III),

CNS CN III via the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, CN VII
lacrimation (CN VII)
Bronchoconstriction, increased
Lungs CN X
mucous production
↓↓↓ Chronotropy, ↓↓↓ dromotropy, ↓

inotropy, ↓ luisotropy (↓ in inotropy
Heart CN X
and luisotropy is greater in the atria
than the ventricles)
CN VII (submaxillary and mandibular salivary glands), CNIX
340
(parotid gland), CNX (stomach to proximal two-thirds of the Salivation, decreased sphincter tone,
GIT
transverse colon), hypogastric plexus (distal one-third of the increased motility
transverse colon to rectum)
GU Hypogastric plexus Detrusor contraction, erection
Ganglion Blockade
Blockade of the ganglion (at the nicotinic ACh receptor) blocks transmission and reduces sympathetic and parasympathetic
impulse transmission. Clinical effect of ganglion blockade depends on which part of the ANS is dominant in that organ system:
SNS dominant organ systems

Effective sympatholysis:
Vasculature
Vasodilation, hypotension.
Sweat glands
Anhydrosis.
PNS dominant organ systems
Effective parasympatholysis:
Heart
Tachycardia.
Iris
Mydriasis.
GIT
Decreased ton.
Bladder
Urinary retention.
Salivary
Reduced secretions.
Enteric Plexus
The enteric plexus is a system of autonomic nerves in the GIT which is free of CNS control. It consists of sensory and integrative
neurons as well as excitatory and inhibitory motor neurons which generate coordinated muscular activity.
References
Power and Kam Ganong http://www.cvphysiology.com/Blood%20Pressure/BP009
341
Neuropharmacology
Anticonvulsants
An understanding of the pharmacology of anti-depressant, anti-psychotic, anti-convulsant, and anti-Parkinsonian
medication
Anticonvulsants work via a number of different mechanisms:
Sodium Channel Blockers

Sodium channel blockers:
Stabilise the inactive state of the channel, preventing return to the active state and prevent generation of further action
potentials
This halts post-tetanic potentiation and limits the development of seizure activity.
May also have Class I antiarrhythmic properties
Due to Na+ blocking effects.
Include:
Phenytoin
Carbamazepine
Lamotrigine
GABA Mediators
GABA is the key inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. GABA mediators:
Enhance the effect of GABA

Multiple potential mechanisms:
Direct GABA-receptor agonists
e.g. Benzodiazepines and phenobarbital.
Positive allosteric modulation
e.g. Propofol and thiopentone.
GABA reuptake inhibition
e.g. Tiagabine.
GABA transaminase inhibition
e.g. Vigabatrin.
Increase GABA synthesis
e.g. Sodium Valproate.
Glutamate Blockers
Glutamate is an important CNS excitatory neurotransmitter. Glutamate antagonists:
Are generally avoided due to their side effect profile, which includes psychosis and hallucinations
Include topiramate
Other Agents
Gabapentin and pregabalin:
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Neuropharmacology
Do not appear to mediate GABA

Inhibit of excitatory α2δ voltage-gated calcium channels in the CNS
This gives them anticonvulsant properties.
References
3. Medscape - Antiepileptic Drugs. Accessed December 2015.
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
Describe the major neurotransmitters and their physiological role, with particular reference to GABA, excitatory and
inhibitory amino acids, acetylcholine, noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin and NMDA receptor
GABA
Gamma aminobutyric acid is the major inhibitory CNS neurotransmitter. GABA receptors have three subtypes:
GABAA
Ionotropic receptor important for the action of many drugs.
Pentameric structure
2 α
Bind GABA.
2 β
1 γ
Affected by many different drugs:
Benzodiazepines
Positive allosteric modulation at at the α/γ interface.
General anaesthetic agents
Including propofol, barbiturates, halogenated volatiles, and etomidate.
Act at the β subunit
Cause a conformational change which increases Cl- opening time, hyperpolarising the cell.
GABAB
Metabotropic receptor.
GABAC
Ionotropic receptor located only in the retina.
NMDA
N-methyl D-aspartate receptor is an ionotropic receptor that is:
Agonised by glutamate
Glycine is co-agonist
Voltage dependent
Central pore usually blocked by an Mg2+ ion
Becomes unblocked when partially depolarised
Important in the action of drugs which do not act at the GABAA receptor
Agonised by:
Ketamine
Xenon
N2
References
344
Neurotransmitters
345
Local Anaesthetics
Local Anaesthetics
Understanding of the pharmacology of local anaesthetic drugs, including their toxicity
Local anaesthetic drugs create a use-dependent temporary blockade of neuronal transmission by blocking the voltage-gated
sodium channel in the cell membrane, preventing depolarisation.
Mechanism of Action
Action is dependent on blockade of the sodium channel. Two theories exist:
Unionised drug passes through the cell membrane, and then becomes ionised intracellularly
The ionised drug is then able to bind to the open sodium channel, and prevent conduction of sodium and therefore generation
of an action potential
Local anaesthetics also display reduced affinity for K+ and L-type Ca2+ channels
This theory explains use-dependent blockade, as sodium channels can only be blocked in their open state
An alternative suggested mechanism of action is the drug enters the cell membrane and mechanically distorts the channel,
rendering it ineffective
Onset is inversely proportional to the size of the fibre

From fastest to slowest:
Pain
Temperature
Touch
Deep pressure
Motor
Chemical Structure of Local Anaesthetics

All local anaesthetics are weak bases consisting of:
A hydrophilic component
A lipophilic aromatic ring
An amide or ester link connecting the two
Chemical structure influences pharmacological behaviour:
Hydrophilic portion
Typically the tertiary amine.
Determines ionisation
3 bonds: Lipid soluble
4 bonds: Water soluble
Lipophilic portion
Typically aromatic ring.
Determines lipid solubility, and therefore potency, toxicity, and duration of action
Ester vs. amide
Amides
Hepatically metabolised (hydroxylation and N-de-alkylation)
This is slower, therefore there is a greater risk of systemic toxicity.
Stable in solution
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Local Anaesthetics
Esters
Heat-sensitive
Cannot be autoclaved.
Rapidly hydrolysed in plasma
Organ independent elimination.
Have a greater incidence of allergy
Due to the inactive metabolite PABA.
Amine group length
Potency and toxicity increase as carbon-chain increases
Toxicity (but not potency) continues to increase beyond 10 carbons
Isomerism
Alters behaviour:
Levobupivacaine is less toxic
R-ropivacaine is less potent and more toxic
Key Characteristics of Local Anaethetics

Characteristics are related to chemical structure. These include:
Potency
Potency is expressed with the minimum effective concentration of local anaesthetic (Cm)
This is the concentration of LA that results in complete block of a nerve fibre in 50% of subjects in standard conditions.
More potent agents have a lower Cm.
Potency is a function of:
Lipid solubility
Potency (and also toxicity) increases with greater lipid solubility.
Vasodilator properties
In general, local anaesthetics cause vasodilation in low concentrations, and vasoconstriction at high concentrations
(except cocaine, which causes vasoconstriction at all concentrations).
Duration of action
Duration of action is a function of:
Drug factors
Vasodilator properties
Vasoconstriction increases the duration of block.
Use of additives
Addition of adrenaline to lignocaine increases duration of block.
Lipid solubility
Increased lipid solubility increases duration of action, as agent remains in the nerve for longer.
Potency therefore has a positive correlation with duration of action
Duration of action is increased when pH increases, as the ionised portion falls
Protein binding
Highly protein bound agents have an increased duration of action due to increased tissue binding.
Protein binding decreases with decreasing pH, increasing the fraction of unbound drug
This is why agents such as bupivacaine are more cardiotoxic in acidotic patients.
Local anaesthetics are predominantly bound to α-1-acid glycoprotein (AAG)
AAG is reduced in pregancy, increasing the free drug fraction and therefore reducing the toxic dose of LA in
pregnant patients.
Patient factors
Tissue pH
Decreased duration of block when tissue pH is low.
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Local Anaesthetics
Metabolic impairment
Hepatic failure increases duration of action of aminosteroids
Butylcholinesterase deficiency increases duration of ester local anaesthetics
Site of administration Well vascularised tissue (e.g. intercostal area) will have greater systemic uptake of drug than
vessel poor tissue.
Onset
Speed of onset is related to:
Drug factors
Dose
Increasing the dose increases the speed of onset, as per Fick's Law.
Increased concentration will increase speed of onset and block density
Increased volume (without increasing dose, resulting in decreased concentration) will decrease speed of onset
Lipid solubility
An increased lipid solubility increases the speed at which the local anaesthetic enters the nerve. However:
Lipid solubility also correlates with potency
Therefore, in practice, more lipid soluble agents are administered in lower doses, and so have a reduced
speed of onset
This is known as Bowman's Principle.
Ionised portion
Only unionised drug can cross cell membranes. Ionisation is a function of:
pKa
Tissue pH
This is also why anaesthetics are ineffective in anaesthetising infected tissue, as the low pH makes the
majority of the LA ionised and unable to cross the cell membrane.
Patient factors
Nerve activity
Local anaesthetics produce a frequency dependent blockade, meaning nerves firing frequently will be blocked
more rapidly than quiescent nerves
Nerve fibre size
Larger nerves require an increased concentration of local anaesthetic to achieve blockade than smaller nerves.
Nerve type
Different nerve fibres are affected at different speeds, which is mostly (though not entirely) a function of critical
length.
Aγ (proprioceptive) are affected first
Small myelinated Aδ (sharp pain, cold) fibres are affected second
Large myelinated nerves are affected third These include Aα (motor) and Aβ (touch) fibres.
Unmyelinated nerves are affected last
These include C (dull pain, heat) fibres.
Hyperkalaemia
Reduces onset of action.
Toxicity
Local anaesthetics are:
Toxic to both the CNS and CVS

Toxicity occurs when there is an excess plasma concentration
This occurs when the rate of drug entering the systemic circulation is greater than the drug leaving the systemic circulation
due to redistribution and metabolism.
Toxicity is related to the:
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Local Anaesthetics
Drug factors
Drug used
Agents are compared using the CC/CNS ratio, which is the ratio of the dose of drug required to cause cardiovascular
collapse (CC) compared to the dose required to cause seizure. It is a crude alternative to the therapeutic index.
Dose used
Continuous infusions are more likely to cause a delayed onset of local anaesthetic toxicity.
Block factors
Site of administration
This affects the rate of uptake into the systemic circulation, and the likelihood of inadvertent intravascular injection.
Ranked (from highest to lowest):
Intravascular (obviously)
This is the most common cause of LA toxicity.
Site is also relevant here: an injection into the carotid artery will cause toxicity at a lower dose than if injected
into a peripheral vein.
Intercostal
Caudal
Epidural
Brachial plexus
Subcutaneous
Use of adjuncts
Adrenaline
Vasoconstrictor properties reduce systemic absorption of LA.
Technique
Frequent aspiration
Test dose
Use of ultrasound
Patient factors
Anything that increases peak [plasma] can lead to an increased risk of LA toxicity.
Blood flow to affected area
α1-acid glycoprotein
Low levels of this protein increase free drug fraction.
Neonates and infants have half the level of AAG than adults.
Hepatic disease
Reduces clearance of amides, which may cause toxicity with repeated doses or use of infusions.
Age
Organ blood flow (and therefore clearance), as well as pharmacokinetic interactions may affect clearance of LA. Both
children and the elderly have reduced clearance of LA.
Acidosis
Increases unionised portion.
Hypercarbia
Increases cerebral blood flow.
Cardiac Toxicity
Cardiac toxicity occurs due to:
Blocking of the cardiac Na+ channel (K+ and Ca2+ channels may also be involved)
Severity of toxicity will vary depending on how long the agent binds to the channel, with less toxicity caused by agents
spending less time bound:
Lignocaine
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Local Anaesthetics
Spends the shortest time bound to the channel, so causes the least amount of toxicity. This is also why lignocaine can be
used as an antiarrhythmic, but other agents can not.
Buipivacaine
Takes 10x as long to dissociate as lignocaine. This can lead to re-entrant arrhythmias, and then VF. The risk of this is
increased in tachycardia due to use-dependent blockade.
Ropivacaine
Dissociates more rapidly from cardiac channels than bupivacaine.
Direct myocardial depressant effects
Reduces cAMP levels by disrupting metabotropic receptors.
Cardiac toxicity is triphasic:
Initial phase
Hypertension
Tachycardia
Intermediate phase:
Hypotension
Terminal phase:
Severe hypotension
Vasodilation
Various arrhythmias
Sinus bradycardia
Variable degree heart block
VT
VF
Asystole
CNS Toxicity
Local anaesthetics in their unionised state can cross the BBB and interfere with CNS conduction. CNS toxicty is biphasic:
Initally, inhibitory interneurones are blocked

This causes excitatory effects:
Perioral tingling
Slurred speech
Visual disturbances
Tremulousness
Dizziness
Confusion
Convulsions
Typically signifies the end of the excitatory phase.
Secondly, there is a general depression of all CNS neurons
This causes inhibitory effects:
Coma
Apnoea
Treatment
Toxicity is managed with an ABC approach, though definitive management uses intralipid emulsion:
Intralipid is an emulsion of soya oil, glycerol, and egg phospholipids.

Mechanism of action in uncertain, but theories include:
350
Local Anaesthetics
Lipid sink
ILE binds unionised LA, causing it to distribute off receptor sites.
Fatty acid metabolism
Cardiac fatty acid metabolism is interrupted by LA. ILE provides a source of fatty acids to allow metabolism to
continue.
ILE may directly inhibit LA binding.
Dosing of intralipid 20%:

Bolus of 1.5ml.kg-1 over 1 minute
Infusion at 15ml.kg-1.hr-1
Complications include pancreatitis

Note that ILE interferes with amylase and lipase assays, and so these will be unreliable.
Note that whilst propfol can be used to treat seizures, the amount of lipid contained in propofol is inadequate to bind LA
References
2. Christie LE, Picard J, Weinberg GL. Local anaesthetic systemic toxicity. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care
& Pain, Volume 15, Issue 3, 1 June 2015, Pages 136–142.
4. Becker DE, Reed KL. Essentials of Local Anesthetic Pharmacology. Anesthesia Progress. 2006;53(3):98-109.
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Neuraxial Blockade
Neuraxial Blockade
Describe the physiological consequences of a central neuraxial block
Central neuraxial blockade refers to blockade of fibres in the spinal cord by administration of intrathecal or epidural local
anaesthetic.
Respiratory Responses
An increasing level of block will lead to greater effects:
Thoracic
Impediment to active expiration and expectoration due to blockade of intercostals and abdominal wall musculature
Loss of vital capcity
Loss of some accessory muscle use
Cervical
Impediment due to diaphragmatic blockade.
Cardiovascular Responses
Occur due to blockade of sympathetic chain fibres in the thoracolumbar region.
Sacral
Parasympathetic blockade only. Minimal CVS effects.
Lower thoracic/lumbar
Arteriolar and venous vasodilation in lower abdomen and lower limbs, causing a fall in SVR, BP, and GFR.
Upper thoracic
Loss of cardioaccelerator fibres above T5, causing a reduction in heart rate and contractility, compounding hypotension due
to fall in SVR.
Cranial Nerves
Vagal blockade will reduce PNS tone and attenuate some of the loss of SNS tone.
Brainstem
Inhibition of vasomotor centre with profound fall in CVS parameters.
CNS Responses
Cervical
Horners syndrome (miosis, anhydrosis, ptosis) due to loss of sympathetic trunks.
Cranial nerve Pupillary dilation due to CN III blockade.
Brainstem and Cerebral Cortex Anaesthesia due to blockade of the reticular activating system and thalamus.
References
352
Neuraxial Blockade
1. Diaz, A. Cardiovascular Response to Central Neuraxial Blockade. Primary SAQs.

353
Acetylcholine Receptors
Understanding of the pharmacology of anticholinesterase drugs.
Describe the adverse effects of anticholinesterase agents.
This covers the pharmacology of acetylcholine receptors and the production and metabolism of ACh. Detailed information on
specific agents is in the pharmacopeia.
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter vital for normal function of:
CNS
ANS
Muscule contraction
Synthesis, Release, and Metabolism

ACh is produced is the nerve cytoplasm by acetyltransferase from:
Choline
From diet and recycled ACh.
Acetyl-coenzyme A
Produced in the inner mitochondrial matrix.
Once synthesised, ACh is then packaged into vesicles (each containing ~10,000 ACh molecules), which are released in response
to calcium influx occurring at the culmination of an action potential.
Acetylcholine is metabolised by acetylcholinesterase on the post-junctional membrane. AChE:
Has two binding sites:

Anionic binding site
Binds the positively charged quaternary ammonium moiety.
Esteratic binding site
Binds the ester group of ACh.
Once bound, ACh is acetylated
Acetylated-ACh is then hydrolysed to produce acetic acid
ACh Receptor Subtypes

There are two types of ACh receptor:
Nicotinic ACh receptors

Ionotropic
Linked to an ion channel.
Non-specific - may allow Na+, K+, or Ca2+ to cross
Consists of five subunits:
Two α
Bind ACh.
One β
One δ
One γ
Located in:
354
Post-synaptic NMJ
Preganglionic autonomic nervous system
Antagonism causes ganglion blockade.
Brain
Known as nicotinic because nicotine agonises this receptor
Activation:
2 ACh molecules must bind to activate the receptor
Once bound, receptor undergoes a conformational change which opens the central ion pore
Permeability to Na+ (and to a lesser extent, K+ and Ca2+) increases, leading to depolarisation
Muscarinic ACh receptors

Metabotropic
G-protein coupled.
Known as muscarinic because muscarine also agonises this receptor
Subdivided into:
M1 (Gq)
Secretory glands and CNS.
M2 (Gi)
Heart.
M3 Gq
Bronchial and arteriolar smooth muscle.
M4 (Gi) and M5 (Gq)
CNS.
References
355
Opioids
Opioids
Key definitions:
Opiates are all naturally-occurring substances with morphine-like properties

Opioids is a general term for substances with an affinity for opioid receptors
Opium is a mixture of alkaloids from the poppy plant
Classification of Opioids
Naurally occurring
Endogenous opioids
Endorphins
Encephalins
Dynorphins
Opium derivatives
Phenanthrenes
Morphine
Codeine
Semisynthetic
Simple modifications to morphine.
Diacetylmorphine
Buprenorphine
Oxycodone
Synthetic
Phenylpiperidines
Fentanyl
Alfentanil
Remiphentanil
Pethidine
Diphenylpropylamines
Methadone
Opioid Receptor Classification

All opioid receptors are Gi receptors. Activation:
Inhibits adenylyl cyclase, reducing cAMP

Presynaptically inhibits voltage-gated Ca2+ channels
Decreases Ca2+ influx
Reduces neurotransmitter release
Post-synaptically stimulates acivates K+ channels
Causes K+ efflux
Leads to membrane hyperpolarisation
Notable
Receptor Actions
Properties
Analgesia (spinal and brain), euphoria, meiosis (via stimulation of the Edinger- Only opioid
MOP Westphal nucleus), nausea and vomiting (via CTZ), sedation, bradycardia, inhibition receptor to cause
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Opioids
of gut motility, urinary retention, physical dependence nausea/vomiting
Less respiratory
KOP Analgesia (predominantly spinal), sedation, meiosis, dysphoria
depression
Minimal
DOP Analgesia, respiratory depression, urinary retention, physical dependence
constipation
Hyperalgesia at
low doses,
NOP Anxiety, depression, change in appetite
analgesic at high
doses
Mechanism of effects:
Respiratory depression
Decreases central chemoreceptor sensitivity to CO2.
Constipation
Stimulation of opioid receptors in the gut.
Normally activated by local endogenous opioids (used as neurotransmitters)
Agonism of these receptors (µ, k, and to a smaller extent, δ) reduces GIT secretions and peristalsis
References
2. Katzung BG, Trevor AJ. Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 13th Ed. McGraw-Hill Education Europe. 2015.
357
Structure-activity relationships of inhalational agents
Describe the uptake, distribution and elimination of inhalational anaesthetic agents and the factors which influence
induction and recovery from inhalational anaesthesia including the:
- Concepts of partition coefficients, concentration effect and second gas effect
- Relationships between inhaled and alveolar concentration
- Significance of the distribution of cardiac output and tissue partition coefficients on uptake and distribution of volatile
agents
Describe the concept and clinical application of MAC in relation to inhaled anaesthetic agents
Describe how the pharmacokinetics of drugs commonly used in anaesthesia in neonates and children differ from adults and
the implications for anaesthesia
Properties of an ideal inhalational anaesthetic agent
Inhaled anaesthetics are chemicals with general anaesthetic properties that can be delivered by inhalation. They can be divided
into:
Volatile anaesthetic agents

Volatility refers to the tendency of a liquid to vaporise. Volatile agents include:
Sevoflurane
Isoflurane
Desflurane
Methoxyflurane
Enflurane
Halothane
Ether
Anaesthetic gases
Nitrous oxide
Xenon
Key Principles of Inhalational Agents

Key principles:
The clinical effect of an inhalational agent is dependent on its partial pressure within the CNS
At equilibrium, the partial pressure in the CNS (PB) equals the partial pressure in blood (Pa), and in the alveoli (PA)
Reaching equilibrium is rarely achieved in practice as it takes many hours.
Rate of onset and offset of an inhalational agent are dependent on both physiological and pharmacological factors affecting
the transfer of agent:
Into the alveoli
From the alveoli into blood
From blood into the CNS
Minimum Alveolar Concentration (MAC)

MAC is defined as the minimum alveolar concentration at steady state which prevents a movement response to a standard
surgical stimulus (midline incision) in 50% of a population.
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Note that this definition:
Does not reflect lack of awareness

Reflects the action of an agent on spinal cord reflexes.
Consciousness is better estimated by MAC-awake
End-tidal concentration of agent that prevents appropriate responses to a verbal command in 50% of a population.
Note that this technically measures awareness rather than memory.
MAC-awake is typically one-third of MAC for commonly-used agents
Is only valid at sea-level
The clinical effect of an agent is dependent on its partial pressure not concentration.
At 1atm, these are almost the same
1atm ≃ 100kPa; therefore 2% sevoflurane is ≃ 2kPa
As altitude increases, the actual partial pressure will fall for any given concentration i.e. 2% sevoflurane at 0.5atm is ≃
1kPa of sevoflurane.
MAC is:
A measure of potency (i.e. the EC50 of the agent, where the outcome is movement)
The MAC of an agent is inversely proportional to potency; i.e. more potent agents require smaller alveolar concentrations to
produce anaesthesia.
This gives rise to the Meyer-Overton hypothesis, which suggests that anaesthesia requires a sufficient number of
molecules to dissolve into the neuronal cell membrane.
If this was true, the product of the oil:gas partition coefficient and MAC would be constant, which is not the case.
Additive
The MACs of different agents used simultaneously are additive.
Normally-distributed
Not all patients will be unresponsive at 1 MAC.
The standard deviation is 0.1, so 95% of patients will not move in response to a stimulus at 1.2 MAC
Estimated clinically using end-tidal gas measurement
MAC is not based on arterial partial pressure (Fa) of agent.
This is an important difference, because even at steady-state, Fa ≠ FA
This occurs due to:
V/Q mismatch
Shunted alveoli will not absorb anaesthetic agent, and unperfused alveoli will contain agent that is not being
absorbed.
This is worsened by the effects of anaesthesia
Volatile agents are heavy and have finite diffusability
However, the difference between Fa and FA for any agent is the same at steady state (and in absence of nitrous oxide)
This means that, at steady-state, MAC will be proportional to, and an accurate measure of, Pa.
One of several related terms:
MAC awake
Concentration required to prevent response to a verbal stimuli in absence of noxious stimuli.
Typically ~1/3rd of MAC for most agents (sevoflurane, isoflurane, desflurane)
Notably higher for nitrous oxide (MAC-awake ~2/3rds of MAC)
MAC-awake is typically less than MAC-asleep as:
Hysteresis between alveolar and effect site concentrations
During induction, alveolar concentration is higher than effect site concentration, and so overestimates effect.
During wash out, alveolar concentration is less than effect site concentration, and the reverse effect occurs.
"Neural inertia"
Intrinsic resistance of nerve cells to a change in their state.
MAC-BAR
Minimum alveolar concentration required to block adrenergic response, i.e. to prevent a rise in HR or BP following
359
skin incision.
MAC95
The MAC required to prevent a movement response to a standard surgical stimulus in 95% of the population.
MAC.hr-1
The amount of time a patient is exposed to 1 MAC of an agent. Used to compare different agents.
Factors Affecting MAC
Decreases MAC Increases MAC
Age (~6%/10 years ↑) and neonates Youth
Hypothermia Hyperthermia
Hypocapnoea Hypercapnoea
Hyponatraemia Hypernatraemia
Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
Acute alcohol and other CNS depressant intoxication Chronic ETOH and CNS depressant abuse
Chronic amphetamine intake Acute amphetamine intake
Hypovolaemia/Hypotension
Lithium
Hypoxia
Anaemia
Pregnancy
SNS activation and anxiety
Increased Patm
Note that addition of other agents (e.g. opioids) will affect different MAC subtypes (e.g. MAC50 vs MACBAR) differently.
Partition Coefficients
A partition coefficient describes the relative affinity of an agent for two phases, and is defined as the ratio of the concentration
of agent in each phase, when both phases are of equal volume and the partial pressures are in equilibrium at STP.
The blood:gas partition coefficient describes the solubility of the agent in blood relative to air, when the two phases are of
equal volume and in equilibrium at STP
A low blood:gas partition coefficient indicates a rapid onset and offset. This is because:
Poorly soluble agents generate a high Pa, which creates a steep gradient between Pa and PB, giving a rapid onset of
action
Conversely, soluble agents dissolve easily into pulmonary blood without substantially increasing Pa
This causes leads to a slow onset due to:
A large fall in PA as the agent leaves the alveolus, decreasing the gradient for further diffusion
A small gradient between Pa and PB
The oil:gas partition coefficient describes the solubility of the agent in fat relative to air, when both phases are of equal
volume and in equilibrium at STP
A high oil:gas partition coefficient indicates a greater potency, and therefore a low MAC.
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Pharmacokinetics of Inhalational Agents

Achieving the required PB requires maintaining PA at a high enough level. By increasing PA, the pressure gradient for diffusion
into blood, and therefore CNS, is increased.
As discussed above, rate of onset of an inhalational agent is dependent on rate of uptake:
Into the alveoli

From the alveoli into blood
From blood into the CNS
Factors affecting alveolar concentration of agent:
Inspired concentration
A high inspired concentration (Fi) will increase the rate of increase of alveolar concentration (FA). Inspired concentration is
dependent on:
Delivered concentration in fresh gas
Fresh gas flow
Increasing FGF (and the concentration of agent in the added gas) increases Fi.
Volume of the breathing system
A lower circuit volume will increase the rate at which the patient reaches equilibrium with the circuit, and therefore
increase Fi.
Circuit absorption
Absorption of agent by the circuit will decrease Fi.
VA
Increased alveolar ventilation increases Fi, as it replenishes agent that has been taken up into the vasculature.
Similarly, increased dead space will prolong induction, as anaesthetic gas will be delivered to non-perfused alveoli
FRC
A large FRC will dilute the amount of agent inspired with each breath, and so reduce Fi.
This is measured with the VA/FRC ratio
Increased ratio increases speed of onset.
Normal in adults: 1.5:1
Normal in neonates: 5:1
Second gas effect
Use of N2O with another agent will increase the PA of that agent. This is because:
N2O is 20x as soluble in blood as either blood or nitrogen, and is administered in high concentrations, so it is rapidly
absorbed from alveoli
If nitrous oxide is delivered at high concentrations, it's rapid absorption means that alveoli will shrink, causing:
An increase in the fractional concentration of all other gases
This is known as the concentration effect, and increases the pressure gradient driving diffusion into blood,
increasing speed of onset.
The concentration effect is the cause of the second gas effect
The concentration effect is more pronouced as FiN2O increases
The concentration effect is more profound in lung units with moderately low V/Q ratios, causing in a large
increase in Fa
This results in a larger value of Fa for any given FA, even at steady state.
Augmented ventilation as more inhalational agent is drawn in the alveoli from dead space gas
The second gas effect also causes diffusion hypoxia
When inspired N2O is reduced, N2O will leave blood and enter the alveolus, displacing other gases in the alveolus.
This can cause a reduction in PAO2, and therefore hypoxaemia
Diffusion hypoxia is avoided by delivering 100% oxygen, which maintains an adequate PAO2 as N2O is removed
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Note that N2O reaches a higher ratio faster than desflurane, despite its lower blood:gas partition coefficient, due to the
concentration effect
Factors affecting drug uptake from the lungs:
Blood:gas partition coefficient
Agents with a low blood:gas partition coefficient reach equilibrium more rapidly. The blood:gas coefficient is affected
by:
Temperature
Blood:gas partition coefficients decrease as temperature increases.
Haematocrit
Variable effect, which depends on the particular agents affinity for red cells or plasma (and serum constituents, e.g.
albumin).
An agent that is less soluble in red cells (e.g. isoflurane) will have a decreased blood-gas partition coefficient in
anaemia.
Fat
Blood:gas partition coefficient increases following fat ingestion.
Alveolar blood flow
Increased alveolar blood flow increases uptake and delivery to tissues, including the CNS.
However, the increased uptake causes a reduction in PA
Therefore, rate of onset is reduced when alveolar blood flow is high.
This effect is more pronounced with agents with a high blood:gas partition coefficient
Alveolar blood flow is a function of:
Cardiac output
Shunt
Alveolar-Venous partial pressure gradient
The difference in partial pressure of agent in the alveolus and venous blood is due to the uptake of drug in tissues. Tissue
uptake is dependent on:
Tissue blood flow
As the CNS has a high blood flow, it will equilibrate more quickly.
Blood:tissue solubility coefficients
Muscle has similar affinity to blood, but equilibrates more slowly than the CNS due to lower blood flow
Fat has a much higher affinity for anaesthetic than muscle, but equilibrates very slowly due to the very low blood
flow
This is of greater importance in the obese, especially during prolonged anaesthesia, as they have a longer
equilibration time and therefore prolonged emergence.
Wash-out of Inhalational Agents
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Recovery is dependent on how quickly an inhalational agent can be eliminated from the effect site, and can be graphed by the
FA/FA0 ratio over time:
Washout can be divided into:
Rapid washout
Of agent in circuit and FRC.
The time constant for removal of agent from the circuit is a function of circuit volume and fresh gas flow, i.e.
Slow washout
Of agent in patient.
The time constant for removal of agent from the patient is a function of FRC and minute ventilation, i.e.
Factors affecting volatile washout:
Brain-Blood and Tissue-Blood

Tissue:Blood coefficient of agent
Duration and depth of anaesthesia
Important for highly soluble agents used in long cases.
Blood-Alveolus
Blood:gas coefficient of agent
Highly soluble agents will have an increased amount of drug dissolved in tissue, so a large resevoir of drug exists that
will have to be removed.
Alveolar Cardiac output
Decreased cardiac output increases elimination.
Shunt
Decreases elimination.
Alveolus-Air
MVA/FRC
Increased alveolar ventilation increases elimination.
Other factors
Metabolism of agent
Agents undergoing metabolism are eliminated more rapidly.
Absorption of agent into circuit
Percutaneous loss
Loss of agent by diffusion from tissues into external environment.
Alteration to Pharmacokinetics
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Increased rate of induction in children due to:
Increased VA/FRC ratio

Increases PA.
Lower albumin and cholesterol
Reduced blood-gas solubility coefficients for some agents.
Increased rate of induction in elderly due to:
Lower MAC requirement

Lower albumin
Reduces blood-gas solubility coefficients for some agents.
Lower cardiac output
Pa and therefore PB is established more rapidly.
Altered rate of induction in pregnancy due to:
Increased VA/FRC ratio

Increased minute ventilation
This is of greater importance in spontaneous ventilation, as this is controlled by the anaesthetist during controlled
ventilation.
Decreased FRC
Increases PA, increasing PB and speed of onset.
Lower albumin
Reduces blood-gas solubility coefficients for some agents.
Increased CO
Reduces rate of rise of PA, reducing PB and therefore speed of onset.
Reduced MAC requirement
Progesterone has some sedative properties.
Alteration to Pharmacokinetics with Special Methods of Administration

In target-controlled anaesthesia, FGF and agent FI are controlled by the machine to reach the target FA rapidly at low
concentrations. This causes:
An initial over-pressure of FI, in order to fill the FRC and reach the desired FA
A more rapid induction, as the target Fa is reached more rapidly
In liquid injection, anaesthetic agent is injected into the breathing system. This causes:
A very large degree of overpressure

In this circumstance, the rate of rise of end-expired agent concentration is identical for different agents.
i.e. Onset is independent of the blood:gas coefficient
Mechanism of Action of Inhaled Anaesthetic Agents

Mechanisms of action can be divided into:
Macroscopic
At the level of the brain and spinal cord.
In the spine by:
Decreasing transmission of noxious afferent signals at the thalamus
Inhibition of spinal efferents, decreasing motor responses
In the brain by:
Global depression of CBF and glucose metabolism
364
Microscopic
Synapses and axons by:
Inhibiting pre-synaptic excitatory activity:
ACh
5-HT
Glutamine
Augmenting post-synaptic inhibitory activity:
GABAA
Molecular
Anaesthetic agents may alter the function of molecules within the CNS. These include:
Alteration of α-subunits of the GABAA receptor
This prolongs the time it spends open once activated, prolonging the inhibitory Cl- current and increasing the degree of
hyperpolarisation.
+
Enhance the activity of two-pore K channels
Increases the resting membrane potential of both pre-synaptic and post-synaptic CNS neurons.
Incomplete Theories of the Mechanism of Action of General Anaesthetic Agents

Meyer-Overton Hypothesis:
Potency of anaesthetics relates to their lipid solubility

Anaesthetic molecules dissolve into CNS membranes, disrupting their effect
Flaws:
Not all lipid soluble drugs have general anaesthetic affects
Other factors disrupt cell membranes without causing anaesthesia
Volume Expansion, Pressure Reversal (Mullin's Critical Volume Hypothesis):
CNS cell membranes expand with general anaesthetic agents

This distorts channels responsible for maintaining membrane potential and generating action potentials.
Increased ambient pressure reverses general anaesthesia
Flaws:
Does not account for stero-selectivity of drug-receptor interactions
I.e. receptors select for one steroisomer over others.
Structure-Activity Relationships of Inhaled Anaesthetics

Chemical structures of different volatile anaesthetics are covered in the pharmacopeia.
Different chemical and physical properties alter the effect of inhalational agents:
Physical
Molecular weight
A decrease in molecular weight decreases boiling point and therefore increases SVP.
Chemical
H+ content
Greater hydrogen content:
Increases flammability
Increases potency
-
F content
Greater fluoride content:
Decreases flammability
Decreases oxidative metabolism
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This decreases toxicity.

Decreases potency
-
Cl content
Increased chloride increases potency.
-CHF2 (Di-fluor-methyl group)
Produces CO in the presence of dry soda lime
The Ideal Inhaled Anaesthetic Agent

From the properties discussed above, we can construct the following ideal agent:
Physicochemical
Liquid at room temperature
High SVP
Low specific heat capacity
Long shelf-life
Light stable
Heat stable
Does not react with the components in the breathing circuit
Rubber
Metal
Plastic
Soda lime
Not flammable/explosive
Smells nice
Preservative free
Environmentally friendly
Cheap
Pharmacokinetic
High oil:gas partition coefficient
Low MAC.
Low blood:gas partition coefficient
Rapid onset and offset.
Not metabolised
Non-toxic
Pharmacodynamic
Does not cause laryngospasm or airway hyperreactivity
No effect on HDx parameters
Analgesic
Hypnotic
Amnestic
Anti-epileptic
No increase in ICP
Skeletal muscle relaxation
Anti-emetic
No tocolytic effects
Not teratogenic or otherwise toxic
No drug interactions
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References
1. Khan KS, Hayes I, Buggy DJ. Pharmacology of anaesthetic agents II: inhalation anaesthetic agents. Continuing Education in
Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain, Volume 14, Issue 3, 1 June 2014, Pages 106–111.
6. Zhou JX, Liu J. The effect of temperature on solubility of volatile anesthetics in human tissues. Anesth Analg. 2001
Jul;93(1):234-8.
7. Hendrickx J, Peyton P, Carette R, De Wolf A. Inhaled anaesthetics and nitrous oxide: Complexities overlooked: things may
not be what they seem. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2016 Sep;33(9):611-9.
8. Aranake A, Mashour GA, Avidan MS. Minimum alveolar concentration: ongoing relevance and clinical utility. Anaesthesia.
2013 May;68(5):512-22. doi: 10.1111/anae.12168.
9. Lerman J, Gregory GA, Willis MM, Eger EI 2nd. Age and solubility of volatile anesthetics in blood. Anesthesiology. 1984
Aug;61(2):139-43.
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Endocrine
Hormones
A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by a ductless gland which has its action at a distant target cell via a specific
receptor.
Lipid hormones, divided into:

Steroids
Steroids are synthesised from cholesterol, and are released as they are produced (they are not stored). They are highly
lipid soluble and act on cytoplasmic and intra-nucleic receptors.
Aldosterone
Testosterone
Oestrogen
Cortisol
Eicosanoids
Eicosanoids are formed from cell membrane phospholipid.
Prostaglandins
Thromboxanes
Leukotrienes
Peptide hormones
Peptide hormones are store in granules and released by exocytosis. They are divided into:
Short-chain
Insulin
ADH
Oxytocin
ACTH
Long-chain
GH
Prolactin
Glycopeptides
Proteins with carbohydrate groups.
LH
FSH
TSH
Monoamine derivatives
Derived from a single amino acid.
Catecholamines
Stored in granules and act at membrane receptors.
Adrenaline
Noradrenaline
Serotonin
Thyroxine
References
368
Endocrine
369
Insulin, Glucagon, and Somatostatin

Describe the physiology of insulin, glucagon and somatostatin.
Insulin
Insulin is a polypeptide hormone, and is:
Synthesised from proinsulin in the rough endoplasmic reticulum of B cells in the Islets of Langerhans
Excreted via exocytosis in response to an increase in intracellular Ca2+
Minimally protein bound with a tiny volume of distribution
VD 0.075 L.kg-1, increased to 0.146 L.kg-1 in diabetics.
Metabolised in liver, muscle, and kidney by glutathione insulin transhydrogenase, with renal elimination of inactive
metabolites
Circulatory half-life of ~5min.
Actions of Insulin
Insulin binds to a specific insulin receptor (a membrane-spanning protein composed of α and β subunits) on the cell membrane.
The complex is internalised, and its effects are mediated by tyrosine kinase.
Seconds Minutes Hours
Increased glucose, amino acid,

Muscle Increased anabolism, decreased catabolism
ketone, and K+ uptake
Increased glucose (via GLUT4), Increased fatty

Fat Increased glycerol phosphate synthesis
amino acid, and K+ uptake acid synthesis
Decreased: gluconeogenesis, ketogenesis.

Liver
Increased: glycogen synthesis, glycolysis,
protein synthesis, lipid synthesis
Increased cell
General
growth
Glucose Tolerance
Hyperglycaemia occurs in diabetes due to decreased peripheral utilisation as glucose uptake is reduced due to absence of or
resistance to insulin. In addition, the suppressive effect of insulin on hepatic gluconeogenesis is absent or reduced.
Glucagon
Glucagon is a polypeptide hormone, and is:
Synthesised in the A cells of the pancreas

Has a circulating half-life of ~5min
Metabolised predominantly in the liver
Secreted directly into the portal vein, and undergoes first-pass metabolism resulting in low circulating levels.
System Effect
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Liver Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, glucose release, ketone formation
CVS Inotropy
Fat Lipolysis
Metabolic Increased metabolic rate, GH release, somatosatin release, insulin release
Secretion of glucagon is influenced by a number of factors:
Stimulate Release Inhibit Release
Hypoglycaemia and starvation Somatostatin
Amino acids Secretin
Physiological stress: Exercise, infection Free Fatty Acids
β-agonists α-agonists
Cortisol Insulin
ACh Ketones
Theophylline GABA
Somatostatin
Somatostatin is a polypeptide hormone that:
Inhibits secretion of other hormones including:

Glucagon
Insulin
Other pancreatic peptides
May function as a neurotransmitter in the CNS
References
371
Control of Blood Glucose

Explain the control of blood glucose
Normal blood glucose in the non-diabetic is 4-6 mmol.L-1, though will rise after consumption of carbohydrate. Glucose
regulation can be divided into:
Short-term
Regulation via secretion or inhibition of insulin and glucagon from the pancreatic islets.
Long-term
Regulation via both neuronal (SNS activation) and hormonal (cortisol, GH) mechanisms.
Hormal Mechanisms
Short Term
Glucose levels are sensed directly in the pancreas and will result in insulin release when the BGL is >5.6 mmol.L-1. Pancreatic B
cells respond directly to glucose by secreting insulin in a biphasic fashion:
An initial, rapid increase in release

Glucose enters via the GLUT-2 transporter, and is converted to pyruvate which enters the citric acid cycle and
produces ATP
ATP inhibits ATP-sensitive K+ channels, reducing K+ efflux and causing depolarisation
Depolarisation causes Ca2+ release, resulting in exocytosis of insulin granules
A prolonged, slow increase in release
Glutamate is produced as a by-product of the citric acid cycle
Glutamate stimulates maturation of other insulin granules
Release of these granules causes the second phase of insulin release
Conversely, a low glucose level stimulates secretion of glucagon. This is typically less important than the effect of insulin unless
in situations of starvation or severe physiological stress.
Long Term
Sustained hypoglycaemia increases fat utilisation and decreases glucose utilisation (limiting further drops in blood glucose), via
stimulating release of:
GH
Cortisol
Neuronal Mechanisms
Hypoglycaemia directly stimulates the hypothalamus, causing:
Increased SNS tone

Adrenaline release in turn stimulates hepatic glucose release.
Organ Effects
Glucose levels are influenced by the:
372
Liver
Insulin and glucagon act on the liver to continually adjust the relative rates of glycogenolysis and glycogenesis, allowing it to
function as an effective buffer of blood glucose.
Hepatic disease significantly limits the efficacy of this system, and results in a widely-fluctuating blood glucose level
Kidney
A transient glycosuria may be seen as hyperglycaemia decreases renal absorption of glucose
Physiological Responses to Hypoglycaemia

BSL (mmol.L-1) Symptoms Endocrine Response
4.6 Insulin secretion inhibited
3.8 Autonomic dysfunction Glucagon, adrenaline, and GH secretion
2.8 CNS dysfunction
2.2 Lethargy, Coma
1.7 Convulsions
0.6 Permanent brain damage, Death
References
Elsevier. 2011.
373
Hypothalmus and Pituitary
Hypothalamus and Pituitary

Describe the control, secretions and functions of the pituitary and the hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a circumventricular organ that regulates a large number of autonomic processes:
Thermoregulatory
Integrates thermoreceptor input and controls activity of heat loss and heat gain mechanisms.
Satiety
Feelings of hunger are modulated by glucose, CCK, glucagon, and leptin.
Water balance
Contains osmoreceptors which control ADH release from the posterior pituitary
Angiotensin II stimulates thirst and ADH release via the subfornical organ and organum vasculosum
Circadian rhythms
Balance between anterior and posterior hypothalamic stimulation controls sleep-wake cycle.
Pituitary control
Anterior pituitary by hormone secretion into the long portal vein. Secreted hormones include:
GnRH, stimulates FSH and LH release
CRH, stimulates ACTH release
GHRH, stimulates GH release
TRH, stimulates TSH release
Somatostatin, inhibits GH and TSH release
Dopamine, inhibits prolactin release
Posterior pituitary by neuronal innervation
Behaviour
Punishment and reward centres.
Sexual function
Pituitary
The hypothalamic-pituitary axis describes the complex feedback loops between these endocrine organs:
Short-loop feedback describes negative feedback from the pituitary on the hypothalamus, e.g. GH inhibiting GHRH release
Long-loop feedback describes negative feedback from a pituitary target gland (i.e. thyroid, adrenal, gonads) on the
hypothalamus, e.g. cortisol inhibiting CRH (as well as ACTH) release.
These axes are also named with target gland, e.g. hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
Pituitary Hormones
The pituitary gland secretes eight hormones from two lobes:
Anterior Pituitary
Secretes six hormones in response to hypothalamic endocrine stimulus. These are classified as:
Stimulating hormones, which act at another gland:
ACTH
Short-chain peptide that stimulates cortisol release from the zona fasciculata. Release is stimulated by CRH, and
inhibi ted by cortisol.
374
TSH
Glycoprotein that stimulates synthesis and release of T3 and T4. Release is stimulated by TRH, and inhibited by
T3.
FSH
Glycoprotein gonadotropin. Release is stimulated by GnRH, and inhibted by circulating sex steroids. Has different
effects depending on sex:
Females: Stimulates oestrogen synthesis and ovarian follicle development.
Males: Stimulates sperm maturation.
LH
Glycoprotein gonadotropin with different effects depending on sex:
Females: Rapid increase stimulates ovulation and corpus luteum development.
Males: Stimulates testosterone synthesis.
Direct acting hormones:
GH
Long-chain peptide released in a pulsatile fashion. Release is stimulated by GHRH and is typically high with
exercise, hypoglycaemia, and stress. Release is inhibited by somatostatin and IGF-1. GH has generally anabolic
effects:
Directly stimulates lipolysis, increasing circulating FFA
Indirectly stimulates IGF-1 release, promoting cell growth and development
Prolactin
Long-chain peptide which promotes breast development during gestation, and lactation after delivery.
Posterior pituitary
Secretes two hormones:
ADH
Short-chain peptide which is:
Released in response to osmoreceptors in the circumventricular organs detecting a change in osmolality
ADH release is:
Reduced when osmolality is <275 mosm.l-1</sup>
Increased when osmolality is >290 mOsm.L-1
Effective at:
V1 receptors in vascular smooth muscle, causing vasoconstriction
V2 receptors in kidney collecting ducts to increase water reabsorption, and on endothelium to increase vWF
and factor VIII release
V3 receptors in the pituitary to stimulate ACTH release
Oxytocin
Short-chain peptide, structually similar to ADH, which causes:
Uterine contraction
Let-down reflex
Stimulates milk release on suckling.
Psychological
Pair bonding.
References
2. Nickson, C. Vasopressin. LITFL.
375
376
Thyroid
Thyroid
Describe the control, secretions and functions of the thyroid.
The thyroid gland:
Produces and secretes two hormones in response to TSH:

T4 (thyroxine, 93%)
T3 (tri-iodothyronine, 7%)
Secretions are controlled via a negative-feedback loop on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis
Increased TSH results in:
Increased iodine uptake
Increased iodination to form T4 and T3
Increased proteolysis of thyroglobulin, which releases T4 and T3
Secretions are decreased with decreased iodine uptake
Percholate
Blocks Na+/I- symporter.
Wolff-Chaikoff effect
A reduction in thyroid hormone production due to a high circulating [iodide].
Synthesis
Thyroid hormones are:
Synthesised in follicles
A follicle is formed of a single layer of cuboidal epithelium around a central lumen (follicular cavity) containing
thyroglobulin.
Iodide is transported into follicular cells via a secondary active transport mechanism
Na+/I- co-transporter.
Iodide is then oxidised to iodine
Thyroglobulin is synthesised in the endoplasmic reticulum of the follicular cell and excreted into the follicular cavity
Iodine is excreted into the follicular cavity using a chloride exchange pump
In the follicular cavity:
Thyroid peroxidase catalyses the iodination of thyroglobulin, forming mono-iodotyrosine and di-iodotyrosine
These are subsequently oxidised, forming T4 and T3 respectively
In summary:
Iodide is taken into the thyroid follicles by secondary active transport, and oxidised to iodine
Thyroglobulin is synthesised in the follicle, and excreted into the follicular cavity
Iodine is secreted into the follicular cavity, where it combines with thyroglobulin to produce T4 and T3
Secretion and Metabolism

Thyroid hormones are:
Secreted in vesicles via endocytosis into the surrounding capillaries

Colloid enters thyroid cell via pinocytosis at the apical membrane
Vesicles then fuse with lysosomes
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Thyroid
Thyroid hormone cleaved from thyroglobulin by proteases

Free T3 and T4 diffuse through the base of the thyroid cell into surrounding capillaries
Highly protein bound to albumin and thyroxine-binding globulin
T4 has a t1/2 of 7 days
T3 has a t1/2 of 24 hours
Both are deiodinated in the liver, kidney, and muscle
55% of T4 will be first deiodinated to T3
Physiological Effects
Thyroid hormones:
Act on thyroid receptors in the cell nucleus

Increasing gene transcription, protein synthesis, and mitochondria size and number.
T3 is 3-5x more active than T4
Effects of thyroid hormone are predominantly metabolic:
System Effect
Resp ↑ MV due to ↑ CO2 production
CVS ↑ HR, ↑ inotropy, ↑ CO, ↓ SVR, ↓ DBP
CNS ↑ Excitability: Seizures, tremor
MSK ↑ Osteoblastic activity
GU Impotence (men), oligomenorrhoea (women)
GIT ↑ GIT motility
↑ BMR up to 100%, ↑ carbohydrate metabolism (↑ glucose uptake, ↑ glycolysis, ↑ gluconeogenesis), ↑ fat

Metabolic metabolism (↑ lipolysis, ↑ non-shivering thermogenesis, ↓ plasma cholesterol, ↓ plasma phospholipids, ↓
triglycerides), ↑ protein metabolism (↑ anabolism at physiological levels, ↑ catabolism at high levels)
References
378
Adrenal Hormones
Adrenal Hormones
Describe the control, secretions and functions of renal and adrenal hormones
This covers the production of adrenal hormones. Information specific to catecholamines receptor function can be found under
adrenoreceptors, whilst detailed information on specific agents, including structure-activity relationships, is in the pharmacopeia.
The adrenal glands are paired triangular glands at the superior pole of the kidney. The gland can be divided into:
Adrenal cortex
Consists of three layers which produce steroid hormones (A good mnemonic is GFR for the layers, and ACT(H) for
hormones)
Zona Glomerulosa
Predominantly produces mineralocorticoids (aldosterone).
Zona Fasciculata
Predominantly produces glucocorticoids (cortisol).
Zona Reticularis
Predominantly produces sex steroids (testosterone).
Adrenal medulla
Produces catecholamines.
Steroid Hormones
Mineralocorticoids
Aldosterone is the key mineralocorticoid hormone, accounting for 95% of mineralocorticoid activity:
Release is stimulated by:

Increased serum K+
Increased Angiotensin II
Hypovolaemia
Decreased osmolarity
Increased ACTH
Decreased serum pH
Acts to increase sodium and water retention (and removal of potassium), via:
Increased expression and activation of Na+/K+ pumps on the basolateral membrane of DCT and CT cells, causing
increased Na+ (and water) reabsorption and K+ elimination
Stimulation of the Na+/H+ pump in intercalated cells on the DCT
Glucocorticoids
Cortisol (hydrocortisone) is the primary glucocorticoid in the body, accounting for 95% of endogenous glucocorticoid effect.
Cortisol is:
Produced at ~15-30mg.day-1
Released in response to ACTH
ACTH is released in response to CRH, which is:
Released in response to stress
Modulated by circadian rhythms, and demonstrates diurnal variation:
CRH peaks just before waking
CRH troughs during sleep
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Adrenal Hormones
Cortisol has effects on many organ systems, and in physiological amounts cause:
CVS
Increased sensitivity to catecholamines
Increases fluid retention
Metabolic
(Essentially anti-insulin effects):
Gluconeogenesis
To provide substrates, it also stimulates:
Proteolysis
Lipolysis
Decreased glucose uptake
Catecholamines
Naturally occurring catecholamines include:
Adrenaline
Noradrenaline
Dopamine
Synthesis of catecholamines occurs in the adrenal medulla, which is a modified sympathetic ganglion composed of chromaffin
cells.
Synthesis and release is dependent on ACh release by the presynaptic neuron

Unlike many other hormones, catecholamine secretion is not a negative-feedback loop.
Process of catecholamine synthesis:
Tyrosine is concentrated in the adrenal medulla

Tyrosine is hydroxylated to DOPA by tyrosine hydroxylase
This is the rate-limiting step, and is probably the best enzyme to remember.
DOPA is decarboxylated to dopamine
Dopamine is converted to noradrenaline
Noradrenaline is converted to adrenaline by PNMT (Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase)
This may only occur in the adrenal medulla.
Plasma half-lives of noradrenaline and adrenaline are small as a consequence of their metabolism and elimination.
Extraneuronal uptake in the lungs, liver, kidney, and GIT

Neuronal uptakeby sympathetic nerve endings
Inactivation by MAO in nerve cytoplasm
Inactivation by COMT in the liver and kidney
References
380
Adrenal Hormones
381
Calcium Homeostasis
Calcium Homeostasis
calcium and phosphate ions
Describe the control of plasma calcium.
Calcium is a bivalent cation. Almost all (99%) of calcium is located in bone, with the remainder in plasma and soft tissues.
Normal plasma levels are 2.2-2.55 mmol.L-1, which (in plasma) may be:
Ionised (free) calcium (50%)

Normal range 1.1 to 1.3mmol-1.
Bound to albumin (40%)
As calcium compounds (10%)
Functions of Calcium
Cell Signaling
Calcium has a number of roles in cell signaling:
Affects cell sodium permeability and therefore the RMP of excitable cells
Calcium triggers exocytosis of neurotransmitter vesicles
Calcium is an important second messenger for some G proteins
Bone
Calcium has two functions in bone:
Physical structure
Alkali reserve
Calcium phosphate can be mobilised to buffer acidosis.
Enzymatic cofactor
Calcium is an important cofactor in enzymatic pathways, including the coagulation cascade. Clinical hypocalcaemia does not
cause coagulopathy however, as calcium levels low enough to prevent coagulation are not compatible with life.
Regulation of Calcium
Calcium is regulated to maintain a stable ionised calcium level. Three hormones are involved in the regulation of calcium:
Parathyroid Hormone
Protein hormone secreted by the four parathyroid glands, located on the posterior surface of the thyroid, in response to a fall
in iCa2+ levels, and acts to increase plasma calcium:
Increase calcium reabsorption in the PCT and late DCT
Increase osteoclastic activity in bone
Increase vitamin D activation in the intestine, which in turn increases intestinal absorption of dietary calcium
Vitamin D/Calcitriol
Once converted to calcitriol in the kidney (via stimulation from PTH), vitamin D acts to:
Increase calcium reabsorption from kidney and gut
Increase bone calcification
Calcitonin
Peptide hormone secreted by the C cells of the thyroid gland, in response to a rise in iCa2+ greater than 2.4mmol.L-1.
382
Calcium Homeostasis
Calcitonin acts to:

Decrease absorption of calcium from gut and kidney
Decrease osteoclastic activity of bone
References
383
Histamine
Histamine
Describe the physiology of histamine and serotonin
Histamine is an endogenous amine produced by decarboxylation of histidine. Histamine is:
Present in all tissues

Particularly abundant in those exposed to the outside environment:
Lungs
Gut
Skin (lungs, gut, skin)
Produced in and released by:
Mast cells
Released by exocytosis during inflammatory and allergic reactions.
Basophils
Histaminocytes in the stomach
Histaminergic neurons in the CNS
Metabolised by:
Histaminase
Imidazole N-methyltransferase
Histamine Receptors and Effects

Histamine acts on:
H1 receptors
Gq receptor involved broadly in inflammation and vasodilation.
H2 receptors Gs receptor involved in gastric acid secretion.
H3 receptors
Gi presynaptic receptor in the CNS.
H4 receptors
Gi receptor located in bone marrow and other solid haematological organs (spleen, liver, thymus).
System H1 H2 H3 H4
Resp Bronchoconstriction Bronchodilation
↑ Vasodilation (endothelial effect), ↑ HR, ↑ inotropy, coronary

CVS coronary vasoconstriction, ↓ AV nodal vasodilation, ↑ capillary
conduction permeability
Presynaptic
CNS inhibition of
neurotransmission
Weal due to local vasodilation, itch, ↑

MSK
nociception
GIT ↑ Peristalsis ↑ Gastric acid secretion
Alter
Haeme IL-16
release
384
Histamine
References
1. Parsons ME, Ganellin CR. Histamine and its receptors. British Journal of Pharmacology. 2006;147(Suppl 1):S127-S135.
doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0706440.
3. Bowen R. Histamine. Vivo. Colorado State.
385
Prostanoids
Prostanoids
Prostanoids are a diverse family of eicosanoids (20-carbon molecules), produced from arachadonic acid, and include:
Thromboxane
Prostacyclin
Prostaglandins
Synthesis
Arachidonic acid is converted into:
Leukotrienes by LOX
Cyclic endoperoxidases by COX enzymes
These undergo further metabolism to produce:
Thromboxanes
Thromboxane A2
Prostacyclins
PGI2
Prostaglandins
PGE2
EP1
EP2
EP3
PGF2α
PGD2
Effects
Receptor Receptor Respiratory Vascular GIT GU Other
Thromboxane Platelet
Gq Vasoconstriction
A2 aggregation
Vasodilation
PGI2 Gs Bronchodilation (renal and
pulmonary)
Increased Renal
PGE2 EP1 Gq Bronchoconstriction
contraction vasodilation
Closure of
Decreased Renal
PGE2 EP2 Gs Bronchodilation ductus
contraction vasodilation
arteriosus
386
Prostanoids
Gastric
mucous
Uterine
PGE2 EP3 Gi production,
contraction
GIT
contraction
Uterine
PGF2α Gq Bronchoconstriction Vasoconstriction
contraction
Renal Promotes
PGD2 Gs
vasodilation sleep
References
1. Ricciotti E, FitzGerald GA. Prostaglandins and Inflammation. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.
2011;31(5):986-1000. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.110.207449.
387
Musculoskeletal System
Skeletal Muscle
Describe the anatomy and physiology of skeletal , smooth, and cardiac muscle
Describe the mechanism of excitation-contraction coupling
Skeletal muscle has a number of functions:
Facilitate movement
Posture
Via tonic contraction of antagonistic muscle groups.
Soft tissue support
Abdominal wall and pelvic floor support viscera.
Voluntary sphincter control
Heat production
Structure and Contents

Skeletal muscle consists of long tubular cells, known as muscle fibres, which run the length of the muscle. Skeletal muscle cells:
Are under voluntary control from the somatic nervous system via α-motor fibres
α-motor fibres may control multiple myofibres, forming a motor unit.
Are 10-100μm in diameter
Contain several hundred peripheral nuclei
Contain multiple mitochondria
Slow oxidative fibres (red fibres)
Contain multiple mitochondria, produce sustained contraction, and are resistant to fatigue.
Fast glycolytic fibres (white fibres)
Contain low numbers of mitochondria and large amounts of glycogen, and produce strong contractions but are more
easily fatigued.
Contain sarcoplasmic reticulum
Contain large amounts of glycogen
~200g total.
Contain myoglobin
Appear striated microscopically due to the arrangement of myofibrils
Myofibrils are multiple myofilaments arranged in parallel
Myofilaments are formed from multiple sarcomeres arranged in series
A sarcomere is the functional unit of muscle
Muscle fibres are surrounded by layers of connective tissue:
Endomysium
Thin layer which surrounds each muscle fibre.
Perimysium
Surrounds bundles of muscle fibres.
Epimysium
Thick layer which surrounds an entire muscle.
These layers of connective tissue join at the end of a muscle to form a tendon or aponeurosis.
Sarcomere
388
The sarcomere is the functional contractile unit of muscle. Average sarcomere length is 2.5μm.
The sarcomere contains two main proteins:
Myosin (thick) filaments

Myosin is a large protein with two heads, which bind actin and ATP. The myosin head flexes on its neck during contraction.
Actin (thin) filaments
Actin is a smaller protein than myosin, and potentiates the ATPase of myosin. Actin filaments have a groove which contains
another protein called tropomyosin, to which troponin attaches to.
Troponin has three subunits:
Troponin T - binds troponin to tropomyosin
Troponin I - prevents myosin binding to actin by physically obstructing the binding site
Troponin C - Binds Ca2+ which initiates contraction
These proteins are arranged to form three bands and two lines:
A-band
The myosin filaments.
H-band
The section of myosin filaments not overlapping with actin filaments.
I-band
The section of actin filaments not overlapping with myosin filaments.
Z-line
Each end of the sarcomere. Actin from adjacent sarcomeres are connected at the Z line.
M-line
Band of connections between myosin filaments.
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Muscle contraction normally requires the coordination of electrical (signaling) events with mechanical events.
In response to ACh stimulating nicotinic receptors, the Na+ and K+ conductance of the end-plate increases and an end-plate
potential is generated
Muscle fibres undergo successive depolarisation and an action potential is generated along T tubules
These deliver the AP deep into the cell, and close to the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Ca2+ is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum
This process involves:
Dihydropyridine Receptor
Specialised voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channel, activated by T-tubular depolarisation. Responsible for a small amount
of Ca2+ transport.
Ryanodine Receptor
2+
389
A second Ca2+ channel which is attached to, and activated by, the dihydropyridine receptor, causing a much larger
release of Ca2+.
Ca2+ is released from the SR (increasing intracellular Ca2+ 2000x) and binds to troponin C, weakening the troponin I -
actin link and uncovering myosin-binding sites on actin
Cross-linkages form between actin and myosin, which releases ADP
The release of ADP triggers a power stroke, which is a process of attachment, pulling, and detachment
Each cycle shortens the sarcomere by ~10nm:
The myosin head rotates on its 'neck', moving to a new actin binding site
ATP binds to the (now free) binding site on the mysoin
ATP is hydrolysed to ADP, in the process "re-cocking" the myosin head
This process causes the thick and think filaments to slide on each other, with the myosin heads pulling the actin
filaments to the centre of the sarcomere. Therefore, over the course of a power stroke:
The A-band is unchanged
The H-band shortens
The I-band shortens
Power strokes continue as long as there is ATP and Ca2+ available
In relaxation:
Ca2+ is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum

This is an ATP-dependent process, and is why muscle relaxation is active.
Troponin releases Ca2+
Binding sites are occluded by troponin, and no further contraction occurs
References
3. Slomianka, L. Muscle. University of Western Australia - School of Anatomy and Human Biology.
390
Skeletal Muscle Innervation

Explain the concept of motor units
Describe the relationship between muscle length and tension
Describe the monosynaptic stretch reflex, single twitch, tetanus and the Treppe effect
Motor Units
A motor unit consists of an α-motor neuron and the group of muscle cells that it innervates
An action potential in this neuron will cause contraction of all the myocytes in the unit
Large muscles have many myocytes per unit
Small, precise muscles (e.g. extraocular) have few myocytes per unit
Force of Contraction
Muscle tension is dependent on three factors:
Initial myocyte fibre length

Optimal stretch maximises the number of overlapping actin and myosin filaments.
Number of contracting myocytes
Recruitment of additional motor units increases the force of contraction.
Frequency of Action Potentials
High frequency action potentials cause accumulation of calcium in the cytoplasm (the Bowditch or Treppe effect), increasing
force of contraction.
As the absolute refractory period of skeletal muscle is shorter than cardiac muscle, tetany, or sustained muscle
contraction, can occur
Proprioception
Proprioception is the ability of the body to determine it's position in space. There are two key proprioceptive sensors:
Muscle spindles
Golgi tendon organs
Muscle Spindles
Muscle spindles sense changes in muscle length. They:
Are a specialised muscle fibre, known as intrafusal fibres

Run parallel to myocytes (also known as extrafusal fibres)
Consist of two elements:
Central, non-contractile portion which senses tension
Contractile ends
This allows the muscle spindle to adjust its length with its muscle, so that a constant tension in the non-contractile
portion can be maintained over a range of muscle lengths.
Muscle spindles have both afferent and efferent innervation:
391
Afferent type Ia fibres adjust their electrical output to signal both current fibre length and rate of change
Afferent type II fibres only signal fibre length
Efferent γ neurons innervate the contractile elements
Voluntary muscle contraction results in contraction of both motor units (α1 neurons) and intrafusal fibres (γ-motor neurons).
Tonic innervation of γ-motor neurons increases muscle tone by stretching the non-contractile portions, increasing Ia firing and
subsequent α-motor unit firing.
Golgi Tendon Organs

Golgi tendon organs are stretch receptors located between muscle and tendon. They:
Run in series to myocytes

Sense stretch
Cause reflexive muscle relaxation, intended to prevent muscle damage
Reflexes
A reflex is an involuntary, predictable movement in response to a stimulus. There are two types:
Monosynaptic: Motor neuron synapses directly with the sensory neuron

Monosynaptic reflexes are rapid, but only generate simple responoses. There are five components to a monosynaptic reflex:
Sensory receptor
Typically muscle spindles.
Afferent neuron
Type Ia afferents relay signal from muscle spindle to ventral horn via the dorsal root.
Synapse between afferent and efferent neuron
In the ventral horn
Efferent neuron
α-motor neuron travels from the ventral horn and innervates the motor unit.
Effector muscle Innervated motor unit contracts in response.
Polysynaptic: Motor neuron is separated from the sensory neuron by one or more interneurons in the dorsal horn
This allows modulation of signal. Responses are slower but more complex, e.g. withdrawal of a limb from a hot object.
Twitch and Tetany

A twitch is the response of a muscle to a single stimulus (action potential)
A tetanic contraction describes the sustained contraction produced by repetitive stimulation before relaxation can occur
This stimulation must be causing above a critical frequency, which is dependent on the action potential duration for a
cell
Repetitive stimulation causes repeated SR depolarisation, leading to sustained high intracellular Ca2+ levels as Ca2+
entry exceeds Ca2+ exit
Force from tetanic contraction is up to 4x greater than that of a twitch
References
2. ANZCA March/April 2000
392
393
Neuromuscular Blockers
Understanding of the pharmacology of neuromuscular blocking drugs
The neuromuscular junction is a chemical communication between the motor neuron and the muscle cell. Vesicles containing ACh
are released when activated by Ca2+, and influx of which occurs when the action potential reaches the nerve terminal.
Nictotinic ACh receptors sit on the shoulders of junctional folds of muscle cells, whilst acetylcholinesterase is buried in the clefts.
Factors Affecting Neuromuscular Blockade

Patient Factors
Factor Effect Mechanism
Prolonged duration of aminosteroids Decreased metabolism, decreased production of

Hepatic Disease
and suxamethonium pseudocholinesterase in severe disease
Pseudocholinesterase
Prolonged duration of suxamethonium Decreased metabolism
deficiency
Increased sensitivity in neonates,

Age Incomplete maturation of NMJ
particularly premature infants
Potentiates non-depolarising blockade, Increases magnitude of stimulus required to

Hypokalaemia
reduces depolarising blockade depolarise cell
Potentiate depolarising blockade, Decreases magnitude of stimulus required to

Hyperkalaemia
reduce non-depolarising blockade depolarise cell
Decreases ACh release, decreases sensitivity of

Hypermagnesaemia Potentiates blockade
post-synaptic membrane
Decreases presynaptic ACH release, decreases

Hypocalcaemia Potentiates blockade
sensitivity of post-synaptic membrane
Respiratory acidosis Potentiates blockade Enhances effect of NMB agents
Reduces hepatic metabolism, renal elimination,

Hypothermia Potentiates blockade
Hoffman degradation
Slows rate of onset and enhances

Hypovolaemia Prolonged circulation time
duration
Increased sensitivity to non- Autoimmune blockade of receptors gives pre-

Myasthenia Gravis
depolarising agents existing level of block
2+
Eaton-Lambert Autoimmune destruction of voltage-gated Ca
Increased sensitivity to all NMBs
Syndrome channels prevent ACh vesicle exocytosis
Drug Factors
Drugs Effect Mechanism
Potentiates blockade at low

Inhibits protein kinases (reducing AMP/ATP synthesis) at low
Frusemide dose, reduces blockade at high
dose, inhibits PDE at high doses which increases ACh release
dose
Inhalational Stabilise post-junctional membrane, blockade of presynaptic

Potentiates blockade
anaesthetics ACh receptors
394
Antibiotics Potentiate blockade Variable. Aminoglycosides and tetracycles prolong blockade
Local anaesthetics Potentiate blockade Reduce ACh release and stabilise post-junctional membrane
Anticholinesterases Reduces blockade Increase ACH levels at the NMJ by decreasing breakdown
Potentiates depolarising
OCP Competes for binding sites on plasma cholinesterases
blockade
Ca2+-channel
Potentiate blockade Inhibit Ca2+ dependent ACh release
blockers
Lithium Potentiates blockade Augments action of NMBs
Additional Factors Affecting Onset of Neuromuscular Blockade

Most of these can be related to Fick's Law:
Factor Effect Mechanism
Low
potency
Bowman's principle: Less potent drugs must be administered in higher doses, and so have a
Potency decreases
greater concentration gradient driving diffusion to the effect site
time to
onset
Increased
dose
Dose decreases Greater concentration gradient
time to
onset
High
output
Cardiac
decreases Increased drug delivery
Output
time to
onset
High
muscular
Muscle
flow
group Increased drug delivery
decreases
flow
time to
onset
(May) A 'priming' dose of non-depolarising blocker is to an awake patient given prior to induction.
Priming decrease This occupies less than 70% of receptors, so does not cause significant neuromuscular
Principle time to blockade. After induction, a second dose is given to occupy the remaining receptors and
onset complete blockade.
References
1. Sterling E, Winstead PS, Fahy BG. Guide to Neuromuscular Blocking Agents. 2007. Anesthesiology News.
2. ICU Adelaide. Neuromuscular Blockers.
3. Pino RM. Revisiting the Priming Principle for Neuromuscular Blockers: Usefulness for Rapid Sequence Inductions. Austin J
Anesthesia and Analgesia. 2014;2(5): 1030.
395
396
Nutrition & Metabolism
Basal Metabolic Rate

Describe basal metabolic rate and its measurement
Outline the factors that influence metabolic rate
Basal Metabolic Rate is the energy output required to sustain life at rest.
'Resting' is defined as an individual who is:

Fasted for 12 hours
In a comfortable external environment
At mental and physical rest
Normal values are:
100W.day-1
70kcal.hr-1
Metabolic rate is the actual energy consumption of an individual, and is greater than BMR due to a number of factors.
Factors Affecting Metabolic Rate

Metabolic Rate is affected by:
Age
BMR decreases as age increases.
Neonates have a BMR twice that of an adult
Children have an increased BMR relative to that of an adult
BMR declines by 2% for each decade of life
Body Composition
Lean muscle has a greater energy requirement than fat.
Higher body fat percentage results in a lower BMR
Females have a lower BMR for this reason - when adjusted for lean mass there is no difference
Diet
Digestion increases BMR by ~10% due to the energy required to assimilate nutrients
This is known as the specific dynamic action of food.
Protein > carbohydrate > fat
Note that the Specific Dynamic Action for each macromolecule is not related to the respiratory quotient for that
food type.
Starvation decreases the BMR
Exercise
Skeletal muscle is the largest and most variable source of energy consumption
Environment
Cooler environments increase BMR
Temperate environments decrease BMR up to 10%
Physiological states
Pregnancy increases BMR up to 20% in 2nd and 3rd trimester
Lactation increases BMR
Catecholamines increase BMR
Corticosteroids increase BMR
Disease states
Malignancy increases BMR
397
Nutrition & Metabolism
Sepsis increases BMR

Hyperthyroidism increases BMR
Measurement of BMR using Indirect Calorimetry

BMR is measured using indirect calorimetry, which calculates heat production via measurement of VO2 and VCO2. A number
of methods exists depending on whether the patient is intubated or not, or whether they are requiring supplementary oxygen.
In general:
Patients should be relaxed and fasted

FiO2 needs to be calculated (or taken from the ventilator settings), and ETCO2 and ETO2 must be measured
Steady-state should be achieved across a five minute period
The average MVO2 and MVCO2 changes by <10%
The respiratory quotient ( ) change by <5%

This ratio will vary depending on the substances metabolised:
Carbohydrates = 1
Protein ≈ 0.8
Fat ≈ 0.7
Resting Energy Expenditure is given by the abbreviated Weir equation:
in Watts per unit time of measurement.
Errors in Indirect Calorimetry

Air leaks and measurement errors
Measures consumption (rather than requirements)
Point estimate of a dynamic process
Footnotes
The respiratory quotient is the value of at steady-state, whilst the respiratory exchange ratio is affected by metabolic
rate.
References
3. LITFL - Indirect Calorimetry
398
Fat Metabolism
Fat Metabolism
Describe the physiology and biochemistry of fat, carbohydrate and protein metabolism
Digestion
Triglycerides are the main constituent of body fat in animals and vegetables, and therefore in dietary fat. They consist of three
fatty acid molecules joined by a glycerol molecule.
As fats are not water soluble, they tend to clump together in chyme and are hard to digest due to the low surface area:volume
ratio. Emulsification speeds up the digestive process, and occurs via the action of:
Bile salts
Many bile salts have a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic end, which give a detergent action. Bile salts bound to fatty acids form
a mixed micelle which can be further digested by enzymes or directly absorbed.
Partially digested fats
Mechanical action of the stomach
Once emulsified, triglycerides can be hydrolysed by lipase into fatty acids and monoacylglycerol.
Absorption
Absorption occurs in a number of stages:
Mixed micelles, free fatty acids, monoacylgylcerol, and cholesterols are absorbed via facilitated diffusion into the enterocyte
From the enterocyte:
Short-chain fatty acids (those with < 12 carbon atoms) enter the portal vein and travel directly to the liver
Long-chain fatty acids are re-esterified and packaged with a layer of protein and cholesterol to form a chylomicron
Re-esterification maintains the concentration gradient for diffusion of fatty acids, allowing further uptake to occur.
Chylomicrons are ejected from the cell into the lymphatics and travel to the systemic circulation
Chylomicrons are removed from circulation by lipoprotein lipase
Lipoprotein lipase is found on capillary endothelium and bound to albumin.
Lipoprotein lipase breaks down triglylceride in chylomicrons and VLDL to free fatty acids and glycerol
This reaction uses heparin as a cofactor.
Free fatty acids and glycerol are then free to enter adipose tissue
Storage
Fat is stored as trigylcerides, and forms the bulk of energy storage of the body.
Triglycerides are synthesised by the liver:
Occurs when insulin levels are high and glycogen stores are full
From excess carbohydrate and amino acids
These are converted to fatty acids and glycerol, and then esterified to form triglyceride. This is known as lipogenesis.
Metabolism
399
Fat Metabolism
Free fatty acids can be absorbed by adiopocytes for storage, or be β-oxidised to acetyl CoA in the liver, which can enter the citric
acid cycle to produce ATP.
References
1. Chaney S. Overview of Lipid Metabolism. University of North Carolina School of Medicine. 2005.
400
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Storage
Carbohydrates are stored in liver and muscle as glucose polymers known as glycogen.
The liver contains ~100g of glycogen

This can maintain plasma glucose for ~24 hours.
Skeletal muscle cotains ~200g of glycogen
This cannot be released into circulation, and is for use only by the muscle.
Production of glycogen is stimulated by insulin, which is released as plasma glucose levels rise following carbohydrate ingestion.
When plasma glucose levels fall, the release of glucagon and adrenaline stimulates glycogenolysis.
Metabolism
Glycolysis
Glycolysis:
Describes the process of converting glucose into pyruvate

This is known as the Embden-Meyerhof pathway.
Occurs in the cytoplasm
Does not consume oxygen or produce carbon dioxide
Produces 2 ATP
Glycolysis allows production of ATP in anaerobic conditions.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose from other molecules. Gluconeogenesis:
Requires ATP to perform

Some organs (heart, brain) rely on glucose for ATP
Has many potential substrates:
Lactate
Pyruvate
Glycerol
Amino acids
CAC-intermediates
Is stimulated by glucagon
Is inhibited by biguanides (metformin)
References
401
402
Protein Metabolism
Protein Metabolism
Essential amino acids cannot be produced by transamination - they must be supplied in the diet.
Metabolism
Protein catabolism involves the deamination of amino acids. Deamination can occur in one of two ways:
Oxidative deamination
Hepatic deamination, removing the amino group to create a ketoacid and ammonia. Ammonia produced in the liver enters the
urea cycle and becomes urea, which requires 3 ATP.
Transamination
Amino group is transferred by aminotransferases to another amino acid or a ketoacid to produce:
Keto acids, which:
Enter the citric acid cycle and produce ATP
Get converted to glucose or fatty acids
Amino groups
Enter the urea cycle and become urea
Footnotes
Ammonia can also be produced in the kidney by the deamination of glutamate in the kidney. In this instance:
It is eliminated directly in urine as ammoniium

Does not enter the urea cycle
--
References
403
Requirements and Starvation

Describe the normal nutritional requirements
Fasting
Fasting is the metabolic state achieved after complete digestion and absorption of a meal.
Fasting can be divided into:
Early fasting
Less than 24 hours.
Plasma glucose falls due to consumption
Leads to hormonal changes:
Insulin release decreases, causing:
Liver
Decreased glycogenesis
Increased gluconeogenesis
Muscle
Decreased glucose utilisation
Decreased glycogenesis
Decreased protein synthesis
Fat
Decreased lipogenesis
Due to:
Decreased glucose uptake
Decreased TG uptake
Increased lipolysis
Adrenaline release increases, causing:
Decreased insulin release
Increased lipolysis
Increased muscle FFA use
Increased hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
Glucagon release increases
Cellular metabolism alters:
Decreased glucose uptake by non-obligate glucose utilisers
e.g. Muscle.
Increased FFA and ketone body use
β-oxidation of FFAs to meet ATP requirements, leading to formation of ketone body.
Sustained fasting
Greater than 24 hours. See starvation below.
Starvation
Starvation is the failure to absorb sufficient calories to sustain normal body function, requiring the body to survive on endogenous
stores.
Days:
404
Energy is conserved through reduction in movement

Hormonal changes
Increased gluconeogenesis, using glycerol, lactate, and amino acids
Insulin concentrations fall further
Cortisol levels increase
Glucagon levels peak at 4 days
Metabolic changes
Glucose use continues to fall, and FFA use increases
Further fall in muscle protein synthesis
Weeks:
Tissues adapt to metabolise ketones (with plasma levels rising up to 7 mmol.L-1, and gluconeogenesis falls
The brain still requires 100g of glucose per day
BMR falls
All but life-saving movement ceases
Death typically occurs after 30-60 days, when muscle catabolisation weaknens the respiratory muscles such that
secretions can no longer be cleared, and pneumonia occurs
Refeeding Syndrome
Refeeding syndrome is a deranged metabolic state that occurs with feeding after a period of prolonged fasting, typically >5 days.
There are three pathogenic mechanisms:
A large spike in insulin causes increased cellular uptake (and low plasma levels) of:
Glucose
Magnesium
Phosphate
Potassium
Sodium and water retention occurs, which may precipitate cardiac failure
Increased carbon dioxide production increases minute ventilation and work of exhausted respiratory muscles
Management is by slow institution of feeding and aggressive electrolyte management.
References
405
Anaerobic Metabolism
Describe the consequences of anaerobic metabolism and ketone production
Lactate
The Embden-Meyerhof pathway:
Describes the conversion of glucose to pyruvate (and two ATP)

Does not consume O2 or produce CO2
Therefore it occurs in both anaerobic and aerobic conditions.
Consumes two NAD+ and produces two NADH
In anaerobic conditions (in the erythrocyte, and in the setting of cellular hypoxia):
There is no oxygen available to allow further ATP production via the electron transport chain
There is also no regeneration of NAD+ in the ETC.
In order for glycolysis to continue, NAD+ is regenerated via production of lactate
About 1400mmol of lactate is produced per day. Lactate is either:
Oxidised in the cell

This requires restoration of NAD+, e.g. resolution of cellular hypoxia.
Circulated to the liver
Lactate is then:
Oxidised to pyruvate
Converted to glucose
This process is known as the Cori cycle.
Ketones
Ketones:
β-oxidation of fatty acids in the liver produces acetyl-CoA

Acetyl-CoA usually enters the citric acid cycle to produce ATP
When large amounts of acetyl CoA are produced, they may instead condense to form acetoacetate, which can then be
reduced to β-hydroxybutyrate
These substances are known as ketones
Ketones can only be produced by the liver, and only used as a substrate by the kidney, as well as skeletal and cardiac muscle
Production of ketones is accelerated by glucagon and adrenaline
References
406
407
Thermoregulation
Regulation of Body Temperature

Outline the mechanisms for heat transfer between the body and its environment.
Define the thermoneutral zone, and describe the mechanisms by which normal body temperature is maintained.
Regulation of body temperature is done by balancing heat loss and heat production, predominantly through behavioural
mechanisms and skin
The body is able to maintain a relatively constant core temperature under a wide range of environmental conditions
The thermoneutral zone is the range across which the basal rate heat production (and oxygen consumption) is balanced
by the rate of heat loss
For an adult it is typically 27-31°C
In neonates it is higher, typically 32-34°C.
Principles
Net flux of heat is determined by the balance of metabolic heat production and the contribution of four mechanisms of heat loss:
Radiation
Conduction
Convection
Evaporation
Radiative
Radiative heat exchange:
Describes the loss of heat through EMR by all objects above 0°K
Radiative heat loss is proportional to temperature
Radiative heat loss does not require a transfer medium
Makes up ~45% of heat loss under thermoneutral conditions.
Depends on the temperature differential between an individual and their environmen
A cold environment (e.g. operating theatre) causes a large radiant heat loss
The heat loss from the patient is greater than the heat gain from the surrounding environment.
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat (as kinetic energy) by direct contact from a higher temperature object to the lower
temperature one. Conduction:
Requires physical contact between bodies to conduct heat

Solids conduct heat better than gases
There is no conduction in a vacuum
Heat loss via conduction is minimal in air but is a major cause of heat loss in immersion
As arteries and veins typically run next to each other, arterial heat tends to be transferred to the (cooler) veins, limiting
further heat loss
This is similar to counter-current exchange in the kidney.
As fat is a poorer conductor of heat than muscle, increased body fat will slow heat loss by conduction
Convection
408
Thermoregulation
Convection is loss of heat by conduction by a moving object. Convection is:
The predominant mechanism of heat loss in the naked human

Effects are greater effects at higher wind speeds.
Evaporation
Evaporative losses describe the loss of heat energy due to the latent heat of vaporisation of water. Evaporation of 100ml of water
will reduce body temperature by ~1°C.
Temperature Sensation and Regulation

Temperature sensors are central and peripheral, whilst regulation occurs centrally.
Central sensation
Central temperature sensors exist in the:
Abdomial viscera
Spinal cord
Hypothalamus
Anterior hypothalamus is the most important central thermoreceptor, and responds to both increased and decreased
temperatures by altering their rate of depolarisation, eliciting an array of neuronal and hormonal responses.
Brainstem
The interthreshold range is the range of core temperatures not triggering a response.
Normal is 0.2 to 0.4°C.

Widens under anaesthesia to ~4°C
Peripheral sensation
Peripheral temperature sensors are:
Free nerve endings

Extremely sensitive
Alter their rates of firing by orders of magnitude in response to temperature change.
Divided into:
Cold receptors
Lie beneath the epidermis, and are excited by cooling (inhibited by warming), active from 10-40°C, with a static
maxima at 25°C.
Warm receptors
Lie deep to the dermis, are excited by warming (and inhibited by cooling), active from 30-50°C, with a static maxima at
44°C.
Regulation
Temperature sensation runs from cutaneous receptors via the spinothalamic tracts and medulla to the hypothalamus. Cortical input
is received via the thalamocortical relay, whilst primitive responses are effected via the midbrain.
Effector Reponses
409
Thermoregulation
Increase heat loss Reduce heat loss/Increase

heat gain
Huddle, seek shelter, add

CNS Remove clothing, sprawl, reduce activity.
clothing
Increase peripheral vasodilation and AV shunting, and cardiac Vasoconstriction, peripheral

Cardiovascular
output to improve flow to cutaneous tissues circulatory shut down
Musculocutaneous Sweating Piloerection, Shivering
Increased BMR, non-

Metabolic
shivering thermogenesis
Vascular changes are the least metabolically costly and can result in dramatic increases (up to 60% of cardiac output) in
skin blood flow
When environmental temperature exceeds body temperature, conduction and convection result in heat gain - evaporative
cooling via sweating is the only way to reduce body temperature
Efficacy of sweating is related to relative humidity
Piloerection (hair standing on end) traps a layer of warm air close to the body to act as an insulator
This is of more importance in other primates than in man, as they have enough body hair to make it effective.
Increasing basal metabolic rate and 'waste' heat production is essential to maintain temperature in cold environments. This
can be through:
Shivering
The simultaneous contraction of agonistic and antagonistic muscles.
Non-shivering thermogenesis:
Hormonal
Levels of thyroid hormone and adrenaline increase, raising metabolic rate in all cells
Brown fat
Brown fat produces heat through uncoupled oxidative phosphorylation, which uses the electron transport chain
to produce heat rather than ATP. Brown fat is:
A vital mechanism for heat production in the neonate (they have an immature shivering response), and
forms ~5% of neonatal mass
Located in:
Neck
Supraclavicular
Interscapula
Suprarenal
Sympathetically innervated
Contains large numbers of β3 receptors
Effect of Anaesthesia
General anaesthesia causes a 1-3°C drop in core body temperature, which occurs in three phases:
Rapid reduction
Core temperature falls by 1-1.5°C in the first 30 minutes.
Predominantly due to vasodilation, which is due to:
Reduction in SVR, with generalised vasodilation and increased skin blood flow
Heat redistribution is the major initial factor (rather than heat loss), as vasodilation leads to increased heat content
of peripheries.
Impairs thermoregulatory vasoconstrictive responses
Interthreshold range is widened to 4°C (up from 0.4°C)
410
Thermoregulation
Gradual reduction
Further drop in core temperature of 1°C over following 2-3 hours.
Due to heat loss exceeding heat production
Non-shivering thermogenesis is the only response available to paralysed, anaesthetised patient.
Plateau
Once core body temperature falls far enough, thermoregulatory responses are activated and further heat loss is attenuated by
increased metabolic heat production.
Neuraxial anaesthesia:
Hypothermia is less extreme as thermoregulation is only affected in areas covered by the blockade
Plateau does not occur as vasoconstrictive responses are inhibited by the blockade
References
1. Auerbach. Wilderness Medicine. Sixth Edition. Chapter 4: Thermoregulation.
3. Diaz A. Define "thermoneutral zone". Briefly explain how the body regulates temperature when the ambient temperature
exceeds the thermoneutral zone. Primary SAQs.
4. Buggy DJ, Crossley AW. Thermoregulation, mild perioperative hypothermia and postanaesthetic shivering. Br J Anaesth.
2000 May;84(5):615-28.
411
Immunology
Inflammation
Describe the factors involved in the process of inflammation and the immune response, including innate and acquired
immunity
Inflammation is a non-specific response triggered by a pathogen or tissue injury, which aims to limit further tissue damage.
Inflammation is classically characterised by:
Pain
Heat
Redness
Swelling
Loss of function
This is a consequence of:
Vasodilation
Increases blood flow to area, which increases supply of immune cells and resources for cellular repair.
Increased vascular permeability
Increases extravasation of protein and immune cells.
Migration of phagocytes
Remove pathogens and cellular debris.
Process of Inflammation
Tissue damage
Trauma causes mechanical disruption of vasculature and mast cell degranulation, causing local inflammation and
activation of haemostatic mechanisms
Infection stimulates degranulation of local macrophages, releasing inflammatory cytokines and triggering mast cell
degranulation
Local inflammatory response

Histamine causes arteriolar and post-capillary venule dilatation and subsequent extravasation
Release of chemotactic molecules attracts circulating inflammatory cells
Systemic inflammatory response

Severe inflammation may lead to cytokines in the systemic circulation, causing:
Fever
Neutrophil recruitment from bone marrow
Release of acute-phase proteins from liver
References
412
Immunology
413
Innate Immunity
Innate Immunity
immunity
The innate immune system consists of protective mechanisms which are present life-long, and typically forms the first line of
defence against pathogens.
Key features of innate immunity include:
Immediacy
Non-specific response
Not modified by repeat exposures
The innate immune system consists of three components:
Physicochemical barriers
Humoral mechanisms
Cellular Mechanisms
Physicochemical Barriers
These include:
Skin
Mucous membranes
Mucous
Mucociliary elevator
Gastric acid
Urination
Optimised by high flow rates and low residual bladder volumes.
Innate Humoral Mechanisms

Humoral mechanisms describes the role of inflammatory proteins in innate immunity:
Complement
The complement system is a complex group of about 25 plasma proteins important in both innate and adaptive immunity.
The complement system is activated by:
Antigen-antibody complexes
The 'classical pathway.'
Substances in the bacteria cell wall
The 'alternative pathway.'
Complement has a number of inflammatory functions:
Destruction of bacteria
Several complement proteins come together to form a membrane attack complex, which creates large pores in
cell membranes, causing water to diffuse in and bacteria to burst.
Opsonisation of bacteria
Bound complement acts as a binding site for phagocytes.
Activation of monocytes and phagocytes
Chemotaxis
414
Innate Immunity
Attracts leucocytes.
Mast cell degranulation
Augments inflammation.
Acute-Phase Proteins
Inflammatory proteins with a number of effects:
Opsonisation
Inflammatory mediators
Increase blood flow and delivery of inflammatory cells via three mechanisms:
Dilatation and increased capillary permeability
Endothelial activation increasing leukcocyte adhesion
Attraction of neutrophils and monocytes
Protelytic enzymes
Bactericidal enzymes located in saliva, tears, respiratory mucous, and neutrophils.
Innate Cellular Mechanisms

Cellular components of the innate immune system include:
Mast cells
Exist in loose connective tissue and mucosa, and contain many intracellular granules of heparin and histamine.
Leukocytes
Neutrophils (60% of all leukocytes)
Phagocytose bacteria and fungi (15-20 per neutrophil). This process consists of a number of steps:
Exit circulation by marginating along capillary border when activated
Migrate via chemotaxis towards the tissue insult
Phagocytose opsonised bacteria and fungi
Kill organisms with a respiratory burst:
A granule containing hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl and oxygen radicals fuses with the target cell membrane,
destroying both the target and the neutrophil.
Monocytes
Become macrophages when they leave circulation and enter tissue. Macrophages have a lifespan of 2-4 months, and
can phagocytose up to 100 bacteria before it dies. Functions include:
Phagocytosis and destruction of pathogen
Especially intracellular pathogens (listeria, mycobacteria), parasites, and fungi.
Breakdown of damaged body cells
Present antigen to T-helper cells
Secretion of inflammatory mediators
Eosinophils
Kill multicellular parasites.
Basophils
Contain heparin and histamine.
Lymphocyte
Subtype of leukocyte important in adaptive immunity. Include:
Natural Killer cells
Active against viral and tumour cells.
B cells
T cells
415
Innate Immunity
References
416
Adaptive Immunity
Adaptive Immunity
immunity
The adaptive immune system responds to an exposure, demonstrating specificity and memory, with improved efficacy on repeat
exposure.
Adaptive immunity may be:
Active
Primary immune response generated by exposure to antigen.
Infection
Vaccination
An inactive (but still foreign and therefore antigenic) protein component of a pathogen is given to the patient, resulting
in an immune response. Subsequent exposure to the whole pathogen triggers a secondary immune response.
Passive
Preformed antibody is given to the patient. This will provide treatment/coverage for the life of the antibody, but immunity
will be lost when the antibody breaks down or supplies are exhausted.
Transplacental
Colostrum
Administration of serum
Components of the active immune system include:
Cellular
Predominantlny T lymphocytes
Humoral
Including complement and antibody.
Adaptive Cellular Immunity

Lymphocytes are divided into two types:
B lymphocytes
Are produced in the bone marrow, and migrate to lymphoid (nodes, spleen, MALT) where they are renamed plasma cells and
produce antibody. Functions include:
Production of antiody against specific antigens
Presentation of antigen to T-cells to active them
Proliferation to form memory cells
T lymphocytes
Are produced in the bone marrow and migrate to the thymus where they mature. T cells which express antibody to host
protein apoptose, resulting in only 2% of immature T cells surviving. Mature T cells then spread to lymphoid tissue. There
are five types of T cells, of which two are most important:
Helper T-cells
2/3rds of T-cells are helper cells, are are identified by their CD4 membrane protein. Functions include:
Cytokine production
B lymphocyte stimulation
Macrophage activation
Cytotoxic T-cells
417
Adaptive Immunity
Are identified by their CD8 membrane protein. Functions include:

Destruction of virally infected and tumour cells
All cells express proteins that they are producing on membrane MHC I molecules, for inspection by immune
cells. Infected or tumour cells will express foreign proteins, and cause activation of cytotoxic T cells:
Induce apoptosis in the target cell
Rapid division of cytotoxic T cell, which then inspects other cells for infection
Transformation to memory cells
Adaptive Humoral Immunity

Antibodies Y-shaped immunoglobulins which:
Are produced in response to a pathogen

Are specific to that pathogen
Antibody functions include:
Opsonisation
Agglutination
Each antibody can bind multiple pathogens, increasing target size for leukocytes.
Inactivation of pathogen
Antibody binding may disable the pathogen.
Activation of complement
Antibody-antigen complexes cause complement activation.
Primary Immune Response

The process of invasion of a new pathogen to antibody production takes ~5 days, and occurs in a number of steps:
APC phagocytose a pathogen

APCs include macrophages and dendritic cells.
APC express antigen (bits of pathogen) on cell surface
APC travel to lymphoid tissue and present it to B and T cells
When an APC finds a B and T cell with a reciprocal antibody:
T helper cell becomes activated by APC
T helper cell rapidly proliferates ('clonal expansion')
Proportion become memory cells
B cells are activated by both the APC and a T-helper cell (requires both)
B cells rapidly proliferate
Proportion become memory cells
Proportion become plasma cells
Plasma cells produce antibody at a rate of 2000 molecules per second, which overrides normal cellular
homestasis, causing death within a week.
Antibody produced in a primary immune response is IgM, with some IgG produced later on.
Secondary Immune Response

Repeat invasion by the same pathogen is met with a much more rapid and aggressive immune response:
APCs phagocytose a pathogen

APCs express and present antigen
Memory T and Memory B cells formed during the primary response are activated, and begin rapidly dividing and producing
antibody
418
Adaptive Immunity
References
419
Hypersensitivity
Hypersensitivity
Explain the immunological basis and pathophysiological effects of hypersensitivity, including anaphylaxis.
Understand the pharmacology of the drugs used in the treatment of anaphylaxis.
Hypersensitivity reactions are exaggerated immune responses that cause host injury.
Classification of Hypersensivity Reactions

The Gel and Coombs system classifies hypersensitivity reactions by the mechanism. It is commonly used but fails to classify
more complex diseases.
Disease
Type Timing Mediator Pathophysiology
example(s)
Type I - Seconds Anaphylaxis

Immediate to IgE Basophil and mast cell degranulation (systemic), Atopy
hypersensitivity minutes (local)
Antibody binding to cell surface antigen, Transfusion

Type II -
5-8 resulting in cell death via complement membrane reactions,
Cellular IgM, IgG
hours attack complexes, or phagocytosis by hyperacute
hypersensitivity
macrophages allograft rejection
Type III -
Tissue deposition of Ab-Ag complexes. SLE, necrotising
Immune- 2-8 IgM,
Accumulation of PMNs, macrophages, and vasculitis, post-
complex hours IgG, IgA
complement. Strep GN
deposition
TB, Wegener's
Type IV -
24-72 T-cell induced mononuclear cell accumulation. Granulomatosis,
Delayed T-cell
hours Release of monokines and lymphokines. Granulomatous
hypersensitivity
vasculitis
Type I Hypersensitivity
Antigen simulates a B lymphocyte to produce a specific IgE against it
This IgE then binds to Fc receptors on mast cells, sensitising them to this exposure
On re-exposure the antigen binds (cross-links) IgE on mast cells, causing degranulation:
Histamine, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins are released
This may cause local or systemic effects, depending on method of exposure:
A systemic reaction is called anaphylaxis, and manifests as a combination of:
Hypotension
Bronchospasm
Layngeal oedema
Rashes
Local reactions depend on the route of exposure, and include
Asthma
Inhaled.
Allergic rhinitis
Nasopharyngeal mucosa.
Non-immune anaphylaxis (also known as anaphylactoid) reactions are characterised by a immediate generalised reaction
clinically indistinguishable from true anaphalaxis, but the immune nature is unknown, or not due to a type I hypersensitivity
420
Hypersensitivity
reaction
Management of Anaphylaxis
Adrenaline is the drug of choice, as it treats cardiovascular collapse, bronchospasm, and decreases oedema formation.
In adults, 0.3-0.5mg IM Q5-15min
In children, 0.01mg/kg IM Q5-15min
Glucagon may be used in β-blocked patients resistant to adrenaline.
In adults, 1-5mg IV over 5 minutes, followed by infusion at 5-15microg/min
In children, 20-30mcg/kg up to 1mg over 5 minutes
Non-pharmacological mangement includes early intubation to protect against airway obstruction due to angioedema.
Adjunctive adjects include antihistamines and steroids. They are second line as they do not attenuate cardiovascular collapse,
resolve airway obstruction, or have strong evidence behind their use. They include:
Diphenhydramine 25-50mg IV (Children: 1mg/kg up to 40mg) up to 200mg in 24/24
Salbutamol, for bronchodilation
Methylprednisolone 1-2mg/kg, ostensibly to protect against rebound anaphylaxis (though there is minimal evidence)
Type II Hypersensitivity
Antibodies bind to cell surface antigen
Antibody-Antigen complex activates complement
Complement generates an inflammatory response
Cell death occurs via:
Complement membrane attack complex
Phagocytosis
Clinical picture depends on affected organs. Examples include:
Hyperacute allograft rejection

Transfusion reactions and haemolytic disease of the newborn
Goodpasteur's syndrome
Autoimmune cytopaenias
Myasthenia Gravis
Type III Hypersensitivity

Immune-complex reaction where Ab-Ag complexes are formed and deposited in tissues
Subsequent complement activation causes inflammation and neutrophils activation, leading to tissue damage
There are two subtypes of type III reactions:
Formation of complexes in circulation and subsequent deposition in tissues
e.g. Serum sickness
Formation of complexes in tissues
Small amounts are typically removed by the reticuloendothelial system, but in this case there are too many, or they are
too small, to be cleared effectively.
e.g. The Arthus reaction (a localised vasculitis, which may be necrotising)
Type IV Hypersensitivity
Antigen is presented to T lymphocytes which proliferate and become sensitised
T-cells then release cytokines, attracting macrophages and leading to local inflammation
During prolonged exposure, macrophages may fuse to form giant cells and form a granuloma. Examples include:
TB
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Hypersensitivity
Gramulomatous vasculitis
References
422
Microbiology
Classification of Microorganisms
Describe the classification of micro-organisms, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa and fungi
Microorganisms can be classified as prokaryotes (bacteria), viruses, or eukaryotes (which include fungi, helminths, and
protozoa).
Bacteria
Bacteria are prokaryotic organisms
Most clinically relevant bacteria can be classified by Gram stain and shape1
Gram stain separates bacteria according to their cell wall composition
It cannot be used on organisms that lack a cell wall, such as mycoplasma.
A crystal violet followed by an iodine solution is applied to the slide, which is then washed with a solvent
Gram +ve organisms will retain the stain due to their thick peptidoglycan cell wall, whilst gram negative
organisms become colourless
A safarin pink stain is then applied, which stains the gram -ve bacteria pink
Bacteria can also be classified by shape into:
Cocci
Appear round on microscopy.
Rods
Combining of these two systems classifies a large proportion of microbes:
Examples: Gram Positive Gram Negative
Cocci Staphylococcus Aureus, Streptococcus Pneumoniae N. Meningitidis, N. Gonorrhoea
Rods Listeria, Clostridium difficile Escherichia Coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Bacterial Subclassification
Additional testing can be done to further classify bacteria:
Catalase testing is performed on Gram positive cocci

Hydrogen peroxide is added to a bacterial sample, and in the presence of catalase will produce oxygen.
Catalase positive indicates Staphylococci
Catalase negative indicates Streptococci (and enterococci)
Coagulase testing is performed on Staphylococcal species

Coagulase is an enzyme which cleaves fibrinogen to fibrin. The staphylococcal colony is added to rabbit plasma and
incubated. In the presence of coagulase, fibrin is formed.
Coagulase positive strongly suggests S. Aureus
Coagulase negative examples include S. epidermidis or S. saprophyticus
Haemolytic testing is performed on Streptococcal species

Bacterial colonies are added to blood agar, and the colour change (due to haemolysis) is noted.
α haemolytic organisms produce dark green agar, as methaemoglobin is produced by hydrogen peroxide produced by
these organisms. Examples include:
Strep. pneumoniae
Strep. viridans
β-haemolytic organisms produce yellow agar from complete haemolysis. Examples include:
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Microbiology
Strep. pyogenes
Strep. agalactiae
γ-haemolytic organisms leave the agar unchanged. Examples include:
E. faecalis
E. faecium
Additionally, gram negative rods should be further classified into pseudomonal and non-pseudomonal organisms
Viruses
Viruses consist of molecules of either DNA or RNA shielded in a protein coat. They require the use of host cell structures for
reproduction and are therefore obligate intracellular parasites. They can be classified by five properties:
1. DNA/RNA
DNA viruses replicate in the cell nucleus using a host polymerase.
2. Double-stranded or single-stranded
i. Most DNA viruses are double-stranded (dsDNA)
ii. Most RNA viruses are single-stranded (ssRNA)
3. Negative-sense or positive-sense (RNA viruses only)
i. Positive-sense genomes may be translated directly into mRNA
ii. Negative-sense genomes require an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to translate them to a positive-sense strand prior
to translation.
4. Capsid Symmetry
The protein coat may be either icosahedral or helical
5. Enveloped or non-enveloped
In addition to a protein coat, viruses may have a lipid membrane (acquired from the host cell) around their protein coat.
Eukaryotic Organisms
Eukaryotic organisms include fungi, protozoa, and helminths, as well as plants and animals. They differ from prokaryotic
organisms in a number of ways:
Property Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Chromosomes Single, circular Multiple
Nucleus and Organelles None Membrane bound nucleus and orangelles
Cell wall Usually In plants
Ribosome 70S 80S in cell, 70S in organelles
Size 0.2-2mm 10-100mmm
Fungi typically feed on dead/decomposing/the immmunocompromised and produce spores. They are subclassified into:
Yeasts
Yeasts are unicellular. They are divided into:
Candida
Albicans
Non-albicans More difficult to treat.
Cryptococcus
Moulds
Moulds are are filamentous.
Aspergillus
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Microbiology
Penicillium
Dimorphus Have characteristics of both yeasts and moulds.
Histoplasma
Protozoa are parasitic single-celled eukaryotes. They can be intracellular or extacellular.
Helminths are parasitic multi-celled eukaryotes. They can be intracellular or extacellular. They are subdivided into
tapeworms (cestodes), flukes (trematodes), and roundworms (nematodes).
Footnotes
1. This classification does not capture spirochetes, mycoplasmas, chlamydias, and other less commonnly encountered
organisms. A more complete classification uses six properties: ↩
1. Cell Wall Stucture

i. Flexible (e.g. Spirochetes)
ii. Rigid
iii. Non-existent (e.g. Mycoplasma spp.)
2. Morphology
i. Unicellular
ii. Filamentous
3. Growth Location
i. Extracellular
ii. Obligate intracellular parasites (e.g. Chlamydia spp.)
4. Gram Stain
i. Gram positive
ii. Gram negative
5. Shape
i. Cocci
ii. Rods
6. O2 tolerance
i. Aerobes
ii. Anaerobes (e.g. Clostridium spp.)
References
1. Harvey RA, Cornelissen CN, Fisher BD. Lippincott Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology (Lippincott Illustrated Reviews
Series). 3rd Ed. LWW.
425
Antimicrobial Resistance
Describe the principles of anti-microbial resistance
Resistance occurs when the maximal level of the agent tolerated is insufficient to inhibit growth.
Resistance can occur broadly via two mechanisms:
Genetic Alteration
Spontaneously, through mutation and subsequent natural selection of resistant organisms
Transferal of resistance genes from organism to organism via plasmids
Protein Expression
Increasing or decreasing expression of proteins with subsequent change in efficacy of antimicrobials.
Mechanisms
Specific mechanisms of resistance (which may be genetic alterations or changes in protein expression) include:
Prevent access to target

Decrease permeability
Narrowing of porin channels
e.g. Streptococcal resistance to penicillins typically occurs by reducing access to PBPs.
Loss of non-essential transporter channels
e.g. Anaerobes have no oxygen-transport channel which prevents penetration by aminoglycosides.
Active efflux of agent
Increased efficiency or expression of efflux pumps. Can be:
Removed from cell
Trapped between cell wall layers
e.g. glycopeptide resistance in VRSA.
Alter antibiotic target site

Changes in binding site protein will increase resistance to agents with low affinity
Over-expression of target protein
Synthesis of target-protecting proteins
Modification or Inactivation of Drug

Metabolism of drug
e.g. β-lactamases hydrolyse β-lactam rings
Modification of Metabolic Pathways

Development of metabolic pathways to bypass site of action of antibiotic
e.g. Resistance to Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole by allowing bacteria to synthesis or absorb folic acid.
References
1. Harvey RA, Cornelissen CN, Fisher BD. Lippincott Illustrated Reviews: Microbiology (Lippincott Illustrated Reviews
Series). 3rd Ed. LWW.
3. Blair JM, Webber MA, Baylay AJ, Ogbolu DO, Piddock LJ. Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance. Nat Rev
426
Microbiol. 2015 Jan;13(1):42-51. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro3380.

4. Microrao - Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Resistance
427
Antiseptics
Antiseptics
Outline the pharmacology of antiseptics and disinfectants
Key Definitions
Relevant definitions for antiseptics include:
Cleaning
Physical removal of foreign material.
Used for non-critical items, which come into contact with healthy skin but not mucous membranes (e.g. blood pressure
cuff)
Decontamination
Destruction of contaminants such that they cannot reach a susceptible site in sufficient number to cause harm.
Disinfection
Elimination of all pathological organisms, excluding spores.
Used for semi-critical items, which are those that contact mucous membranes but do not break the blood barrier (e.g.
endoscopes, laryngoscopes)
Sterilisation
Elimination of all forms of microbial life, including spores.
Used for critical items, which are those that enter sterile or vascular tissue and pose a high risk of infection (e.g.
surgical instruments, vascular and urinary catheters)
Antiseptic Agents
Drug Isopropyl Alcohol Chlorhexidine Povidone iodine
Typically 60-90% - requires May be aqueous or

Iodine combined with a polymer
Pharmaceutics some water to denature combined with
(povidone) to enhance water solubility
protein. Flammable. isopropyl alcohol.
Antiviral
Poor antiviral Poor antiviral Good antiviral
Properties
Broad spectrum
Antibacterial Broad spectrum including fungi, spores
Broad spectrum antibacterial antibacterial and
Properties (unlike iodine), and tuberculosis
antifungal
Irritant on mucous
Toxic Hypersensitivity Hypersensitivity
membranes and open wounds
Requires continual release of iodine to

Persistent antiseptic
Other achieve effect. Inactivated by organic
effect
substances. Stains.
References
2. Sabir N, Ramachandra V. Decontamination of anaesthetic equipment. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia, Critical Care and
Pain. (2004). 4(4), 103–106.
428
Antiseptics
429
Obstetrics & Neonates
Respiratory Changes of Pregnancy

Explain the physiological changes during pregnancy, and parturition
Respiratory changes in pregnancy are a function of two things:
Anatomical compression of the chest

Increased VO2 and VCO2
Anatomical Changes
Diaphragm pushed upwards by ~4cm
Increased AP and transverse diameter of the chest wall (~2-3cm)
Large airway dilation, reducing airway resistance by ~35%

From conception until term:
VT increases by 40%
Inspiratory capacity increases by 10%
Expiratory capacity decreases by 30%
Total lung capacity decreases by 5%
Vital capacity is unchanged
From ~20 weeks until term:
ERV decreases
RV decreases
FRC decreases
By 20% erect
By 30% supine
Ventilation
Progesterone stimulates respiratory centres, shifting the O2 and CO2 response curves to the left which causes hyperventilation
and a respiratory alkalosis. From conception until term:
MV increases by 50%
10% increase in RR
40% increase in VT
PCO2 falls to ~26-32mmHg, with a compensatory drop in plasma [HCO3-] to 18-21mmol.L-1
Labour and Postpartum

During labour:
MV increases 70% due to pain and increased oxygen demand

This causes hypocapnoea, so cessation of uterine contractions (and the associated pain and oxygen demand) are followed by
430
Obstetrics & Neonates
a hypoventilatory period producing desaturation
FRC and RV return to normal within 48 hours of delivery.
References
431
Cardiovascular Changes
Cardiovascular Changes of Pregnancy

Physiological consequences of changes in posture during pregnancy
Pregnancy is a time of increased metabolic demand, which cardiovascular changes reflect. These changes include:
Increased intravascular volume Occurs via two mechanisms:

Increased oestrogen causes an increased plasma volume
This decreases capillary oncotic pressure, predisposing to oedema
This may be exacerbated by the gravid uterus compressing the IVC, especially near-term
Increased EPO causes an increased red cell volume
Increased venous return Due to increased intravascular volume and MSFP.
The gravid uterus may compress the IVC and impair VR, hence pregnant women are positioned with a left lateral tilt to
displace the uterus off the IVC
Increased VR causes an increase in CO (with both an increase in HR and SV, as well a decrease in SVR)
Decreased SVR results in SBP, DBP and MAP dropping (despite the increase in CO)
Magnitude of Changes by Trimester

First Second Third
Parameter Direction Notes
Trimester Trimester Trimester
Plasma Peaks between 32-36th week, decreases

↑ 35% 45% 50%
volume slightly thereafter
Blood Increases less than plasma volume,

↑ 5% 15% 20%
volume resulting in the fall in haematocrit to 33%
HR ↑ 15% 18% 25% Increases progressively throughout
SV ↑ 20% 25% 30% Increases progressively throughout
Increases throughout and dramatically in

CO ↑ 20% 40% 45%
labour
Changes During Labour

Uterine contraction boluses ~300ml of blood into the maternal circulation
Causes an increase in CO by up to 30% during the active phase and 45% during ejection.
Associated with corresponding increase in SBP and DBP by 10-20mmHg
Post-partum CO is up to 80% of pre-labour values due to autotransfusion, and returns to normal within 2 weeks of delivery
References
432
Cardiovascular Changes
433
Foetal Circulation
Foetal Circulation
In Utero
The foetal circulation has a number of structural differences:
Two umbilical arteries

The umbilical artery returns deoxygenated blood to the placenta.
PO2 of 18mmhg (SpO2 45%)
One umbilical vein
The umbilical vein supplies oxygenated blood to the foetus.
Has a PaO2 of 28mmHg (SpO2 70%)
60% of blood from the umbilical vein enters the IVC
40% of blood enters the liver
Two ducts:
Ductus venosus
Shunts blood from the umbilical vein to the IVC.
Ductus arteriosus
Shunts blood from the pulmonary trunk to the descending aorta.
A foramen ovale
Shunts blood from the right atrium to the left atrium.
Immature myocardium
Foetal myocardium does not obey Starlings Law, and does not adjust contractility for any given preload. Therefore:
SV is fixed
CO is HR dependent
Normal HR at term is 110-160 bpm.
These structural difference alter the pathway of blood circulation:
Oxygenated blood returns via the umbilical vein

40% flows to the liver
60% is returned to the IVC
Oxygenated blood in the IVC is directed via the Eustachian valve through the foramen ovale
Blood returning from the SVC is directed into the RV, and then into the descending aorta by the ductus arteriosus
~10% of RV output flows through the pulmonary circulation
This arrangement has several features:
Blood with the most oxygen is delivered to the arch vessels to supply the brain
Blood with the least oxygen is delivered to the umbilical arteries for gas exchange
Both the RV and the LV eject into systemic circulations, and are of similar size and wall thickness
Changes at Birth
Several changes happen at birth:
Placental circulation is lost

There is a transition from circulation in parallel to circulation in series.
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Foetal Circulation
An FRC is established
Reversal of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction results in a rapid drop in PVR.
The cord is clamped
The systemic vascular bed volume falls, and SVR increases.
The fall in PVR lowers RV afterload

RAP falls
The rise in SVR increases LV afterload

LAP rises
When LAP exceeds RAP, the foramen ovale closes
Increased left sided afterload causes flow reversal in the ductus arteriosus
There is progressive closure of the ductus over hours to days, under the influence of prostaglandins and oxygenated blood
flowing through the duct.
The ductus venosus progressively fibroses over a period of days to weeks
References
435
The Placenta
The Placenta
Outline the functions of the placenta, and determinants of placental blood flow.
The placenta is an organ of maternal and foetal origin which supports the developing foetus.
Physiological Properties
The placenta has three broad functions:
Interface between foetus and mother for nutrient exchange

Immunological barrier
Endocrine
Nutrient and Waste Exchange Functions

The primary purpose of the placenta is diffusion of nutrients and oxygen, and removal of waste.
As with the lung, diffusion is dependent on Ficks Principle, i.e.:
, where:
= Flow of substance across the membrane

= Area of the membrane
= Diffusion constant for the substance, where

Molecules < 600 Da in size more readily diffuse down concentration gradients
= Concentration difference across the membrane
Maternal placental flow is ~600mL.min-1 at term - double that of foetal flow - which improves diffusion by increasing
the concentration gradient for solutes
= Thickness of the membrane
O2 Diffusion
At the end of pregnancy, PO2 for foetal blood:
Entering the placenta via the umbilical artery is 18mmHg (SpO2 45%)
Leaving the placenta via umbilical vein is 28mmHg (SpO2 70%)
The foetus is able to have adequate delivery of O2 despite the low PO2 for four reasons:
High Cardiac Index

Increased cardiac output increases DO2.
Foetal Hb
Contains two gamma subunits instead of beta subunits. These prevent the binding of 2,3-DPG, which result in a left-shifted
Oxy-Haemoglobin dissociation curve, favouring oxygen loading at a low PaO2.
Foetal [Hb] is 50% greater than maternal [Hb]
The Double Bohr effect:
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The Placenta
The Bohr effect states that an increase in PaCO2 right-shifts the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve. Conversely, the
affinity of Hb for O2 increases in alkalaemia. The double Bohr effect describes this happening in opposite directions in the
foetal and maternal circulations, favouring transfer of O2 to the foetus:
In the placenta, foetal CO2 diffuses into maternal blood down its concentration gradient
This makes foetal blood relatively alkaline, and maternal blood relatively acidic. Therefore:
O2 unloading of maternal blood is favoured
O2 loading of foetal blood is favoured
CO2 Diffusion
CO2 is extremely lipid soluble, and so passes easily across membranes. Foetal PaCO2 is ~50mmHg, and intervillous PCO2 is
~37mmHg. CO2 offloading is favoured in the foetus by:
A high Foetal [Hb] increases the amount of CO2 that can be carried as carbaminohaemoglobin
The Double Haldane effect:
The Haldane effect states that deoxygenated Hb binds CO2 with more affinity than oxygenated Hb. The double Haldane
effect describes this happening in opposite directions in the maternal and foetal circulations, favouring CO2 transfer to the
mother:
As maternal blood releases O2, this favours maternal loading of CO2 without an increase in maternal PCO2 (Haldane
effect)
The release of CO2 from the foetal Hb favours O2 loading, which in turn favours further maternal O2 release.
Nutrient Diffusion
In late pregnancy, foetal caloric requirements are high (approximately the same as the mother). Facilitated diffusion of glucose
via carrier molecules occurs in trophoblasts.
Active transport occurs for amino acids, Ca2+, Fe, folate, and vitamins A and C. Other transporters actively remove substances
from foetal circulation.
Immunological Function
The placenta is selectively permeable to IgG via pinocytosis, which allows maternal antibodies to provide passive immunity to
the foetus.
Endocrine Function
Synthesises:
βHCG
hPL
Oestriol
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The Placenta
Progesterone
Development
The placenta develops simulanteously from foetus and mother:
From the uterine wall, the mother produces blood sinuses around the trophoblastic cords
These in turn send out placental villi
This creates a sinus of maternal blood invaginated by multiple foetal villi
Foetal villi are supplied by two umbilical arteries and a single umbilical vein
Maternal sinuses are filled from the uterine arteries

The maternal sinuses are supplied by spiral arteries
Properties of the Developing Placenta

Thick(er) membrane impairs permeability
Placental membrane permeability is small in early-to-mid pregnancy, reaching maximum at ~34 weeks
Smaller surface area
Properties of the Mature Placenta

Thick membrane - improved permeability
Surface area of 14m2
Weight of ~500g
Blood flow of 600mL.min-1 at term
Flow is reduced during contractions due to increased uterine pressure and also with α-adrenergic stimulation.
References
Elsevier. 2011.
438
Gastrointestinal System
Gastric Secretions
Describe the composition, volumes and regulation of gastrointestinal secretions
The GIT produces a a number of substances which can be classified by region and function:
Saliva
H2O (98%)
Digestive proteins
Amylase
Lipase
Mucin
Haptocorrin
Binds Vitamin B12.
Immunological proteins
Lysozyme
Lactoferrin
IgA
Gastric
Digestive
HCl
Gastrin
Pepsin
Intrinsic Factor
Mucosal Protection
Mucous
HCO3-
Small Bowel
Digestive
Pancreatic
Lipase
Amylase
Trypsinogen
Endocrine
Secretin
Somatostatin
Control of Secretions
Secretion occurs in three phases:
Cephalic
Thought/sight/taste/smell of food, resulting in vagal-mediated stimulus to release gastrin. Accounts for ~30% of production.
Gastric
Stretch of the stomach stimulates HCl secretion and gastrin release. Accounts for ~50% of production.
Intestinal
A drop in pH of the proximal duodenum releases secretin to stimulate the exocrine pancreas.
439
Salivary Secretions
Approximately 1L of saliva is produced by the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands each day.
Saliva has four main functions:
Lubrication
Mucin
Digestion
Amylase
Lipase
Particularly important in neonates who produce little pancreatic lipase.
Neutralisation of acid
For protection prior to vomiting.
Antibacterial
Gastric Secretions
The stomach produces ~2L of secretions per day:
Acid secretion
Parietal cells contain an H+-K+ exchange pump.
H+ is produced by carbonic anhydrase on CO2 and water, with 'waste' HCO3- removed from the cell in exchange for
Cl-.
High levels of acid production result in large amounts of bicarbonate being secreted into blood
This creates an alkaline tide as portal venous pH increases dramatically
Respiratory quotient of the stomach may become negative due to consumption of CO2
This pump is activated in response to increased levels of intracellular Ca2+ from stimulation by:
ACh
Histamine (H2)
Gastrin
Inhibited by:
Low gastric pH
Somatostatin
Gastric
Gastin is a peptide family secreted from antral G cells.
Secretion is stimulated by:

Neural (vagal) stimulation in the cephalic phase of digestion
Main mechanism.
Protein and amino acids in the stomach
Drugs
Alcohol
Caffeine
Secretion is inhibited by:
Low pH
Secretin
Glucagon
Gastrin has a number of pro-digestive effects:
Stimulates gastric acid secretion
Stimulates pancreatic secretion
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Stimulates biliary secretion

Increases gastric and intestinal motility
Pepsinogens
Chief cells secrete pepsinogen I and is released by ACh or β stimulation. Pepsinogen is cleaved to pepsin in the gastric
lumen, and breaks down protein.
Intrinsic Factor
Parietal cells produce intrinsic factor, which forms a complex with B12 which facilitates its later absorption in the terminal
ileum.
Mucous
Neck cells produce mucopolysaccharide, glycoprotein, and HCO3- in response to stimulus by prostaglandins, which protects
mucosa and lubricates food.
Pancreatic Secretions
Exocrine pancreatic secretions are produced by the acinar and ductal cells, at the rate of 1.5L per day.
Release is stimulated by:

CCK
Secretin
ACh
Via vagal stimulation.
Consist of:
HCO3-
To alkalinise gastric contents.
Pancreatic bicarbonate production lowers venous pH, and neutralises the alkaline tide of the stomach.
Water
Enzymes
Trypsinogen
Proteolysis.
Amylase
Hydrolysis of glycogen, starch, and complex carbohydrate.
Lipase
Hydrolysis of dietary triglycerides.
Endocrine Function
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a peptide family secreted by intestinal enteroendocrine cells (I cells) in the mucosa of the
duodenum and jejunum. Cholecystokinin:
Regulates satiety
Regulates leptin release from fat
Stimulates secretions from the gallbladder and duodenum
Secretin stimulates pancreatic release. Secretin is:
Released by the proximal duodenum in response to low pH
Motilin stimulates the migrating motor complex. Motilin is:
Released cyclically from M cells in the small bowel
References
441
442
Oesophagus
Oesophagus
Describe the control of gastrointestinal motility, including sphincter function.
The oesophagus is a muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach. The oesophagus has:
Skeletal muscle in its upper third

Smooth muscle in its lower third
Lower Oesophageal Sphincter

The LoS is:
The most distal 2-4cm of the oesophagus

Macroscopically indistinguishable from the rest of the oesophagus
However it has a higher concentration of nerve cells and is able to constrict at a higher pressure
Tonically innervated by the vagus
Important in the prevention of reflux
Competency of the LoS is required to prevent reflux
Barrier pressure is the pressure difference between the pressure at the lower oesophageal sphincter and the pressure in
the stomach, and is typically ~15-25mmHg
Barrier pressure is affected by:
Changes in lower oesophageal sphincter pressure
Swallowing
Barrier pressure decreases during swallowing, and transiently increases immediately afterwards.
Anatomical
Age
Sphincter tone is decreased in neonates and the elderly.
Diaphgram
An external sphincter is formed by the diaphragmatic crura, and exerts a pinch-cock action on the
oesophagus.
Stomach
A fold in the stomach wall just distal to the GOJ creates a flap valve, which occludes the GOJ when
gastric pressure rises.
Oeosophagus
The oesophagus enters the stomach at an oblique angle, limiting retrograde flow.
Hormonal
Gastrin, motilin, α-agonism increase LoS tone
Progesterone, glucagon, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) decrease LoS tone
Drugs
ETOH, IV and volatile anaestetic agents, and anticholinergics decrease LoS tone
Suxamethonium, metoclopramide, and anticholinesterases increase LoS tone
Changes in gastric pressure
Raised intraabdominal pressure
Obesity
Pregnancy
Disease
Hiatus hernia
GOJ moves into the thorax, causing:
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Oesophagus
Loss of pinch-cock action

Negative intrathoracic pressure reduces LoS pressure and therefore barrier pressure
--
References
3. Kahrilas PJ, Pandolfino JE. Hiatus hernia. GI Motility online. 2006.
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Control of Gastric Emptying

Describe the control of gastrointestinal motility, including sphincter function.
Gastric emptying is a neurally and hormonally mediated process which aims to present food to the small bowel in a controlled
manner. Different drugs, hormones, and physiological states can either encourage or inhibit gastric emptying.
Determinants of Gastric Emptying

Rate of gastric emptying is a function of:
Antral pressure
Main determinant as pyloric resistance tends to be low, and is affected by:
Stomach
Duodenum
Systemic factors
Drugs
Pyloric resistance
Stomach
Gastric distension
Vagal excitation from gastric stretch causes release of gastrin, increasing peristaltic frequency.
Composition of chyme:
Liquids empty faster than solids
Liquids have a half-time of ~20 minutes, and empty in an exponential fashion
Solids have a half-time of ~ 2 hours, with a dwell time of ~30 minutes, and empty in a linear fashion
Protein independently stimulates gastrin release
Duodenum
The duodenum has hormonal mechanisms which have a negative feedback on gastric emptying. These include:
Duodenal distension
Hypoosmolar and hyperosmolar chyme
Acidic chyme
In reponse to acid the duodenum releases secretin and somatostatin:
Secretin directly inhibits gastric smooth muscle
Somatostatin inhibits gastrin release
Fat and protein
Fat and protein breakdown products stimulate release of cholecystokinin, which inhibits gastrin.
Carbohydrate-rich meals empty faster than protein, which empty faster than fat.
Systemic
Motilin released by the small bowel enhances the strength of the migrating motor complex, a peristaltic wave of
contraction through the whole GIT which occurs every 60-90 minutes
Sympathetic input from the coeliac plexus inhibits gastric emptying
Pregnancy has a number of effecs on gastric emptying:
Progesterone relaxes smooth muscle and inhibits gastric smooth muscle response to ACh and gastrin, as well as creating
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incompetence of the LoS leading to GORD

Gastrin production increases
Some gastrin is produced by the placenta.
Gastric acid production is increased during the the third trimester
Parasympathetic input enhances gastric motility
Effect of drugs
Drugs which increase gastric emptying include:
Metoclopramide
Erythromycin
Drugs which inhibit gastric emptying include:
Opioids
Alcohol
Anticholinergic agents
References
446
Swallowing
Swallowing
Describe the control of gastrointestinal motility, including sphincter function
Swallowing is divided into three phases:
Oral Phase
Voluntary
Food is pushed against hard palate by tongue
Pharyngeal Phase
Involuntary
Coordinated by medulla.
Closure of nasopharynx
Adduction of vocal cords
Hyoid elevation and deflection of epiglottis
Pharyngeal contraction
Propels food bolus towards oesophagus
Oesophageal phase
Involuntary
Closure of UoS
Resting barrier pressure 100mmHg.
Relaxation of LoS
Resting barrier pressure 20mmHg, which is a balance between:
LoS pressure (30mmHg)
Antral pressure (10mmHg)
Oesophageal peristalsis
Impairment of any of these processes increases risk of aspiration:
Obundation
Reduced cough reflex.
Muscular weakness
Impaired medullary coordination
References
447
Physiology of Vomiting
Describe the control of gastrointestinal motility, including sphincter function
Vomiting is the active, forceful expulsion of gastric contents from the stomach. It is different from regurgiation which is a passive
process.
It is a mechanism to expel toxic substances from the GIT.
Stimulation
Stimulants to vomiting can act centrally, or directly in the bowel:
Central stimulation
Central stimuli may act directly on the vomiting centre. Others act via the CTZ, which is part of the area postrema located
outside of the blood-brain barrier, and so it can be stimulated by circulating substances. Central vomiting stimuli include:
Direct:
Emotion
Pain
Olfactory
Visual
Via the CTZ:
Vestibular acting on:
H1
ACh
Drugs/Toxins acting on:
5-HT3
D2
μ-opioid receptors
GIT stimulation
GIT stimuli travel SNS and PNS afferents to the vomiting centre. The CTZ is not involved and so anti-emetics which act here
are not useful in this type of vomiting.
GIT vomiting stimuli include distension and toxins. Neurotransmitters include:
5-HT3 in mucosal stretch receptors

ACh in NTS afferents
H1 in NTS afferents
Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting

Central structures involved include:
Chemoreceptor trigger zone

NTS
Multiple pathways exist (similar to those described above), and neurotransmitters involved include:
5-HT3
D2
NK1
H1
mACh
448
Risk factors
Patient factors
Female
Non-Smoker
Young age
History of PONV or motion sickness
Anaesthetic factors
Volatile use
Nitrous oxide use
Relative risk of 1.4.
Opioid use
Anaesthesia duration
Surgical factors
Gynaecological surgery
Likely not an independent risk factor, and simply confounded by female gender.
Strabismus surgery in children
Process of vomiting
Vomiting consists of a set of processes coordinated by the vomit centre in the medulla oblongata, and is divided into three phases:
Pre-ejection phase
Prodromal nausea
Salivation
Retrograde intestinal contraction which forces intestinal contents into the stomach
Retching Phase
Deep inspiration and breath-holding to splint the chest
Epiglottic closure
Elevation of the soft palate (prevents nasal soiling)
Expulsive phase
Relaxation of oesophageal sphincters
Pyloric contraction
Violent contraction of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles
References
4. Pierre S, Whelan R. Nausea and vomiting after surgery. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain, Volume
13, Issue 1, 1 February 2013, Pages 28–32.
449
Liver Physiology
Functions of the Liver

Describe the storage, synthetic, metabolic and excretory functions of the liver
Storage
The liver is important in storage and release of:
Carbohydrates as glycogen
The adult liver stores ~100g of glycogen.
Fat as triglycerides
All fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)
Many water soluble vitamins incuding folic acid and B12
Iron
Copper
Synthetic
Synthetic functions include:
Bile production
Plasma proteins including:
Clotting factors
Albumin production
120-300mg.kg-1 of albumin is produced per day, dependent on nutritional status, plasma oncotic pressure, and
endocrine function.
Metabolic
Metabolic functions include:
Carbohydrate
Fat
Protein
Bilirubin metabolism
Drugs and Toxins
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides and disaccharides passively diffuse into hepatocytes
Gradient is maintained by converting glucose to glucose-6-phosphate which is used to produce glycogen. This maintains the
gradient for diffusion.
Glycogen is either synthesised (glycogenesis) or broken down (glycogenolysis) depending on plasma glucose and insulin:
Increased blood glucose stimulates insulin release, increasing the formation of glycogen through activation of glycogen
synthetase
Decreased blood glucose stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconogenesis from amion acids.
Lipids
450
Liver Physiology
Fat can be:

Stored as triglycerides
Hydrolysed to glycerol and fatty acids, which is used for ATP production
Proteins and Urea

Amino acids are absorbed from blood to be used for gluconeogenesis and for protein synthesis. In order to produce substrates for
the CAC, Amino acids may be:
Transaminated
Deaminated
Decarboxylated
The nitrogenous scrap of these reactions is urea, which is produced in several stages:
A variety of metabolic processes convert amino acids to glutamate

Glutamate is converted to ammonia by glutamate dehydrogenase
Ammonia then enters the urea cycle to produce (surprisingly) urea, at the cost of 3 ATP
A normal diet of 100g protein per day produces ~30g of urea, and 1000mmol of hydrogen ions
Endocrine
Produces angiotensinogen
Produces IGF-1
Converts T4 to T3
Immunoprotective
Kupffer cells
Tissue macrophages of the hepatic reticuloendothelial system. They phagocytose harmful substances including:
Endotoxins
Bacteria
Viruses
Immune complexes
Thrombin
Fibrin complexes
Tumour cells
Acid-Base Balance
May produce or consume large numbers of hydrogen ions:
Carbon dioxide production

Metabolism of organic acid anions
Lactate
Ketones
Amino acids
Ammonium
Production of plasma proteins
Notably albumin
451
Liver Physiology
References
452
Laboratory Assessment of Liver Function

Describe the laboratory assessment of liver function
Synthetic Function
Measures of synthetic function include:
Albumin
Main plasma protein.
Normal range 28-58g.L-1
Half-life ~20 days
Important in:
Maintenance of plasma oncotic pressure
Binding
Calcium
Drugs
Decreased in liver dysfunction and malnutrition
Coagulation Assays
Clotting factors are produced by the liver. Hepatic impairment may result in reduced production and abnormality of clotting
assays, although functional clotting function may be normal (as pro-coagulant proteins are affected to a similar extent).
INR
Test of the extrinsic pathway.
APTT
Test of intrinsic pathway.
Metabolic Function
Transaminases are released when liver parenchyma is damaged, and are used to evaluate metabolic function:
ALT
Normal range < 54 U.L-1.
AST
Normal range < 35 U.L-1.
Obstructive Tests
ALP (Alkaline Phosphatase)
Enzyme involved in dephosphorylation of many compounds. ALP is found in all cells, but particularly in the liver, bile duct,
bone, kidney, and placenta.
Normal range is 30-120 U.L-1
GGT
Enzyme found in biliary duct.
Normal range:
Males: 11-50 U.L-1
Females: 7-30 U.L-1
Bilirubin
453
Byproduct of haemaglobin metabolism. May be measured as total, or as conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin.
References
Diaz, A. Outline the clinical laboratory assessment of liver function. Primary SAQs.
454
Bile
Bile
Describe the physiology of bile and its metabolism
Bile is a dark green solution produced by the liver to facilitate absorption of fat and fat-soluble vitamins (ADEK) through
emulsification. Bile is:
Produced by the liver at the rate of 1L per day

Concentrated in the gallbladder
Important in the absorbance of lipid and fat-soluble vitamins
Formed from:
Water
Protein
Bilirbuin
Bile salts
The sodium and potassium salts of bile acids. Bile acids:
Are are produced from cholesterol
Are amphipathic, and act as emulsifiers of lipid
Break up large fat globules into smaller micelles, which can then be absorbed.
Major bile acids include:
Cholic acid
Chenodeoxycholic acid
Are absorbed in the terminal ileum, and recycled by the portal circulation
Lipids
Electrolytes
References
Elsevier. 2011.
455
Haematology
Erythrocytes
Outline the physiological production of blood and its constituents
Erythrocytes:
Are 7.5μm in diameter

Are 2um thick
Have a lifespan of 120 days
Have:
No nucleus
Maximises cell volume available for Hb.
No mitochondria
Cannot perform aerobic metabolism - all ATP is generated via glycolysis.
No ribosomes Incapable of producing protein
Have a biconcave disc shape
This maximises surface area (optimising gas transfer) and makes the cells flexible enough to pass through capillary beds
(which are narrower than the cell).
Are important in:
Delivering O2 to the tissues and delivering CO2 to the lungs
Acid-Base balance
Metabolism of some drugs
Carry ~29pg of haemoglobin
Comprise 40-50% of blood volume
Production
Erythrocytes have a myeloid progenitor which differentiates into the myeloid line. EPO (see endocrine functions of the kidney
stimulates myeloid progenitor cells to:
Differentiate
Proliferate
Proerythroblasts begin synthesis of Hb, with ongoing production occurring until the cell is mature
Further differentiation results in successive loss of organelles, increasing Hb content
The loss of ribosomes and nucleus of the reticulocyte are the final stage of erythropoiesis
The entire process takes ~7-10 days
Function
Gas Carriage
Acid-Base Buffering
Production of HCO3-
Binding of H+ to Hb
Metabolism
Esterases (and other -ases) in erythrocytes metabolise many drugs, including:
Remifentanil
SNP (reacts with Hb to form NO, CN, and Met-Hb)
Esmolol
456
Haematology
Elimination
Old red cells are removed from circulation via:
Phagocytosis by macrophages in:

Spleen
Major mechanism.
Liver
Bone marrow
Haemolysis
~10% of red cell breakdown occurs in ciruclation, where the Hb dimers are then bound to haptoglobin by haemopexin.
This is important to prevent glomerular filtration of haeme, and loss of iron
Haemoglobin Metabolism
Haemoglobin is broken down into:
Globin
Broken down into constituent amino acids.
Iron
Re-enters haemoglobin synthetic pathway.
Haeme
Complex metabolic pathway, notable as it is the only metabolic process that produces carbon monoxide:
Metabolised to biliverdin by splenic macrophages in the reticuloendothelial system of the spleen
Circulating erythrocytes are phagocytosed by splenic macrophages
Haptoglobin binds circulating Hb, the Hb-Haptoglobin complex is then phagocytosed by splenic macrophages
Biliverdin is reduced to unconjugated bilirubin
This is fat soluble, and binds to albumin.
Unconjugated bilirubin is conjugated in the liver to conjugated bilirubin
Conjugated bilirubin is secreted in bile by active transport
This is impaired during hepatic disease, leading to increased bilirubin levels in plasma.
Secreted conjugated bilirubin is metabolised to urobilinogen by gut bacteria
Urobilinogen may have a number of fates:
Enterohepatic recirculation and elimination in bile (again)
Further metabolism by gut bacteria to stercobilinogen and then to stercobilin
Enterohepatic recirculation and urinary excretion, where it is oxidised to urobilin
In Disease
Blood Urine Faeces
Prehepatic ↑ Urobilinogen,
↑ Unconjugated bilirubin Normal
disease bilirubin not present
Intrahepatic ↑ Conjugated bilirubin, ↑ May be pale due to decreased

Bilirubin present
disease Unconjugated bilirubin urobilinogen excreted in bile
Posthepatic ↓ Urobilinogen,
↑ Conjugated bilirubin Pale
disease bilirubin present
References
457
Haematology
458
Iron Homeostasis
Iron Homeostasis
Describe the normal nutritional requirements
Approximately 3-5g of iron is found in the body as:
Oxygen-carrying globin molecules

Haemoglobin (~70%) and myoglobin (~5%).
Catalyst for biological reactions (~25%)
Catalase, peroxidase, and cytochromes all require iron.
Absorption
Dietary iron comes in two forms:
Haeme groups
Directly absorbed via specialised transport proteins.
Dietary iron salts
Ferrous (Fe2+) iron is soluble, and is absorbed via facilitated diffusion across the enterocyte membrane
Reduced acidity of the stomach will reduce the absorption of ferrous iron
Ferric (Fe3+) iron precipitates when pH > 3, and so cannot be absorbed independently by the small bowel.
A pathway may exist for absorption of ferric iron from soluble chelates
Once in the enterocyte, iron can be:

Stored, bound to ferritin
Transported via ferroportin out of the enterocyte, where it is then oxidised to ferrous iron and bound to transferrin
Regulation
Excretion is uncontrolled
Regulation of iron levels is only by absorption
Hepcidin is a liver protein which inhibits the action of ferroportin
High hepcidin prevents iron transport from the enterocyte
Hepcidin is deficient in haemochromatosis
References
459
Platelets
Platelets
Outline the physiological production of blood and its constituents
Describe the process and regulation of haemostasis, coagulation and fibrinolysis
Platelets are small cell fragments which are vital in haemostasis via forming a platelet plug. They:
Have a lifespan of 7-10 days

Are removed by the reticuloendothelial system in the spleen and liver
Production
Platelets are:
Anuclear circulating cell bodies, which bud from megakaryotes

As the megakaryocyte cell volume increases, the cell membrane invaginates and small platelets bud off.
The time from stem cell to platelet is ~10 days, and is stimulated by thrombopoietin
New platelets are held in the spleen for 36 hours until they mature
Contents
α-granules
Contain fibronectin, fibrinogen, vWF, PDGF, and thrombospondin, platelet factor 4.
δ-granules
Contain 5-HT, ATP, ADP, and Ca2+.
Contractile proteins
Facilitate platelet deformation when activated.
Activation
Platelets are activated by:
Collagen
Exposed by damaged endothelium.
Adrenaline
ADP
Thrombin
Activation results in several events:
Exocytosis of granules
Activation of membrane phospholipase A2 to form thromboxane A2
Deformation from a disc to a sphere with long projections
Promotion of the coagulation cascade
Change in glycoprotein (GP) expression by the action of ADP:
ADP antagonists (e.g. clopidogrel) prevent expression of the GPIIb/IIIa complex.
GP Ib/IIb/IIIa facilitate platelet attachment to vWF
vWF also binds to sub-endothelial connective tissue.
GP IIb/IIIa are also receptors for fibinogen, which encourages platelet aggregation
460
Platelets
References
2. Krafts K. Clot or Bleed: A Painless Guide for People Who Hate Coag. Pathology Student.
461
Transfusion
Transfusion
Understanding the adverse consequences of blood transfusion, including that of massive blood transfusion
Production and Storage of Blood Products

Red cells, platelets, and FFP have different storage requirements.
Red Blood Cells

Stored blood decays over time - this is known as a storage lesion
Preservatives are used to extend the time blood can be stored:
Kept at ~4°C (balance between freezing and being too warm)
Reduces cellular metabolic requirement
Inhibits bacterial growth
Collected in an aseptic fashion
Stored in special solutions:
SAGM is currently used by the Australian Red Cross:
Saline
Adenine
Substrate for ATP synthesis
Glucose
Substrate for RBC glycolysis
Mannitol
CPDA1 (citrate-phosphate-dextrose-adenine) was traditionally used
Citrate binds calcium, preventing clotting
Phosphate acts as a buffer and phosphate source for metabolism
Dextrose
Adenine
A storage lesion describes the changes that occur in stored blood:

Loss of 2,3 DPG
Less of a factor in CPDA1 blood.
Haemolysis
Hyperkalaemia
Typically not clinically relevant as potassium is taken up into red cells when metabolism resumes.
Acidaemia
Hyponatraemia
Not clinically significant.
Blood can be stored for up to 35 days, which corresponds to 70% survival
Platelets
Platelets require particular storage conditions to remain functional:
Temperature ~22°C
Below this, platelets deform and become non-functional
Gas exchange
Platelets are stored in a bag which allows gas exchange to occur, minimising lactic acid and carbon dioxide production
462
Transfusion
Agitation
Platelets are stored on an agitator which prevents clotting and ensures the platelets are well mixed, which maximises the
diffusion gradient for gas exchange
pH control
pH is kept between 6.2 to 7.8 to prevent degranulation.
As platelets do not contain antigen, there is not a strict requirement for platelets to be type matched. However:
Rh(+) platelets should be avoided in Rh(-) patients

The small amount of contaminanting red cells may precipitate rhesus disease.
Plasma incompatibility should be avoided as this may lead to haemolysis of recipient red cells
Children are at greater risk due to their proportionally smaller blood volume
Fresh Frozen Plasma

Fresh Frozen Plasma is:
Prepared either via:

Separation from whole blood
Apheresis
Removal of a large volume (typically 800ml) of plasma from a single patient, with return of red cells to the donor.
Once collected, it is frozen and rethawed in a water bath prior to use
Cryoprecipitate
Cryoprecipitate is prepared by removing the precipitate from FFP which forms at 1–6°C. Cryoprecipitate contains predominantly:
Fibrinogen
Fibronectin
vWF
Factor VIII
Factor XIII
Whole Blood
Whole blood undergoes additional changes:
White cells become nonfunctional within 4-6 hours of collection, though antigenic properties remain
Platelets become non-functional within 48 hours of storage at 4°C
Factor levels decrease significantly after 21 days
Blood Groups
Blood groups refer to the expression of surface antigens by red blood cells, as well as any antibody in plasma. Blood groups can
be divided into three types:
ABO
Rhesus
Other antibodies These are additional antibodies that a patient may express in plasma, and include Kell, Lewis, Duffy, etc.
ABO
The ABO blood group is:
463
Transfusion
A complex carbohydrate-based antigens series

These may be either A or B antigen, and patients may express one, both, or neither, giving four blood groups (A, B, AB, O).
Expressed on the H-antigen stem of RBCs, and on the surface of tissue cells.
The Bombay Blood Group (or hh or Oh group) describes individuals who do not express the H antigen
These individuals:
Don't express A- or B-antigen (as there is no H-antigen stem) and are 'universal donors'
Express H-antibody
Can only receive blood from other individuals with the Bombay phenotype
Individuals express IgM antibody to foreign blood groups
This develops within 6 months of birth, likely due to environmental exposure to similar antigens.
Associated with a severe hypersensitivity reaction if an ABO-mismatch occurs
Group RBC Plasma
A A-antigen B-antibody
B B-antigen A-antibody
A-antibody
O -
B-antibody
A-antigen
AB -
B-antigen
Rhesus
The Rhesus blood group is the next most important group after ABO. The Rhesus system:
Consists of ~50 different antigens, the most important of which is D

Rhesus status is therefore expressed as positive (D - 85% of the population) or negative (anything-but-D).
Rhesus antibody does not naturally occur in Rh(-) individuals
This is relevant in Rhesus disease
A Rh(-) mother exposed to Rh(+) blood will develop Anti-D antibody, which can cross placenta and induce abortion in a
future Rh(+) foetus. This can occur with:
Incompatible transfusion
Foetal-materal haemorrhage
Compatibility Testing
Donor blood must be tested with recipient blood to avoid a transfusion reaction. This involves three processes:
Blood Typing (ABO/Rh)

Blood is typed by mixing it in vitro with plasma (and plasma with erythrocytes) of known groups (containing IgM antibody
(Anti-A, Anti-B, Anti-AB)), and observing for agglutination.
Antibody Screen
For other antibodies.
Testing is similar to ABO screening, except plasma is mixed with red cells containing known antigen (e.g. Kell, Duffy),
and monitored for agglutination.
Cross-match
Involves two processes:
Saline test
Erythrocytes are suspended in saline and mixed with antibodies at room temperature, monitoring for agglutination.
This confirms ABO type
Indirect Coomb's test
464
Transfusion
Identifies IgG antibody in host plasma which would cause haemolysis of transfused red cells. This is typically no longer
done, as it offers negligible extra safety over the above processes. Doing it involves:
Incubating
Binds IgG Ab to antigen on RBC membrane.
Washing
Removes serum and unbound IgG.
Testing with an antibody to IgG, known as antiglobulin serum.
A positive test will cause clumping of red cells, as each antiglobulin serum will bind two IgG molecules,
which have in turn been bound to red cells
A negative test will cause no agglutination, as the IgG has not been bound to red cells
If negative, the antiglobulin serum is re-used on a control sample to ensure that it is not a false negative
Transfusion Reactions
Transfusion reactions can be classified as either acute (< 24 hours) or delayed (> 24 hours), and as immunological or non-
immunological.
Immunological Acute Reactions
Reaction Incidence Mechanism
ABO ABO incompatibility causing rapid intravascular haemolysis, which may cause chest
1:40,000
Mismatch pain, jaundice, shock, and DIC. RhD-reactions tend to cause extravascular haemolysis.
1:76,000
Haemolytic (1:1.8 Immunological destruction of transfused cells (Type II hypersensitivity). Presents with
(acute) million fever, tachycardia, pain, progressing to distributive shock
fatal)
Febrile, Cytokine release from stored cells causing a mild inflammatory reaction, with
non- ~1:100 temperature rising to ≥38ºC or ≥1ºC above baseline (if >37ºC). Benign - but requires
haemolytic exclusion of a haemolytic reaction.
Urticaria 1:100 Hypersensitivity to plasma proteins in the transfused unit
Anaphylaxis 1:20,000 Type I hypersensitivity reaction to plasma protein in transfused uni
Donor plasma HLA activate recipient leukocyte antigen activating pulmonary neutrophils,
TRALI Variable
causing fever, shock, and non-cardiogenic pulmonary oedema
Non-Immunological Acute Reactions
Massive Transfusion
Variable See below
Complications
Non-immune Due to physicochemical damage to RBCs (freezing, device malfunction).

Rare
mediated haemolysis May lead to haemoglobinuria, haemoglobinaemia, tachycardia and fevers.
1:75,000
Contamination during collection or processing. Most common organisms are
(platelets),
Sepsis those which use iron as a nutrient and reproduce at low temperatures, e.g.
1:500,000
Yersinia Pestis.
(RBC)
Transfusion Related Rapid increase in intracellular volume in patients with poor circulatory
Circulatory < 1:100 compliance or chronic anaemia. May result in pulmonary oedema and be
Overload (TACO) confused with TRALI.
465
Transfusion
Delayed Immunological Reaction
Delayed haemolytic Development of sensitisation with the reaction occurring 2-14 days
1:2,500
transfusion reaction after a single exposure. Typically Kidd, Duffy, Kell antibodies.
Post-tranfusion Alloimmunisation to Human Platelet Antigen causing sudden self-

Rare
Purpura limiting thrombocytopenia
Transfused lymphocytes recognise host HLA as positive causing

TA-GVHD Rare
marrow aplasia, with mortality >90%
1:100 (RBC
Alloimmunisation antigens), 1:10 (HLA Previous sensitisation leading to antibody production on re-exposure.
antigens)
Transfusion-related
Transient immunosuprression following transfusion potentially due to
Immune Not known
cytokine release from leukocytes
Modulation
Delayed Non-Immunological Reaction
Iron Chelation after 10-20 units, organ Each unit of PRBC contains ~250mg of iron, whilst average
Overload dysfunction 50-100 units excretion is 1mg.day-1.
Complications of Massive Transfusion

A massive transfusion is one where:
Greater than one-half of circulating volume in 4 hours

Whole circulating volume in 24 hours
Risk of complication from a massive transfusion is influenced by:
Number of units
Rate of transfusion
Patient factors
Complication Mechanism
Air embolism Inadvertant infusion
Hypothermia Cooled products
Hypocalcaemia Consumption with coagulopathy and bound to citrate added to transfused units
Hypomagnesaemia Bound to citrate in transfused units
Citrate toxicity Citrate is added to stored units as an anticoagulant
Lactic acidosis Hyperlactataemia due to anaerobic metabolism in stored units
Hyperkalaemia Potassium migratrates from stored erythrocytes into plasma whilst in storage
References
466
Transfusion
1. Blood Service. Classification & Incidence of Adverse Events. Australian Red Cross.
2. National Blood Authority. Patient Blood Management Guidelines. Australian Red Cross.
467
Haemostasis
Haemostasis
Describe the process and regulation of haemostasis, coagulation and fibrinolysis
Haemostasis describes the physiological processes that occur to stop bleeding. It involves three processes:
Vessel constriction
Decreases flow, which limits further haemorrhage and reduces the shear stresses which break up forming clot
Platelet plug formation or Primary Haemostasis
Platlets adhere to the damaged vessel wall and aggregate
Fibrin formation or Secondary Haemostasis
Fibrin is formed from fibrinogen (via the coagulation cascade), which stabilises the platelet plug
Primary Haemostasis
Following a vascular injury, the exposure of subendothelial proteins stimulates platelets to form an occlusive plug via several
processes:
Adhesion
Exposed collagen binds to GPIa receptor on platelets.
vWF also binds to platelets.
Activation
Metabolic activation, increasing phospholipase A2 and phopholipase C, increasing platelet intracellular Ca2+ and initiating a
transformation from a disc to a sphere with long projections.
Metabolic activation is stimulated by:
Collagen
Adrenaline
ADP
Thrombin
Additionally, platelets release ADP and thromboxane A2 from their alpha granules and dense bodies, amplifying
further platelet aggregation and adhesion
Aggregation
With other platelets - held together by fibrin - forming a plug.
Contraction
After some time platelets contract, retracting the clot and sealing the wall.
Secondary Haemostasis
The coagulation cascade is an amplification mechanism which activates clotting factors in order to produce fibrin.
468
Haemostasis
Participating factors in the coagulation cascade can be either enzymes or cofactors:
Enzymes circulate in their inactive form, and become active (e.g. VII ⇒ VIIa) when hydrolysed by their precusor factor
Cofactors amplify the cascade
Pathways
The cascade is divided into the intrinsic pathway and extrinsic pathway, which join to form the common pathway. In vitro, the
intrinsic and extrinsic pathways operate separately. This is an artifact of lab measurement - in vivo the pathways are co-
dependent.
Extrinsic Pathway
The extrinsic pathway contains two factors, and the process of activation occurs in seconds:
Tissue Factor
Membrane protein on sub-endothelial cells, which is exposed when the vessel is damaged (it is found in a few other places as
well). It binds to factor VII to form VIIa, and thus activates the extrinsic pathway.
Factor VII
Intrinsic Pathway
The intrinsic pathway is activated over minutes, and contains:
Contact factors
Only important in vitro when conducting lab testing - deficiency of these factors does not cause a coagulopathy.
469
Haemostasis
HMWK
HMWK activates factor XII.
Factor XII
Factor XIIa activates factor IX, as does thrombin.
Factor XI
Factor IX
Factor VIII
Factor VIII circulates in a complex with vWF, preventing it from degradation. When activated by thrombin, it acts as a
cofactor for factor IXa to activate factor X.
The intrinsic pathway is activated by:
Thrombin
Main activator of the intrinsic pathway in vivo.
Collagen
Glass
In vitro.
Common Pathway
The common pathway contains:
Factor X
Factor V
Cofactor (similar to factor VIII), which when activated by thrombin allows factor Xa to convert prothrombin into thrombin.
Factor II (prothrombin)
Has several key roles:
Cleaves fibrinogen to fibrin
Activates factor XIII
Factor XIIIa stabilises clot by forming crossbridges between fibrin in a platelet plug.
Amplification of the clotting cascade by activating factors V and VIII
Activates protein C
Thrombin binds with thombomodulin to form a complex which inhibits coagulation.
Factor I (fibrinogen)
The Cell-Based Model of Coagulation

The cascade model (above) accurately describes the process of clotting in vitro, but not in vivo
The cell-based model has several changes, noting the central role of the platelet:
Initiation phase
Coagulation begins with tissue factor being exposed, which also activates platelets.
Amplification phase
A positive feedback loop occurs:
Production of Xa causes production of thrombin (IIa), priming the system
Thrombin then activates factors V, VIII, and IX, accelerating Xa production and further thrombin generation
Propagation phase
Platelets bind activated clotting factors, causing high rates of thrombin formation around them.
References
470
Haemostasis
3. Clotting Cascade 22/4/2007. (Image). By Joe D (Own work). CC BY 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons.
471
Haemostatic Regulation
Describe the mechanisms of preventing thrombosis including endothelial factors and natural anticoagulants
Haemostasis must be controlled to prevent rampant clotting of the vascular tree. This involves both endothelial factors and
proteins.
Endothelial Regulation
Intact endothelium and the glycocalyx prevent clotting in a number of ways:
Minimise stasis
High blood flow
Especially where flow is turbulent (large arteries).
Maximise laminar flow
Glycocalyx smoothes flow.
Inhibition of platelet adhesion and activation

NO, prostacyclin, and ectonucleotides (which degrade ADP) inhibit platelet activation.
Membrane-bound anticoagulant proteins

Heparan (not heparin)
Activates antithrombin III.
Thrombomodulin
Binds thrombin, preventing cleavage of fibrinogen to fibrin. The thrombin-thrombomodulin complex activates protein C
(which in turn inactivates factors Va and VIIIa).
Prevent exposure of procoagulant protein

Collagen
vWF
Tissue Factor
tPA secretion (see 'Clot Lysis')
Clot Regulation
Effect of blood flow
Dilutes clotting factors
Activated clotting factors are washed away and metabolised by the RES.
Laminar flow
Causes axial streaming of platelets, minimising endothelial contact and chance of activation.fa
Activation of anticoagulant factors
Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor
Inhibits VIIa, antagonising the action of tissue factor
Antithrombin III
Inhibits the serine proteases, i.e. the non-cofactor factors in all three pathways - IIa, VIIa, IXa, Xa, XIa, XIIa.
Protein C
Inactivates protein Va and VIIIa, and is activated by thrombin.
Protein S
Cofactor which helps protein C.
472
Clot Lysis
Clot breakdown is performed by:
Tissue Plasminogen Activator (tPA)

Binds to fibrin, and then cleaves plasminogen to plasmin. This keeps the plasmin formation in the vicinity of the clot,
limiting its systemic spread of.
Plasmin cleaves fibrin into fibrin degradation products

FDPs conveniently inhibit further thrombin and fibrin formation.
References
2. Van Hinsbergh VWM. Endothelium—role in regulation of coagulation and inflammation. Seminars in Immunopathology.
2012;34(1):93-106.
473
Coagulopathy Testing
Outline the methods for assessing coagulation, platelet function and fibrinolysis
Coagulation Factors
All these tests measure how long it takes to make fibrin. They evaluate different parts of the coagulation cascade, which help
localise where a coagulopathy may be occurring.
In these tests:
Citrate is added to blood

Binds calcium and prevents clotting.
Sample is centrifuged
Plasma decanted
Calcium (to replace the calcium lost by binding to citrate) and a reagent is added
Time taken to clot measured
Prothrombin Time/INR
The prothrombin time measures the extrinsic pathway. Tissue factor has to be added to the sample in order start clotting - this is
why it is known as the extrinsic pathway as a substance extrinsic to the sample must be added. As the PT varies significantly
between different labs, the INR is used to allow values to be compared.
Any disorder of the extrinsic or common pathways will prolong the PT, i.e. deficiency or inhibition of:
Factor VII
Factor X
Factor V
Although warfarin affects factors in all three pathways, its clinical effects are measured using INR. This is because:
Factor VII has the shortest half-life of the clotting factors affected by warfarin
Therefore so its levels will fall the quickest.
Therefore a fall in Factor VII levels is the earliest indication of changes in coagulation status due to warfarin
As factor VII is only in the extrinsic pathway, the PT/INR are the only tests which can evaluate its function
(Activated) Partial Thromboplastin Time

The partial thromboplastin time measures the intrinsic pathway, which begins produce fibrin when activated by the addition of
phospholipid to the sample (phospholipid is contained in platelets, and so is not technically "extrinsic"). The activated partial
thromboplastin time is the same test, except an activating agent is added to speed up the reaction.
Any disorder of the intrinsic or common pathways will prolong the APTT, i.e. deficiency or inhibition of:
Factor XI
Factor IX
Factor VIII
Factor X
Factor V
474
Heparin affects both sides of the pathway (IIa, IXa, Xa, XIa) however typically affects intrinsic factors more than extrinsic.
In addition, anti-phospholipid antibodies will also prolong the APTT by binding the added phospholipid.
Activated Clotting Time

Activated Clotting Time is used to for the dosing and reversal of heparin in cardiopulmonary bypass and other extracorporeal
circuits.
Fresh whole blood is added to a tube with an activator (e.g. glass beads) to stimulate the intrinsic pathway. The time until clot
formation is measured in seconds. Different activators will have different normal ranges, and target ranges for the circuit in use.
Platelet Function
Evaluate how well platelets aggregate in response to factors like ADP, collagen, arachidonic acid, and adrenaline (i.e.,
endogenous stimulators of platelet aggregation).
In this test, the aggregating agent is added to a tube of platelets, and the change in turbidity measured. Different patterns of
response (or non-response) can be diagnostic of different platelet function disorders.
Point of Care Testing

Point of care coagulation testing:
Involves testing of whole blood

Traditional testing uses plasma only.
Therefore includes the cell-based model of coagulation
May better represent actual clotting function compared with traditional coagulation factor testing.
Provides information on all phases of clotting
Viscoelastic Methods
Include:
Thromboelastography (TEG)
Continuous measurement and display of viscoelastic properties of a blood sample from initial fibrin formation to clot
retraction, and ultimately fibrinolysis. Involves:
A known volume (typically 0.36ml) of whole blood added to activators in two disposable cuvettes (cups) heated to 37°C
Contact activators (such as kaolin) are added to the blood to accelerate clotting
A heparinase cuvette is also commonly used so clotting function can be measured during full anticoagulation (e.g.
CPB)
Pin attached to torsion wire immersed into blood Torsion on the pin is converted (by a transducer) into a TEG tracing.
Cuvette rotates through 4°45′ in alternate directions
Each rotation takes 10s.
Pin initially remains stationary as it rotates through the unclotted blood
This is represented by a straight line on the tracing.
As blood clots, cup rotation exerts torque on the pin
The stronger the blood clot, the greater the torque exerted on the pin
Rotational Thromboelastometry (ROTEM)
475
Modified version of TEG:

A pin fixed to a steel axis is rotated in blood via movement of a spring
The cuvette remains stationary.
Two samples are used:
Tissue factor is added to measure the extrinsic pathway (known as the ENTEM cuvette)
Contact activator is added to measure the intrinsic pathway (INTEM cuvette)
Impedance to rotation is detected by an optical system:
LED
Mirror on the steel axis
Electronic camera
Uses different reference ranges and nomenclature to TEG
Advantages and Disadvantages of TEG/ROTEM
Advantages Disadvantages
Rapid compared with traditional testing Still measures coagulation in artificial conditions
Uses whole blood, providing a more complete Does not measure contribution of endothelium and therefore
picture of plasma-RBC-platelet interaction conditions affecting platelet adhesion (e.g. von Willebrand's disease)
Real-time display of clot evolution Harder to institute QA outside of laboratory
Reduces non-evidence-based transfusion Measurement methodology is not yet standardised between institutions
Predictive of post-operative hypercoagulable

Baseline measurement does not predict post-operative bleeding
states
Very sensitive to heparin effect Does not measure effect of hypothermia
Requires training and competency of non-lab staff
More expensive than traditional testing
Interpreting TEG/ROTEM
Note that reference ranges are not included here, and will vary depending on the:
Technique (TEG/ROTEM) used

Activator used
Adjuvants added
e.g. Citrated vs. recalcified samples.
Parameter Parameter
Definition Relevance
(TEG) (ROTEM)
476
R CT
Time until 2mm Time until initial fibrin formation, dependent on plasma
(reaction) (clotting
amplitude concentration of clotting factors
time time)
CFT (clot Time for amplitude

Measurement of clot kinetics (clot amplification), dependent
K time formation to increase from 2-
on fibrinogen
time) 20mm
Angle between the

tangent to the tracing Rapidity of fibrin formation and cross-linking. Alternate
α angle α angle
at 2mm and the measure of clot kinetics, dependent on fibrinogen
midline
MCF
MA Indicates point of maximal clot strength, dependent
(maximum
(maximum Greatest amplitude predominantly on platelets (80%) and fibrinogen (20%),
clot
amplitude) binding via GPIIb/IIIa. Treatment with platelets or DDAVP.
thickness)
CL 30 Percent decrease in
Clot stabilit, dependent on fibrinolysis. Reduced CL 30 can be
(clot lysis LY 30 amplitude 30
treated with an antifibrinolytic, such as TXA
30) minutes after MA
References
2. Activated Clotting Time - Practical Haemostasis.
3. Srivastava A, Kelleher A. Point-of-care coagulation testing. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain. 2013;13(1):12-16.
477
Equipment and Measurement
SI Units
The International System of Units (SI, or Système International d'Unités), is a set of measurement standards which defines
(almost) all standards in terms of uniform natural phenomena, and form the base of the metric system.
Base SI Units
There are seven base SI units, with many derived units made from combinations of these. Base SI units are mutually
independent. They consist of:
Quantity Unit Abbreviation Definition
Duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to

Time Second s the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of an
atom of Cs-133
Length Metre m Distance that light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458th of a second
The constant current that would produce a force of 2x10-7 Newton

Current Ampere A between two conductors of infinite length and negligible cross section
in a vacuum
1/273.16th of the triple point of water. The triple point is the

Temperature Kelvin °K temperature at which a substance exists in equilibrium in all three
phases (solid, liquid, gas).
The amount of substance which contains as many elementary entities

Amount Mole mol
as in 0.012kg of Carbon 12
Luminous Luminous intensity of a source which emits monochromatic radiation

Candella cd
Intensity at 540 x 1012 Hz at radiant intensity of 1/683 watts per steradian
Mass Kilogram kg Weight of the International Prototype Kilogram (IPK)
Derived Units
Conversion to
Quantity Unit Abbreviation Definition
Base SI Units
2
Area Square metre m
Velocity Metre per Second m.s-1
Metre per Second -2

Acceleration m.s
per Second
Force required to accelerate

Force Newton N -2
1kg at 1m.s
Pressure Pascal Pa Force per area
Energy/Work/Quantity Energy converted when 1N is

Joule J
of Heat applied to 1kg over 1m
Dose Equivalence Sievert Sv Radiation dose per mass
Rate of energy conversion per
478
Equipment and Measurement
Power Watt W second
Measure of electrical potential

Electromotive Force Volt V
energy
References
1. Physical Measurement Laboratory. National Institute of Standards and Technology.
And various subpages
479
Electrical Safety
Electrical Safety
Understand the concepts of patient safety as it applies to monitoring involving electrical devices
Electrical Principles
Charge is the property of a subatomic particle which causes it to experience a force when close to other charged particules
Charge is measured in coulombs (C).
Current is the flow of electrons through a conductor

Current is measured in amps (A).
Voltage is the strength of the force that causes movement of electrons

By tradition, voltages are quoted relative to ground (or earth). If a potential difference exists, a current will flow from that
object to the earth via the path of least resistance. If this path contains a person, an electrical injury may result.
Resistance describes to what extent a substance reduces the flow of electrons through it
Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).
Substances with high resistance are insulators
Substances with low resistance are conductors
Inductance is the property of a conductor by which a change in current induces an electromotive force in the conductor, and
any nearby conductors
Capacitance is the ability of an object to store electrical charge

Measured in Fards (F), where one farad is when one volt across the capacitor stores one coulomb of charge.
A capacitor is an electrical component consisting of two conductors separated by an insulator (called a dielectric)
When a direct current flows, electrons (a negative charge) build up on one of these conductors (called a plate), whilst
an electron deficit (positive charge) occurs on the other plate
Current will flow until the build up of charge is equal to the voltage of the power source
Current can be rapidly discharged when the circuit is changed
An alternating current can flow freely across a capacitor, and causes no buildup of charge
Impedance describes to what extent the flow of alternating current is reduced when passing through a substance
Impedance can be thought of as 'resistance for AC circuits', and is a combination of resistance and reactance.
Reactance is a function of two things:
Induction of voltage in conductors by the alternating magnetic field of AC flow
Capacitance induced by voltages between these conductors
Electrical Injury
Potential electrical injuries can be divided into:
Ventricular Fibrillation
Likelihood is a function of:
Current density
Frequency
Lowest current density required is at 50Hz.
Burns
Function of current density. Burns typically occur at the entry and exit point as this is where current density is highest.
480
Electrical Safety
Tetanic Contraction
Flexors are stronger than extensors, which may maintain grip on live wire. Death may result from either VF or asphyxiation
from sustained respiratory muslce contraction.
Electrical Shock
Electrical shocks are divided into two types, based on their ability to induce VF:
Microshock
Current required to induce VF when applied directly to myocardium.
Typical current is 0.05-0.1mA
This requires skin breach
Potential causes:
Guidewire
Pacing lead
Column of conducting fluid
CVC
PICC
Macroshock
Current required to induce VF from surface contact.
Typical current is 100mA
This is much higher because most of this current is not going to the ventricle, and so the total current must be greater to
achieve sufficient current density in the myocardium to induce VF
Other detrimental effects seen at lower currents include:
Current (mA) Effect
1 Tingling
5 Pain
8 Burns
15 Skeletal muscle tetany
50 Skeletal muscle paralysis & respiratory arrest
Principles of Electical Safety

Power points contain three wires:
Active
240V. Measuring voltage for AC current is not intuitive, as the voltage will be negative half the time. The root mean square
(RMS) is used instead - each value for the voltage is squared (giving a positive number), and then divided by the number of
samples to give an average.
Neutral
0V, relative to ground.
Earth
Direct pathway into ground.
An electrical circuit is completed between an appliance and the powerstation by returning current to the station via the earth. This
is an earth referenced power supply.
Electrical Dangers
481
Electrical Safety
Active wire shorts to equipment casing

Principle of earth wire, which provides path of least resistance for current to travel if an individual touches the case
High current drain through a wire generates heat and starts a fire
Principle of fuses which trigger when current drain is >15A
Methods of Electrical Safety

Insulation
Conductors are coated by a high-resistance substance, preventing current flowing where it shouldn't.
Fuses
Safety devices which cease all current flow when current exceeds a certain threshold (typically 20A). If there is a fault which
greatly lowers resistance (i.e. insulation breaks, causing a device to become live and drain via the earth wire), a high current
will flow and the fuse will be triggered.
A fault requires:
A fault that causes a high current flow
The fuse to work correctly
Residual Current Devices

An RCD measures the current difference between the active and neutral lines.
In an non-fault situation, these will be equal
In a fault situation, current will be being delivered by the active line but not returned via the neutral
Current will instead flow to ground via faulty equipment/through the patient.
The RCD will detect if there is a >10mA difference between the active and neutral lines, and disconnect power
within 10ms if it does so
A fault requires:
Current to flow
A single fault will turn off the circuit
Pros: Safe
Cons: Will shut off power to the device, which is bad for ECMO/CPB/ventilators without battery backup
Line Isolation Supply, with a line isolation monitor

A line isolated supply is a 'transformer' with an equal number of windings, such that the voltage produced is the same on each
side. However, the powerpoint is not physically connected to the supply, creating an earth-referenced floating supply.
A fault requires:
Two faults
This makes a failure with potential for shock much less likely.
Active wire must be connected to ground
Neutral wire must be connected to ground
A circuit then exists: active wire - ground - neutral wire, and a current could flow
A line isolated supply is paired with a line isolation monitor
This monitor states how much current could flow, if a second fault completed the circuit.
This is called a prospective hazard current
The line isolation monitor continuously checks the hazard current by evaluating the impedance between the active
wire and ground, and the neutral wire and ground
In a no-fault situation, both impedances should be the same and close to infinite
(Impedance won't be absolutely infinite as there will always be a small current leak from devices).
In a single-fault situation, the calculated impedance for the affected line will be significantly lower, and
therefore the prospective hazard current will increase
An alarm will sound when the prospective hazard current exceeds 20mA
Pros: A single fault is not dangerous and will not result in a power loss (important for vital equipment)
482
Electrical Safety
Cons: Two or more faults are dangerous, and will still not result in a power loss
Equipotential earthing
This is the only method which prevents microshock.
Ultra-low resistance earth cables are attached to electrical devices and the patients bed
These cables are then attached to special wall earth connectors
This ensures all equipment is referenced to a common ground, minimising the risk of leakage currents between devices
and the patient
Classification of Electrically Safe Equipment

These classifications are designed to limit macroshock:
Class I: Earthed
Any part that can contact the user is earthed to ground.
If a fault develops such that parts of the device that the user can touch are live, then there is a risk of shock
If the case is earthed, the path of least resistance should be via the earth wire
This will cause a large current to flow, and should blow a fuse, ceasing current flow.
Class II: Double-insulated
All parts of the device that the user can touch have two layers of insulation around them, reducing the chance of the device
becoming live.
Class III: Low-voltage

Device operates at less than 40V DC/24V AC, limiting the severity of shock a device can deliver.
Classification of Electrically Safe Areas

B areas: Protection against macroshock
Residual Current Devices
Line Isolation Supply
BF areas: Cardiac (microshock) protection

Equipotential Earthing
All devices, and the patient, are earthed to each other by thick copper (i.e. low-resistance), such that any potential
difference between devices will be equalised via the path of least resistance (the wire, not the patient).
Z areas: No particular protections
Electrical Devices which Attach to Patients

Devices such as ECG and BIS require an electrical connection to the patient. Risk of electrocution by these devices is reduced by:
High resistance wires
References
1. Electricity and Electrical Hazards.
2. Alfred Anaesthesia Primary Exam Tutorial Program
3. Aston D, Rivers A, Dharmadasa A. Equipment in Anaesthesia and Intensive Care: A complete guide for the FRCA. Scion
Publishing Ltd. 2014.
483
Electrical Safety
484
Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge is an electrical device used to accurately measure very small changes in electrical resistance. The
Wheatstone bridge is:
Used in many other medical devices (e.g. invasive pressure monitoring)

A device with infinite gain
A null deflection galvanometer
Not an amplifier
As it does not increase current amplitude.
Mechanism
The Wheatstone bridge consists of:
Battery
Four resistors
and are known and fixed
is known and adjustable
is unknown
Galvanometer
The Wheatstone bridge relies on the ratio of resistances between the known ( ) and unknown ( ) legs:
When ) equal current flows down either limb and there is no current flow across the galvanometer
At this point the bridge is said to be balanced.
The equation can then be re-arranged to solve for :
Very small changes in lead to a current flow across the bridge
can then be adjusted until the bridge is balanced, and the value of calculated
References
485
Wheatstone Bridge
486
Neuromuscular Monitoring
Describe the concept of depth of neuromuscular blockade and explain the use of neuromuscular monitoring
Describe the clinical features and management of inadequate reversal of neuromuscular blockade
The degree of neuromuscular blockade can be assessed:
Clinically
Crude compared to electrical assessment. Tests include:
Sustained head lift > 5 seconds
Suggests < 30% blockade.
VT > 10ml.kg-1
Tongue protrusion
Electrically
Using a nerve stimulator. Can be:
Visual/tactile
Monitoring of twitch height by anaesthetist.
Electrical
Monitoring of twitch height by a device:
Accelerometer
Acceleration is proportional to force for any given mass ( ), therefore an accelerometer taped to the
thumb can be used to assess force of contraction.
Mechanical force transducers
Muscle tension is measured using a strain gauge. Requires control prior to administration.
Electromyography
EMG response is measured using electrodes over the muscle. The AUC of the response curve can be used to
calculate degree of blockade.
Nerve Stimulator
A nerve stimulator:
Consists of two electrodes, a power supply, and some buttons for control
Produces a monophasic, square wave at constant current, lasting no more than 0.3ms
Generates a supra-maximal stimulus
Ensures every nerve fibre is depolarised, which means a consistently reproducible response will be generated. A supra-
maximal stimulus is 25% greater than the maximum required to depolarise all nerve fibres.
Allows assessment of different muscle groups
Not all muscle groups are affected equally by neuromuscular blockade.
Typically smaller muscle groups are more sensitive
The positive (red) lead is placed proximal
Ulnar nerve
Electrodes are placed along the ulnar border of the wrist at the flexor crease, and thumb adduction is assessed.
Facial nerve
The positive electrode is placed at the outer canthus, and the negative electrode is placed anterior to the tragus. Eyebrow
twitching is assessed.
Posterior tibial nerve
Electrodes are placed posterior to the medial malleolus, and plantar flexion is assessed.
487
Stimulation Patterns
There are five common stimulation patterns:
Train of Four
Four single twitches (0.1ms) delivered at 2Hz (i.e. 1.5s for all 4).
Number of observed twitches gives an indication of receptor occupancy
With increasing blockade, the amplitude and number of observed twitches decreases.
Fade is the reduction of twitch height with repeated stimuli during a partial neuromuscular block
Occurs due to the effect of non-depolarising agents on the presynaptic membrane, reducing ACh production.
Number of observed twitches depends on the degree of blockade:
No twitches ≈ 100% blockade
One twitch ≈ 90% blockade
Two twitches ≈ 80% blockade
Three twitches ≈ 75% blockade
Reversal agents should not be given with a ToF count < 3.
Four twitches ≈ < 75% blockade
The ratio of the amplitude of T1 to T4 (ToF ratio) can also be used as a measure of blockade:
ToF ratio > 90% is adequate for extubation
ToF ratio > 70% suggests adequate respiratory function
Should not be repeated faster than every 10s
Tetanic stimulation
High frequency (50-200Hz) supramaximal stimulus for 5 seconds.
Normal muscle will exhibit tetanic contraction
Partially paralysed muscle exhibits fade
Degree of fade is proportional to degree of blockade, and is very sensitive.
Post-tetanic count (PTC)

Used in deep blockade when there is no response to ToF. A tetanic stimulus is given, followed 3s later by single twitches at
1Hz.
No response may be seen in very deep blockade
However, twitches may be seen prior to the return of a ToF response.
This is called post-tetanic facilitation, and occurs due to the tetanic stimulus mobilising ACh vesicles into the
prejunctional area.
Typically, a ToF of 1 will occur when the PTC ≈ 9
Should not be repeated faster than every 6 minutes
Due to residual post-tetanic potentiation.
Double burst
Two 0.2ms 50Hz (tetanic) stimuli are applied 750ms apart.
Two identical contractions occur in normal muscle
Amplitude of the second burst is reduced in partially paralysed muscle
DB ratio is similar to the ToF ratio, but is easier to assess clinically.
A ratio > 0.9 is required for adequate reversal
Single twitch
A single stimulus lasting ~0.2ms is applied.
> 75% blockade causes a depressed response
A twitch must be assessed prior to blockade so a baseline can be established
488
References
2. Saenz, AD. Peripheral Nerve Stimulator - Train of Four Monitoring. 2015. Medscape.
3. McGrath CD, Hunter JM. Monitoring of neuromuscular block. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain,
Volume 6, Issue 1, 1 February 2006, Pages 7–12.
489
Pressure Transduction
Describe the principles of measurement, limitations, and potential sources of error for pressure transducers, and their
calibration
Describe the invasive and non-invasive measurement of blood pressure and cardiac output including calibration, sources of
errors and limitations
A transducer converts one form of energy to another. Pressure transducers converts a pressure signal to an electrical signal, and
require several components:
Catheter
Tubing
Stopcock
Flush
Tranducer
This system must be calibrated in two ways:
Static calibration
Calibrates to a known zero.
Dynamic calibration
Accurate representation of changes in the system.
Static Calibration
Static calibration involves:
Leveling the transducer (typically to the level of the phlebostatic axis at the right atrium, or the external auditory meatus)
A change in tranducer level will change the blood pressure due to the change in hydrostatic pressure (in cmH2O).
Zeroing the transducer
Opening the tranducer to air
Zeroing the tranducer on the monitor
A change in measured pressure when the transducer is open to air is due to drift, an artifactual measurement error due to
damage to the cable, tranducer, or monitor.
Dynamic Calibration
Dynamic calibration ensures the operating characteristics of the system (or dynamic response) are accurate. Dynamic response is
a function of:
Damping
How rapidly an oscillating system will come to rest.
Damping is quantified by the damping coefficient or damping ratio
Describes to what extent the magnitude of an oscillation falls with each successive oscillation
Calculated from the ratio of the amplitudes of successive oscillations in a convoluted fashion:
, where:
490
Resonant Frequency
How rapidly a system will oscillate when disturbed and left alone.
When damping is low, it will be close to the natural frequency (or undamped resonant frequency)
Damping and natural frequency are used (rather than the physical characteristics) as they are both easily measured and
accurate in describing the dynamic response
These properties are actually determined by the systems elasticity, mass, and friction, but it is conceptually and
mathematically easier to use damping and resonance
Pressure Waveforms and Dynamic Response

The dynamic response required is dependent on the nature of the pressure wave to be measured
Accurately reproducing an arterial waveform requires a system with a greater dynamic response compared to a venous
waveform
An arterial pressure waveform is a periodic (repeating) complex wave, that can be represented mathematically by Fourier
analysis
Fourier analysis involves expressing a complex (arterial) wave as the sum of many simple sine waves of varying frequencies
and amplitudes
The frequency of the arterial wave (i.e., the pulse rate) is known as the fundamental frequency
The sine waves used to reproduce it must have a frequency that is a multiple (or harmonic) of the fundamental
frequency
Increasing the number of harmonics allows better reproduction of high-frequency components, such as a steep
systolic upstroke
Accurate reproduction of an arterial waveform requires up to 10 harmonics - or 10 times the pulse rate
An arterial pressure transducer should therefore have a dynamic response of 30Hz
This allows accurate reproduction of blood pressure in heart rates up to 180bpm (180 bpm = 3Hz, 3Hz x 10 =
30Hz)
Resonance
If high frequency components of the pressure waveform approach the natural frequency of the system, then the system will
resonate
This results in a distorted output signal and a small overshoot in systolic pressure.
Damping
A pressure tranduction system should be adequately damped:
An optimally damped waveform has a damping of 0.64. It demonstrates:

A rapid return to baseline following a step-change, with one overshoot and one undershoot
A critically damped waveform has a damping cofficient of 1. It demonstrates:
491
The most rapid return to baseline possible following a step-change without overshooting
An overdamped waveform has a damping coefficient of >1. It demonstrates:
A slow return to baseline following a step-change with no oscillations
Slurred upstroke
Absent dicrotic notch
Loss of fine detail
An underdamped waveform has a damping coefficient close to 0 (e.g. 0.03). It demonstrates:
A very rapid return to baseline following a step-change with several oscillations
Systolic pressure overshoot
Artifactual bumps
Optimally damped waveforms are accurate for the widest range of frequency responses:
Testing Dynamic Response

Dynamic response can be tested by inducing a step-change in the system, which allows calculation of both the natural frequency
and the damping coefficient. Clinically, this is performed by doing a fast-flush test.
Fast flush valve is opened during diastolic runoff period (minimises systemic interference)
The pressure wave produced indicates the natural frequency and damping coefficient of the system:
The distance between successive oscillations should be identical and equal to the natural frequency of the system
The ratio of amplitudes of successive oscillations gives the damping coefficient
Optimising Dynamic Response

The lower the natural frequency of a monitoring system, the smaller the range of damping coefficients which can accurately
reproduce a measured pressure wave. Therefore, the optimal dynamic response is seen when the natural frequency is as high as
possible. This is achieved when the tubing is:
Short
Wide
Stiff
Free of air
Introducing an air bubble will increase damping (generally good, since most systems are under-damped), however it will
lower the natural frequency and is detrimental overall.
Footnotes
Fundamentals of Pressure Measurement
492
Pressure exerted by a static fluid is due to the weight of the fluid, and is a function of:
Fluid density (in kg.L-1)

Acceleration (effect of gravity, in m.s-2)
Height of the fluid column
This can be derived as follows:
, therefore
Combining the above equations:
This is usually expressed as:
Note that this expression does not require the mass or volume of the liquid to be known
This is why pressure is often measured in height-substance units (e.g. mmHg, cmH2O)
References
2. Alfred Anaesthetic Department Primary Exam Program
3. Miller, RD. Clinical Measurement of Natural Frequency and Damping Coefficient. In: Anesthesia. 5th Ed. Churchill
Livingstone.
493
Pressure Waveform Analysis

Analysis of arterial pulse contour is:
Real-time and continuous

Used to estimate cardiac output
Less accurate but also less invasive (e.g. thermodilution) or technically demanding (e.g. echocardiography) than other
methods.
Therefore also calculate (and often display) stroke volume variation and pulse pressure variation
Principles
All models recognise that the amplitude of the systolic upstroke is:
Directly proportional to stroke volume

Inversely proportional to arterial compliance
Other principles used by some (but not all) devices include:
Three-element Windkessel model

Characterises the arterial tree as having three major features:
Aortic Impedance
Arterial Compliance
Predicted using patient characteristics.
Systemic Vascular Resistance
Conservation of Mass
Devices
Devices can be classified based on whether they are:
Calibrated/Uncalibrated
Calibrated
Initial estimation is refined using a dilution technique.
Dilutions may be by:
Thermodilution
Cold saline injected into SVC
Using an IJV or SCV CVC.
Temperature changed measured at the femoral artery
Lithium dilution
Small amounts of lithium chloride injected into a central vein
Change in lithium concentration measured in radial artery
CO by calculated Stewart-Hamilton equation
Periodically recalibrated to correct for drift
Uncalibrated
Not corrected for a measured 'true' cardiac output.
Inaccurate for short term changes in arterial properties
494
Not validated in:

Shock
ARDS
Hepatic surgery
Due to changes in arterial tone.
Cardiac surgery
Invasive/Non-invasive
Invasive
Rely on a (usually femoral) arterial catheter.
Non-invasive
Rely on the volume clamp method:
Inflatable cuff wrapped around finger
Plethysmograph estimates blood volume in the digital arteries
Cuff inflates and deflates throughout the cardiac cycle, keeping the volume of the arteries constant
Arterial pressure is proportional to cuff pressure.
Inaccurate in:
Periopehral oedema
Vasoconstricted states
Common Devices in Use

PiCCO/VolumeView/FloTrac
Calibrated
Invasive
3-element Windkessel
Mechanism:
Calculates area under systolic part of the arterial curve
Divides calcualted area by aortic compliance
Compliance estimated by proprietary algorithm each time the device is calibrated.
SVR is continuosly estimated from calculated CO and measured BP
LiDCO
Calibrated
Invasive
Conservation of mass
Compliance inferred from biometric data
Clearsight/CNAP
Uncalibrated
Non-invasive
T-Line
Calibrated
Proprietary, non-validated auto-calibrating algorithm.
Non-invasive
Uses radial applanation tonometry
References
1. Jozwiak M, Monnet X, Teboul J-L. Pressure Waveform Analysis. Anesth Analg. 2017.
2. Francis, SE. Continuous Estimation of Cardiac Output and Arterial Resistance from Arterial Blood Pressure using a Third-
Order Windkessel Model. MIT. 2007.
495
496
Non-Invasive Blood Pressure

Non-invasive blood pressure measurements is performed with either a:
Device for Indirect Non-invasive Automatic Mean Arterial Pressure (DINAMAP)

Automatic blood pressure cuff.
Von Recklinghausen's oscillotonometer
"Manual" blood pressure cuff.
Uses two cuffs, and therefore two tubes
DINAMAP
Components:
One cuff
Performs both arterial occlusion and measurement.
Tubing
Device for inflating the occlusive cuff and gradually deflating it
Pressure tranducer
Display
Method:
Cuff is inflated above SBP

Cuff deflates at a rate of 2-3mmHg.s-1
When cuff pressure equals:
SBP
Turbulent flow occurs past the cuff, creating pressure oscillations. The pressure at which these are first detected is the
SBP.
MAP
The pressure at which amplitude of oscillations is maximal.
DBP is calculated from MAP and SBP
Cons
Requires an appropriately sized cuff
Cuff should be ~20% greater than arm diameter.
Cuffs that are too small will over-read
Cuffs that are too wide will under-read
Requires a regular rhythm
Inaccurate at extremes of blood pressure
Inaccurate when used more frequently than once per minute
Inaccurate when the vessel is incompressible
Heavily calcified vessels
When applied to forearm/foreleg
May cause neuropraxia
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Von Recklinghausen's Oscillotonometer

Components:
Two cuffs
Occlusive cuff
Measurement cuff
Tubing
Device for inflating the occlusive cuff and gradually deflating it
Aneroid barometer for transducing pressure
Display
Process:
Cuff is inflated until the radial pressure is no longer palpable

This is approximates SBP.
Cuff is deflated, and reinflated to 20mmHg above the estimated SBP
Cuff is deflated at a rate of 2-3mmHg.s-1 whilst auscultating the brachial artery
When cuff pressure equals:
SBP
Turbulent flow occurs past the cuff, turbulent flow causes the first of the Korotkoff sounds (clear tapping pulsations) to
be heard.
DBP
The cuff no longer compresses the vessel at all, so no turbulent flow occurs and nothing is auscultated.
References
498
Cardiac Output Measurement

Explain the derived values from common methods of measurement of cardiac output (i.e. measures of vascular resistance)
Cardiac output measurement can be performed:
Invasively
Pulmonary Artery Catheter
Thermodilution
Fick Principle
TOE
Arterial waveform analysis
PiCCO
Vigileo
Non-invasively
TTE
MRI
Thoracic impedance
Thermodilution
Thermodilution remains the gold standard of cardiac output measurement.
This technique:
Requires a pulmonary artery catheter

Various different designs exist. For CO measurement, they require:
A proximal port at the RA/SVC
A temperature probe at the tip
Typically a silicon oxide thermistor.
A balloon at the tip
To float it into position.
A distal (PA) port is required for measuring PAP and the PCWP, but is not required for CO calculation
Method for Intermittent Cardiac Output Measurement by Thermodilution

A known volume of (typically dextrose) at a known temperature (classically cooled, but this is not required) is injected into
the proximal port
The temperature of blood is measured at the tip
This produces a temperature-time curve.
The area under the curve can be used to calculate cardiac output, as per the modified Stewart-Hamilton Equation:
, where:
= Cardiac output
= Volume of injectate
= Temperature of blood
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= Temperature of injectate
= Density constant
Relates to the specific heat and specific gravity of both injectate and blood.
= Computation constant
Accounts for catheter dead space and heat exchange during injection.
= Area under the change in temperature-time curve
Errors in Thermodilution
Natural variability
Cardiac output varies up to 10% with changes in intrathoracic pressure during respiration. Therefore:
A mean of 3-5 measurements should be taken
Measurements should be taken at end-expiration
Incorrect volume of injectate
Too much underestimates CO
Too little overestimates CO
Warm fluid
The closer the temperature of injectate is to blood, the greater degree of error introduced to the measurment.
Colder injectate is more accurate, but carries the risk of inducing bradyarrhythmias
Poorly positioned PAC
The PAC must be positioned in West's Zone 3 for blood flow to occur past the tip, and for the measured temperature to be
accurate.
Tricuspid regurgitation
Results in retrograde ejection of injectate back past the valve.
Arrhythmia
Fick Principle
Cardiac Output can also be measured using the Fick Principle. This technique:
Uses the Fick Principle

The flow of blood to an organ is equal to the uptake of a tracer substance divided by the arterio-venous concentration
difference.
In this case, the tracer substance is oxygen
The 'organ' is the whole body
This produces the equation: , where:

is Cardiac Output
is the patients oxygen consumption

Typically estimated as 3.5ml.kg-1 .min-1
is arterial oxygen content
is mixed venous oxygen content

Relies on mixed venous blood sampled from the pulmonary artery, and arterial blood sampled from a peripheral arterial line
References
500
1. Moise, S. F., Sinclair, C. J. and Scott, D. H. T. (2002), Pulmonary artery blood temperature and the measurement of cardiac
output by thermodilution. Anaesthesia, 57: 562–566. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2044.2002.02513.x
2. Nishikawa, T. & Dohi, S. Errors in the measurement of cardiac output by thermodilution Can J Anaesth (1993) 40: 142.
501
Pulse Oximetry
Pulse Oximetry
Describe the principles of pulse and tissue oximetry, co-oximetry and capnography, including calibration, sources of errors
and limitations
Pulse oximetry relies on several principles:
Oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin absorb light of different wavelengths to different extents
Light of 660nm and 940nm is used.
Deoxyhaemoglobin has a greater absorbance of red (660nm) light than oxyhaemoglobin
Oxyhaemoglobin has a greater absorbance of infrared (940nm) light than deoxyhaemoglobin
The relative absorbance of each allows determination of the proportions of oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin
The Beer-Lambert Law(s):

Absorption of light passing through a substance is directly proportional to both the distance it travels through the substance
and the concentration of attenuating species within the substance. It is a composite of:
Beer's Law
Absorption of light is proportional to the concentration of "attenuating species"
Lambert's Law
Absorption is proportional to the thickness of the solution, or more precisely, that each layer of equal thickness absorbs
an equal proportion of radiation that passes through it
Blood flow is pulsatile
Method
A pulse oximeter consists of:
Two diodes of the desired wavelengths

Photocell
Microprocessor
During pulsatile flow, the expansion and contraction of the blood vessels alters the distance and haemoglobin concentrations,
changing the absorption spectra of blood (as per the Beer-Lambert Law).
Non-pulsatile elements are due to tissues and venous blood
These are subtracted from the total, leaving the pulsatile element which represents the arterial component
The ratio of absorbances of the pulsatile elements and the non-pulsatile elements is called R, and is calculated as:

R is compared with a set of standardised values to deliver a calculated SpO2
An R of 1 gives an SpO2 of 85%
An R of 0.4 gives an SpO2 of 100%
An R of 2 gives an SpO2 of 50%
The Isobestic Point

The isobestic point is the wavelength at which light is absorbed equally by both haemoglobin species
Light absorption is therefore independent of saturation, and is instead a function of haemoglobin concentration
This can be used to correct for haemoglobin concentration
There are two isobestic points for oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin, at 590nm and 805nm
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Pulse Oximetry
Limitations
Requires detectable pulsatile flow
Limited by poor peripheral perfusion (shock, hypotension, hypothermia) and non-pulsatile flow (ECMO, CPB)
Body movements confound readings (shivering, seizing)
Low saturations
Inaccurate below 70%, and completely unreliable below 50%.
Venous pulsation
Detected as pulsatile flow, and erronously interpreted by the microprocessor as arterial flow.
Confounded by ambient light

The diodes are cycled at several hundred times per second which allows the detector to compensate for the effect of ambient
light (the values when the diodes are off give the effect of ambient light).
Absorption spectra confounded by:

Haemoglobinopathies
Carboxyhaemoglobin causes the pulse oximeter to read artifically high due to as it also aborbs 660nm light
Methaemoglobinaemia causes the SpO2 to trend towards 85%, as though it absorbs 660nm light is also absorbs
940nm light to a greater degree
Dyes
Methylene blue will cause the SpO2 to read < 65% for several minutes
Indocyanine green will also cause a decreased SpO2
References
1. Davis PD, Kenny D. Basic Physics and Measurement in Anaesthesia. 5th Ed. Elsevier. 2003.
2. Mardirossian G, Schneider RE. Limitations of Pulse Oximetry. Anesth Prog 39:194-196 1992.
4. Tremper KK, Barker SJ. Pulse oximetry. Anesthesiology. 1989 Jan;70(1):98-108.
5. Williams GW, Williams ES. Basic Anaesthesiology Examination Review. Oxford University Press. 2016.
503
Oxygen Analysis
Oxygen Analysis
Describe the principles of measuring oxygen concentration
As oxygen is a molecule containing two similar atoms, its partial pressure cannot be determined using infrared techniques (unlike
CO2). Oxygen content of a gas is instead determined using:
Paramagnetic analyses
Fuel Cells
Paramagnetic Analysis
Principles of paramagnetic analysis:
Oxygen is paramagnetic
This means it is attracted by magnetic fields, but does not propagate the field.
This is because its two unpaired valent electrons have the same spin.
Many other gases weakly repelled by magnetic fields (diamagnetic)
The attaction of a gas mixture to a magnetic field is therefore proportional to its oxygen content
Many different methods exist which use this property to determine oxygen content
Pressure Method
Gas tested flows into a tube
A reference gas flows into a parallel tube
Both gases then pass through:
Flow restrictors
Magnetic field
This is being turned on and off at ~100Hz.
The gases combine in the magnetic field
The greater the oxygen content of the gas, the more it will move into the magnetic field
This movement creates a negative pressure behind the gas.
The pressure difference between the tested gas and the reference gas is proportional to the oxygen content of the test gas.
Temperature Method
Used in many modern devices.
Gas flows through a magnetic field, causing the particles to align

This changes the thermal conductivity of the oxygen molecules.
The change in thermal conductivity of the gas mixture is proportional to the oxygen content
This is detected by measuring current passing through a heated wire
Pros
Accurate
Rapid response time
Modern analysers can identify breath-to-breath variation in FiO2.
Don't require regular calibration
504
Oxygen Analysis
Cons
Water vapour reduces accuracy
Interference from other paramagnetic gases
Nitric oxide
Effect is minimal as nitric is delivered in far smaller volumes than oxygen, and is only weakly paramagnetic.
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells rely on reduction of oxygen to measure oxygen partial pressure. They consist of:
Oxygen permeable membrane

KOH solution
This contains:
Lead anode
Lead is consumed as the fuel cell operates.
Gold cathode
Method
Oxygen diffuses across the membrane into the potassium hydroxide solution
At the cathode:
At the anode:
The oxygen consumption is proportional to the current generated, which is measured with an ammeter
Pros
No power required
Small
Accurate
Cons
Will accumulate nitrogen in the presence of N2O
Results in an under-reading of PO2.
Must be replaced after 6-12 months
Requires regular two-point calibration
21% and 100% oxygen are used.
Relatively slow response time compared to paramagnetic analysers
~20s.
References
505
Oxygen Analysis
506
End-Tidal Gas Analysis

Describe the principles of pulse and tissue oximetry, co-oximetry and capnography, including calibration, sources of errors
and limitations
Principles
Several mechanisms for ETCO2 measurement exist:
Infrared Spectroscopy
Colourimetric Methods
Rayman Scattering
Gas Chromatography
Infrared Spectroscopy
Infrared spectroscopy relies on the fact that:
Gases with two or more different atoms will absorb infrared radiation
Different gases absorbing different wavelengths to different degrees
Measuring the absorbed wavelengths and comparing with the likely composition of a mixture, a system can be designed
using a specific wavelength to measure gas concentrations and avoid interference
End-tidal gas analysis using infrared light is used in the measurement of:
CO2
Capnography is the continuous measurement and graphical display of the partial pressure of CO2 in expired gas. This is the
most common method to measure ETCO2.
Anaesthetic agents
Measurement of CO2
Components:
Sapphire sampling chamber containing gas sample

CO2 absorbs infrared radiation at a peak wavelength of 4.28μm
The sapphire lens only allows 4.28μm light through
Emitter
Detector
Microprocessor
Display
Method:
Light is emitted and passes through the sampling chamber

A lens is used to focus emitted light.
Levels of radiation are measured on the other side of the chamber
Levels correspond to the amount of gas present in the sample
The less radiation that reaches the detector, the more gas there is in the sample absorbing it
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Equipment Errors
Errors can be classified into:
Specific to technique
The collision broadening effect
Intermolecular forces vary depending on their proximity to other molecules in the gas mixture. A change in
intermolecular forces may alter their bond-energy and the frequencies at which they absorb radiation. It can be
overcome by:
Correcting for the presence of other gases
Manually adjusting the obtained values
Crossover with other gas mixtures
CO2 and N2O have similar absorbance spectra, and may lead to error when a device is not designed to measure both
wavelengths.
Failure of equipment
These can be overcome by use of double-beam capnometer. This uses a reference chamber which contains CO2-free air,
and the same emitter-detector system. All absorption from this system must occur due to artifact (as no CO2 is present). The
artifactual component is then subtracted from the value detected in the main chamber. This corrects for:
Variable amount of infrared radiation released
Variable sensitivity of the detector
Variable efficacy of the crystal window and lens system
Relating to type of capnometer used

ETCO2 may be either side-stream or in-line.
Side-stream CO2 involves a length of narrow tubing drawing gas from the expiratory limb of the breathing circuit
(typically from the HME filter) to the capnograph
Side-stream requires a flow of 150 ml.min-1
Has a (pretty insignificant) delay (<1s) in measurement
May be blocked by water vapour, and require use of a water trap to remove condensation
In-line systems have a sampling chamber attached in-line with the ETT
The sampling chamber slightly increases the dead-space of the circuit
May be relevant in children or very difficult to ventilate patients.
Adds weight to patient end of the breathing circuit
Require heating to 41°C to avoid condensation
Normal ETCO2 Waveform
The normal trace consists of four components:
1. The baseline
This consists of:
Inspiratory time
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Early dead-space exhalation

This is the period immediately before phase 2, where some gas with a PCO2 of 0 is exhaled.
2. Alveolar exhalation, where PCO2 rises rapidly
3. Alveolar plateau, where PCO2 flattens
The highest-point of this curve is labelled ETCO2.
4. Inspiration, where PCO2 returns to 0
ETCO2 Waveform Variations
Airway obstruction:
Occurs due to uneven emptying of alveoli with different time-constants
Hyperventilation:
Lower ETCO2 with shorter baseline

Plateau phase may not occur at very high respiratory rates
Rebreathing:
Baseline increases as inspired CO2 is measured from gas analyser
Changes in ETCO2
Normal ETCO2 is 32-42 mmHg, whilst normal PaCO2 is 35-45 mmHg.
509
High ETCO2
This may be from:
Decreased ventilation
Decreased RR
Decreased VT
Increased VD and therefore a greater VD:VT ratio
Increased production of CO2
Increased metabolic rate
Sepsis
Torniquet release
ROSC following arrest
Increased inspired
Rebreathing (i.e. equipment/ventilator malfunction)
External source of added CO2
Low ETCO2
Rapid Loss of ETCO2
Failure of ventilation
Circuit disconnect
Airway obstruction
Bronchospasm
Failure of circulation
Cardiac arrest
Shock
Gradual Loss of ETCO2
Increased VA (i.e. increased MV)

Decreased CO2 production
Hypometabolic state
Hypothermia
Increased VD, i.e. V/Q mismatch
Increased West Zone I physiology:
Hypotension
Increased RV Afterload:
PE
High PEEP
Sampling error
Air entrainment into the sample chamber
Inadequate VT
Discrepancy between ETCO2, PACO2, and PaCO2

The normal gradient between PaCO2 and ETCO2 is 0-5 mmHg. Healthy and awake individuals should have essentially no (<1ml)
alveolar dead space, and so essentially no gradient. This gradient is increased in patients with:
V/Q mismatch
ETCO2 will underestimate arterial CO2 as gas from un-perfused alveoli (with negligible CO2) will dilute CO2 expired
gas
510
Colourimetric Methods
Litmus paper which changes colour when exposed to hydrogen ions (produced by CO2) can be used to confirm endo-tracheal
intubation, though they may generate false-positive results due to gastric pH.
References
2. Davis PD, Kenny D. Basic Physics and Measurement in Anaesthesia. 5th Ed. Elsevier. 2003.
511
Blood Gas Analysis
Blood Gas Analysis

Describe the methods of measurement of oxygen and carbon dioxide tension in blood and blood pH
Blood gas machines directly measure three variables and calculate the remainder. Measured variables are:
PO2
CO2
pH
Calculated variables include:
Bicarbonate
Using the pH, CO2 and the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.
Base Excess
Calculated using the Henderson-Hasselbalch and Siggaard-Anderson equation. Can be expressed in two ways:
Base Excess
The amount of alkali that must be added to the sample to return it to a normal pH, at a temperature of 37°C and a
PaCO2 of 40mmHg.
Standardised Base Excess
As base excess, but calculated for blood with a Hb concentration of 50g.L-1. This is thought to better represent the ECF
as a whole.
Oxygen Tension
Oxygen tension is measured with a Clarke electrode. This consists of:
A chamber for the blood sample

A chamber containing a potassium chloride solution, which:
Is separated from the blood chamber by an oxygen-permeable membrane This prevents blood being in direct contact
with the cathode, which would lead to protein deposition on the cathode and incorrect measurement.
Contains a platinum cathode
Contains a silver/silver Chloride anode
A battery applying 0.6V across the electrodes
Method
A voltage of 0.6V is applied across the electrodes, causing the silver to reactive with chloride in the solution to produce
electrons:
512
Blood Gas Analysis
This potential difference is required to start the reaction

0.6V is chosen because it is enough to start the reaction but will have minimal effect on measured current flow
At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and water to produce hydroxyl ions:
For each oxygen molecule present at the cathode, four electrons can be consumed
Increasing the oxygen available at the cathode increases the number of electrons consumed, and therefore increases current
flow
Oxygen will move from the sample chamber to the measuring chamber according to its partial pressure
Measured current flow is therefore proportional to oxygen tension in blood
Calibration, Limitations, and Accuracy

Calibration is performed with standard gas mixtures
Requires regular two-point calibration.
Cathode must be kept clean from protein and not damaged
Cathode must be kept at 37°C
May read falsely high with halothane
pH Measurement
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration1 in solution, and is defined as the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the
[H+]:
A pH of 7.4 is a [H+] of 40nmol.L-1 at 37°C

A change in a pH unit of 1 is equivalent to a 10-fold change in the [H+]
A change in pH of 0.3 is equal to doubling or halving the [H+]
The pH electrode consists of:
A chamber for the blood sample

A measuring chamber, separated from the sample by H+-permeable glass, which contains:
A buffer solution
A silver/silver chloride measuring electrode
A reference chamber, also separated from the chamber by H+-permeable glass, which contains:
A KCl solution
Has no buffering properties.
513
Blood Gas Analysis
A mercury/mercury chloride reference electrode
Method
Relies on the principle that two solutions with different H+ activities will develop a potential difference between them
(proportional to the concentration gradient)
H+ passes through the glass along a concentration gradient:
A variable potential difference is generated in the measuring chamber, as H+ ions are buffered and the concentration
gradient is maintained
A constant potential difference is generated in the reference chamber, as there is no buffer of H+ ions in the KCl solution
Once H+ has equilibrated between blood and the KCl solution, the potential difference between the measuring and reference
electrodes is proportional to the H+ concentration in blood

Calibration is performed with two phosphate buffer solutions containing two different (known) [H+]
Must be kept at 37°C
Hypothermia increases solubility of CO2 and therefore lowers PaCO2
A reduced partial pressure of CO2 is required to keep the same number of molecules dissolved (as per Henry's Law)
Therefore, as blood cools its pH will increase
Electrodes must be kept clean from protein and not damaged
Carbon Dioxide Tension

Carbon dioxide tension is measured with a Severinghaus electrode, which is based on the pH electrode, as PaCO2 is related to
[H+]. The Severinghaus electrode consists of:
A chamber for the blood sample, separated from the bicarbonate chamber by a CO2 permeable membrane
A chamber containing bicarbonate solution in a nylon mesh, and separated from both the measuring and reference chambers
by H+-permeable glass
A measuring chamber containing:
A buffer solution
A silver/silver chloride measuring electrode
A reference chamber containing:
A KCl solution
A mercury/mercury chloride reference electrode
514
Blood Gas Analysis
Method
CO2 diffuses from blood into the bicarbonate chamber
CO2 reacts with water in the bicarbonate chamber to produce H+ ions
From here, the process is identical to the pH electrode, except bicarbonate takes the place of blood:
H+ ions diffuse into the reference chamber until the H+ ion concentration has equilibrated
H+ ions continually diffuse into the measuring chamber (as they are buffered)
This establishes a constant pH gradient
This gradient is proportional the H+ ion concentration in the bicarbonate chamber, which is proportional to the
CO2 content of blood.

Calibration is performed with solutions of known CO2 concentration
Must be kept at 37°C
Hypothermia decreases solubility of CO2 and therefore decreases pH
Electrodes must be kept clean from protein and not damaged
Slow response time relative to pH electrode due to time taken for CO2 to diffuse and react
This can be accelerated with carbonic anhydrase
Footnotes
1. Technically pH is defined as the activity of H+ in a solution. Clinically, activity is identical to concentration, so in
medicine these definitions are functionally the same. ↩
References
515
Blood Gas Analysis
2. (FRCA - Measurement of pO2, pCO2, pH, pulse oximetry and capnography)[http://www.frca.co.uk/article.aspx?

articleid=100389]
516
Gas Flow
Gas Flow
Describe the measurement of flow, pressure and volume of gases
Types of Flow:
Laminar flow
Fluid moving in a steady manner without turbulence.
Turbulent flow
Irregular fluid movement in radial, axial, and circumferential axes.
Laminar flow is more efficient than turbulent flow, as it requires a smaller pressure gradient to generate the same flow
For two fluids moving at the same speed, the velocity of individual particles in laminar flow will be both higher and
lower
Transitional flow
Mixture of laminar and turbulent flow. Flow is typically turbulent in the centre, and laminar at the edges.
Devices used to measure gas flow include:
Variable-Orifice Flowmeters
Fixed-Orifice Flowmeters
Pneumotachograph.
Hot wire flowmeter
Note orifice based flowmeters rely on the Hagan-Poiseuille Equation:
Viscosity ( ) and length ( ) are fixed by both devices

Fixed orifice flowmeters also fix radius ( ), such that the change in pressure must therefore be proportional to flow:
, where is a constant
Variable orifice flowmeters also fix pressure ( ), such that flow can be calculated from the radius:
Flowmeters
Constant pressure, variable orifice flowmeters are found on wall and cylinder gases. They consist of:
An inverse conical tube (i.e. narrower at the bottom, and wider at the top)
A needle valve
A bobbin
May have a groove which causes the bobbin to spin, confirming it is not stuck.
Method:
Gas flows from the bottom to the top of the tube

The bobbin obstructs flow
Therefore there is a pressure difference across it.
Remember:
At equilibrium, the pressure exerted by the bobbin on the flow of gas ( )
517
Gas Flow
is equal to the pressure exerted by the gas on the bobbin

As flow is increased, the bobbin is pushed further up the flowmeter due to the increased pressure
The bobbin will reach a new equilibrium position when the orifice of the flowmeter has become wide enough for the pressure
on the bobbin to equal the pressure of gravity
Flowmeters are calibrated for individual gases as:
Laminar (typically low flows) flow is proportional to viscosity

Turbulent (typically high flows) flow is proportional to density
Pros
Cheap
No additional power supply required
Accurate
Readings may be altered by:
Change in temperature affects viscosity and density of gas
Change in pressure affects density of gas
Cons
Must be vertical
Bobbins can become stuck
Pneumotachographs
Constant orifice, variable pressure flowmeter. Several different designs exist, and include:
Fleisch pneumotachograph
Consists of several fine bore parallel tubes placed in the gas circuit
Decreased radius and increased resistance reduces gas flow velocity, improving laminar flow.
A differential pressure transducer is placed at either end of the tubes
The pressure drop across the tubing is directly proportional to flow
Pitot tubes
Consists of two tubes placed into the gas circuit:
One faces into the gas flow
The other faces away from the gas flow
The pressure difference between tubes is proportional to flow
Pros
Accurate
Continual measurement
Allow calculation of volumes
Cons
Increased resistance
Increased dead space
Require laminar flow
518
Gas Flow
Inaccurate when:
Flows are higher than what the system is designed for
Alteration in gas density
Change in gas mixture
Alteration in gas temperature
Hot Wire Flowmeter

Components:
Two fine platium wires in the gas circuit

One heated to 180°C at OL.min-1
One at 0°C
Ammeter
Method:
As gas flows, the wire cools

Rate of heat dissipation is proportional to gas flow
The amount of current required to return the wire to 180 is measured, and is proportional to flow
Pros
Accurate
Fast
Cons
Fragile
References
519
Principles of Ultrasound
Describe the physical principles of ultrasound and the Doppler Effect.
Ultrasound is an imaging technique where high-frequency sound waves (2-15MHz) are used to generate an image. An ultrasound
wave is produced by a probe using the piezoelectric effect:
Certain crystalline structures will vibrate at a particular frequency when a certain voltage is applied across them
The conversion of electrical energy to kinetic energy is how the ultrasound probe creates an ultrasound wave.
Similarly, they can generate a voltage when a vibration is induced in them
This is how the probe interprets reflected waves.
Basic principles
Spatial resolution
How close two separate objects can be to each other and still be distinguishable. It is divided into:
Axial resolution, how far apart two objects can be when one is above the other (in the direction of the beam)
Lateral resolution, how far apart two objects can be when side side-by-side
Contrast resolution is how similar two objects can appear (in echogenic appearance) and still be distinguishable
Higher frequency settings offer greater spatial resolution but decreased penetration
Lower frequency settings offer reduced spatial resolution but increased penetration
They are used for visualising deep structures.
Affect of Tissues on Ultrasound

At tissue interfaces, the wave may be:
Absorbed
Sound is lost as heat, and increases with decreased water content of tissues.
Reflected
Sound bounces back from the tissue interface, and returns to the probe.
Reflection is dependent on the:
Difference in sound conduction between the two tissues
Angle of incidence (close to 90° improves reflection)
Smoothness of the tissue plane
The amplitude of sound returning to the probe determines echogenicity, or how white the object will be displayed
The time taken for the sound to return determines depth
The time taken for a wave to return is proportional to twice the distance of the object from the probe
Depth can be calculated using , where:
is Depth
is the speed of sound in tissue, and is assumed to be 1540 ms-1
t is Time
Transmitted
Sound passes through the tissue, and may be reflected or absorbed at deeper tissues.
Scattered
Sound is reflected from tissue but is not received by the probe.
Attenuated
520
Attenuation describes the loss of sound wave with increasing depth, and is a function of the above factors.
Attenuation is managed by increasing the gain
Gain refers to amplification of returned signal.
Time-gain compensation refers to amplification of signals which have taken longer to return, which amplifies signals
returned from deep tissues
Modes
Ultrasound modes include:
B-Mode (brightness mode)

The standard 2D ultrasound mode, and plots the measured amplitude of reflected ultrasound waves by the calculated depth
from which they were reflected.
M-Mode (movement mode)
Selects a single vertical section of the image and displays changes over time (i.e. depth on the y-axis, and time on the x-axis).
Doppler Effect
The doppler effect is the change in observed frequency when a wave is reflected off (or emitted from) a moving object, relative to
the position of the receiver. In medical ultrasound, this is the change in frequency of sound reflected from a moving tissue (e.g. an
erythrocyte). It is given by the equation:
where:
= Velocity of object
= Frequency shift
= Speed of sound (in blood)
= Frequency of the emitted sound

= Angle between the sound wave and the object
Reflected frequencies are higher towards the probe and lower away.
Calculation of Cardiac Output
Remember, .
Heart rate is measured

Stroke volume is calculated by:
Measuring the cross-sectional area of the left ventricular outflow tract Obtained by measuring the diameter using
ultrasound.
Measuring the stroke distance
Obtained via integrating the velocity-time waveform for time across the left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT VTI).
The integral of flow (m.s-1 and time (s)) for time (s), produces a distance (m)
Mutiplying the LVOT cross-sectional area (m2) by the stroke distance (m), produces a volume (m3)
This is the stroke volume.
References
521
2. CICM July/September 2007.
522
Temperature and Humidity

Describe the measurement of temperature and humidity
Temperature is the tendency of a body to transfer heat energy to another body, and is measured in degrees. It is distinct from
heat, which is the kinetic energy content of a body, and is measured in Joules. The two are related by the specific heat capacity,
which describes how much energy (J) must be applied to a body to raise its temperature from 14°C to 15°C, without a change in
state.
Humidity may be either absolute or relative:
Absolute Humidity is the mass of water vapour in a volume of air

Relative Humidity measures the percentage saturation of air at current temperature, or more formally:
Measurement of Temperature
Temperature is measured by a number of methods:
Liquid Expansion Thermometry

This is used in mercury thermometers. These consist of:
A graduated evacuated capillary of negligible volume, attached to

A mercury resevoir, of much greater volume, separated by
A constriction ring
Prevents travel of mercury up the capillary by gravity.
Mechanism:
When heated, the kinetic energy of the mercury increases and it expands, forcing it up the capillary
As the thermal expansion coefficient for all liquids is very small, the capillary must be of a very small volume to create a
useable device.
The speed that this occurs is related to the time-constant of the system
This is typically 30 seconds. Measurement therefore takes ~4 time-constants, or 2 minutes.
Pros
Easy to use
Accurate
Reusable
Sterilisable
Cheap
Cons
Slow response
Only accurate once it has reached thermal equilibrium.
Glass can break
May cause release of mercury or alcohol.
Inaccurate at:
523
Low temperatures with mercury

Freezes at -38.8°C.
High temperatures with alcohol
Boils at 78.5°C.
Electrical
Electrical methods include:
Resistance thermometer
Platinum wire increases electrical resistance with increasing temperatur.
Therefore the voltage drop across the wire will correspond to the temperature of the wire
Change in resistance is linear across the temperature range
However, these are expensive.
Thermistor
Metal (e.g. SiO2) semiconductor which changes its resistance in a predictably non-linear fashion (run-away exponent) with
temperature.
Can be manufactured so that change is linear over the clinical range
Much cheaper than wire resistance methods
The degree of voltage drop is usually very small, however this can be amplified using a wheatstone bridge
Thermocouple
At the junction of two dissimilar metals, a potential difference will be produced proportional to their temperature. This is
known as the Seebeck effect.
Non-linear (wash in exponent)
Degrade over time
Measurement of Humidity
Humidity can be measured by a number of methods:
Hair Hygrometer
Hair (actual hair) changes elasticity depending on the humidity of air. Changes in elasticity can be related to changes in
humidity.
Wet and Dry Bulb

This system measures both temperature and relative humidity.
Two thermometers are used

One is wrapped in a wick, which is attached to a water reservoir
This is the wet thermometer.
The dry thermometer gives a measurement of surrounding air temperature
The wet thermometer is cooled due to evaporative cooling from the wick
High energy water molecules become vapour, leaving only low energy molecules behind.
The temperature difference between the thermometers is a function of:
Latent heat of vaporisation of water
How much evaporative cooling is occurring
This is function of humidity.
At 100% relative humidity, no evaporative cooling will take place and the temperatures will be equal
As humidity decreases, evaporative cooling will cool the wet thermometer, and the temperature difference
allows humidity to be determined
524
References
525
Electrocardiography
Electrocardiography
Describe the principles behind the ECG
The ECG is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart, as measured by the sum of electrical vectors at the
patients skin.
Componenents
An ECG consists of:
Electrodes
Disposable, sticky components which act as conductors due to a silver/silver chloride coating. To reduce electrode
impedance, skin should be:
Hairless
Dry
Clean
Cables
Shielded to prevent currents being induced and electrocuting the patient.
Processor
Monitor
ECG Leads
ECG leads are created by taking the potential difference between two electrodes, which varies by 0.5-2mV through the cardiac
cycle as myocardium depolarises. ECG leads are divided into:
Limb leads
Potential difference between limb electrodes:
I: RA to LA
II: RA to LL
III: LA to LL
Augmented leads
Potential difference between the average of the limb leads (called the indifferent electrode) and each individual limb lead.
Augmented leads are of much lower voltage and must be amplified
Three augmented leads exist (one for each limb electrode)
Precordial leads
Potential difference between the indifferent electrode and one of the six additional electrodes placed on the chest wall.
The relationship between electrodes and leads is described with Einthoven's Triangle:
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Electrocardiography
Method
As the myocardial membrane potential changes across the cardiac cycle, a potential difference can be measured at the skin.
A depolarisation wave travelling towards the positive electrode (or a repolarisation wave travelling away) will cause an
upward deflection in the ECG
These potential differences are very small, and therefore need to be:
Distinguished from background interference
Several techniques exist:
Common mode rejection
Identical electrical activity occurring in multiple electrodes is likely due to interference rather than cardiac activity,
and is removed from the measured signal.
A ground electrode is typically used for this purpose
ECG modes
ECGs can be set to varying levels of sensitivity.
Diagnostic mode
Responds to higher range of frequencies, but is at greater risk of interference.
Monitor mode
ECG responds to a lower range of frequencies, reducing interference but also resolution. This is common on
3-lead ECG.
High input impedance
Minimises signal loss.
Amplified
Frequencies in the desired signal range are amplified.
Sources of Error
Improve signal detection
Good adherence
Optimal skin contact
Ensure dry and hairless.
Minimise external elecrostatic forces
Earthed
Diathermy
Shivering
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Electrocardiography
Risks
ECG electrodes can act as an exit electrode for surgical diathermy
References
2. CICM February/April 2016
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Humidifiers
Humidifiers
Humidifiers add water vapour to inspired gas, taking the place of normal body mechanisms which are bypassed or impeded by
invasive and non-invasive ventilation. Maintaining adequate humidity of inspired gas is important in:
Reducing metabolic load

Humidification of inspired gas accounts for ~15% of basal heat expenditure.
Maintaining function of the mucociliary elevator
Inspiration of dry gas increases viscosity of mucous.
Reducing water loss
Water will be absorbed from mucosa to humidify gas.
Humidifiers can be classified into active or passive.
Passive Humidifiers
Passive humidifiers:
Do not require power

Do not require water
The Heat and Moisture Exchange (HME) filter is the classic passive humidifier:
Placed between the patient and the patient Y-piece

Consists of:
A moisture exchange layer
Pleated, hygroscopically coated foam or paper.
Expired gas cools as it passes, condensing onto the foam, with condensation promoted by hygroscopic coating
(usually this is NaCl)
The latent heat of vaporisation results in a decreased temperature of expired gas
A filter layer
Typically a electrostatic or hydrophobic material.
Expired gas is cooled and dried
Inspired gas is then heated and humidified
An HME takes up to 20 minutes to be fully effective, and can achieve a relative humidity up to 70%
Efficacy depends upon the patient's core temperature and the condition of the airway
Pros
Cheap
Lightweight
Straightforward
May contain anti-bacterial filter
Cons
May be blocked with vomit and secretions
Increase airway resistance
Increase dead space
Not as effective as powered active systems
Only last 24 hours
529
Humidifiers
Takes 15-20 minutes to become fully effective
Active Humidifiers
Active Humidifiers:
Require either:
Power
Unpowered humidifiers are typically less effective, and only operate well at lower flow rates.
Water
(Or both)
Consist of:
A water bath
Typically sterile water.
A heating element
To heat the water bath.
A gas pipe
Inspired gases are bubbled through the water bath to humidify them.
A water trap
To trap condensed water. Should be changed regularly to minimise infection risk.
Pros
Greater humidification
Appropriate for long-term ventilation
Cons
Bulky
Expensive
Require power
Infection risk from water bath
References
1. McNulty G, Eyre L. Humidification in anaesthesia and critical care. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care &
Pain, Volume 15, Issue 3, 1 June 2015
530
Supplemental Oxygen
Supplemental Oxygen
Describe different systems to deliver supplemental oxygen and the advantages and disadvantages of these systems
Devices for delivery of oxygen can be classified into:
Variable performance devices

Fixed performance devices
Variable Performance Devices

Variable performance devices:
Do not deliver a fixed FiO2

This is because respiratory flow is non-uniform
Although minute ventilation may be 5-6L.min-1, peak inspiratory flows are substantially higher.
Delivered FiO2 is dependent on oxygen flow and inspiratory flow
Increasing oxygen flow rate will increase FiO2, but the effect will vary depending on the device (volume, seal) and
the patient
Include:
Nasal Cannulae
Prongs delivering gas at 1-4L.min-1.
Higher flows may dry mucosa, and lead to epistaxis
Nasopharynx acts as an oxygen resevoir, somewhat increasing FiO2
Well tolerated
Allow eating, drinking, and talking
Hudson Mask
Simple unsealed mask, allowing gas flow up to 15L.min-1.
Cheap
Less well tolerated
Rebreathing may occur
Non-Rebreather Mask
Modified version of the Hudson mask, containing a reservoir bag.
Reservoir bag is filled during expiration
Gas is drawn from the reservoir bag during inspiration, increasing FiO2
Some air is entrained from around the mask and so FiO2 is < 1.
Fixed Performance Devices

Fixed performance devices:
Theoretically deliver a fixed FiO2

These are usually flow limited as well, and so FiO2 may decrease at higher inspiratory flows.
Include:
Venturi
Consists of a cone through which oxygen flows. Apertures on the side of the cone entrain room air.
Air is entrained via:
Frictional drag of molecules
The venturi effect (though this is controversial)
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Supplemental Oxygen
The widening of the cone leads to an increase in fluid velocity and therefore a decrease in pressure, as per the
Bernoulli principle.
Entrained air is proportional to flow rate, so the ratio of oxygen to air is constant for any given aperture size
This is known as the entrainment ratio.
Will deliver the specified FiO2 provided oxygen flow is above the minimum rate
Therefore become variable performance devices when inspiratory flow greatly exceeds oxygen flow.
References
532
Bispectral Index
Bispectral Index
Describe the principles behind the BIS
Bispectral Index (BIS) is a proprietary signal-processed EMG and EEG monitor used to estimate depth of anaesthesia.
The BIS outputs four values:
BIS
Dimensionless index between 0 and 100 where:
0 represents cortical electrical silence
85-100 represents normal awake cortical activity
40-60 is consistent with general anaesthesia
Signal Quality Index (SQI)
Dimensionless index between 0 and 100 which gives an indication of the accuracy of the BIS value.
Electromyography
Gives an indication of the influence of muscle activity on BIS values.
Suppression Ratio (SR)
Percentage of previous 63 seconds where EEG is isoelectric.
Method
Proprietary, but involves:
Multivariate logistic regression of EEG features that correlate with clinical levels of sedation
Initial validation on a cohort of healthy volunteers, not undergoing surgery
Use of four frontotemporal EEG monitors
Analytic techniques:
Compressed Spectral Array

The signal over a short period (e.g. 5-10 seconds) of EEG recordings are analysed together
Each period is known as an epoch.
A fourier transformation is performed
This breaks the EEG signal down into the sine waves used to produce it.
A histogram of each frequency is plotted
As anaesthesia deepens, lower frequencies begin to dominate
The spectral edge frequency is the frequency greater than 95% of the frequencies in the compressed spectral array
It is an indicator of anaesthetic depth, but not of drug concentration.
Coherence
Under anaesthesia, the electrical activity in different sections of the brain falls out of phase.
Pros
Reduced anaesthetic awareness in high risk patient groups
Trauma, GA caesarian section, cardiac surgery.
Non-invasive
Use appears to result in reduced anaesthetic use and more rapid emergence
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Bispectral Index
Cons
Proprietary algorithim
Expensive
May be inaccurate with:
Hypothermia
Hypercarbia
Hypoxia
Muscle relaxants
BIS may fall inappropriately.
Non-GABAergic agents (e.g. ketamine, nitrous oxide)
May not fall appropriately.
References
534
Medical Gas Supply
Medical Gas Supply

Describe the supply of medical gases (bulk supply and cylinder) and features to ensure supply safety including pressure
valves and regulators and connection systems
Production
Fractional Distillation
Oxygen is produced on the industrial scale by fractional distillation of atmospheric air. This process:
Relies on the fact that different gases have different boiling points
By liquefying air and then heating it gradually, each gas can be removed separately as it boils.
Occurs in stages:
Atmospheric air is filtered
Removes dust and other contaminants.
Air is compressed to 6 atm and then cooled to below ambient temperature
Water vapour condenses and is removed.
Compressed air passed through a zeolite sieve which removes CO2
Compressed air is allowed to re-expand
As it does so it loses heat energy as per Gay-Lussac's Law, and liquefies.
Air must be cooled below the boiling point of the desired gases
This requires getting gases very cold, and so the process may be mechanically assisted using a turbine, and/or a
heat exchanger. Key boiling points (at 1 atm):
Nitrogen: 77°K
Oxygen: 90°K
Helium: 4°K
Helium can be produced by fractional distillation, but liquifying it is understandably difficult given the very,
very low boiling point. Helium can also be mined, as helium produced by alpha decay of radioactive materials
may be trapped in gas pockets under the earth.
Liquid air is then fractionally distilled
Temperature of liquid air is raised slowly.
As the boiling point of each gas is reached (e.g. 77°K for nitrogen), that gas will begin to vaporise from the liquid,
and can be collected
The remaining liquid can then be further heated, until the boiling point for the next gas is reached
This process can be repeated until all the desired gases have been separated
Oxygen Concentrator
Oxygen concentrators:
Produce up to 95% oxygen from air by removing nitrogen

Built using two zeolite lattices
Pressurised air is filtered through one lattice
Nitrogen and water vapour are retained in the lattice
Oxygen and argon are concentrated
Produces a 95% oxygen/5% argon mixture.
The unused column is heated to release the bound nitrogen and water
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Medical Gas Supply
Pros
Cheap
Reliable
Avoid need for oxygen delivery
Cons
Result in an accumulation of argon when used at low flows on a circle system
Require continuous power
Fire and explosion risk
Storage
Medical Gas Cylinders
Gas cylinders are:
Made from chromium molybdenum or aluminium

Used as:
Backup for a piped supply
When a piped supply is not available (transports)
When the gas is uncommonly used (e.g. nitric oxide)
The common cylinder used in hospital is CD

This contains 460 L of oxygen at 15°C and 137 bar.
Cylinders are not completely filled, to reduce risk of overpressure and explosions if the temperature rises
The filling ratio is the weight of liquid in a full cylinder compared to the weight of water that would completely fill the
cylinder
In cool climates, the filling ratio is ~0.75
In warmer climates, the filling ratio is reduced to ~0.67
Cylinders are tested for safety every 5-10 years
Tests include:
Endoscopic examination
Tensile tests
1% of cylinders are destroyed to perform testing on the metal.
Pros
Portable
Reusable
Cons
Heavy
Limited supply
Cylinder Manifolds
Cylinder manifolds are formed of sets of large gas cylinders used in parallel.
All cylinders in a group are used together
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Medical Gas Supply
When the pressure falls below a set level, a pressure valve will switch and gas will be drawn from another cylinder group
The first (now empty) cylinder group is exchanged for full cylinders
Pros
Cheap
Useful as a backup supply
Cons
Less capacity than a VIE
Vacuum Insulated Evaporator

The VIE:
Stores liquid oxygen

It is vacuum insulated as it must keep oxygen below its critical temperature (-119°C). The VIE typically stores oxygen
between -160°C and -180°C, and at 700kPa.
The gas is stored below its critical temperature and above its boiling point
The amount of oxygen remaining is calculated from its mass
Does not require active cooling
Instead it is cooled by:
Insulation
Evaporation
Heat entering the VIE causes liquid oxygen to evaporate. Oxygen vapour is drawn off the VIE to the pipeline supply, so
the VIE remains cool and at a steady pressure provided oxygen is being drawn from it.
Has a pressure relief valve to prevent explosions if oxygen is not being used
Has an evaporator to evaporate large volumes of oxygen rapidly if demand is high
This is simply an uninsulated pipe exposed to the outside temperature
Pros
Cheapest option for oxygen delivery and storage
Storing oxygen as a liquid is much more efficient than as a gas
Does not require power
Cons
Set-up costs are expensive
Requires a back-up setup
Will waste large volumes of oxygen if not being used continuously
Safety in Medical Gas Supply

Many systems exist to ensure safety:
Colour coding of cylinders and hoses

Oxygen is white
Nitrogen is black
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Medical Gas Supply
Air is black with white shoulders

Nitrous oxide is blue
Helium is brown
Heliox is brown with white shoulders
Carbon dioxide is grey-green
Labelling of connections
The pin index system
Used to prevent the wrong gas yoke being connected to a cylinder.
Pins protrude from the back of the yoke
Holes exist on the valve block
Pins and holes must line up for the cylinder to be connected
There are six positions, divided into two groups of three
Common combinations include:
Oxygen: 2-5
Air: 1-5
Nitrous oxide: 3-5
Sleeve Index System
Used in Australia when connecting pipeline gases.
Wall block contains a sleeve when prevents fitting the incorrect gas hose to the wall
Screw thread is identical in all cases
Non-Interchangeable Screw Thread (NIST)
Used (but not in Australia) when connecting pipeline gases.
NIST connectors have a probe and a nut
Probe diameter is gas-specific, preventing the wrong gas from being connected
Testing
Must demonstrate
Correct oxygen concentrations
Absence of contaminatiaon
Delivery of adequate pressure when several other systems on the same pipeline are in use
Testing must be performed twice on a new installation:
First by engineers
Second by a medical officer
In theatres, this should be the director of the anaesthetic department or their delegate, who should hold fellowship
of ANZCA.
References
3. The Essential Chemical Industry Online - Oxygen, Nitrogen, and the rare gases.
4. Thompson, C. The Anaesthetic Machine - Gas Supplies. University of Sydney.
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Medical Gas Supply
539
Vaporisers
Vaporisers
Describe the principles and safe operation of vaporisers
Delivery of gas that is fully saturated with anaesthetic agent would result in lethal doses being administered. The use of a
vaporiser allows a safe dose of anaesthetic agent to be given. Vaporisers can be divided into:
Variable bypass vaporisers

Air that is fully saturated with gas is mixed with a 'bypass' stream of gas, diluting the delivered concentration. Further
subdivided into:
Plenum
Requires supra-atmospheric pressure to operate.
More accurate
Draw-over
Driven by the patients inspiratory effort.
Portable
Variable Bypass Vaporiser

Variable bypass vaporisers aim to deliver the same concentration of anaesthetic agent over a range of flows. They achieve this by:
Flow management
Baffles and wicks increase the surface area of the liquid/gas interface, increasing the rate of vaporisation.
Excessively high flow rates may result in gas not being fully saturated with agent when it exits the vaporiser stream
These are less effective in draw-over vaporisers, as resistance must be minimised
Temperature management
The SVP of volatile agents increases non-linearly as temperature increases. Temperature changes:
Occur through:
Changes in ambient temperature
Loss through latent heat of vaporisation
Liquid agent from the vaporiser will cool over the course of an anaesthetic.
Are managed with:
Temperature stabilisation
Use of materials with both a high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity, allowing the vaporising chamber
to buffer changes in surrounding temperature.
Temperature compensation
Adjusts flow into either the vaporising chamber or bypass chamber to account for changes in environmental
temperature. Methods include:
Bimetallic strip
Metal strip which bends in response to environmental temperature, adjusting the amount of gas entering the
vaporising chamber.
Aneroid bellows
Connect to a cone in the opening of the bypass chamber. As temperature decreases, the bellows contract and
the cone partially obstructs the bypass channel.
Difference Between Plenum and Draw-Over Vaporisers

Plenum vaporisers are:
More accurate
-1
540
Vaporisers
-1
Designed to deliver accurate agent concentrations over a wide range (0.25-15L.min ) of flow rates
-1
Below 250ml.min the resistance of the flow splitting valve becomes more significant, causing the amount of gas in the
bypass stream to be higher than intended
Above 15L.min-1 gas may not be fully saturated
Heavier
Typically built of metals such as copper to maximise thermal stability.
High internal resistance
Must be used out-of-circle
Must be used with positive-pressure
Draw-Over Vaporisers are:
Less accurate
Less use of baffles and wicks to minimise inspiratory resistance
Less thermally stable
Oxford Minature Vaporiser does not have a bimetallic strip
Oxford Minature Vaporiser uses glycol as a thermal buffer
Measured Flow Vaporisers

Measured flow vaporisers have a separate stream of agent-saturated gas that is added to the gas flow. This requires the device to:
Measure fresh gas flow rate

Adjust vapour-gas flow rate so the desired concentration is delivered
This system is used for the delivery of desflurane, as desflurane:
Has a very high SVP

Requires high bypass flow rate to dilute to a clinically useful concentration.
Has a low boiling point
Intermittently boils at room temperature, which will cause large fluctuations in delivery:
Excessive agent delivery during boiling
This will lead to cooling due to the latent heat of vaporisation.
Cooled desflurane will have a much lower saturated vapour pressure
Significant under-delivery will then occur.
The Tec6 vaporiser:
Heats desflurane to 39°C

SVP of desflurane at this tempeature is 1500mmHg.
Gaseous desflurane is then added to the fresh gas flow
The amount added depends on:
Desired concentration
Fresh gas flow rate
As flow increases the resistance to flow of desflurane vapour decreases.
General Safety Features of Vapourisers

Agent specificity:
Key indexed filling

Pin indexed safety system connectors
Colour coding of unit and agent containers
541
Vaporisers
Single agent administration:
Interlock mechanism
Prevents multiple vaporisers being turned on.
Single cartridge slot (Aladdin system)
Tipping and overfilling:
Long vaporization chamber inflow

Heavy construction
Transport modes
Side filling and overflow ports
Anti-pumping:
Check valves and long vaporization chamber inflow prevent entrainment of vaporizer gas in the inflow of the bypass channel
Agent depletion:
Filling gauges
Low pressure alarms (Tec 6)
Other Factors Affecting Vaporisers

Carrier Gas Composition:
Nitrous oxide and air are more viscous than oxygen

This leads to decreased flow through the vaporising chamber when FiO2 is low
This effect is not clinically significant.
Altitude:
Clinical effect of volatile agent is a function of their partial pressure in tissues

As SVP is independent of atmospheric pressure, this is unchanged at altitude
A vaporiser set at 2% will deliver 4% gas at 0.5atm pressure, however as the atmospheric pressure is reduced the same partial
pressure of vapour is delivered
The delivered concentration of an agent at altitude is given by the equation:
, where:
is the concentration of agent in the gas delivered to the patient

This must be multipled by the atmospheric pressure to find the partial pressure of agent delivered to the patient.
is the concentration dialed up on the vaporiser
is the atmospheric pressure where the vaporiser was calibrated
is the atmosopheric pressure where the vaporiser is being used
References
2. Boumphrey S, Marshall N. Understanding vaporizers. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain. Volume 11,
Issue 6, 1 December 2011, Pages 199–203,
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Vaporisers
543
Circle System
Circle System
The circle breathing system is a highly efficient system which:
Has several key advantages

Preserves anaesthetic gases making volatile anaesthesia cost-effective
Preserves medical gases (oxygen) which is useful in resource-limited settings (e.g. prehospital)
Preserves heat and moisture
Reduces fire risk
Particularly with older agents.
Requires rebreathing of expired gases
CO2 is actively removed.
Is a closed-circuit system
The only gases which must be replaced are those:
Consumed by the patient
Oxygen
Absorbed and metabolised volatile agents
Lost via leak
Principles
A circle circuit consists of:
A Y-piece, connecting the circuit to the patient

Expiratory and inspiratory valves, ensuring unidirectional flow
A means of generating pressure
In most systems this consists of both a ventilator and a resevoir bag with APL valve attached, with a bag/vent switch to swap
between circuits.
These are typically placed on the expiratory limb so that gas can be removed via scavenging prior to passage through
soda lime
This reduces soda lime consumption, as some CO2 will be scavenged.
Soda lime
To absorb CO2.
Fresh gas flow
Includes oxygen, air and nitrous oxide
Oxygen enters the back-bar last
When the vapouriser is out-of-circuit, all fresh gas flow will pass through the vapouriser prior to entering the circle
A separate high-pressure high-flow oxygen flush, which bypasses the vapouriser
Soda Lime
Soda lime:
Consists of granules of:

81% Ca(OH)2
4% NaOH
15% H2O
Silicates
Hardens granules.
pH indicator
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Circle System
Visual representation of uptake of CO2 by soda-lime.

Phenopthaliein
Red to white.
Ethyl violet
White to purple.
Granules are 4-8 mesh in size
Will pass through a mesh with 4 holes per square inch, but not 8
Balance between surface area (speed/efficacy of reaction) and resistance to flow
Absorbs CO2 by following reaction:
This increases the pH of the soda lime, causing the pH indicator to change colour
100g of soda lime can absorb ~26L of CO2
Pros
Cheaper to operate
Conserves gases, heat, and moisture
Low dead space
Reduced greenhouse effects
Cons
Gas mixture settings are not delivered to the patient
Settings affect the fresh gas flow mixture, whilst the patient respires gas from the circuit. These are not identical, especially
at low flows.
Nitrogen may build up in the circuit during low-flow anaesthesia, and potentially lead to delivery of a hypoxic gas mixture
Less portable than open-circuit systems
Increased circuit resistance
Requires soda lime, which can be toxic
Produces Compound A-E from sevoflurane
Produces carbon monoxide from desflurane, isoflurane, and enflurane
Dangerous if aspirated
References
545
Scavenging
Scavenging
Describe the hazards of anaesthetic gas pollution and the methods of scavenging anaesthetic gases
Scavenging is the removal and safe disposal of waste anaesthesia gasses from the breathing circuit to avoid contamination of the
theatre environment. This is important as continuous exposure of staff to anaesthetic gases has been implicated in:
Cognitive impairment
Spontaneous abortion
Infertility
Haematological malignancy
Methods of Scavenging
A scavenging system consists of:
Gas collection assembly

Connects to the APL valve and ventilator relief valve
Collects gas vented from the circuit.
Uses a 30mm connector
Prevents accidental connection to the breathing system.
Transfer tubing
Scavenging interface
The structure of the scavenging interface depends on the type of scavenging system.
Open interface
Active scavenging systems use a pump to generate a pressure gradient drawing gas to the disposal assembly. The
scavenging interface is open to air to prevent the negative pressure being transmitted to the patient.
Closed interface
Passive scavenging systems use a series of positive and negative pressure relief valves.
When gas pressure in the collection assembly exceeds 5cmH2O, the positive relief valve opens and gas enters a
resevoir bag
When gas pressure in the disposal assembly falls below 0.5cmH2O, the negative relief valve opens and gas enters
the disposal assembly
More transfer tubing
Disposal assembly
References
546
Diathermy
Diathermy
Discuss the principles of surgical diathermy, its safe use and the potential hazards
Diathermy is the use of an electrical current to cut tissue and coagulate blood via localised heating. Diathermy:
Uses high frequency, alternating current passing between two electrodes

Frequencies between 300kHz and 2MHz are used, which have a negligible risk of inducing arrhythmia.
Heat energy produced is proportional to electrical power dissipated ( )

Relies on the principle of current density
A high current density at the electrode causes tissue damage

A low current density (e.g. at the plate of a unipolar electrode) causes heating without damage
Diathermy Types
Diathermy can be either:
Unipolar
Consists of a probe containing one electrode, and a large plate (placed elsewhere on the patient) containing the other probe.
Bipolar
Consists of a pair of forceps with each point containing a separate electrode. Minimises the current passing between probes,
and is used when using diathermy on electrically sensitive tissues (e.g. brain).
Diathermy Modes
Diathermy modes include:
Cutting
Low-voltage mode producing a high current in the shape of a continuous sine wave.
Coagulate
High-voltage mode producing a damped sine wave response.
Blended
Mixture of cutting and coagulate on different tissues.
Risks
Burns
From incorrectly applied unipolar plate.
Electrocution
May injure patient, staff, or damage equipment and implants.
Electrical Interference
May inhibit pacing in certain pacemakers, or trigger ICDs.
Smoke production
Respiratory irritant, dissemination of viral particles, and may be carcinogenic.
Tissue dissemination
Potential source of metastatic seeding.
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Diathermy
References
548
Lasers
Lasers
Describe the principles of surgical lasers, their safe use and the potential hazards
A laser is a device for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser light is:
Non-divegent
All photons move in parallel.
Coherent
All photons are in phase.
Monochromatic
All photons have the same wavelength.
Lasers are used clinically for:
Precise incisions
Destruction of cells by localised vapourisation of water.
Destruction of chemicals
Tattoos, oncological drugs.
Tissue destruction without heating
Opthalmology.
Principles
Method:
An energy source is passed through a lasing medium, housed in a resonator made of mirrors
As the lasing medium is excited, electons enter a higher energy level
When more than 50% of electrons are at a higher energy level, population inversion has occurred.
As electrons fall back to their resting state, they release a photon
A spontaneous emission occurs when an electron enters its resting state spontaneously
A stimulated emission occurs when an electron enters its resting state after being struck by a photon released from a
spontaneous emission
Stimulated emissions result in amplification of light release
The mirrors in the resonating chamber enxure most light is reflected back into the chamber, causing more stimulated
emissions
The exit from the chamber can be be adjusted so only certain polarities of light are emitted
A lens may be used to focus the laser beam
Lasers may be:

Pulse wave
Uses short bursts of laser light to minimise collateral damage.
Continuous wave
May lead to excessive heating.
Pros
Precise surgery and haemostasis
549
Lasers
Cons
Require multiple safety precautions
Laser safety officer
Eye protection
Warning signs on doors
Cover theatre windows
Non-combustible drapes
Matte finish on equipment to minimise chance of reflection
Additional risks in airway surgery
Use lowest FiO2 possible
Avoid N2O
Consider use of heliox
Use specialised laser tubes
Normal PVC ETTs are combustible.
References
550
Procedural Anatomy
Subclavian Vein
Describe the anatomy relevant to central venous access (including femoral, internal jugular, external jugular, subclavian
and peripheral veins)
The subclavian vein:
Is a continuation of the axillary vein as it crosses the upper surface of the first rib
Travels posterior to the clavicle, separated from the subclavian artery by the anterior scalene
Joins with the internal jugular vein to form the brachiocephalic vein
Borders
Anteriorly by the clavicle, subclavius muscle, and pectoralis major
Posteriorly by anterior scalene muscle and subclavian artery
Inferiorly by first rib and lung apex
Superiorly by skin, subcutaneous tissue, and platysma
Medially by the brachiocephalic vein
Laterally by the axillary vein
Surface Anatomy
The needle is placed in the deltopectroal groove, inferior and lateral to the middle third of the clavicle. The needle is inserted at a
shallow angle, passing under the middle third of the clavicle aiming at the sternal notch.
References
551
Internal Jugular Vein

The internal jugular vein:
Originates at the jugular bulb

This is a dilatation formed by the confluence of the inferior petrosal sinus and the sigmoid sinus.
Exits the skull via the jugular foramen
Descends laterally to the internal carotid (and later the common carotid) in the carotid sheath
Teminates behind the sternal end of the clavicle, where it joins with the subclavian vein to form the brachiocephalic vein
Borders
Anteriorly by SCM
Posteriorly by the lateral mass of C1, scalene muscles, and lung pleura
Medially by the internal carotid
Relationships
Vagus nerve lies behind/between the carotid and IJV
Cervical sympathetic plexus lies posterior to the carotid sheath
Deep cervical lymph nodes lie close to the vein
External jugular crosses the sternomastoid belly of SCM, running posteriorly and more superficial to the IJV, later
perforating deep fascia to drain into the subclavian vein
Pleura rises above the clavicle, and is close to the vein at its termination
Thoracic duct passes lateral to the confluence of the left IJV and SCV, and may be injured during left IJV cannulation
The right lymphatic duct may be injured during right IJV cannulation, but due to its smaller size this is less common
Surface Anatomy
Identify the triangle formed by the two heads of SCM and the clavicle. Palpate the artery, and ensure the site of entry is lateral to
the carotid. Aim:
Caudally, at a 30 angle to the frontal plane

Parallel to the sagittal plane
Towards the ipsilateral nipple
Ultrasound Anatomy
Identify the vein deep to SCM, noting that it is (unlike the adjacent ICA):
Non-pulsatile
Thin walled
Compressible
552
Approaches
Anterior
At the medial border of SCM, 3-4cm above the clavicle. Requires retraction of the carotid medially.
Central approach
At the apex of the triangle formed by each muscle belly of SCM and the clavicle.
Posterior approach
At the posterior edge of SCM, just superior to where the EJV crosses the sternomastoid.
References
1. Lasts
2. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/internal-jugular-vein
3. http://www.frca.co.uk/article.aspx?articleid=100030
4. Internal jugular vein catheterisation: Posterior and Central Approach
553
Intercostal Catheter
Describe the anatomy relevant to the insertion of an intercostal catheter
An intercostal catheter drains the intrapleural space.
Surface Anatomy
An ICC should be placed in the safe triangle:
This is bordered:
Anteriorly by pectoralis major

Posteriorly by latissimus dorsi
Too far posterior will injure the long thoracic nerve.
Superiorly by the base of the axilla
Inferiorly by the 5th intercostal space
Too far inferiorly risks placement in the liver or spleen.
Layers of Dissection
Skin
Subcutaneous tissue
External intercostal
Internal and innermost intercostal muscles
Note the neurovascular bundle which sits on the inferior aspect of the ribs, therefore aim to place the ICC at the bottom of
the intercostal space - "above the rib below".
Parietal pleura
References
1. LITFL - Chest Drain
554
555
Antecubital Fossa
Antecubital Fossa
The antecubital fossa is a triangular space on the anterior aspect of the forearm.
Borders
The triangular borders are formed:
Medially by pronator teres

Laterally by brachioradialis
Superiorly by an imaginary line between the medial and lateral epicondyles
The roof of the fossa is formed by subcutaneous tissue
The floor is formed by brachialis and supinator
Contents
From medial to lateral:
Median nerve
Brachial artery
Biceps tendon and anoneurosis
Radial and posterior interosseous nerves
Veins
Basilic vein
Cephalic vein
Venous variations:
A median cubital vein connecting the basilic and cephalic veins
A median vein of the forearm, which divides into a median basilic and median cephalic vein which drain into the
basilic and cubital veins
References
1. FRCA - The Cubital Fossa
556
Tracheostomy
Tracheostomy
Describe the anatomy relevant to the performance of a naso, or endo, tracheal intubation, a cricothyroidotomy or
tracheostomy
Trachea
The trachea is fibrocatilagenous tube which:
Extends from the larynx superiorly to the Plane of Louis inferiorly

Terminates by division into the right and left mainstem bronchi
Runs at 15 degrees parallel to the surface of the neck, such that the distal trachea is deeper than the proximal trachea
Has a D-shaped cross section
Anterior wall is formed by 18-22 incomplete cartilaginous rings which maintain tracheal patency
Posterior wall of the trachea is spanned by longitudinal smooth muscle known as trachealis
Is typically:
10cm long
2.3cm wide
1.8cm in AP diameter
Relationships
Lateral to the trachea are the:
Carotid sheaths
Contains the carotid artery, internal jugular vein, and vagal nerves.
Thyroid lobes (and inferior thyroid arteries)
Recurrent laryngeal nerves.
Inferior to the thyroid isthmus lies the thyroid veins
Posterior to the trachea are the:
Oesophagus
Vertebral column
Surface Anatomy
Midline neck structures are relevant surface anatomy:
Layngeal structures
Including: Hyoid, thyroid cartilage, cricothyroid membrane, cricoid cartilage.
Sternal notch
Thyroid lobes
Lie lateral to trachea.
Layers of Dissection
Skin
Subcutaneous fat
Superficial and Deep Pretracheal fascia
Tracheal wall
557
Tracheostomy
Ideally between 1st and 2nd rings
References
558
Toxicology
Toxic Alcohols
Alcohols include:
Ethanol
Methanol
Ethylene Glycol
In toxicity:
All present with symptoms of alcohol intoxication

All contribute to the osmolar gap
Different toxicities occur due to the different metabolites
Ethanol
Ethanol is a weak alcohol with a complicated mechanism of action similar to volatile anaesthetic agents:
Enhanced GABA-mediated inhibition

This is reversible with flumazenil.
Inhibition of Ca2+ entry
Inhibition of NMDA function
Inhibition of adenosine transport
Property Drug
Dosing One unit is ~8g/10ml of pure ethanol
Absorption Rapid PO absorption
Saturatable kinetics at >4mmol.L-1 due to high doses requiring extensive NAD+ for oxidation, limiting
metabolism to ~1 unit per hour. Low (0.2) extraction ratio, so high portal vein concentrations from rapid
Metabolism
absorption (e.g. shots) causes a greater pharmacological effect. Ethanol is metabolised by alcohol
dehydrogenase to acetylaldehyde, which is metabolised by aldehyde dehydrogenase to acetyl CoA.
Elimination 10% eliminated unchanged in air and urine
Resp Respiratory depression
Vasodilatation increasing heat loss, reduced cardiovascular disease mortality due to increased HDL and
CVS
inhibition of platelets. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy in abuse.
Slurred speech, intellectual impediment, motor impediment, euphoria, dysphoria, increased confidence.
CNS
Dementia, encephalopathy, peripheral neuropathy, and cerebellar atrophy with chronic use.
Stimulates ACTH release and 'pseudo-Cushing's syndrome'. Inhibits testosterone release. May cause lactic
Endocrine
acidosis and hypoglycaemia in toxicity.
Inhibition of ADH release, causing diuresis. Ethanol is osmotically active and contributes to the osmolar
Renal
gap.
GIT Gastritis. Fatty liver, progressing to hepatitis, necrosis, fibrosis and cirrhosis
GU Tocolytic effect
Haeme Inhibition of platelet aggregation
Metabolic High energy content comparble with fat (29kJ.g-1)
Synergistic with other CNS depressants. Metabolic interactions with warfarin, phenobarbitone, and
Other
steroids
559
Toxicology
Methanol
Metabolised by alcohol dehydrogenase to formaldehyde and then formic acid
Formic acid is neurotoxic
Damages retina and the optic nerve.
Ethylene Glycol
Metabolised by alcohol dehydrogenase to glycoaldehyde, and (via several intermediate steps) to oxalic acid
Oxalic acid binds calcium, which causes:
Hypocalcaemia
Long QT
Acute renal failure
References
2. Holford NH. Clinical pharmacokinetics of ethanol. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1987 Nov;13(5):273-92.
3. LITFL- Toxic Alcohol Ingestion
560
Antidotes
Naloxone
Pure MOP antagonist used for:
Treatment of opioid overdose

Reducing constipation
In combination with PO oxycodone.
Property Drug
Class μ-selective opioid receptor competitive antagonist
Opioid overdose, neuraxial opioid side effects (e.g. pruritis), prevention of constipation in
Uses
combination with oral opioids
Presentation Clear, colourless solution at 400mcg.ml-1
Route of
IV, IM, PO
Administration
Dosing 0.1-0.4mg Q5min, 0.5mg.kg-1.hr-1 by infusion
Absorption Very high first pass metabolism leading to ~2% PO bioavailability

-1
Distribution 50% protein bound. VD 2L.kg , highly lipid soluble.
Metabolism Rapid hepatic glucuronidation
Elimination Renal eliminiation
Resp Reversal of opioid-induced respiratory depression (↑ RR, ↑ VT)
CVS ↑ SVR & ↑ BP, arrhythmia due ↑ in SNS tone
↓ Analgesia, ↓ sedation, ↓ miosis. Antanalgesic in opioid naive patients. Precipitation of opioid

CNS
withdrawal.
Other Duration of action is ~30-40 minutes is shorter than some opioids, which may lead to re-narcosis if
considerations not given subsequent doses or by infusion
References
561
Flumazenil
Flumazenil
Competitive antagonist and inverse agonist of the benzodiazepine receptor.
Property Action
Class Imidazo-benzodiazepine
Uses Reversal of BZD
Route of Administration IV
Dosing 0.1mg boluses up to 2mg
Onset Within 2 minutes
Distribution Moderate lipid solubility, 50% protein bound. t1/2β < 1 hour - may require infusion.
Metabolism Hepatic to inactive metabolites
Elimination Renal of metabolites
CNS May precipitate seizures or BDZ withdrawal due to inverse agonist effect
GIT N/V
References
562
Respiratory
Oxygen
Property Action
Class Naturally occuring gas
Uses Improve FiO2, CO poisoning, hyperbaric O2 therapy
Clear, colourless, odourless gas at STP. Critical temperature -119°C, manufactured by fractional
Pharmaceutics
distillation. Highly flammable.
Route of
Inhaled
Administration
Dosing 0.21-1.0 FiO2
Diffusion across the alveolar capillary membrane in proportion to membrane area and partial pressure
Absorption
gradient, and inversely proportional to membrane thickness
Distribution Bound to plasma Hb, and dissolved in plasma
Metabolism Metabolised in mitochondria of cells during the citric acid cycle to produce ATP, creating CO2
Elimination Exhalation as CO2, or combined with H2O to produce HCO3- and eliminated in urine
↓ Respiratory drive in all individuals. May result in a fatal ↓ in those dependent on hypoxic drive.
Resp Pulmonary toxicity due to free radial formation when PiO2>0.6bar - pneumonitis/ARDS due to lipid
peroxidation of the alveolar-capillary membrane. Absorption atelectasis.
Improvement in all CVS parameters in the setting of hypoxia. However, hyperoxia ↓ CO, ↓PVR,
CVS
↓PAP, and causes coronary vasoconstriction with prolonged administration
CNS O2 toxicity, typically at pressures >1.6 bar though this is variable. Presents with a variety of
CNS neurological symptoms, progressing to disorientation and seizure. Retrolental fibroplasia in neonates
exposed to high FiO2.
Other Fire risk
References
2. RAH Advanced Diving Medicine Course Notes: Chapter 6 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Toxicity
563
Helium
Helium
Helium is an inert gas which is used to reduce the specific gravity of inhaled gas mixtures. It is typically provided as a 0.79/0.21
Helium-Oxygen (Heliox) mixture (though other dilutions exist).
Helium Heliox (0.79/0.21) Oxygen
Specific Gravity (as compared to air) 0.18 0.34 1.09
Reduced specific gravity results in a proportional reduction in Reynolds Number, improving laminar flow within the airways.
Property Action
Class Inert Gas
Uses Obstructive lung disease, deep water diving
Presentation Clear, colourless solution
Route of
Inhaled
Administration
Dosing Typically as Heliox: 79% He/21% O2
Diffusion across the alveolar capillary membrane in proportion to membrane area and partial pressure
Absorption
gradient, and inversely proportional to membrane thickness
Distribution Distributes proportionally to solubility and tissue partial pressures
Metabolism Not metabolised
Elimination Respiratory exhalation along a pressure gradient
Resp Significantly decreases the specific gravity of inhaled gas mixtures
Toxic Effects High Pressure Neurologic Syndrome at >16 atm
References
1. RAH Advanced Diving Medicine Course Notes: Chapter 6 Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Toxicity
564
Bronchodilators
Beta Agonists
This covers the inhaled β-agonists used for bronchodilation. Information on catecholamines and sympathomimetics with activity
on β-receptors is covered under adrenergic vasoactives.
Common Features
Pharmacodynamic
β-agonists
Effects
Bronchodilatation, ↓ HPV causing ↑ shunt and potential ↓ PaO2 if O2 is not co-

Resp
administered.
CVS ↑ HR (β1 with higher doses), ↓ BP (β2 with lower doses)
GU Tocolytic.
+ +
Metabolic Hypokalaemia from β2 stimulation of Na /K ATPase, hyperglycaemia.
Other Potentiates non-depolarising muscle relaxants
Differences
Property Salbutamol Salmeterol
Synthetic sympathomimetic
Class Synthetic sympathomimetic amine
amine
Nocturnal and exercise-induced

Uses Acute asthma/bronchospasm, hyperkalaemia
asthma
Presentation MDI (100µg), solution at 2.5-5mg.ml-1 for nebulisation MDI
Route of
Inhaled, IV Inhaled
Administration
-1 -1
1-2 puffs via MDI, 5mg nebulised. 0.5mcg.kg .min as
Dosing
IV infusion.
Onset Rapid Slow
Distribution Low protein binding
High first pass hepatic to inactive metabolites, t1/2β 6

Metabolism Extensive hepatic via CYP3A4
hours.
Urinary elimination of active (30%) drug and inactive

metabolites
References
565
Bronchodilators
566
Antimuscarinics
Antimuscarinics (Respiratory)
Antimuscarinics with predominantly cardiac effects are covered at Antimuscarinics (Cardiac), whilst atropine is covered
separately.
These agents competitively antagonise ACh at M3 receptors in bronchial smooth muscle, preventing parasympathetic mediated
bronchoconstriction.
Property Ipratropium Tiotropium
Class Muscarinic antagonist Muscarinic antagonist
Uses Bronchodilatation Bronchodilatation
Presentation MDI or solution for nebulisation MDI
Route of Administration Inhaled Inhaled
Dosing 18mcg MDI, 500µg nebuliser
Absorption 5% bioavailability via inhaled route
Elimination Equal renal and faecal elimination
Resp Bronchodilation Bronchodilation
GIT Decreased GI secretions in large doses Decreased GI secretions in large doses
CNS Mydriasis if deposited in eye Mydriasis if deposited in eye
References
567
Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors
Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors / Methylxanthines

Methylxanthines non-selectively inhibit phosphodiesterase, which results in reduced levels of cAMP hydrolysis and therefore
increased intracellular cAMP, and subsequent smooth muscle relaxation. This effect is synergistic with β2 agonists, which also
increase cAMP by increasing production.
Property Theophylline
Class Methylxanthine/Non-selective phosphodiesterase inhibitor
Uses Asthma and COAD
Route of
IV or PO
Administration
Dosing 4-6mg.kg-1 IV load, then at 0.4mg.kg-1.hr-1 targeting serum concentration of 10mcg.ml-1
Absorption High oral bioavailability
Distribution VD 0.5L.kg-1, 40% protein binding.
Hepatic via CYP450 to active metabolites (caffeine and 3-methylxanthine), low hepatic
Metabolism
extraction ratio
Elimination Highly variable elimination affected by age, renal disease, hepatic disease
Resp Bronchodilation, ↑ Diaphragmatic contractility
CVS ↑ Inotropy, ↑ chronotropy. Narrow therapeutic range due to arrythmogenic (VF) properties
CNS ↓ Seizure threshold
Renal Natriuresis and hypokalaemia
Low therapeutic index, with toxicity manifested as tachyarrythmias including VF, tremor,
Toxic Effects
insomnia and seizures
References
1. Lexicomp. Theophylline: Drug Information. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2017.
568
Selectively inhibit the cysteinyl leukotriene receptor, increased activity of which is involved in airway oedema and bronchial
smooth muscle constriction.
Property Montelukast
Class Leukotriene Antagonist
Uses Asthma, allergic rhinitis
Route of Administration PO
Dosing 10mg daily
Absorption 64% PO bioavailability
Distribution t0.5 5 hours, >99% protein bound
Metabolism Hepatic by CYP3A4
Elimination Predominantly faecal
Resp Bronchodilatation
References
1. . Lexicomp. Montelukast: Drug information. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2017.
569
Corticosteroids
Corticosteroids
Glucocorticoids are endogenous (hydrocortisone) and synthetic (prednisolone, metylprednisolone, dexamethasone) steroid
hormones with metabolic, anti-inflammatory, and immunosuppressive effects. They bind to specific intracellular receptors and
translocate into the nucleus, where they regulate gene expression in a tissue-specific manner.
Corticosteroids have multiple indications including:
Replacement in adrenal suppression or other cortisol-deficient states

Autoimmune disorders
Anaphylaxis and atopic disorders, including asthma
Hypercalcaemia
Chemotherapy
Immunosupression following transplantation
Common Features
System Effect
Resp ↑ Bronchial smooth muscle response to circulating catecholamines, ↓ airway oedema
↑ Inotropy, ↑ vascular smooth muscle response to circulating catecholamines (↑ receptor expression), ↑ BP

CVS
secondary to mineralocorticoid effects
CNS Mood changes, sleep disturbance, psychosis
MSK Atrophy, thinning of skin
Renal Glycosuria, Na+ and fluid retention (mineralocorticoid effect), hypokalaemia
GIT Gastric ulceration
↑ Gluconeogenesis, diabetes, ↑ protein catabolism, fat redistribution, adrenal suppression (negative

Metabolic
feedback on ACTH), ↑ lipolytic response to circulating catecholamines
↓ Transudate production, ↓ production of inflammatory mediators, ↓ macrophage function, ↓ transport of

Immune
lymphocytes, ↓ T-cell function, ↓ antibody production, ↑ susceptibility to infection,
Toxic
Relative steroid deficiency in adrenal suppressed individuals with infection or surgery
Effects
Comparison of Corticosteroids
Property Hydrocortisone Prednisolone Methylprednisolone Dexamethasone
Route of
IV/PO PO PO/IV/IM IV
Administration
Relative Dose
100mg 25mg 20mg 4mg
Equivalents
50% PO 100% PO 60% PO

Absorption
bioavailability bioavailability bioavailability
Variable protein Variable protein

binding depending on binding depending on
Distribution VD 1 L.kg-1
concentration, VD 0.5 concentration, VD
L.kg-1 0.5 L.kg-1
570
Corticosteroids
Metabolism Hepatic Hepatic Hepatic Hepatic
Elimination t0.5 is 2 Elimination t0.5 is 3 Elimination t0.5 is 3 Elimination t0.5

Elimination
hours hours hours is 4 hours
Relative
mineralocorticoid +++ ++ + +
effect
References
3. Nieman LK, Lacroix A, Martin KA. Pharmacologic use of glucocorticoids. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate,
Waltham, MA, 2017.
571
Pulmonary Vasodilators
Property Nitric Oxide Iloprost Sildenafil
Synthetic eicosanoid with

Class Inorganic gas
prostacyclin activity
PHTN,
Uses ARDS, RVF, PHTN PHTN erectile
dysfunction
Aluminium cyclinders with 100/800ppm

Presentation Synthetic analog of epoprostenol
NO/N2
Route of
Inhaled Inhaled PO
Administration
Dosing 1-40ppm, via inspiratory limb of ventilator 20mg TDS
40% PO
Absorption
bioavailability
95% protein
Distribution Avidly bound to Hb bound, VD of
100L
Metabolised to methaemoglobin and nitrite

Hepatic by
Metabolism prior to reaching systemic circulation - t1/2
CYP450
of < 5s
Elimination Faecal
Stimulates cAMP which reduces

Mechanism of Stimulates cGMP which reduces Inhibits
intracellular Ca2++ and smooth
Action intracellular Ca2+ cGMP
muscle growth
Resp Inhibits HPV, improves V/Q matching
↓ vascular resistance, ↓ PVR in ventilated

CVS alveoli and improving V/Q matching. ↑ ↓ BP with compensatory ↑ HR ↓ PVR
Capillary permeability.
CNS ↑ CBF
Haeme Inhibits platelet aggregation. MetHb Inhibits platelet aggregation
Rebound pulmonary HTN on abrupt

Other
cessation
References
572
573
Adrenergic Vasoactives
This covers the pharmacology of specific catecholamines and sympathomimetics. The synthesis of endogenous catecholamines is
covered under adrenal hormones, whilst specifics of catecholamine receptor function is covered under adrenoreceptors.
Adrenergic drugs:
Act via:
Dopamine (D)
Adrenoreceptors (α and β)
Can be:
Direct-acting
Stimulate the receptor.
Indirect-acting
Stimulate the release of noradrenaline to cause effects.
Classified as either:
Naturally-occurring catecholamines
Synthetic catecholamines
Synthetic sympathomimetics
Drugs which act on adrenoreceptors but are not classified as catecholamines due to their chemical structure.
Comparison of Commonly Used Adrenergic Agents

Properties Noradrenaline Adrenaline Phenylephrine Metaraminol Ephedrine
Sympathomimetic
Natural Natural Synthetic Synthetic
Class phenylethylamine
Catecholamine Catecholamine sympathomimetic sympathomimetic
derivative
Cardiac arrest,
anaphylaxis,
inotropy, ↑ SVR without ↓
Uses ↑ SVR ↑ SVR ↑ SVR
chronotropy, in HR
adjunct in local
anaesthetics
Infusion starts
Start at Bolus start at 50-
Dosing at: Bolus 0.5-2mg 3-6mg bolus
0.05µg/kg/min 100mcg
0.01µg/kg/min
Route IV IV/IM/ETT/SC IV/IM/SC IV IV
Clear, Clear, colourless

colourless, A clear, solution in
Clear, colourless
light-sensitive colourless Clear, colourless ampoule at
solution in
Presentation solution. solution solution at 10mg/ml,
30mg/ml
Sodium typically at 0.1- 100mcg/ml typically
ampoule
metabisulfite as 1mg/ml reconstituted to
excipient. 0.5mg/ml
Variable ETT IM onset 15

Absorption IV only and SC minutes, duration IV only IV or IM
absorption up to 1 hour
t1/2 2min. t1/2 2min. Hepatic (not

Metabolised by Metabolised by metabolised by
mitochondrial mitochondrial MAO and
MAO and MAO and Some uptake into COMT), giving a
574
Metabolism COMT in liver, COMT within Hepatic by MAO adrenergic nerve longer (10-60
kidney, and liver, kidney, endings minute) duration
blood to VMA and blood to of action and a
and VMA and t1/2β of 3-6
metadrenaline. metadrenaline. hours
Pulmonary
uptake of up to Urinary Renal of
50% unchanged
Elimination 25%. Urinary excretion of metabolites, t1/2β
in urine
excretion of metabolites 2-3 hours
metabolites
β>α at lower Direct and ↑ NA release

Mechanism doses. At high indirect (via ↑ (indirect α1) and
α>>β Direct α1
of action doses α1 effects NA release) α1 direct α and β
dominate. agonism agonism
↑ MV, ↑ MV,
Respiratory Bronchodilation
bronchodilation bronchodilation
↑ Inotropy, ↑
HR, ↑ SVR and
PVR, ↑ BP, ↑ ↑ SVR/PVR, Direct and
↑ SVR, ↑ ↑ SVR and BP,
CO, ↑ reflex indirect (via NA
Myocardial O2 potential reflex
CVS myocardial O2 bradycardia. release) ↑ in HR,
consumption, ↑ bradycardia. Not
consumption. Indirect ↑ in BP, and CO.
Coronary flow. arrythmogenic.
Coronary coronary flow. Arrhythmogenic.
vasodilation.
Arrythmogenic.
↑ Pain
↑ MAC,
CNS threshold, ↑
mydriasis.
MAC
Necrosis with Necrosis with

MSK
extravasation extravasation
↓ RBF and ↑ in
Renal ↓ RBF ↓ RBF ↓ RBF ↓ RBF
sphincter tone
↑ BMR, ↑
lipolysis, ↑
gluconeogenesis
and BSL, ↑
Metabolic
Lactate. Initally
↑ insulin
secretion (β),
then ↓ (α)
↓ Uterine blood
↓ Uterine blood ↓ Uterine blood
GU flow and foetal
flow flow
bradycardia
Comparison of Less Common Adrenergic Agents

Properties Dopamine Isoprenaline Dobutamine
Synthetic
Class Natural Catecholamine Synthetic Catecholamine
Catecholamine
Stress testing, increasing

Uses Haemodynamic support Severe bradycardia
CO
Infusion from 0.5-

Dosing Start 1µg/kg/min 0.5-20µg/kg/min
10µg/min
Route IV IV IV
575
Clear, colourless solution with 200mg or Clear solution at 250mg dobutamine in

Presentation
800mg in water 1mg/ml 20ml water
t1/2 3 min. 25% of dose converted to

t1/2 2 min. COMT to
Metabolism noradrenaline. Remainder is metabolised by Hepatic by COMT
inactive metabolites.
MAO and COMT similar to nor/adrenaline.
Urinary excetion of
Elimination Renal, t1/2β 3 minutes unchanged drug and
metabolites
Mechanism
D1, D2; β>α at lower dose β1>β2 β1>>β2, D2
of action
Potent
Respiratory Bronchodilation
bronchodilation
↑ HR, CO, contractility,

↑ SVR, potential
↑ Inotropy, ↑ HR, ↑ CO, coronary vasodilation. and automaticity. Β2
CVS reflex bradycardia.
At high doses, ↑ SVR and PVR, ↑ VR. effects may ↓ SVR and
Not arrythmogenic.
BP.
CNS Inhibits prolactin. Nausea. Stimulant Tremor
MSK Necrosis with extravasation
↑ RBF and ↑ urinary

output with no
Renal
improvement in renal
function
GIT Mesenteric vasodilation
Structure-Activity Relationships of Sympathomimetics
Catecholamines consist of:
A catechol ring
A benzene ring with two hydroxyl groups in the 3 and 4 position.
Losing one hydroxyl group
Increases lipid solubility and decreases the potency 10-fold
576
Prevents metabolism by COMT, prolonging duration of action

Losing both hydroxyl groups decreases the potency 100-fold
Changing the hydroxyl groups to the 3 and 5 position increases beta-2 selectivity when there is also a large
substitution present on the amine group
An ethylamine tail
Consists of:
Beta carbon
The first carbon.
Adding a hydroxyl group decreases lipid solubility and CNS penetration
Adding any group increases alpha and beta selectivity
Alpha carbon
The second carbon.
Adding a group prevents metabolism by MAO, prolonging duration of action
Methylation increases indirect activity
Amine group
The terminal nitrogen.
Addition of a methyl group generally increases beta selectivity
As the chain length increases, so does the beta selectivity.
Dopamine
Dopamine is the prototypical catecholamine, to which others are compared
Noradrenaline
577
Noradrenaline has a hydroxyl group added to the beta carbon, increasing its alpha selectivity
Adrenaline
Adrenaline is similar to noradrenaline with an additional hydroxyl group on the beta carbon
Adrenaline also has a methyl group added to the terminal amine, increasing beta selectivity
Metaraminol
578
Metaraminol has an additional hydroxyl group on the beta carbon

Metaraminol has only one hydroxyl group on the phenol ring, so:
It is no longer classified as a catecholamine
It is not metabolised by COMT, prolonging its duration of action
It has reduced potency, requiring administration in higher doses
Metaraminol has an additional methyl group on the alpha carbon, preventing metabolism by MAO and further prolonging its
duration of action
Ephedrine
Like metaraminol, ephedrine has a hydroxyl group on the beta carbon and a methyl group on the alpha carbon
Ephedrine has no hydroxyl groups on the phenol ring, further reducing its potency and increasing its elimination half-life
Ephedrine has a methyl group on the amine, increasing its beta selectivity
References
3. Yartsev A. Deranged Physiology - Structure of Synthetic Catecholamines
579
580
Non-adrenergic Vasoactives
Non-Adrenergic Vasoactives
Key non-adrenergic cardiovascular drugs include vasopressin (and its analogues, teripressin and ornipressin),
phosphodiesterase III inhibitors such as milrinone, and calcium sensitisers such as levosimendan.
Property Vasopressin (ADH) Milrinone Levosimendan
Phosphodiesterase III Calcium sensitiser and

Class Natural nonapeptide
inhibitor phosphodiesterase inhibitor
Haemorrhage, DI,
Refractory CCF and low CO
Uses catecholamine-sparing Severe acute heart failure
states
vasopressor
Load 12-24mcg/kg over

5-10 units IV bolus, up to 4U/hr
Dosing 10min, then infusion at
infusion
0.05-2mcg/kg/min
Route IV/SC/IM IV IV
2.5mg/mL in 5ml & 10ml

Presentation Clear solution Yellow solution at 1mg/ml
vials
Very high protein binding

Distribution 70% protein bound
>90%
t1/2 10 minutes. Metabolised by t1/2 1 hour. Hepatic to

Metabolism tissue peptidases and renal t1/2 1-2.5 hours active metabolite with a t1/2
elimination. ~70 hours
80% of drug is excreted

Elimination
unchanged
Binds to troponin C
V2 receptors (kidney, platelets) Inhibits phosphodiesterase
increasing myofilament
are adenylate cyclase mediated. breakdown of cAMP,
Ca2+ sensitivity. Also
Mechanism of V1 (vascular smooth muscle) increasing intracellular Ca2+
opens K+ channels causing
action and V3 receptors (pituitary) are levels. Also increases speed
vasodilation. It may also
phospholipase C/inositol of Ca2+ uptake into cardiac
have some PD III inhibition
triphosphate mediated muscle, increasing luisotropy.
effect.
Increased inotropy, increased

Increased CO without
luisotropy, decreased SVR
increased O2 demand,
CVS ↑ SVR through vasoconstriction and PVR (PVR decreases
vasodilation, prolonged QTc
more than SVR). Increased
with risk of arrhythmia
dysrythmias.
GIT GIT smooth muscle contraction
↑ Aquaporin insertion into the

apical membrane of collecting
Renal
ducts which ↑ water
reabsorption
↑ Coagulation factor
Haematological mobilisation and ↑ platelet
aggregation
Metabolic Hyponatraemia
References
581
Non-adrenergic Vasoactives
582
Antihypertensives
Centrally Acting Anti-Hypertensives

Property Clonidine Methyldopa
Class Central α2-agonist (200:1 α2:α1) Phenylalanine derivative
Antihypertensive
Uses Analgesia, sedation, anti-hypertensive
(especially in pregnancy)
Tablets - not appropriate

Presentation Clear colourless solution at 150μg.ml-1 for urgent blood pressure
reduction
Route of PO/IV at 10-200mcg up to QID. Can be added to neuraxial blockade

PO/IV.
Administration at 1-2mcg.kg-1 to decrease opioid requirement.
Dosing 50-200μg QID. 250-500mg PO BD/TDS.
Highly variable PO
Absorption 100% PO bioavailability with rapid absorption
bioavailability
50% protein bound, VD

Distribution 20% bound, VD 2L.kg-1
0.3L.kg-1
Metabolism 50% hepatic to inactive metabolites, t1/2β 9-18 hours Intestinal and hepatic
40% renal elimination

Elimination 50% renal elimination unchanged
unchanged
Metabolised to α-methyl-
Mechanism of Agonist of central α2 receptor, ↓ SNS tone via decreased NA release noradrenaline in the
Action from peripheral nerve terminals. CNS, which agonises
central α2 receptors.
Initial ↑ in BP due to α1 stimulation, evident with bolus dosing.

Followed by prolonged ↓ in BP, ↑ PR, ↓ AV conduction, ↑ ↓ SVR with unchanged
CVS
baroreceptor sensitisation (lower HR for a given increase in BP). HR or CO
Cessation may cause rebound HTN.
Sedation, analgesia due to ↓ NA release which ↓ opioid requirement.

CNS Adjunct in chronic pain and in opioid withdrawal. Anxiolysis at low May ↓ MAC
doses. Central antiemetic effect.
Metabolic Stress response to surgical stimulus is inhibited
Renal Diuresis secondary to inhibition of ADH
References
583
Calcium Channel Blockers

Ca2+-channel blockers:
Have affinity for L-type calcium channels

L-type channels exist in myocardium, nodal, and vascular smooth muscle.
Variable affinity for each causes a preference for either nodal and inotropic, or vascular effects
Prevent Ca2+ entry into cells in a use-dependent fashion
Class Chemical Structure Drugs
Class I Phenylalkylamines Verapamil
Class II Dihydropyridines Nifedipine, amlodipine, nimodipine
Class III Benzothiazepines Diltiazem
Comparison of Calcium Channel Blockers

Property Verapamil Amlodipine Diltiazem
Class Phenylalkylamine Dihydropyridine Benzothiazepine
Angina, HTN, SVT, Raynauds,

Uses SVT, excluding AF with WPW HTN, Angina migraine, oesophageal
dysmotility
20-240mg tablet, PO solution, IV at

Presentation Tablet Tablet
2.5mg.ml-1
Racemic preparation. The D-isomer

Isomerism also has some local anaesthetic
activity
Route of
PO/IV PO PO
Administration
Dosing 80-160mg BD/TDS 2.5-10mg daily 30-120mg TDS
Absorption 20% bioavailability 60% bioavailability 40% bioavailability
90% protein bound,

Distribution 90% protein bound 80% protein bound
lipid insoluble.
Hepatic to inactive
Metabolism Hepatic to active norverapamil Hepatic to active metabolites
metabolites
Renal elimination of active Renal of inactive Renal of active metabolites. t1/2

Elimination
metabolites metabolites 2-7 hours
↓ HR via ↓ SA and ↓ AV nodal ↓ SVR, ↓ BP, with ↓ AV nodal conduction but

CVS conduction, ↓ inotropy, ↓ SVR, ↓ BP, reflexive ↑ HR, ↑ typically stable HR, ↓ SVR, ↓
arrhythmia including HB inotropy, ↑ CO CVR, ↓ MVO2, ↑ CO
↓ Cerebral vascular
CNS ↓ Cerebral vascular resistance resistance with
nimodipine
GIT ↓ LOS tone
Contraindicated with concurrent β- Contraindicated with concurrent

Interactions blocker use due to profound ↓ HR, ↓ β-blocker use due to profound ↓
584
inotropy HR, ↓ inotropy
References
585
Direct Vasodilators
Direct Vasodilators
Direct vasodilators include:
Ca2+ channel blockers (see Calcium Channel Blockers)

Nitrates
Increase production of NO:
NO activates guanylate cyclase, increasing cGMP
cGMP inhibits Ca2+ uptake into smooth muscle and enhances its sequestration into smooth endoplasmic reticulum
The decrease in cytoplasmic [Ca2+] causes smooth muscle relaxation and vasodilation
Hydralazine
Multimodal mechanism of action, including:
Opens K+ channels, hyperpolarising vascular smooth muscle
Decreases intracellular Ca2+ in vascular smooth muscle
Activation of guanylate cyclase
Property Sodium Nitroprusside GTN Hydralazine
Direct
Class Inorganic Nitrate Organic Nitrate
vasodilator
Afterload & preload

Uses Afterload (with some preload) reduction HTN
reduction, angina
20mg
Spray, tablets, patch, IV
ampoule or
solution which is
Solution at 10mg.ml-1, must be protected from powder.
Presentation absorbed into PVC -
light Should not be
requires a polyethylene
reconstituted
administration set
with dextrose.
Route of
IV only IV, topical, sublingual PO, IV
Administration
-1 -1 -1
Dosing 0.5-6µg.kg .min 10-200µg.min 5-20mg IV
30%
bioavailability
Absorption <5% PO bioavailability due to high
first pass
metabolism
Prodrug. Reacts with Oxy-Hb in RBC to form 1x

NO, 5x CN-, and MetHb. MetHb reacts with CN
to form cyanomethaemoglobin. CN is metabolised
Prodrug. Metabolised to
in the liver and kidney to form SCN, the majority
NO and glycerol dinitrate N-acetylated
of which is excreted in urine (though may be re-
Metabolism (which is then also in gut and
converted to CN).
converted to NO) in the liver
liver.
CN may also combine with hydroxycobalamin
(vitamin B12) to form cyanocobalamin, which is
eliminated in urine.
Renal elimination of SCN and cyanocobalamin. Dependent on

t1/2 1-4mins. Urinary
Elimination Impaired in renal failure which may worsen CN acetylation
excretion
toxicity. t1/2 for SCN is 2-7 days rates
Inhibit hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction

Resp Bronchodilation
leading to ↑ shunt
Vasodilation Arteriolar
predominantly of vasodilation
586
Direct Vasodilators
↓ SVR > venodilation. ↓ SBP and ↓ preload, ↑ HR capacitance vessels, ↓ with

CVS preload, ↓ VR, ↓ EDP, ↓ compensatory
maintains CO, ↓ MVO2
wall tension improving tachycardia
subendocardial blood and increased
flow, ↓MVO2 CO
↑ CBF following cerebral

Increased
CNS ↑ CBF following cerebral vasodilatation vasodilatation, which
CBF
may cause headache
Haematological Methaemoglobinaemia Methanoglobinaemia
Methaemoglobinaemia
can occur with GTN
Three mechanisms: hypotension, thiocynate
Toxic Effects
toxicity, CN toxicity. GTN patches may
explode if left on during
DC cardioversion.
Nitrate Toxicity
Nitrate toxicity can be related to:
Cyanide
Thiocyanate
Methaemoglobinaemia
Cyanide Toxicity
Cyanide toxicity occurs only with SNP, as CN- is produced as a byproduct of metabolism.
Kinetics
Rapid cellular uptake
Small VD
Hepatically metabolised to thiocyanate, using thiosulfate as a substrate
Mechanism
CN- binds to cytochrome oxidase, preventing oxidative phosphorylation. This causes histotoxic hypoxia, and is characterised
by:
Rapid loss of consciousness and seizures
Metabolic acidosis
Lactataemia
Arrhythmia
Increased MVO2
Hypertension
Due to tachyphylaxis to SNP.
Risk of cyanide toxicity from SNP is related to:
Infusion rate
Infusion duration
Management
Supportive care, including inotropes
Cyanide chelators
Bind CN, removing it from the circulation. Include:
Dicobalt edetate
Hydroxycobalamin (Vitamin B12)
Sulfur donors
587
Direct Vasodilators
-
Provide additional sulfhydryl groups, allowing further hepatic metabolism of CN to SCN. Include:
Thiosulfate
Nitrites
-
Converts Oxy-Hb to Met-Hb, which has a higher affinity for CN than cytochrome oxidase. Include:
Sodium nitrite
Amyl nitrite
Thiocyanate Toxicity
Thiocyante is produced with hepatic metabolism of CN-. Toxicity occurs when thiocyanate accumulates, which occurs in:
Long duration SNP infusions

7-14 days.
Patients with renal failure
Reduced clearance, may occur in 3-6 days.
Patients given thiosulfate for management of CN- toxicity.
Effects
Multisystemic, including:
Rash
Abdominal pain
Weakness
CNS disturbance
Treatment
Dialysis
Methaemoglobinaemia
Methaemoglobinaemia occurs when the Fe2+ (ferrous) ion in haemoglobin is oxidised to the Fe3+ (ferric) form, which is unable
to bind oxygen.
Due to the high concentration of oxygen in erythrocytes, methaemoglobin is continually being formed
Several endogenous reduction systems exist to keep MetHb levels stable at ~1%
Predominantly cytochrome-b5 reductase
NADPH-MHb reductase
This reduces methaemoglobinaemia in the presence of a reducing agent, classically methylene blue.
Reduced glutathione
More important in preventing oxidative stress in other cells than the RBC.
Disease occurs due to the loss in oxygen-carrying capacity from the loss of effective haemoglobin
e.g. a 20% MetHb level gives a theoretical oxygen carrying capacity of 80% of the actual haemoglobin
There is in fact a slight left shift of the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve, as oxygen binds more tightly to the
partially-oxidised haemoglobin.
References
5. LITFL- Cyanide Poisoning
588
Direct Vasodilators
6. Thomas C, Lumb A. Physiology of haemoglobin. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain, Volume 12,
Issue 5, 1 October 2012, Pages 251–256.
7. Wright RO, Lewander WJ, Woolf AD. Methemoglobinemia: Etiology, Pharmacology, and Clinical Management. Annals of
Emergency Medicine, Volume 34, Issue 5, 1999, Pages 646-656.
8. Russwurm M, Koesling D. NO activation of guanylyl cyclase. The EMBO Journal. 2004;23(22):4443-4450.
589
ACE Inhibitors
ACE Inhibitors
ACE inhibitors prevent the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in the lungs, in
turn reducing effects of angiotensin II. These effects include:
Vasoconstriction
Noradrenaline reuptake inhibition
Thirst
ADH release
ACTH release
Aldosterone release
Reduces Kf, reducing GFR
Indications
Hypertension
Particularly in insulin dependent diabetes with diabetic nephropathy
Less effective for this indication in the black population
Contribute to post-operative hypertension and may be witheld perioperatively
Cardiac failure
All grades.
MI with LV dysfunction
Improved prognosis.
Classification
Can be divided into three groups based on pharmacokinetics:
Active drug with active metabolites

Captopril.
Prodrug
Ramipril.
Not metabolised and excreted unchanged in urine
Lisinopril.
Common Features of ACE Inhibitors

Property Drug
Resp Bradykinin cough
CVS ↓ SVR and BP. Unaffected HR and baroreceptor response.
Endocrine Hypoglycaemia in diabetics
With a normal renal perfusion pressure, natriuresis results. However, a fall in renal perfusion pressure
Renal
may cause pre-renal failure (e.g. renal artery stenosis).
Haeme Agranulocytosis, thrombocytopenia
590
ACE Inhibitors
Immune Angioedema
Metabolic ↑ Renin release.
↓ Aldosterone release, which ↑ the efficacy of spironolactone and may precipitate hyperkalaemia.
Interactions
Pharmacodynamic interaction with NSAIDs to drop renal perfusion pressure.
References
591
Angiotensin Receptor Blockers
Angiotensin Receptor Blockers

Angiotensin receptor antagonists are very similar to ACE inhibitors, except:
Bradykinin does not accumulate as it is still broken down by ACE

Therefore there is no cough and patient compliance is improved.
The AT1 receptor in cardiac tissue is more comprehensively blocked which may improve cardiac outcomes
The AT2 receptor is not blocked, which may also improve cardiac outcomes
References
592
Potassium Channel Activators
Potassium Channel Activators

Potassium channel activators stimulate ATP sensitive K+ channels, causing an increase in intracellular cGMP and subsequent
relaxation of smooth muscle in the:
Heart
Venous capacitance vessels
Arterioles
Property Nicorandil
Uses HTN, angina, CHF
Route of Administration PO
Dosing 10-30mg BD
Distribution Negligible protein binding
Metabolism Hepatic denitration
Elimination Renal elimination of active drug and metabolites
CVS ↓ Preload, ↓ afterload, ↓ BP, ↑ coronary flow
CNS Headache, improves with ongoing use
Haeme Inhibition of platelet aggregation
References
593
Antiarrhythmics
Sodium Channel Blockers

Sodium channel blockers include:
Class Ia:
Procainamide
Quinidine
Disopyramide
Class Ib:
Lignocaine
Mexiletine (lignocaine analogue)
Class Ic:
Flecainide
In general:
IV preparations are given for VT

Good PO bioavailability and low protein binding
Metabolites are renally cleared
Property Procainamide Lignocaine Flecainide
Class Ib amide local

Class Class Ia amide Class Ic amide local anaesthetic
anaesthetic
Uses SVT/VT VT SVT/VT
Clear solution at 10-

Presentation
20mg.ml-1 (1-2%)
Route of
PO/IV IV PO/IV
Administration
2mg.kg-1 (up to 150mg) load

Load at 1mg.kg-1
100mg IV load, followed by over 10-30 minutes, followed
Dosing followed by infusion
infusion at 2-6mg.ml-1 by infusion at 1.5mg.kg-1.hr-1,
at 1-3mg.min-1
aiming for levels of <0.9mg/ml
Absorption 75% bioavailability IV only for arrhythmia 90% orally bioavailable
33% unionised, 70%

protein bound
Hepatic to active metabolites via

Hepatic amidases to
Metabolism acetylation - slow acetylators at Hepatic to active metabolites
inactive metabolites
increased risk of side effects
Reduces the rate of rise of phase 0, Reduces the rate of

raises the threshold potential, and rise of phase 0 of the Reduces the rate of rise of
Mechanism of
prolongs the refractory period action potential. phase 0 0of the action potential.
Action
without prolonging the action Repolarisation phase Repolarisation is unchanged.
potential is shortened.
Precipitate pre-existing
↓ HR, ↓SVR, ↓BP, ↓CO, heart AV block, myocardial
conduction disorders, ↓
CVS block, may ↑HR when used for depression causing
inotropy, ↑ pacing and
SVT, ↑QT with risk of TDP unresponsive ↓BP
defibrillation threshold
Circumoral tingling,
dizziness, parasthesia, Dizziness, parasthesia,
CNS
confusion, seizures, headache
coma
594
Antiarrhythmics
Lupoid syndrome in 20-30%,

Immune reduces antimicrobial effect of
sulfonamides
Pharmacokinetic interactions
Interactions with digoxin, propranolol,
amiodarone
References
595
Beta-Blockers
Beta-Blockers
β-blockers are competitive (often highly selective) antagonists of β-adrenoreceptors. They are subclassified into into selective and
non-selective agents:
Selective (β1 antagonism) (BEAM)

Bisoprolol
Esmolol
Atenolol
Metoprolol
Non-selective (β1 and β2 antagonism)
Propranolol
Sotalol
Timolol
Non-selective (β & α antagonism)
Carvedilol
Labetaolol
Indications
Cardio
Angina
Arrythmia
Rate-control in AF
Paroxysmal SVT
Sinus tachycardia from ↑ catecholamines
Cardiac Failure
Secondary prevention for MI
Vascular
nd
Hypertension (2 line)
Also useful for aggressive control of BP.
Hypotensive anaesthesia
Attenuate hypertensive response to laryngoscopy
Non-CVS
Thyrotoxicosis
Glaucoma (topically)
Anxiety
Migraine prophylaxis
Common Features
Property Action
Variability primarily due to lipid solubility. Poor lipid solubility confers poor gut absorption and
Kinetics minimises need for hepatic metabolism. Lipid soluble agents will have CNS effects and be excreted in
breast milk.
Respiratory Bronchospasm.
596
Beta-Blockers
CVS ↓ Inotropy, ↓ HR, ↓ MVO2, ↓ BP, ↑ SVR (β2 effect), worsen arrhythmia.
CNS Tiredness, nightmares, and sleep disturbance with lipid soluble agents. ↓ IOP.
Metabolic ↓ Insulin release and blunted hypoglycaemic response (β2 effect).
Interactions Contraindicated with cardioselective Ca2+ channel blockers. due to extreme ↓ HR & ↓ inotropy.
Comparison of Beta Blockers

Property Esmolol Metoprolol Atenolol Propranolol Labetalol
β & α non-
Class Cardioselective Cardioselective Cardioselective β non-selective
selective
HTN, Angina,
dysrrythmia,
Short-term
MI, HTN, HTN, angina, essential tremor,
treatment of
Uses migraine, tachyarrhythmias, anxiety HOCM, HTN, MI
tachyarrythmia
thyrotoxicosis acute MI phaeochromocytoma,
and HTN
migraine,
oesophageal varicies
Clear, 25/50/100mg
Tablets and
Clear, colourless colourless tablets, syrup, Tablets and solution
Presentation solution at
solution solution, 50mg colourless at 1mg.ml-1
5mg.ml-1
Tablet. solution.
Route of
IV PO/IV PO/IV PO/IV PO/IV
Administration
PO: 100-
800mg BD
IV: 10-20mg
IV bolus,
IV: 1mg PO: 10-100mg
PO: 50-100mg followed by
50-200μg.kg- boluses PO: BD/TDS IV: 1mg
Dosing 1.min-1 daily IV: 2.5mg 20-80mg
12.5-100mg boluses titrated to
IV up to 10mg Q30min up to
BD response
300mg.
Alternatively
by infusion at
1-2mg.min
50% Highly
bioavailability, 45% PO variable
Absorption IV only 30% bioavailability
improves with bioavailability bioavailability:
regular use 10-80%
20% protein
60% protein 50% protein
Distribution bound. Lipid 5% protein bound 95% protein bound
bound bound
soluble
RBC esterases to Hepatic with

Minimal
an inactive genetic Hepatic to
metabolism - Hepatic to active and
Metabolism metabolite and variability in inactive
dose reduce in inactive metabolites
methyl alcohol. t1/2 of active metabolites
renal failure
t1/2 of 10 minutes metabolites
Renal
Renal elimination Renal elimination of elimination of
Elimination
of active drug metabolites inactive
metabolites
↓ SVR, ↓
↓ CO, ↓ BP
CVS Venous irritant
(typically
~20%)
597
Beta-Blockers
References
598
Amiodarone
Amiodarone
Amiodarone is an antiarrythmic agent with a complex mechanism of action and many effects.
K+ channel blockade in cardiac myocytes, inhibiting the slow outward current and slowing repolarisation (Class III)
β-blocker-like activity on SA and AV nodes, decreasing automaticity and slowing nodal conduction (Class II)
Ca2+ channel blocker-like activity on L-type Ca2+ channels, decreasing the slow inward Ca2+ current, increasing
depolarisation time and decreasing nodal conduction (Class IV)
α-blocker-like activity, decreasing SVR
Property Amiodarone
Class Class III antiarrhythmic, though exhibits action from all 4 classes.
Uses VT/VF, resistant arrhythmia, ALS.
Presentation 100/200mg tablets, IV: 150mg ampoule to be reconstituted in D5W.
Route of
IV/PO.
Administration
-1 -1
IV: Load with 5mg.kg over 1/24, with a further 15mg.kg over the following 24/24 PO: 200mg
Dosing
TDS for 1/52, 200mg BD for 1/52, 200mg OD thereafter.
Absorption Poor PO absorption with bioavailability ~50%.

-1
Distribution Highly protein bound with very high VD of ~70L.kg s due to accumulation in fat and muscle.
Metabolism Hepatic metabolism with inhibition of CYP3A4, to the active desmethylamiodarone.
Very long t1/2 of up to ~55 days. Biliary, skin, and lacrimal elimination, with < 5% of drug eliminated
Elimination
renally. Not removed by dialysis.
Resp 10% 3-year risk of pneumonitis, fibrosis, pleuritis.
CVS ↓ HR, ↓ BP, ↓ SVR, ↑ QT without risk of TDP. Irritant to peripheral veins.
Mild blurring of vision from corneal deposition, sleep disturbance, vivid dreams, peripheral
CNS
neuropathy.
MSK Photosensitivity, grey skin.
Endocrine Hyperthyroidism (1%) and hypothyroidism (6%).
GIT Nausea, vomiting, cirrhosis, hepatitis, and jaundice.
Amiodarone has potential to cause a number of drug interactions due to its inhibition of CYP3A4 and
its high protein binding. A selection include: Digoxin, statins, warfarin, phenytoin, and other
Other
antiarrhythmics.
Contraindicated in porphyria.
A mnemonic for some of the rarer effects is BITCH:
Blue skin
Interstitial lung disease
Thyroid
Corneal
Hepatic
599
Amiodarone
References
1. Peck TE, Hill SA. Pharmacology for Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. 4th Ed. Cambridge University Press. 2014. Peck and
hill
600
Sotalol
Sotalol
The D-isomer of sotalol is a class III antiarrhythmic, whilst the L-isomer also has class II activity.
Property Action
Class Class III antiarrhythmic
Uses Tachyarrhythmia prophylaxis
Presentation Solution at 10mg.ml-1 and tablets
Isomerism Racemic mixture
Route of Administration PO/IV
Dosing PO: 40-160mg BD IV: 50-100mg over 20 minutes
Absorption >90% bioavailability
Distribution No protein binding
Elimination Excreted unchanged in urine
Resp Bronchospasm
CVS Torsades (< 2%) - more common with high doses, long QT, and electrolyte imbalances
CNS Masking symptoms of hypoglycaemia
GU Sexual dysfunction
References
601
Digoxin
Digoxin
Digoxin is a cardiac glycoside used in the treat of atrial arrhythmias and in cardiac failure as a positive inotrope.
Digoxin has both a direct and indirect mechanism of action:
Direct
Inhibits cardiac Na+/K+ ATPase, causing:
Increasing intracellular [Na+], increasing activity of the Na+/Ca2+ pump
Increased intracellular Ca2+ increases inotropy
Decreased K+ results prolongs refractory period of the AV node and bundle of His
Indirect
Parasympathomimetic effects by increasing ACh release at cardiac muscarinic receptors.
Slows AV nodal conduction and ventricular response
This improves coronary blood flow, increasing time for ventricular filling, and improving cardiac output.
Property Action
Class Cardiac Glycoside
Uses Arrhythmia - particularly AF/Flutter, and CCF
Presentation Tablets, elixir, clear colourless solution
Route of
PO/IV
Administration
Dosing PO: 62.5μg-250μg, IV: 250-500μg load
Absorption >70% bioavailability though varies with formulation

-1
Distribution 25% protein bound. VD 5-11L.kg , dependent on lean mass
Metabolism Minimal hepatic metabolism
Elimination Renal elimination of active metabolites t1/2 35 hours - increased in renal failure
↓ HR, ↑ inotropy, arrhythmias including; bigeminy, PVCs, 1st/2nd/3rd degree AV block, SVT,
CVS
VT
CNS Deranged red-green colour perception, visual disturbances, headache
Immune Eosinophilia and rash
Metabolic Gynaecomastia
Toxic Effects Narrow TI. Severe arrhythmia with DC cardioversion
Interactions
Interaction Drug
Increased level Amiodarone, captopril, erythromycin, verapamil
Decreased level Antacids, cholestyramine, phenytoin, metoclopramide
References
602
Digoxin
603
Adenosine
Adenosine
Adenosine acts via A1 adenosine receptors in the SA and AV node, which when stimulated open K+ channels causing
hyperpolarisation and a reduction in Ca2+ current, with subsequent blockade of AV nodal conduction.
Property Action
Class Naturally occurring purine nucleoside
Uses SVT
Presentation Colourless solution at 3mg.ml-1
Dosing 3mg/6mg/12mg in increasing doses
Metabolism Rapidly deaminated in plasma. t1/2 < 10s
Resp Bronchospasm, ↑ RR and VT
CVS ↓↓ AV nodal conduction, may cause AF/lutter
Toxic Effects Contraindicated in sick-sinus syndrome, 2nd/3rd degree AV block
Interactions
Interaction Drug
Increased effect Dipyridamole
Decreased effect Methylxanthines, such as aminophylline and caffeine
References
604
Magnesium
Magnesium
Mg2+ is a cation that is important for neurotransmission and neuromuscular excitability. Magnesium:
Inhibits ACh release at the NMJ

Acts a cofactor in multiple enzyme systems
Is important in the production of:
ATP
DNA
RNA
Property Action
HypoMg, arrhythmia, eclampsia, tocolysis, barium poisoning, asthma, tetanus, autonomic

Uses
hyperreflexia
Presentation 2mmol.ml-1, made up into 10mmol in 100ml for peripheral administration
Route of
PO/IV
Administration
Dosing IV: 10-20 mmol
Elimination Significant urinary excretion, even when deficient
Resp Bronchodilation
CVS ↓ SVR, hypotension, ↓HR
CNS CNS depression, anticonvulsant
GU ↓ Uterine tone and contractility
Clinical Effects of Magnesium

[Plasma] Effect
-1
< 0.7 mmol.L Arrhythmia
4-6 mmol.L-1 Nausea, hyporeflexia, speech impairment
6-10 mmol.L-1 Weakness, respiratory depression, bradycardia

-1
> 10 mmol.L Cardiac arrest
References
605
Magnesium
606
Atropine
Atropine
Naturally occurring tertiary amine which competitively antagonises ACh at the muscarinic receptor, causing parasympatholytic
effects.
Property Atropine
Class Naturally occurring tertiary amine. Muscarinic antagonist.
Uses Bradycardia, organophosphate poisoning, antisialogogue
Presentation Clear, colourless solution at 600μg.ml-1. Racemic mixture, with only the L-isomer active
Dosing 600μg-3mg
Distribution 50% protein bound, VD 3L.kg-1
Metabolism Extensive hepatic hydrolysis
Elimination Renal elimination of metabolites and unchanged drug
Resp Bronchodilation, ↓ secretions
CVS ↑ HR due to ↑ AV nodal conduction, peaks within 2-4 minutes and lasts 2-3 hours
CNS Central anticholinergic syndrome, confusion, ↑IOP
MSK Inhibits sweating
GIT ↓ LoS tone
References
607
Renal
Diuretics
An understanding of the pharmacology of diuretics.
Diuretics are drugs that act on the kidney to increase urine production. They can be classified by their mechanism of action into:
Thiazides
Loop diuretics
Potassium sparing
Aldosterone antagonists
Osmotic
Carbonic Anhydrase inhibitors
Common Features of Diuretics

Property Diuretics
Absorption Typically poor bioavailability (exception: acetazolamide)
Distribution Variable protein binding
Generally not metabolised. Key exceptions: Spironolactone is extensively metabolised with active
Metabolism
metabolites, and a small amount of frusemide is metabolised to glucuronide.
Elimination Renal elimination of unchanged drug
CVS Reduced intra and extravascular volume
Any diuretic which inhibits sodium reabsorption can precipitate hypokalaemia (as a greater intra-luminal
concentration of sodium results in exchange of sodium for potassium ions), hyponatraemia (as there is
Renal
still a net loss of sodium), and alkalosis (from loss of hydrogen ions exchanged for sodium, or the overall
raised strong ion difference).
Comparison of Diuretics
Potassium Aldosterone
Thiazides Loop Diuretics Osmotic
Sparing antagonists
Example Hydrochlorothiazide Frusemide Amiloride Spironolactone Mannitol
Site Distal tubule Loop of Henle Distal tubule Distal tubule Glomerulus
Inhibit NKCC2,
Filtered at
the Na+/K+/2.Cl-
the
transport protein in Competitive
glomerulus
the thick ascending aldosterone
and not
Inhibit Na+ and Cl- limb, impeding the Inhibits antagonist.
reabsorbed,
reabsorption, and counter-current Na+/K+ Aldosterone
Mechanism increasing
increase Ca2+ multiplier. This exchange stimulates Na+
of action filtrate
reabsorption in the reduces the pump. Weak reabsorption,
osmolarity
DCT hypertonicity of effect. which in turn
and
the medulla, and stimulates K+
increases
subsequent water secretion.
water
reabsorption in the
excretion.
collecting system.
608
Renal
Resp
Increases
intravascular
volume,
Antihypertensive Arteriolar increasing
due to reduced vasodilation, preload.
Cardiac
plasma volume and reducing SVR and May
SVR preload increase CO
or result in
cardiac
failure.
CNS ↓ ICP
Increased renal Increased

Reduced renal blood
Renal blood flow and renal blood
flow and GFR
GFR flow
Hypochloraemia,
hyponatraemia,
Hypokalaemic,
hypokalaemia,
hypochloraemic Hyperkalaemia,
Metabolic hypomagnesaemia. Hyperkalaemia.
alkalosis. hyponatraemia.
Occasional
Hyperglycaemia.
hyperuricaemia
precipitating gout.
Deafness, typically Gynaecomastia

following large and menstrual
doses. More irregularity due
common in kidney to anti-
Miscellaneous Blood dyscrasias
impairment and androgenism
with from
aminoglycoside aldosterone
use. antagonism
References
609
Renal
3. Auerbach. Wilderness Medicine. Sixth Edition.
610
Intravenous Fluids
Intravenous Fluids
Intravenous fluids can be classified into:
Crystalloids
Can pass freely through a semipermeable membrane. Can be further classified into:
ECF replacement solutions
Have a [Na+] similar to ECF, such that they are confined mostly to the ECF.
Maintenance solutions
Designed to distribute throughout TBW.
Special solutions
These solutions don't fit into the above two categories, and include:
Hypertonic saline
Mannitol
8.4% Sodium Bicarbonate
Colloids
Substance evenly dispersed throughout another solution in which it is insoluble. Can be classified into:
Naturally occurring
Albumin
Heat-treated human albumin.
Produced at low pH but not technically sterile
Use within 3 hours of opening.
Contibutes to plasma oncotic pressure
Contibutes to drug and endogenous substance binding
Synthetic
Dextrans
High molecular weight sugars synthesised from sucrose by bacteria.
Interfere with haemostasis due to vWF inhibition
Interfere with blood crossmatch
Risk of anaphylaxis
Gelatins
High molecular weight proteins produced by collagen hydrolysis.
Greatest anaphylaxis risk
Do not interfere with clotting
Hydroxyl-ethyl starches
Risk of anaphylaxis
Risk of renal impairment
Accumulate in the reticuloendothelial system
Comparison of Crystalloids
-1
Contents (mmol.L ) 0.9% NaCl Hartmann's Plasmalyte
+
Na 154 130 140
Cl- 154 109 98
K+ 4
Ca2+ 3
2+
611
Intravenous Fluids
2+
Mg 1.5
Lactate 28
Acetate 27
Gluconate 23
pH 5.0 6.5 5.5
References
http://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/FluidBook/fl7_2.php
612
Neuropharmacology
Propofol
Propofol (2-6 di-isopropylphenol) is a phenolic derivative with effects on many receptors including:
GABAA
Potentiates the effect of GABA, prolonging Cl- channel opening and hyperpolarising the cell.
Glycine
Nicotinic ACh
D2 receptors
Property Action
Class Phenolic derivative
Uses Induction of anaesthesia, sedation, TIVA
White oil-in-water emulsion at a pH of 7-8.5 containing:

- 10-20mg.ml-1 propofol
- 10% Soybean oil (solubilising agent)
- 1.2% Purified egg phosphatide (emulsifier)
- 2.25% Glycerol (for tonicity)
Presentation
Bacteriostatic additives including:
- Generics: Sodium metabisulphate
- Diprivan: Disodium edetate (less allergenic)
Risk of bacterial contamination limits shelf life.
Energy content is 1.1kcal.ml-1
pKa 11 - almost all is unionised (and active) at physiologic pH
Route of
IV only
Administration
Induction: 1-2.5mg.kg-1 Maintenance: 4-12mg/kg/hr. Target plasma concentration of 4-8μg.ml-1 to

Dosing
maintain general anaesthesia
98% protein bound. Very high VD at 4L.kg-1. Rapid initial distribution: t1/2α (fast) 1-3 minutes,
Distribution
intermediate distribution t1/2α (slow) 30-70 minutes. t1/2ke0</sub> of 2.7 min.
Hepatic and extra-hepatic metabolism to inactive glucuronides and sulphates; t1/2β 2-12 hours.
Metabolism Clearance of 30-60ml.kg.min-1, unaffected by renal and hepatic disease. Context sensitive half-time
peaks at 50 minutes following a 9 hour infusion.
Elimination Tri-exponential. Renal elimination of inactive metabolites.
Respiratory depression, apnoea. Strong suppression of laryngeal reflexes. ↓ Response to hypoxia and
Resp
hypercapnoea. Bronchodilation.
↓ Arterial and venous vasodilation (via stimulating NO release) causing ↓ SVR and ↓ VR, with ↓ BP. ↓
CVS Inotropy via ↓ in SNS tone, ↓ MVO2. Depresses baroreceptor reflex. Pain on injection due to lipid
emulsion.
Hyponosis. Rapid LoC (within 1 arm-brain circulation time). ↓ CMRO2, CBF, and ICP.
CNS Anticonvulsant. ↓ IOP. Parodoxical excitatory effects seen in ~10% - dystonic movements of
subcortical origin. EEG demonstrates non-specific seizure-like activity.
MSK Pain on injection into small veins
Renal Green urine
GIT Anti-emetic. ↓ Hepatic Blood Flow
Metabolic Fat overload syndrome, lipaemia following prolonged infusion. Inhibits mitochondrial function.
Propofol infusion syndrome: Acidosis, bradycardia, and MODS following prolonged infusion (>24
Toxic Effects hours), particularly with high doses (>4mg.kg-1.hr-1), in children, and potentially in the presence of
613
Neuropharmacology
mitochondrial defects. Believed due to inhibition of mitochondrial function.
References
2. CICM July/September 2007 http://ceaccp.oxfordjournals.org/content/4/3/76.full.pdf
http://www2.pedsanesthesia.org/meetings/2007winter/pdfs/Morgan-Friday1130-1150am.pdf
614
Barbiturates
Barbiturates
Thiopentone is a positive allosteric modulator at GABAA receptors (at a separate site to benzodiazepines) in the CNS.
Barbiturates cause:
Decreased rate of dissociation of GABA

Increases the duration of channel opening, causing effective hyperpolarisation due to increased Cl- conductance.
Clinical effects differ from benzodiazepines as benzodiazepines increase frequency of opening, whilst barbiturates
increase duration
Direct activation of the channel at higher doses
Property Thiopentone
Class Barbiturate
Uses Induction of anaesthesia, status epilepticus, control of ICP refractory to other measures
500mg of yellow powder with NaCO3 for reconstitution as a 2.5% solution. Container uses nitrogen
Presentation as a filler gas (to prevent HCO3-1 formation when CO2 combines with water during reconstitution,
which ↓ pH and therefore water solubility). pH of 11 when reconstituted - bacteriostatic solution.
Tautomer. pKa of 7.6, such that 60% is unionised at pH 7.4 (i.e. water solubility decreases once
Isomerism
injected).
Route of
IV
Administration
Dosing 3-7mg.kg-1. Consider 75mg boluses, assessing haemodynamic and neuronal effects.
65-85% protein bound. High lipid solubility and CBF gives a rapid, reliable onset. Rapid offset due to
Distribution redistribution, with a fast t1/2α of 8 minutes. Prolonged elimination half life (11 hours) contributes to
long CSHT. Increased unionised portion in acidosis. t1/2ke0 of 1.2 minutes.
Capacity dependent CYP450 metabolism - saturatable at high doses (long CSHT with infusion).
Metabolism
Metabolised to (active) pentobarbital, which also increases the duration of its clinical effects.
Elimination Renal of metabolites, < 1% excreted unchanged
Resp Respiratory depression, bronchospasm, laryngospasm
Vasodilation and venodilation (↓ MSFP), ↓ inotropy, with compensatory tachycardia (baroreceptor

CVS
response preserved)
Hyponosis and anaesthesia within 40 seconds of injection, with reliable loss of lash reflex.
Anticonvulsant. Dose-dependent flattening of the EEG (β α θ δ burst suppression
isoelectric), causing progressive ↓ CMRO2 (55% of maximal during burst suppression), ↓ CBF, and ↓
CNS
ICP.
Resolution of induction dose in 5-10 minutes due to redistribution.
Endocrine ↓ RBF causing ↓ UO
GIT Hepatic enzyme induction
Immune Analphylaxis ~1;20,000
Metabolic May precipitate acute porphyric crises and is contraindicated in these patients
Intraarterial injection causes precipitation as water solubility decreases at blood pH.

Microembolisation and ischaemia result, which should be treated with intraarterial local anaesthesia,
Other analgesia, anticoagulation, and sympathetic blockade of the limb.
Tissue necrosis on extravasation.
615
Barbiturates
References
2. LITFL - Thiopentone
3. Hill, SA. Pharmacokinetics of drug infusions. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia. 2004.
616
Ketamine
Ketamine
Ketamine is a phencyclidine derivative used for induction, sedation, analgesia, and as a bronchodilator in severe asthma.
Ketamine acts via:
Non-competitive antagonist of NMDA and glutamate receptors in the CNS

Reduces presynaptic glutamate release
Sodium channel inhibition
Local anaesthetic-like effect.
Potential monoaminergic, muscarinic, and nicotinic antagonism
Property Action
Class Phencyclidine derivative
Uses Induction of anaesthesia, sedation, analgesia, asthma
Presentation Clear, colourless solution forming an acidic solution (pH 3.5-5.5)
Racemic mixture or the single S(+) enantiomer, which is 2-3x as potent as the R(-) enantiomer but has
Isomerism
less bronchodilatory properties
Route of
IV, IM, PO, PR, PN, via epidural (with preservative-free solution)
Administration
Dosing Induction: 1-2mg.kg-1 IV, 5-10mg.kg-1 IM, Sedation: 0.2-0.5mg.kg-1 IV
Distribution 25% protein bound. t1/2α 10-15 minutes
Hepatic metabolism to active norketamine by CYP450 and then to inactive metabolites, t1/2β 2-4
Metabolism
hours
Elimination Renal elimination of inactive metabolites. Action of norketamine prolonged in renal failure.
Bronchodilation, tachypnoea, relative preservation of laryngeal reflexes. Apnoea with rapid injection.
Resp
Preserved central response to CO2.
↑ Sympathetic outflow: ↑ HR, ↑ BP, ↑ SVR, ↑ MVO2. Acts directly as a myocardial depressant -
CVS
beware maximally stimulated patient. Depresses baroreceptor reflex.
Dissociation, analgesia, emergence phenomena (hallucinations, delirium) reduced by concurrent BDZ

administration (increasing risk with higher doses and rapid administration).
Produces dissociative anaesthesia within 90 seconds by dissociating thalmaocortical and limbic

CNS
systems on EEG. Purposeful movements unrelated to stimulus may occur even during surgical
anaesthesia.
↑ IOP.
Renal Cystitis with long-term, high-dose use
GIT N/V
References
3. CICM July/Sept 2007
617
Ketamine
4. Lupton T, Pratt O. Intravenous drugs used for the induction of anaesthesia.
618
Dexmedetomidine
Dexmedetomidine
Dexmedetomidine is a central α2-agonist (α2:α1 activity 1600:1) used for its sedation and analgesic properties.
Property Action
Class Imidazole derivative
Pharmaceutics D-stereoisomer of medetomidine (the L-stereoisomer is inactive)
Uses Sedation without respiratory depression
Presentation Clear colourless solution at 10µg.ml-1
Route of Administration IV only

-1 -1
Dosing 0.2-0.7µg.kg .hr
Elimination Renal of metabolites, t1/2β of 2 hours
Initial transient ↑ SVR and BP due to α1 effects, followed by ↓ MAP, ↓ HR.

CVS
Rebound ↑ BP when abruptly ceased.
Sedation, anxiolysis at low dose (anxiogenic at high dose), amnesia. ↓ MAC.

CNS
↓ SNS outflow.
References
619
Local Anaesthetics
Local Anaesthetic Agents

Local anaesthetic drugs deliver a use-dependent, temporary blockade of neuronal transmission
Unionised drug passes through the cell membrane, and then becomes ionised intracellularly
The ionised drug is then able to bind to the ion channel, and prevent conduction of sodium and therefore generation of an
action potential
All local anaesthetics consist of:

A hydrophilic component
A lipophilic aromatic ring
An amide or ester link connecting the two
Common Features of Local Anaesthetics

Property Action
Class Amide (-NHCO-) or Ester (-COOH-)
Amides are stable in solution, esters are unstable in solution. All are formulated as a hydrochloride salt
Pharmaceutics
to ensure water solubility.
pKa All are weak bases, and have a pKa > 7.4
Onset is related to dose (Fick's Law) and pKa, with a low pKa giving a faster onset as there is more
unionised drug present and therefore more drug able to cross the cell membrane. This is why local
Onset
anaesthetics are poor at anaesthetising infected tissues, as the tissue pH is low resulting in a greater
proportion of ionised drug, and less drug reaching the effect site.
Duration of Duration of action is related to protein binding, with greater protein binding giving a longer
Action duration of action
Potency is related to lipid solubility (higher lipid solubility increases potency) and vasodilator
Potency
properties (weaker vasodilators having greater potency)
Systemic absorption varies with site of entry (from highest absorption to lowest: IV, intercostal,
Absorption caudal epidural, lumbar epidural, brachial plexus, subcutaneous), dose, and presence of
vasoconstrictors
Distribution Amides are extensively protein bound, esters are minimally bound
Amides are hepatically metabolised, esters are hydrolysed by plasma cholinesterases (giving a much
Metabolism
shorter t1/2)
+
Vasodilatation at low concentrations, vasoconstriction at high concentrations. Inhibition of cardiac Na
CVS channels, inhibiting maximum rate of rise of phase 0 of the cardiac action potential. Negative inotropy
proportional to potency.
Does-dependent CNS effects: circumoral tingling, visual disturbances, tinnitus, tremors, dizziness,
CNS slurred speech, convulsions, coma, apnoea. Potentiated by other CNS depressants and hypercarbia (due
to ↑ CBF and ↓ seizure threshold).
Esters have a higher incidence of allergy due to their metabolite para-amino benzoic acid (PABA).
Toxic Effects
Local anaesthetic toxicity is predominantly CNS and CVS.
Comparison of Local Anaesthetics

Property Lignocaine Bupivacaine Ropivacaine Cocaine
620
Local Anaesthetics
Class Amide Amide Amide Ester
Topical
Local/regional/epidural,
Uses Local/regional/epidural Local/regional/epidural anaesthesia and
ventricular dysrhythmia
vasoconstriction
Clear, colourless 1-4% solution,

solution at 0.5/1/2% Moffat's solution
Clear, colourless Clear, colourless
Presentation with or without (8% cocaine, 1%
solution at 0.25/0.5% solution
adrenaline. Spray. NaCO3, 1:2 000
Ointment. 4% solution. adrenaline)
pKa 7.9 8.1 8.1 8.6
Route of
SC, epidural, IV SC, epidural SC, epidural Topical
Administration
Rapid onset, short Intermediate onset, Intermediate onset,

Onset/Duration 20-30 minutes
duration long duration long duration
-1
Analgesia: 4mg.kg
Maximum without adrenaline,
2mg.kg-1 3mg.kg-1 3mg.kg-1
Dose 7mg.kg-1 with
adrenaline
Lower lipid solubility

reduces motor block Highly protein
Distribution 70% protein bound Highly protein bound
compared to bound
bupivacaine
Plasma
esterases, some
Hepatic with some Hepatic to inactive Hepatic to active hepatic
Metabolism
active metabolites metabolites metabolites metabolism
(unlike other
esters)
Elimination of
Reduced in hepatic or active drug and
Elimination
cardiac failure inactive
metabolites
CC/CNS ratio 7 3 5
Most toxic of LA
May cause ↑ BP,
agents as it takes
↑ HR, coronary
longer to dissociate
vasoconstriction,
from the myocardial
myocardial
Na+ channel.
depression, VF,
Levobupivacaine is
Other ↑ temperature
less cardiotoxic the
due to ↑
racemic mixture,
serotonin,
possibly as it has more
dopamine, and
intrinsic
noradrenaline
vasoconstrictive
reuptake
properties.
Lignocaine Toxicity
Serum concentration
Phase Effect
(µg.ml-1)
Antiarrhythmic. May begin to have lightheadedness, circumoral tingling,

2 Safe
numbness
5 Excitatory Dysarthria
8 Excitatory Visual changes
621
Local Anaesthetics
10 Excitatory Seizures
12 Depressive Loss of consciousness
20 Depressive Respiratory depression
25 Depressive CVS depression
Pharmaceutics of Topical Local Anaesthetics

Effect of topical local anaesthetics is governed by Fick's Law.
Characteristic Effect
Pharmaceutic Factors
Presentation Aerosol improves speed of onset by moisturising skin
Concentration of active component Increase speed of onset
Stability
pH ↑ pH ensures more local anaesthetic is in the unionised form, ↑ absorption.
Additives Affect pH and vasoconstrictor activity
Drug Factors
Molecular weight Small molecules will diffuse more easily
pKa Affects ionisation and therefore lipid solubility
Lipid solubility ↑ lipid solubility improves speed of onset.
Potency Determines amount of drug needed to produce an effect
Vasoconstrictor activity Will affect both speed of onset and degree of systemic absorption
Patient Factors
Site Degree of vascularity of site
Skin Skin thickness and area will affect onset
References
4. Open Anaesthesia. Local Anaesthetics Systemic Toxicity
5. Gadsden J. Local Anaesthetics: Clinical Pharmacology and Rational Selection. NYSORA.
7. Christie LE, Picard J, Weinberg GL. Local anaesthetic systemic toxicity. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care
& Pain, Volume 15, Issue 3, 1 June 2015, Pages 136–142.
622
Local Anaesthetics
623
Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines are double-ringed positive allosteric modulators of the GABA receptors in the CNS. They:
Bind to the α/γ interface of the receptor, increasing affinity of the receptor for GABA
This leads to hyperpolarisation of the cell membranes and decreased neuronal transmission
The mechanism varies between receptors:
GABAA is a ligand gated post-synaptic Cl- ion channel
Activation increases Cl- conductance via increasing frequency of channel opening.
GABAB is a pre- and post-synaptic G-protein coupled receptor
Activation increases K+ conductance.
Common Features of Benzodiazepines

Property Action
Uses Sedation, anxiolysis, hypnotic, anticonvulsants, amnestic, muscle relaxation
Absorption
Distribution Highly lipid soluble and protein bound, very low VD
Metabolism Generally active metabolites.
Elimination Renal elimination of active and inactive metabolites.
Resp ↓ VT, ↑RR, apnoea.
CVS ↓ SVR, ↓SBP, ↓ DBP, ↑HR. Typically stable CO.
CNS Hypnosis, sedation, anterograde amnesia, anticonvulsant, ↓ CBF. ↓ MAC.
MSK Skeletal muscle relaxation.
Metabolic ↓ Adrenergic stress response.
Comparison of Benzodiazepines
Property Midazolam Diazepam Clonazepam
pKa 6.5. Structure is dependent on

surrounding pH - at a pH < 4 its ring
Physicochemical 40% propylene glycol.
structure opens and it becomes water
soluble.
Route of
PO/IV/IM. PO/IV/IM. PO.
Administration
Absorption 50% PO bioavailability. Good PO bioavailability.

-1
Distribution VD 1.5L.kg , 95% protein bound. 95% protein bound.
Hepatic to all active metabolites

Partially metabolised to oxazepam Hepatic to
including oxazepam, tempazepam, and
Metabolism and 1-α-hydroxy-midazolam. inactive
des-methyl-diazepam (has t1/2β up to
Clearance ~7ml.kg-1.min-1. metabolites.
100 hours).
t1/2β 2-4 hours, prolonged with

Elimination cirrhosis, CHF, obesity and in the t1/2β 20-45 hours.
624
Benzodiazepines
1/2
elderly.
References
625
Antidepressants
Antidepressants
Symptoms and management of TCA overdose is covered under Tricyclic Antidepressant Overdose.
Antidepressant drugs include:
Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)

Mechanism of action by multiple effects, including:
Competitively inhibit reuptake of NA and 5-HT
Muscarinic antagonism
Leads to anticholinergic side effects (dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, urinary retention).
H1 and H2 antagonism
α1 antagonism
NMDA antagonism
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
Inhibit neural reuptake of 5-HT
Preferred over TCAs as:
Similar effectiveness
Better side effect profile
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAO-Is)
Inhibit monoamine oxidase on external mitochondrial membrane, increasing the level of amine neurotransmitters in the
CNS and PNS
Two enzymes exist:
MAO-A
Dominant enzyme in CNS
Acts on serotonin, noradrenaline, adrenaline
MAO-B
Dominant in GIT and platelets
Responsible for 75% of MAO activity
Preferential metabolism of non-polar amines
MAO-Is classified by their mechanism and selectivity
Nonselective, irreversible
Bind covalently to the enzyme, permanently inactivating it.
May lead to hypertensive crisis when catecholamine levels increased
Tyramine in food
Metabolised by MAO-B.
Indirectly acting sympathomimetics
Absolutely contraindicated.
Risk of serotonin syndrome with serotonin reuptake inhibitors
Include:
Phenelzine
Isocarboxazid
Tranylcypromine
Enzyme levels will take 2-3 weeks to recover following cessation
MAO-A selective, reversible
Hypertensive crisis is less common
MAO-B unaffected - tyramine is metabolised
Short acting
Enzyme levels normalise after 24 hours of cessation.
Include:
626
Antidepressants
Moclobemide
MAO-B selective
Much lower risk of hypertensive crisis
Include:
Selegiline
Discontinuation syndrome may occur if abruptly ceased
Selective Serotonin Monoamine Oxidase

Property Tricyclic Antidepressants
Reuptake Inhibitors Inhibitors
Example Amitryptiline Fluoxetine
Treatment resistant
depression. Now
Depression, treatment of chronic pain and
Uses Depression, anxiety largely superseded
trigeminal neuralgia
due to side-effect
profile
High PO
Absorption High PO bioavailability
bioavailability
Highly lipid soluble with High VD. Very highly

Highly protein
Distribution protein bound - leads to interactions with
bound, high VD
warfarin, digoxin, and aspirin
Hepatic with non-

linear kinetics
Hepatic with active metabolites. Large interpatient
Metabolism
variability Venlafaxine does not
affect CYP450
enzymes.
Unaffected by renal
Elimination
impairment
Resp Dry mouth
Postural hypotension, ↑ HR.

Less cardiotoxic than
QT prolongation and widening QRS in overdose,
CVS TCAs, may precipite
with arrhythmia more likely when QRS exceeds
serotonin syndrome
0.16s.
Identical
Sedation, blurred vision, lowered seizure
antidepressant effect
CNS threshold. Excitation, followed by seizures and
to TCAs. Less
depression in overdose.
sedation
Renal Urinary retention
Greater incidence of
GU Sexual dysfunction sexual dysfunction
compared with TCAs
Greater incidence of
GIT Constipation N/V compared with
TCAs
Multiple compex drug interactions, including

arrhythmias and variable BP with
sympathomimetics, central anticholinergic
Continue during
syndrome, serotonin syndrome, and seizures.
perioperaive period
Other to avoid risk of
↑ Sensitivity to catecholamines - suggest
discontinuation
avoiding:
syndrome.
-Indirectly acting sympathomimetics
-Ketamine
-Surgical stress
627
Antidepressants
Serotonin Syndrome
Serotonin syndrome is excessive serotonin in the CNS, typically as a consequence of drug interactions. The syndrome may be
mild, moderate, or severe, and presents with some or all of:
Altered mental state

Confusion
Motor changes
Myoclonus
Hyperreflexia
Tremor
Autonomic instability
Diaphoresis
Shivering
Fever
Serotonin syndrome is typically self-limiting and resolves with cessation of the drug.
References
2. Altamura AC, Moro AR, Percudani M. Clinical pharmacokinetics of fluoxetine. 1994 Mar;26(3):201-14.
3. Bromhead H, Feeney A. Anaesthesia & Psychiatric Drugs - Antidepressants. Anaesthesia Tutorial of the Week (164). 2009.
628
Antipsychotics
Antipsychotics
Antipsychotics are drugs used for the management of psychoses and thought disorders. They have a complicated mechanism of
action with effects on multiple receptors:
Central dopamine (typically D2, but varies with agent) antagonism

Responsible for the antipsychotic properties
5-HT2 antagonism
Other receptors which are quantitatively less important:

H1 antagonism
α1 antagonism
Muscarinic ACh antagonism
Based on their affinity to various receptors, they are (loosely) classified as either:
Typical or 1st generation antipsychotics

Higher affinity for D2 receptors (subsequently less blockade of 5-HT2), causing a greater effect on 'positive' symptoms' and a
greater incidence of extrapyramidal side effects
Atypical or 2nd generation, which typically have fewer motor effects
Have greater effect on negative symptoms.
Common Features of Antipsychotics

Property Drug
Uses Behavioural emergencies, schizophrenia/psychosis
CVS QT prolongation
CNS Apathy, ↓ initiative, ↓ response to external stimuli, ↓ aggression. No loss of intellectual function.
Endocrine ↑ Prolactin (typicals)
Haeme Leukopenia and agranulocytosis (predominantly clozapine, but can be all)
Metabolic Weight gain, diabetes, hypercholesterolaemia (all atypical > typical)
Other Toxicities Neuroleptic malignant syndrome, EPSE
Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome

Antipsychotic Malignant Syndrome is rare and presents similarly to MH, with a rapid rise in body temperature and confusion. It
has a high mortality (up to 20%).
Extra-Pyramidal Side Effects

Motor disturbances from antipsychotic use are termed EPSEs, and are divided into two main types:
Acute Dystonic Reactions are involuntary movements and parkinsonian symptoms. They are:
More common with typical agents

Decline with ongoing use
Reversible with cessation of the agent
Tardive dyskinesia is similar to ADR, except:
629
Antipsychotics
Involuntary movements are more pronounced and disabling

It occurs with long term use (10-20 years)
They are irreversible, and worsen when therapy is stopped
Comparison of Antipsychotics
Property Haloperidol Olanzapine Clozapine
Class Typical Atypical Atypical ("3rd gen")
Behavioural Emergencies,
Uses Behavioural Emergencies Treatment resistant schizophrenia
Psychosis/Schizophrenia
Tablets, syrup, clear solution Tablets, solution for

Presentation Yellow tablet
for injection at 5mg.ml-1 injection
Route of
PO/IM/IV PO/IM PO
Administration
1-5mg IV, 2-30mg IM, 1- Must be prescribed by a

Dosing IM 5-10mg, PO 5-20mg
15mg PO psychiatrist
Absorption 50% PO bioavailability 60% PO bioavailability Rapid absorption
93% protein bound, VD

Distribution 92% protein bound VD 2L.kg-1
~14L.kg-1
Hepatic to largely inactive Hepatic to inactive May obey zero-order kinetics at

Metabolism
metabolites metabolites the upper limit of the dose range
Renal of inactive Renal of active drug (~25%) and

metabolites inactive metabolites
CVS Hypotension Myocarditis (potentially fatal)
CNS Seziures
GIT Antiemetic Hepatitis
Agranulocytosis, thromboembolic
Haeme
disease
References
Rang and Dale Smith, Scarth, Sasada Critical Care Drugs Manual http://lifeinthefastlane.com/book/critical-care-drugs/
https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/archives/fdaDrugInfo.cfm?archiveid=8248
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8453823
630
Anticonvulsants
Anticonvulsants
In general, anticonvulsants are:
Well absorbed orally

Highly protein bound
Hepatically metabolised by CYP450 enzymes, and induce their own metabolism (as well as that of other drugs)
Renally eliminated
Interact with each other
Property Phenytoin Sodium Valproate Carbamazepine Levetiracetam
GTCS, partial
GTCS, partial seizures, Antiepileptic, seizures,
Uses trigeminal neuralgia, Partial seizures trigeminal myoclonic
ventricular arrhythmias neuralgia seizures, seizure
prophylaxis
Capsules, syrup, solution.

Tablets,
IV formulation Tablets, syrup, Tablets, oral
Presentation suppositories,
incompatible with solution liquid, IV liquid
syrup
dextrose.
Route of PO, IV (over 15

PO, IV, IM PO, IV PO
Administration minutes)
Typically 1g
loading, then
15-20mg.kg-1 load, 500mg BD
Dosing aiming plasma levels 10- 300-1250mg BD 50-800mg BD increasing up to
20mcg.ml-1 1.5g BD. Dose
adjusted in renal
impairment.
Unknown, but
Stabilises Na+
Stabilises Na+ channels in Stabilises Na+ different to other
channels in their
Mechanism of their inactive state, channels in their antiepileptics and
inactive state and
Action inhibiting generation of inactive state and may be related to
GABAergic
further action potentials. potentiates GABA inhibition of N-
inhibition
type Ca2+ currents
Slow PO absorption. PO PO bioavailability 95% PO Near 100% PO

Absorption
bioavailability 90% 100% bioavailability bioavailability
Nil significant
Highly protein Highly protein
Distribution Highly protein bound protein binding,
bound bound
VD ~0.5L.kg-1
Hepatic hydroxylation
with highly individual
variation in dosing. Obeys
first-order kinetics in the
therapeutic range, and
zero-order kinetics just
above the therapeutic
range. Metabolised by
CYP450. Induces Hepatic to inactive Hepatic hydrolysis
Metabolism warfarin, benzodiazepines, and active Hepatic to inactive
OCP metabolism. metabolites metabolites
Inhibited by
metronidazole,
chloramphenicol,
isoniazid. Genetic
polymorphism results in
631
Anticonvulsants
reduced metabolism in 5-
15% of patients.
Renal of active
Renal elimination of Renal elimination
drug (major route)
Elimination inactive metabolites and of metabolites and Renal elimination
and metabolite
active drug active drug
(minor route)
↓ BP, heart block, and

asystole with rapid
CVS Antiarrhythmic
administration,
antiarrythmic properties
↑ Seizure
↑ Seizure threshold, threshold,
paraesthesia, ataxis, anxiolytic.
CNS ↑ Seizure threshold ↑ Seizure threshold
nystagmus, slurred speech, Minimal ↓ in
tremor, vertigo. seizure threshold
on cessation.
Water retention
Rarely precipitates
Renal from ADH-like
AKI
effects
Hepatotoxicity
GIT (idiosyncratic). Nausea Hepatotoxicity.
and vomiting.
Thrombocytopenia,
Aplastic anaemia and leukopenia
Haeme Thrombocytopenia
other blood dyscrasias (requires regular
testing)
Immune Rash SJS
Metabolic Hyperammonaemia
Requires monitoring due

to narrow therapeutic
window and significant Reduces efficacy of
Other pharmacokinetic variation. aminosteroids.
Gum hyperplasia. Teratogenic.
Teratogenic.
May precipitate porphyria.
References
5. Levetiracetam - Drug Information. FDA. 2009.
632
GABA Analogues
GABA Analogues
Gabapentin and pregabalin:
Are both structual analogues of GABA

Have no direct action on the GABAA receptor
Act on the α2δ subunit of voltage gated Ca2+ channels in the CNS, inhibiting neurotransmitter release
May have some NMDA receptor activity
Comparison of GABA Analogues

Property Gabapentin Pregabalin
Focal seizures, neuropathic pain,

Uses Focal seizures, neuropathic pain
anxiety
Route of
PO
Administration
50mg BD/TDS, up to 600mg in divided

Dosing 100mg TDS, increasing up to 1200mg TDS
doses (BD or TDS)
PO bioavailability of 60%, decreases with increasing 90% PO bioavailability, delayed by

Absorption
dose due to saturation of transporter food but unaffected by dose
Distribution Minimally protein bound Minimally protein bound
Metabolism Not metabolised Not metabolised
Renal elimination of active drug, t1/2β

Elimination Renal elimination of active drug, t1/2β 6 hours
6 hours
Confusion, psychiatric symptoms,

CNS Drowsiness, ataxia, psychiatric symptoms
drowsiness
GIT N/V
References
1. Taylor CP, Angelotti T, Fauman E. Pharmacology and mechanism of action of pregabalin: the calcium channel alpha2-delta
(alpha2-delta) subunit as a target for antiepileptic drug discovery. Epilepsy Res. 2007 Feb;73(2):137-50. Epub 2006 Nov 28.
633
Inhalational Anaesthetic Agents

Describe the effects of inhalational agents on the cardiovascular, respiratory and central nervous systems
Describe the toxicity of inhalational agents
Describe the comparative pharmacology of nitrous oxide, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, desflurane, sevoflurane, xenon
and ether
This section covers features and structures of inhalational anaesthetics. Structure-activity relationships are covered under
inhalational anaesthetics.
Common Features of Inhalational Agents

Property Action
- - -
Hepatic CYP450 (CYP2E1) metabolises C-halogen bonds to release halogen ions (F , Cl , Br ), which
Metabolism can be nephrotoxic and hepatotoxic. The C-F bond is minimally metabolised compared to the C-Cl, C-Br,
and C-I bonds. All agents undergo hepatic oxidation, except for halothane which is reduced.
All halogenated agents ↓ VT and ↑ RR, with an overall ↓ in MV and therefore cause PaCO2 to ↑; and ↓
Resp sensitivity of central respiratory centres to CO2. Impairment of HPV may worsen V/Q matching and ↑
shunt.
2+
↓ MAP (predominantly by ↓ in SVR due to NO release and Ca channel blockade), ↓ inotropy due to
CVS 2+
Ca channel blockade.
Hypnosis. ↓ CMRO2. Above 1 MAC there is uncoupling of the CBF-CMRO2 relationship, and CBF ↑
despite ↓ CMRO2 due to cerebral vasodilation. ICP may mirror CBF changes.
CNS
All except halothane have some analgesic effect. ↓ EEG frequency such that θ- and δ-wave dominate the
EEG as depth ↑. May cause burst suppression.
Muscle relaxation via blockade of Ca2+ channels. Additional augmentation of the effects of NMBD due
MSK
to skeletal muscle vasodilation. May precipitate MH.
Dose dependent ↓ in RBF, GFR, and UO secondary to ↓ in MAP and CO.

-
Renal Fluorinated ethers produce F ions when hepatically metabolised, which may produce high-output renal
failure at serum concentrations >50μmol/L. This is probably only a concern with methoxyflurane (as it
has significant (>70%) hepatic metabolism) when used at anaesthetic doses.
GIT ↓ Hepatic blood flow.
GU Tocolysis.
Toxic
Decreased fertility and increased risk of spontaneous abortion in operating theatre personnel.
Effects
Comparison of Common Inhalational Agents

Property Sevoflurane Isoflurane Desflurane
Minimally soluble, light stable, not

flammable. Formulated with
Soluble in rubber, light Light sensitive, flammable
Pharmaceutics 300ppm of H2O to prevent
stable, not flammable. at 17%.
formation of HF acid by Lewis
acids in glass.
634
Structure
Molecular
200.1 184.5 168.0
Weight
Boiling point 58.5°C 48.5°C 23.5°C
SVP (mmHg)
158 239 669
at 20°C
Blood:gas
0.7 1.4 0.42
coefficient
Oil:gas
50 98 29
coefficient
MAC 2 1.15 6.6
3-5% CYP2E1 metabolism to

hexafluoroisopropanol and 0.2% hepatic to nontoxic
Metabolism
inorganic F- (which may be metabolites
nephrotoxic)
Bronchodilation, airway
Bronchodilation, ↓ MV. Smallest ↓ Airway irritability manifest
irritability. ↓ MV (greater
Resp in VT and therefore smallest ↑ in as coughing and breath-
than halothane) with ↑ in
PaCO2 holding, ↑ secretions
RR
Minimal ↓ inotropy (least

of all inhalational agents),
Reflex ↑ HR due to ↓ MAP but greater ↓ in SVR and
↑ QT, ↓ SVR causing ↓ MAP from ↓ SVR. Small ↓ BP than sevoflurane. ↑ in
without a reflex ↑ HR. Inotropy inotropy and CO, HR, with a bigger increase
CVS
unchanged. Smallest ↓ in BP of any equivalent to sevoflurane at >1.5 MAC.
inhalational agent. but greater than desflurane.
May cause coronary steal. Large ↑ in SNS tone with
rapid ↑ in desflurane
concentration.
↑ Post-operative agitation in
children compared to halothane.
Smallest ↑ in CBF at > 1.1 MAC, Best balance of ↓ CMRO2
CNS
with no increase in ICP up to 1.5 for ↑ in CBF.
MAC. Cerebral autoregulation
intact up to 1.5 MAC.
Sevoflurane interacts with soda

lime to produce Compound A (as Desflurane has much
-CHF2 group may react
well as B through E, which are greater greenhouse gas
Toxic Effects with dry soda lime to
unimportant), which is nephrotoxic effects than sevoflurane or
produce CO.
in rats (but not, it seems, in isoflurane.
humans).
Comparison of Uncommon Inhalational Agents
635
Property Enflurane Halothane Xenon
Structural isomer of
isoflurane with Light unstable. Corrodes some metals Not flammable. Very expensive
Pharmaceutics
different physical and dissolves into rubber. to produce.
properties
Structure
Molecular
184.5 197 131
Weight
Boiling point 56.5°C 50.2°C -108°C
SVP (mmHg)
175 243 -
at 20°C
Blood:gas
1.8 2.4 0.14
coefficient
Oil:gas
98 224 1.9
coefficient
MAC 1.7 0.75 71
~25% undergoes oxidative

phosphorylation by CYP450 systems,
producing trifluoroacetic acid, which
Metabolism Not metabolised.
binds to protein and can cause a T-cell
mediated hepatitis, which can be fatal
in ~1/10,000 anaesthetics.
↓ RR, ↑ in VT such that MV is

constant. 3x as dense and 1.5x
Largest ↓ in VT,
↑ In RR, ↓ in VT with overall as viscous as N2O, which
Resp therefore largest ↑ in
unchanged PaCO2 increases effective airway
PaCO2
resistance. Does not appear to
cause diffusion hypoxia.
Greatest ↓ in inotropy, HR, SVR, and

CVS MAP. Significant ↑ in catecholamine More stable MAP, ↓ HR
sensitivity.
Produces 3Hz
"spike and wave"
EEG pattern at high Greatest ↑ in CNS blood flow at > 1.1
CNS Analgesic, ↑ PONV
concentrations, MAC
resembling grand
mal seizures
Muscle relaxation when >60%.

MSK
Does not trigger MH.
Direct
nephrotoxicity,
potentially related to
Renal fluoride (though this
association is not
present with other
anaesthetic agents)
Least tocolytic
GU
effect
Hepatic damage may be:

- - Reversible transaminitis
Toxic effects Produces F ions - Fulminant hepatic necrosis, with a
636
mortality of 50-75%.
References
1. Khan KS, Hayes I, Buggy DJ. Pharmacology of anaesthetic agents II: inhalation anaesthetic agents. Continuing Education in
Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain, Volume 14, Issue 3, 1 June 2014, Pages 106–111.
Elsevier Health Sciences. Peck and Hill
6. Law LS, Lo EA, Gan TJ. Xenon Anesthesia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.
Anesth Analg. 2016 Mar;122(3):678-97.
637
Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous Oxide
Describe the pharmacology of nitrous oxide
Describe the comparative pharmacology of nitrous oxide, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, desflurane, sevoflurane, xenon
and ether
Property Nitrous Oxide
Non-flammable but supports combustion. Produced by heating ammonium nitrate to 250°C.

Potential contaminants include NH3, N2, NO2, and HNO3.
Stored as a liquid, such that the gauge pressure is only accurate when all remaining N2O is in
Pharmaceutics
the gaseous phase.
The filling ratio is the mass of N2O in the cylinder compared to the mass of water it could
hold, and is 0.75 in temperate regions, and 0.67 in warmer regions.
Molecular Weight 44
Boiling point -88°C
Critical
36.5°C / 72 bar
Temperature/Pressure
SVP (at 20°C) 39,000 mmHg
Blood:gas coefficient 0.47
Oil:gas coefficient 1.4
MAC 105 (MAC awake 68)
Several different mechanisms, including:

- Stimulates dynorphin release (acts at KOP receptor)
Mechanism of Action
- Positive allosteric modulator at GABAA receptor
- NMDA antagonist
Metabolism < 0.01% hepatic reduction.
Diffusion hypoxia due to second gas effect. Small ↓ in VT, ↑ in RR such that MV is
Resp
unchanged.
CVS ↑ SNS tone, mild myocardial depression. ↑ PVR - beware in pulmonary hypertension.
Powerful analgesic when > 20%, via endorphin and encephalin modulation, and on opioid
CNS
receptors. ↑ CBF. Loss of consciousness common at 80%. 1.4x relative risk of PONV
GU Not tocolytic - useful adjuvant in GA caesarian section to reduce volatile anaesthetic use
GIT Expansion
Metabolic ↑ Homocysteine.
More soluble than N2 means it will rapidly diffuse into air-filled cavities, increasing the
volume of compliant cavities (PTHx, bowel), and increasing the pressure of non-compliant
cavities (middle ear).
Prolonged use (> 6 hours) oxidates cobalt ion in vitamin B12, preventing its action as a
cofactor for methionine synthetase, preventing DNA synthesis. This leads to:
Toxic Effects
- Megaloblastic changes in bone marrow
- Agranulocytosis
- Peripheral neuropathy
- Possible teratogenicity - avoid in early pregnancy
Greenhouse gas.
638
Nitrous Oxide
Entonox
Entonox is a 50/50 mixture of nitrous oxide and oxygen, used as analgesia in labor and minor procedures.
Property Entonox (50% O2, 50% N2O)
The gases dissolve each other and behave differently than would be expected from their
Pharmaceutics
individual properties. This is the Poynting effect.
Pseudocritical temperature of -6°C, below which it will separate into liquid 50% N2O (with
some dissolved O2), and gaseous O2. This is most likely to occur at 117 bar, and can lead to
delivery of a hypoxic mixture.
Critical
Temperature/Pressure Delivery of a hypoxic mix is prevented by:
- Storing cylinders horizontally (↑ area for diffusion)
- Storing cylinders at temperatures > 5°C
- Using a dip tube so that liquid 50% N2O is used before the gaseous mixture
References
5. Emmanouil DE, Quock RM. Advances in Understanding the Actions of Nitrous Oxide. Anesthesia Progress. 2007;54(1):9-
18. doi:10.2344/0003-3006(2007)54[9:AIUTAO]2.0.CO;2.
6. Hendrickx, J., Peyton, P., Carette, R., & De Wolf, A. (2016). Inhaled anaesthetics and nitrous oxide. European Journal of
Anaesthesiology, 33(9), 611–619.
7. Brown S, Sneyd J. Nitrous oxide in modern anaesthetic practice. 2016. BJA Education, 16(3), 87–91.
639
Analgesics
Opioids
Common Features
Property Effect
Uses Analgesia, sedation, elimination of sympathetic response to laryngoscopy/surgical stress response
↓ CNS sensitivity to CO2 causing respiratory depression (↓ RR > ↓ VT) - ↑ reliance on hypoxic drive
Resp
(therefore respiratory depression may be potentiated by high FiO2)
CVS ↓ HR. May ↓ BP due to histamine release (less with synthetic agents). ↑ PVR
Sedation, euphoria. Nausea and vomiting due to CTZ stimulation. Meiosis due to stimulation of the
CNS
Edinger-Westphal nucleus. ↓ MAC up to 90%
Renal ↓ RPF, ↑ ADH, ↑ ureteric and sphincter tone
MSK Muscle rigidity, pruritis (especially with intrathecal administration)
Metabolic ↓ ACTH, prolactin, gonadotrophic hormone secretion. ↑ ADH secretion
GIT ↓ Peristalsis and GIT secretions with subsequent constipation
Immunological Impaired: chemotaxis, lymphocyte proliferation, and antibody production
Comparison of Naturally Occurring Opioids

Property Morphine
Receptor MOP, KOP
Route of
SC/IM/IV/Intrathecal
Administration
pKa 8.0, 23% unionised at physiologic pH.
Low (relative) lipid solubility - slower onset and SC absorption. PO preparations absorbed in
Absorption
small bowel, bioavailability 30% - high first pass metabolism.
Distribution ~35% protein binding. VD 3.5L.kg-1
Clearance (ml.kg-
1.min-1) 15
Hepatic glucuronidation to 70% inactive morphine-3-glucuronide and 10% active morphine-

Metabolism
6-glucuronide, which is 13x as potent as morphine. t1/2β of 160 minutes.
Elimination Renal elimination of active metabolites - accumulation in renal failure
Time to Peak Effect

10-30 minutes
(IV)
Duration (IV) 3-4 hours
Equianalgesic Dose (IV,

10mg
to 10mg IV morphine)
Comparison of Semisynthetic Opioids
640
Analgesics
Property Oxycodone Buprenorphine
Partial MOP agonist,

Receptor MOP, KOP, DOP KOP antagonist
(antanalgesic effect)
Route of
PO/IV Topical
Administration
pKa 8.5, < 10% is unionised at physiologic pH.
Significant 1st pass

Absorption PO bioavailability 60-80%
metabolism
As lipid soluble as morphine, 45% protein bound, VD 3L.kg-1.

Distribution More rapid onset than morphine despite higher pKa potentially due
to active CNS uptake
Clearance (ml.kg-
1.min-1) 13
Hepatic demethylation to noroxycodone (80%, via CYP3A) and the

Hepatic to active
Metabolism more potent and active oxymorphone (20%, via CYP2D6). t1/2β 200
norbuprenorphine
minutes.
70% biliary, 30% renal

Elimination Renal elimination of active drug and metabolites elimination, t1/2β 40
hours
Time to Peak
5 minutes
Effect (IV)
Duration (IV) 4 hours
Equianalgesic
10mg. Note 10mg PO oxycodone is ≈ 15mg PO morphine due to
Dose (IV, to 10mg
higher first pass metabolism of morphine
IV morphine)
Comparison of Synthetic Opioids

Property Fentanyl Alfentanil Remifentanil
Receptor MOP MOP MOP
IV (contains
Route of glycine, so cannot
SC/IM/IV/Epidural/Intrathecal/Transdermal IV
Administration be administered
intrathecally)
7.3 means 58%

6.5, 90% unionised at pH
pKa 8.4, < 10% unionised at pH 7.4 unionised at
7.4 conferring rapid onset
physiologic pH.
90x more lipid soluble than

morphine, but more rapid
onset than fentanyl. This is
due to:
1. Low pKa means a
Rapid onset of action (< 30s, peak at 5min) greater proportion is 20x more lipid
Absorption due to lipid solubility (600x that of unionised at physiological soluble than
morphine). pH. morphine.
2. Lower potency of
alfentanil compared to
fentanyl means a greater
dose is required (Bowman's
Principle)
641
Analgesics
20x as lipid
soluble as
morphine, very
90x as lipid soluble as
600x as lipid soluble as morphine small VD of
-1 morphine, small VD of
Distribution conferring a larger VD (4L.kg ). 85% 0.4L.kg-1. 70%
0.6L.kg-1. 90% protein
protein bound. protein bound.
bound
CSHT is constant
due to rapid
metabolism.
Clearance
13 6 40
(ml.kg-1.min-1)
Shorter elimination t1/2β

Significant first pass pulmonary endothelial than fentanyl (100 minutes)
Rapid metabolism
uptake. Hepatic demthylation to inactive despite lower clearance due
by plasma and
Metabolism norfentanyl. t1/2β of 190 minutes, longer to lower VD. Prolonged
tissue esterases -
than morphine due to higher lipid solubility with administration of
t1/2β 10 minutes
and VD. midazolam due to
CYP3A3/4 competition.
Renal elimination of Renal of inactive

Elimination Renal elimination of inactive metabolites
metabolites metabolites
Time to Peak
5 minutes 90 seconds 1-3 minutes
Effect (IV)
Variable depending on dose and

Offset 5-10
distribution. With doses > 3μg.kg-1 tissues
Duration (IV) 5-10 minutes minutes from
become saturated and the duration of action
ceasing infusion
is significantly prolonged
Equianalgesic
Dose (IV, to
150mcg 1mg 50mcg
10mg IV
morphine)
References
4. ANZCA July/September 2010
5. Schug SA, Palmer GM, Scott DA, Halliwell R, Trinca J. Acute Pain Management: Scientific Evidence. 4th Ed. 2015.
Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists and Faculty of Pain Medicine.
642
COX Inhibitors
COX Inhibitors
Cyclo-oxygenase inhibitors are typically used to treat mild to moderate pain. Oral COX inhibitors typically have:
Rapid absorption
High protein binding
Low VD
Mechanism of Action
There are two(ish) isoenzymes of COX:
COX-1
Important for homeostatic function.
COX-2
Induced with tissue damage and contributes to inflammation. COX-2:
Exists in the vascular endothelium where it synthesises prostacyclin (which opposes the action of thromboxanes)
Inhibition may result in a relative abundance of thromboxane, causing platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction
COX-3
Variant of COX-1 which exists centrally and mediates the analgesic and antipyretic effects of paracetamol.
Effects occur due to:
Decrease in endoperoxidases
Inhibited by COX.
Increase in other arachidonic-acid derived factors
Due to the diversion of arichdonic acid down other pathways.
COX inhibition has different effects in different tissues:
Prevents subsequent conversion of prostaglandins to thromboxane A2 and PGI2

Peripherally, inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis is anti-inflammatory
Centrally, it is anti-pyretic
In the stomach, it decreases mucous production and leads to mucosal ulceration
Aspirin (a non-specific COX inhibitor), prevents production of both thromboxane A2 and PGI2
As platelets have no nucleus, the COX inhibition remains for the entirety of the platelet lifespan
Endothelial cells will produce new COX within hours, and so its anti-inflammatory effects are temporary
Adverse Effects
Asthma/Bronchospasm
Secondary to increased leukotriene synthesis due to increased arachidonic acid levels. Occurs in 20% of asthmatics with
NSAID use.
Platelet dysfunction
A consequence of COX-1 inhibiton only, and may result in increased perioperative bleeding risk (though decreased AMI and
CVA risk).
Thrombotic events, including MI and CVA

Risk is greater with COX-2 inhibitors, due to selective inhibition of prostacyclin. with NNH for non-fatal MI being 500
patient-years, and NNH for fatal MI being 1000 patient-years.
643
COX Inhibitors
Impaired GFR
Occurs as a consequence of uninhibited afferent arteriolar constriction. Worse with concurrent hypovolaemia, renal artery
stenosis, or concurrent ACE-I use.
Gastric erosion
A consequence of impaired mucosal secretion through COX-1 inhibition. This can result in pain, anaemia, or fatal bleed. In
general, risk of gastric erosion is (from highest to lowest risk):
Ketorolac
Diclofenac/naproxen
Ibuprofen (<1.2g/day)
COX-2 Inhibitors
Transaminitis may occur following NSAID use
Comparison of COX Inhibitors

Characteristic Aspirin Diclofenac Ketorolac Ibuprofen Celecoxib Parecoxib
Irreversible
inhibition of
platelet
COX-2 COX
thromboxane Non-
Non-selective Non-selective inhibitor inhibitor
Mechanism of production. As selective
COX COX- (30:1 in (61:1 in
Action platelets are COX
inhibitor inhibition favour of favour of
anucleic, they are inhibition
COX-2) COX
unable to
regenerate
thromboxane.
Prevention of
arterial Potent anti-
Analgesia,
thromboembolism, Mild-to- analgesic, Acute
Mild-to- particular
Uses MI, CVA, moderate minimal anti- inflammatory
moderate pain chronic
migraine, pain inflammatory pain
arthritic pain
analgesia, others properties
(e.g. Still's disease)
85% protein
bound. Weak acid
with a pKa of 3,
97% protein
Distribution unionised in the
bound
stomach and
ionised at
physiological pH
Gastric absorption
Absorption (pKa 3) leads to
rapid onset.
Hepatic
metabolism to
salicyluric acid and CYP to CYP2C9 to CYP2C9 to
Metabolism glucuronides. May inactive inactive inactive
have zero-order metabolites metabolites metabolites
eliminiation in
overdose.
Renal. Elimination
may be increased
Elimination
with urinary
alkalinisation.
Low-dose (100mg
644
COX Inhibitors
daily) selectively
inhibits platelet
COX, whilst
preserving
endothelial COX, 400-800mg
50mg 15-30mg 100-200mg
Dose resulting in TDS, or 20-40mg BD
BD/TDS IM/IV Q6H BD
decreased platlet 10mg/kg
aggregation whilst
maintaining
vasodilation. 300-
900mg for
analgesia/migraine.
IM/IV (off-
Route PO PO/PR/IM/IV PO/PR PO IV
label in Aus)
Aspirin uncouples
oxidative
phosphorylation,
increasing O2
consumption and
CO2 production. It
also may stimulate,
and (at higher
Respiratory
doses) depress the
respiratory centre.
In overdose, these
are significant, and
may result in a
mixed respiratory
and metabolic
acidosis.
Risk of MI
similar to Unclear effect Unclear effect
Lower dose
COX-2 on CVA and on CVA and
MI and CVA risk not associated
inhibitors. MI, but MI, but
CVS reduction. with
Local recommended recommended
Increased bleeding. prothrombotic
thrombus to avoid use to avoid use
events.
with IV in IHD/CVD in IHD/CVD
injection.
Reye's syndrome
is mitochondrial
damage, hepatic
failure, and
Metabolic cerebral oedema
(and
encephalopathy) in
children <12.
Mortality 40%.
References
Peck TE, Hill SA. Pharmacology for Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. 4th Ed. Cambridge University Press. 2014.
645
Tramadol
Tramadol
Tramadol is an analgesic agent with a complicated mechanism of action:
Action at all opioid receptors, but particularly MOP, causing analgesia as well as nausea and vomiting
Inhibits 5-HT reuptake which provides descending inhibitory analgesia
Inhibits NA reuptake descending inhibitory analgesia
NMDA receptor antagonist
Properties Tramadol
Cyclohexanol derivative. Racemic mixture of (+)Tramadol which has greater MOP and 5HT reuptake
Class
effects, and (-)Tramadol, which mediates NA reupake inhibition
Uses Analgesia
Presentation Racemic mixture - each isomer has complementary effects. IV solution is clear at 50mg.ml-1
Route of
PO/IV/Topical
Administration
Dosing 50-100mg QID. Potency 1/5th that of morphine.
Absorption Bioavailability 70%

-1
Distribution VD 4L.kg
Metabolism Hepatic to active and inactive metabolites
Excretion Urinary of predominantly inactive metabolites, t1/2β 300 minutes
Respiratory Minimal respiratory depression
CVS Avoid concominant MAO-I use given NA reuptake inhibition
Increased seizure risk in those with epilepsy or concurrent SSRI/SNRI/TCA use. Minimal addiction
CNS
potential
GIT N/V
References
646
Paracetamol
Paracetamol
Paracetamol an analgesic and antipyretic which is typically classed as an NSAID, though it is unique and important enough to get
its own page. It has a number of mechanisms of action:
Non-selective COX inhibition, including COX-3

This confers some of the analgesic properties
Inhibition of central prostaglandin synthesis
This confers the antipyretic effect by inhibiting prostaglandin E synthesis in the anterior hypothalamus in response to
pyrogens
Serotonergic inhibition
Provides some additional analgesic action
Cannabinoid inhibition
Provides some additional analgesic action via endocannabinoid reuptake inhibition.
Property Effect
Class NSAID, acetanilide derivative
Uses Analgesia, antipyretic
Presentation Tablets, capsules, syrup, clear colourless solution for IV administration
Route of
PO/PR/IV
Administration
Dosing 10-15mg.kg-1 Q4H up to 90mg.kg-1.day-1
IV: 5 mins, peak at 40 mins

Onset
PO/PR: 40 mins, peak at 1 hour
Rapid absorption (via small bowel, therefore proportional to gastric emptying), variable
Absorption
bioavailability (up to 90%) - greater by PR route
Distribution 10% protein bound, small VD: 0.5-1L.kg-1 (though larger than other NSAIDs)
Predominantly hepatic glucuronidation. However, 10% is metabolised to NAPQI by CYP2E1 which

Metabolism
is hepatotoxic.
Elimination Active secretion into renal tubules - consider dose reduction in renal impairment
Resp May exacerbate analgesic asthma due to glutathione depletion
Excellent analgesia. Synergistic with other analgesics, resulting in agent-sparing effect and reduced
CNS
side effects
Metabolic Antipyretic
Haeme Cytopaenias (rare)
Toxicity
Paracetamol is partially metabolised to the toxic N-acetyl-p-amino-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI)
In normal circumstances this rapidly conjugated with glutathione
In toxicity, glutathione is exhausted
NAPQI then covalently binds to critical proteins in hepatocytes, causing centriolobular hepatic necrosis and cell death
647
Paracetamol
Toxic doses:
>200mg.kg-1 in a single ingestion
Repeated ingestion of >150mg.kg-1.day-1 for two days
>100mg.kg-1.day-1 for three days
Risk factors for toxicty:

Glutathione deficiency
Extremes of age
Malnutrition
Hepatic dysfunction
Enzyme inducers:
Anti-epileptics
Carbamazepine
Phenytoin
Phenobarbitione
Rifampicin
ETOH
OCP
Features of Overdose
Conscious
Nausea, vomiting, and epigastric pain
Haemolytic anaemia
Distributive shock
Hyperglycaemia
Late (>48 hours) hepatic failure
Later (3-5 days) coagulopathy
Fulminant hepatic failure (3-7 days)
Treatment of Overdose
Activated charcoal with tablet ingestion if seen within 1 hour of ingestion.
Serum paracetamol level to determine requirement for NAC (N-acetylcysteine) based on the nomogram
IV NAC is used as it is a glutathione precursor, replenishing depleted glutathione and facilitating further conjugation of
NAPQI
References
3. Paracetamol Poisoning. Royal Children's Hospital.
4. Hinson JA, Roberts DW, James LP. Mechanisms of Acetaminophen-Induced Liver Necrosis. Handbook of experimental
pharmacology. 2010;(196):369-405.
648
Paracetamol
649
Autonomic
Antimuscarinics (Cardiac)
Antimuscarinics used for bronchodilation are covered under Antimuscarinics (Respiratory), whilst atropine is covered separately.
Antimuscarinics are as competitive, reversible antagonists of ACh at the muscarinic receptor. They are divided into:
Naturally occurring tertiary amines

These can cross the blood-brain barrier, and have central effects.
Atropine
Hyoscine
Synthetic quaternary amines
Do not cross the blood-brain barrier.
Glycopyrrolate
Property Glycopyrrolate Hyoscine
Class Quaternary amine. Muscarinic antagonist Tertiary amine
Antisialagogue, motion
Uses Bradycardia, antisialagogue
sickness
Clear, colourless solution at 200μg.ml-1. Incompatible with Racemic, only L-isomer

Presentation
diazepam and thiopentone. active
Route of
IV/IM PO, SC, IV/IM
Administration
Dosing 200-400μg 20-40mg IV slow push or IM
Absorption Minimal PO absorption - not used via this route. < 50% PO bioavailability
Distribution Crosses placenta but not BBB, VD 0.5L.kg-1 VD 2L.kg-1
Extensive metabolism by
Metabolism Minimal hepatic hydrolysis
hepatic esterases
Elimination Renal of 85% unchanged drug Renal of metabolites
Bronchodilation, greatest
Resp Bronchodilation, antisialagogue
antisialagogue effect
Initial bradycardia due to partial agonist effect. Reverses vagal

Least likely anticholinergic to
CVS causes of bradycardia, may cause tachycardia in doses >200μg.
cause tachycardia
HR peaks at 3-9 minutes following administration.
Most likely anticholinergic to

CNS cause central anticholinergic
syndrome
MSK Anhydrosis
Reduced oral and gastric

secretions, and gastric
GIT Reduced oral and gastric secretions, and gastric motility
motility. Increases biliary
peristalsis
GU Difficult micturition
References
650
Autonomic
651
Anticholinesterases
Anticholinesterases
Anticholinesterases antagonise AChE, decreasing the breakdown of ACh and therefore increasing its availability at the:
Nicotinic receptor
Increases muscle strength.
Reversal of non-depolarising neuromuscular blockade
Muscarinic receptor
Increases parasympathetic tone.
Acetylcholinesterases can be:
Reversible
Form a carbamylated enzyme complex
Irreversible
Property Neostigmine Organophosphates
Quaternary amine, forms carbamylated

Class Irreversible anticholinesterase
enzyme complex
Reversal of non-depolarising NMB,

Uses Insecticides, pesticides, chemical weapons
myasthenia gravis, analgesia
Clear, colourless, light stable solution at

Presentation
2.5mg.ml-1
Route of
PO, IV, intrathecal Topical
Administration
0.05mg.kg-1 for reversal, 15-30mg PO for

Dosing
MG
Absorption Low PO bioavailability Rapid topical absorption due to high lipid solubility
Distribution Does not cross BBB, VD 0.7L.kg-1 Crosses BBB
Majority by plasma esterases to quaternary

alcohol, with some hepatic metabolism
Elimination 55% unchanged in urine t1/2α of weeks
Duration 50 minutes Until new AChE is synthesised
Resp Bronchospasm, ↑ secretion Bronchospasm, ↑ secretion
CVS ↓ HR (may be profound), ↓ CO ↓ HR, ↓ CO
N/V and analgesic when administered

CNS Central cholinergic syndrome
intrathecally
Reversal of NMB, ↑ fasciculations, ↑

MSK Paralysis
sweating, may cause paralysis
GIT ↑ Peristalsis, ↑ LoS tone, N/V ↑ Peristalsis, ↑ LoS tone, N/V
May be reversed in initial stages (before

Muscarinic receptors affected at low dose,
Other organophosphate-AChE complex has 'aged') with
nicotinic receptors at high dose
pralidoxime
652
Anticholinesterases
References
2. ANZCA 2007 Feb/April
653
Neuromuscular
Depolarising NMBs
Succinylcholine binds to the nicotinic ACh receptor causing depolarisation. It cannot be hydrolysed by acetylcholinesterase in the
NMJ, and so remains bound to the receptor. This:
Produces a sustained depolarisation which keeps voltage-gated sodium channels in their inactive state
Prevents the post-junctional membrane from responding to further ACh release
Property Succinylcholine
Class Depolarising muscle relaxant.
Uses Facilitate tracheal intubation.
Colourless solution of pH 3, at 50mg.ml-1. Structually, it is two ACh groups joined at the acetyl
Presentation
groups.
Route of
IV, IM.
Administration
Dosing 1-2mg.kg-1 IV, 3-4mg.kg-1 IM up to 150mg.
IV onset in 30s to 1 minute, lasting 2-3 minutes, with offset typically within 10 minutes. Offset occurs
Onset and due to dissociation of drug out of NMJ into plasma, as a concentration gradient is established by drug
Duration breakdown in plasma. Prolonged duration in patients with pseudocholinesterase deficiency. IM onset
in 2-3 minues.
-1
30% protein bound. Nil distribution due to rapid metabolism - VD 0.25L.kg . Crosses placenta in
Distribution
very small amounts.
Rapid hydrolysis by plasma cholinesterases such that only 20% of administered dose reaches the
Metabolism
NMJ.
Elimination Minimal renal elimination due to rapid metabolism.
Apnoea, and suxamethonium apnoea. May cause masseter spasm. ↑ Salivation due to muscarinic
Resp
effects.
Arrhythmia due to SA node stimulation, as well as secondary to hyperkalaemia. Bradycardia (due to

CVS
muscarinic effects with second/large doses, or in children).
↑ ICP (due to contraction), ↑ IOP (by 10mmHg - this is significant) such that it is contraindicated in
CNS
globe perforation.
Metabolic Malignant Hyperthermia.
Myalgias post depolarisation, particularly in young females. Prolonged blockade with

MSK
pseudocholinesterase deficiency.
+ -1 +
Hyperkalaemia (K ↑ by ~0.5mmol.L ) due to depolarisation causing K efflux, ↑ in burns (>10%),
Renal and
paraplegia (first 6 months) and neuromuscular disorders including muscular dystrophy and
Electrolyte
myopathies (including critical illness myopathy).
GIT Intragastric pressure ↑ by 10cmH2O, matched by ↑ in LoS pressure.
Immunological Anaphylaxis - highest risk of all NMBs at ~11/100,000
Adverse Effects
The adverse effects of suxamethonium can be remembered as three major, three minor, and three pressures:
Major
654
Neuromuscular
Anaphylaxis
Suxamethonium Apnoea
Malignant hyperthermia
Minor
Hyperkalaemia
Myalgias
Bradycardia
Pressure
IOP
ICP
Intragastric pressure
Phase I and Phase II Blockade

Initial blockade is termed Phase I, which is a partial depolarising block. Sustained use of suxamethonium may causes a Phase II
block which:
Appears similar to a non-depolarising block

May be due to:
Presynaptic inhibition of ACh synthesis and release
Desensitisation of the postjunctional receptor
Key differences include:
Property Phase I Block Phase II Block
Block Amplitude Reduced Reduced
Train-of-four ratio >0.7 < 0.7
Post-tetanic potentiation No Yes
Effect of anticholinesterases Block augmented Block inhibited
Malignant Hyperthermia
Rare autosomal dominant genetic condition
Triggered by suxamethonium and volatile anaesthetic agents
Mutation of the ryanodine receptor causes excessive amounts of calcium to leave the sarcoplasmic reticulum, causing
continual muscle contraction
Results in greatly increased carbon dioxide, lactate, and heat production
Cell lysis with myoglobulinaemia and hyperkalaemia results
Suxamethonium Apnoea
A deficiency of butylcholinesterase causes suxamethonium to not be metabolsied
May be congenital (genetic) or acquired (hepatic failure)
Can be treated with fresh frozen plasma
References
655
Neuromuscular
2. Suxamethonium Chloride Injection BP PRODUCT INFORMATION
3. Appiah-Ankam J, Hunter JM. Pharmacology of neuromuscular blocking drugs. Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical
Care & Pain, Volume 4, Issue 1, 1 February 2004, Pages 2–7.
4. Cook T, Harper N. Anaesthesia, Surgery, and Life-Threatening Allergic Reactions: Report and findings of the Royal College
of Anaesthetists' 6th National Audit Project: Perioperative Anaphylaxis. Royal College of Anaesthetists'. 2018.
656
Non-Depolarising NMBs
Non-Depolarising Neuromuscular Blockers

Non-depolarising NMBs are muscle relaxants used to:
Facilitate laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation

Control ICP
Improve respiratory system compliance
Improve patient safety on transportation
Mechanism of action is by competitive antagonism of ACh at the NMJ, preventing generation of end-plate potentials. Effective
pharmacodynamic response requires >70% receptor occupation.
Common Features of Neuromuscular Blockers

Property Action
Route of
IV/IM
Administration
Distribution Small VD as they are polar and unable to cross lipid membranes
Reduced urinary clearance which prolongs the mechanism of action of aminosteroids in renal
Elimination
failure
Resp Apnoea
MSK ↑ Duration in hypothermia
↑ Duration in acidosis, ↑ duration in hypokalaemia, ↓ duration in hyperkalaemia, ↑ duration in

Renal
hypermagnesaemia
Metabolic Critical Illness Myopathy in patients with long-term relaxant use
The ED95 is:
The dose of a neuromuscular blocking drug required to produce a 95% reduction in twitch height in 50% of the population
A commonly-used therapeutic end-point for neuromuscular blocking drugs
Typically, induction doses used are 2-5x the ED95.
Comparison of Neuromuscular Blockers

Property Rocuronium Vecuronium Pancuronium Atracurium Cisatracurium
Bis-
Benzylisoquinolinium Benzylisoquinolinium
Class Aminosteroid Aminosteroid quaternary
derivative derivative
aminosteroid
R-Cis, R'-Cis isomer

of atracurium, which
10mg powder is 15% of atracurium
Colourless solution at
for Colourless 1 by weight but
Clear, 10mg.ml , which
reconstitution solution at 2 provides 50% of its
colourless -1 should be stored at
Presentation in water. mg.ml , NMBD action.
solution at 10 4°C. Mixture of all
-1 Contains which must be
mg.ml ten extant
mannitol and stored at 4°C Colourless solution at
diastereoisomers. -1
NaOH. 2-5mg.ml , which
should be stored at
4°C
657
Intubating 0.6-1.2 0.05-0.1

-1 0.1 mg.kg-1 -1 0.5 mg.kg-1 0.15-0.2mg.kg-1
Dose mg.kg mg.kg
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1
ED95 0.3 mg.kg 0.05 mg.kg 0.07 mg.kg 0.25 mg.kg 0.05 mg.kg
Onset 45-90s 90-120s 90-150s 90-120s 60-180s
~30 minutes
with normal
renal
45-65 60-100
Duration function, 15-35 minutes 25-30 minutes
minutes minutes
repeat doses
may be more
unpredictable
60% by ester
hydrolysis, with
remainder by
Hofmann elimination.
20% heptic 20% heptic
< 5% hepatic
de-acetylation de-acetylation
deacetylation Metabolised to
Metabolism with weakly with weakly Hofmann elimination
to inactive laudanosine, which
active active
metabolites causes seizures in
high concentrations
(relevant when
administered by long
infusion)
60% biliary,
40% urinary.
Prolonged 70% biliary, 80% biliary,
Elimination
duration in 30% urinary 20% urinary
hepatic and
renal failure
Slight risk of Slight risk of

Resp bronchospasm with bronchospasm with
rapid injection rapid injection
↑ HR and
↑ HR at high MAP due to Risk of ↓ BP with Risk of ↓ BP with
CVS No ↑ HR
doses muscarinic rapid injection rapid injection
antagonism
Higher risk of
anaphylaxis,
~6/100,000.
Anaphylaxis
Notably no
risk
anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis ~
Immune associated
recorded in 4/100,000.
with use of
NAP 6
pholcodeine
in the
previous 3
years.
Reversible Reversible
Other with with
sugammadex sugammadex
References
658
3. Crilly H, Rose M. Anaphylaxis and anaesthesia – can treating a cough kill?. Aust Prescr. 2014;37:74-6.
4. Lexicomp. Rocuronium: Drug information. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2017.
5. Lexicomp. Vecuronium: Drug information. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2017.
6. Lexicomp. Pancuronium: Drug information. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2017.
7. Lexicomp. Atracurium: Drug information. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2017.
8. Lexicomp. Cisatracurium: Drug information. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2017.
9. Cook T, Harper N. Anaesthesia, Surgery, and Life-Threatening Allergic Reactions: Report and findings of the Royal College
of Anaesthetists' 6th National Audit Project: Perioperative Anaphylaxis. Royal College of Anaesthetists'. 2018.
659
Dantrolene
Dantrolene
Dantrolene is a ryanodine (RYR1) receptor antagonist, which prevents release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum,
uncoupling the process of excitation-contraction.
Property Dantrolene
Uses MH, NMS, ecstasy intoxication, chronic muscle spasticity
Vials of orange powder containing 20mg dantrolene and 3g mannitol, reconstituted with 60ml of H2O to
Presentation
form an alkaline solution.
2.5mg.kg-1 IV every 10-15 minutes, up to 10mg.kg-1. Once resolved, continue giving 1mg.kg-1 every 4-
Dosing
6 hours for 24 hours.
Absorption IV only, may cause skin necrosis if extravasates.
Metabolism Hepatic metabolism to active 5-hydroxy-dantrolene
Elimination Renal of metabolites, t1/2β of 12 hours
Resp Respiratory failure due to skeletal muscle weakness
CVS Volume overload due to large volume given with administration
MSK Skeletal muscle relaxation
Renal Diuresis
GIT Hepatic failure
References
660
Sugammadex
Sugammadex
Property Sugammadex
Class Gamma cyclodextrin.
Uses Reversal of neuromuscular block induced by rocuronium and vecuronium.
Presentation Clear colourless solution at 100mg.ml-1.
Pharmaceutics Store below 30°C.
Route of
IV only.
Administration
2mg.kg-1 if ToF > 2.

Dosing 4mg.kg-1 if PTC > 2.
16mg.kg-1 for reversal following RSI dose.
Distribution VD of 11-14L.kg-1.
Elimination Renal elimination of active drug and complex.
Mechanism of
Forms a complex with rocuronium and vecuronium, causing reversal of neuromuscular blockade.
Action
CVS Rarely may precipitate bradycardia - can result in cardiac arrest.
Immune Analphylaxis.
Interacts with OCP - treat as missed pill

Shortened duration of rocuronium and vecuronium when used within 24 hours of sugammadex
Other
administration. Onset is delayed up to 5 minutes, and duration shortened by 10-15 minutes. This
period may be extended in renal failure.
References
1. Sugammadex Full Prescribing Information. FDA.
661
Haematological
Anticoagulants
Property Warfarin Heparin Enoxaparin
AF, DVT/PE, Extra-corporeal

Uses AF, DVT/PE, Prosthetic Valves DVT Prophylaxis
Circuit Anticoagulation
Smaller fragments
Marevan and coumadin may Mucopolysaccharide organic
of heparin
potentially have different acid which occurs naturally in
(prepared from
Pharmaceutics bioavailabilities (it has not been the liver and in mast cells, with a
UFH), with a mean
assessed) and so should not be highly variable molecular weight
molecular weight
substituted (between 5,000 and 25,000 Da)
of 5,000 Da
Potentiates the
action of ATIII,
increasing
Potentiates the effect of ATIII, inhibition of Xa
Prevents the return of vitamin K to its
rapidly increasing its anti-IIa and and IIa, but (unlike
reduced form, and therefore the
anti-Xa effect (1:1 effect). UFH) in a 4:1 ratio.
Mechanism of gamma-carboxylation of vitamin-K
Action dependent clotting factors (II, VII, IX,
In higher concentrations also More predictable
X), as well as Protein C and Protein
inhibits IXa, XIa, XIIa, and effect on Xa
S).
platelet aggregation. standardises dosing
and justifies lack of
monitoring
requirement.
8-12 hours. Peak at 72 hours due to

the half-life of existing clotting
Onset Immediate IV onset
factors, and the total body stores of
vitamin K
Absorption 100% bioavailability IV, SC SC only
Does not bind to

Low lipid solubility, highly
Distribution 99% protein bound heparin-binding
protein bound
proteins
Hepatic interactions due to

Complete hepatic mestabolism.
enzymatic induction (ETOH,
Significant pharmacokinetic Renal elimination
Metabolism amiodarone, salicylates,
interaction with enzyme inducers and of metabolites
NSAIDs) and inhibition (OCP,
inhibitors.
barbiturates, carbamazepine)
Renal of active
Faecal and renal elimination of
Elimination Renal of inactive metabolites drug and inactive
metabolites, t1/2β of 40 hours
metabolites
Hypotension with rapid IV

CVS Microthrombi
administration
Less osteoporosis due to less protein

Metabolic Osteoporosis
(and therefore tissue) binding
Renal Inhibits aldosterone secretion
GIT N/V
Haemorrhage,
lower risk of HITTs
Haeme Haemorrhage Haemorrhage, HITTs
than UFH. Less
thrombocytopaenia.
Immune Hypersensitivity reactions
662
Haematological
- Waiting Incomplete reversal

- Vitamin K Reversed with protamine (1mg with protamine as
Reversal
- FFP per 100U). only the anti-IIa
- Prothrombinex effect is inhibited.
Requires monitoring with APTT

or ATIII levels. Large
interpatient variability due to
Teratogenic. Complicated
variable amounts of ATIII. No monitoring
Other pharmacokinetics requiring
required.
monitoring using INR.
1 unit is the amount of heparin
required to prvent 1ml of blood
clotting for 24 hours at 0°C
HITTs
Heparin-Induced Thrombotic Thrombocytopenia comes in two flavours:
Type I:
Is non-immune mediated
Occurs within 4 days of anticoagulant doses
Is an isolated thrombocytopenia without clinical significance
Type II:
Is immune mediated
Occurs within 4-14 days
Is associated with serious thrombosis and high mortality (typically from PE) and morbidity (from CVA and limb
ischaemia)
Protamine
Protamine is:
A basic cationic protein derived from salmon sperm which combines with the acidic anionic heparin to form a stable, inactive
salt in solution
Cleared more rapidly than heparin
Rebound anticoagulation may occur.
Adverse effects from protamine include:
Histamine release
Bronchospasm
Hypotension
Pulmonary hypertension
This can be profound and result in a dramatic increase in RV afterload and EDV, with a corresponding fall in LV preload
(interventricular interdependence), leading to dramatic hypotension and arrest.
Mediated by thromboxanes
Due to protamine-heparin complexes, rather than protamine alone
Administration of protamine in absence of heparin does not lead to pulmonary hypertension.
Anticoagulation
When given in excess.
References
663
Haematological
664
Direct Thrombin Inhibitors
Direct Thrombin Inhibitors

Direct thrombin inhibitors prevent cleavage of fibrinogen to fibrin, and are therefore very effective anticoagulants.
Property Dabigatran
Class NOAC
Uses VTE prophylaxis, AF
Presentation 75/110mg Capsules
Route of
PO
Administration
Dosing VTE: 220mg daily, AF: 150mg BD
Absorption 6.5% bioavailability
Metabolism Prodrug - activated by plasma and hepatic esterases
Elimination Renal elimination of active drug
Haeme Haemorrhage
Immune Allergy
Significant interactions with amiodarone, quinidine, St. John's Wort, as well as other anticoagulant and
Other
antiplatelet agents. Dialysable. Potentially reversible with Idarucizumab.
References
665
Antifibrinolytics
Antifibrinolytics
Antifibrinolytics include aprotonin, aminocaproic acid, and transexamic acid. All prevent the breakdown of fibrin (!) by various
mechanisms. TXA competitively inhibits plasminogen activator, reducing rate of fibrinolysis.
Property Tranexamic Acid (TXA)
Class Antifibrinolytic
Uses Trauma (within 3 hours), cardiac surgery, obstetric surgery, and menorrhagia
Presentation Tablets, syrup, clear colourless solution for injection
Route of Administration IV, PO
Dosing 1g slow IV, which may be followed by infusion of 1g over 8 hours
Absorption 50% bioavailability
Distribution Low plasma protein binding, VD 9-12 litres
Elimination Renal of active drug - dose reduce in renal impairment
GIT Nausea, vomiting
Haematological Reduces fibrinolysis, possible increase in DVT/PE
Immunological Allergic dermatitis
References
2. LITFL - Tranexamic Acid
666
Antiplatelets
Antiplatelets
Note aspirin is included under COX inhibitors.
Classification of Antiplatelet Agents

Antiplatelet agents can be classified by which stage of platelet function they affect:
Adhesion
vWF inhibitors
e.g. Dextran 70.
Activation
Prostacyclins
e.g. Epoprostenol.
Phosphodiesterase inhibition
e.g. Dipyridiamole.
COX inhibitors
Prevent thromboxane A2 production, e.g. aspirin.
Aggregation
ADP receptor antagonists
Prevent activation of GP IIb/IIIa receptors, e.g. clopidogrel.
GP IIb/IIIa receptor antagonists
Prevent platelet aggregation via fibrin linkages between GP IIb/IIIa receptors, e.g. tirofiban.
Comparison of Common Antiplatelet Agents

Property Clopidogrel Dipyridamole Tirofiban
GP IIb/IIa
Class ADP antagonist Phosphodisterase inhibitor
antagonisits
UA,
Uses PVD, STEMI, NSTEMI, stent prophylaxis CVA
NSTEMI
Route of
PO only PO/IV IV only
Administration
Inhibits platelet adhesion to walls, Reversible

potentiates prostacyclin activity antagonism
Irreversibly prevents ADP from binding to and increases platelet cAMP, ↓ of IIb/IIIa
Mechanism of 2+
its receptor on the platelet, preventing Ca and inhibiting platelet receptor,
Action
activation of the IIb/IIIa receptor aggregation and deformation. preventing
Also acts as a coronary platelet
vasodilator. aggregation
Load 25
mcg.kg-1,
Dosing 300mg load, 75mg daily thereafter 200mg BD for CVA
maintenance
-1
15mcg.kg
IV only.
Absorption Rapid absorption and onset within 2 hours Variable depending on oral intake Onset within
10 minutes
Highly protein-bound drug and 65% protein

Distribution Highly protein bound
metabolites bound
667
Antiplatelets
Prodrug. Majority hydrolysed by

esterases to inactive drug, with a small
proportion hepatically metabolised by
Partial hepatic to inactive Not
Metabolism CYP450 to active form. Prolonged
metabolites metabolised.
duration of action due to irreversible ADP
blockade rather than long elimination half-
life.
Urinary as
unchanged
drug. Platelet
aggregation
Elimination Urinary and faecal Renal and faecal
returns to
baseline
within 4-8
hours
Coronary
Vasodilatation may drop CPP in
CVS artery
AS and recent MI
dissection
GIT Mucosal irritation
Thrombocytopaenia and
Haeme Haemorrhage Haemorrhage
haemorrhage
Many pharmacokinetic interactions,

including genetic variability. Previously
Other
thought to kinetically interact with
omeprazole - more recently disproven.
References
668
Antimicrobials
Penicillins
Penicillins are bactericidal antibiotics that prevent cell-wall synthesis by preventing cross-linking of peptidoglycans by
replacing the natural substrate with their β-lactam ring
Penicillins bind to penicillin binding proteins (PBPs) in the bacterial wall
Penicillins only rarely achieve complete eradication of sensitive organisms without addition of a synergistic antibiotic (such
as gentamicin)
Common Features
Property Effect
Absorption Typically well absorbed orally. IM dosing tend to cause localised pain and irritation.
Typically have good tissue penetration. Only cross the blood-brain barrier and enter bone if it is inflamed.
Distribution
Typically low protein binding (exception is flucloxacillin, which is 95% protein bound).
Metabolism Typically small proportion is hepatically metabolised.
Majority (60-90%) is eliminated unchanged in urine predominantly by active tubular secretion, with renal
Elimination
clearance proportional to total renal plasma flow. A small quantity is secreted in bile.
Mechanisms of Resistance
Alteration or protection of PBPs
Gram negative bacteria may have altered permeability of porins in their outer membrane, which protects the PDP
Hydrolysis by β-lactamase-producing bacteria
Clavulanic acid and tazobactam inhibit β-lactamase, which can render otherwise resistant bacteria sensitive
Notably, flucloxacillin has a modified beta-lactam ring that is not sensitive to β-lactamases
Comparison of Penicillins
Narrow
Narrow spectrum, naturally Extended-
spectrum, Antipseudomonal
occurring spectrum
synthetic
Benzylpenicillin, Ampicillin, Piperacillin,

Examples Flucloxacillin
phenoxymethylpenicillin amoxycillin ticarcillin
Gram positive,
Gram positives and anaerobes, Gram positive Gram positive,
particularly
particularly streptococci and cocci, particularly gram negative
Indications enterococci.
meningococci. Also listeria, staphlococci but including
Some gram
clostridia, and treponemma. also streptococci. pseudomonas.
negative.
Less active than

Can penetrate
benzypenicillin on Gram negative
Other bits Highly bactericidal some gram-
organisms cover.
negatives.
sensitive to both.
References
669
Antimicrobials
2. Barza M, Weinstein L. Pharmacokinetics of the penicillins in man. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1976;1(4):297-308.
670
Glycopeptides
Glycopeptides
Non-β-lactam agents that inhibit cell wall synthesis. They are:
Active against gram-positive anerobes and aerobes

Bacteriostatic against enterocci and streptococci
Bacteriocidal against staphylocci
Property Vancomycin
Uses MRSA, C. difficile
Presentation Powder for reconstitution
Route of
PO, IV, Intrathecal
Administration
Dosing Peak levels determined by dose, trough levels by dose and interval
Absorption No oral bioavailability. Poor CSF penetration
VD 4L.kg-1. Poor CSF penetration even with inflammed meninges - higher levels are required for
Distribution
CNS penetration. ~50% protein bound.
Elimination 90% secreted unchanged in urine - significantly prolonged in renal impairment
CVS Phlebitis, red man syndrome (profound non-anaphylactic histamine release with rapid injection)
CNS Ototoxicity
Renal Nephrotoxicity, typically temporary and resolves on cessation
Haematological Thrombocytopenia
'Red man syndrome' due to histamine release with rapid injection, with accompanying ↑ HR ↓ BP.
Immunological
Neutropenia.
Other Synergistic action with cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, and rifampicin
References
2. Wellington ICU Drug Manual
671
Aminoglycosides
Aminoglycosides
Bactericidal antimicrobials that prevent protein synthesis by irreversible binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit, preventing mRNA
transcription.
As they are large, polar molecules, they must be actively transported into the cell
This occurs with an oxygen dependent transporter
Therefore they are not effective against anaerobes.
Transport is inhibited by increased Ca2+, Mg2+, low pH, and low O2
Aminoglycoside killing is dependent on the peak concentration over MIC
Typically peak concentration must be 8-10x MIC.
Exposure to aminoglycosides causes bacteria to down-regulate aminoglycoside uptake, and therefore increases MIC
This effect disappears after ~24 hours, and is one justification for daily dosing of aminoglycosides. Additional
justifications include:
Allows larger single doses to be used, increasing bactericidal effect
Aminoglycosides exhibit a post-antibiotic effect
Ongoing bactericidal activity even after concentration falls.
Property Gentamicin
Gram negative including pseudomonas, limited gram positive (staph, limited strep), synergistic
Uses/Spectrum
effects with β-lactams and vancomycin.
Route of
IV only.
Administration
Dosing 4-7mg.kg-1.
70% protein bound. Very small VD of 0.2L.kg-1, which may result in significant pharmacokinetic
Distribution
changes with oedema.
Elimination Eliminated unchanged, elimination t1/2 prolonged up to 70 hours in renal impairment.
Ototoxicity due to accumulation in perilymph, and is usually permanent. Increased risk with
CNS
concomitant frusemide use.
MSK Muscle weakness.
Renal Nephrotoxicity due to accumulation in the renal cortex, typically reversible.
Toxic Effects Narrow therapeutic index, requires monitoring and dose reduction in renal impairment.
References
2. Stubbings W, Bostock J, Ingham E, Chopra I Mechanisms of the post-antibiotic effects induced by rifampicin and gentamicin
in Escherichia coli. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006 Aug;58(2):444-8.
3. Deranged Physiology - Kill Characteristics of Antibiotic Agents
672
Aminoglycosides
673
Lincosamides
Lincosamides
Inhibit protein synthesis by disrupting the 50S ribosomal subunit. May be bacterostatic or bacteriocidal, depending on the
concentration and the particular organism.
Property Clindamycin
Spectrum of Gram positive cocci, anaerobes. Little action against gram negative aerobes. Also active against
Activity some protozoa, such as P. falciparum.
Route of
PO/IV
Administration
Dosing 150-300mg Q6H
Distribution Excellent bony penetration
Metabolism Hepatic to active and inactive metabolites
Elimination Renal elimination of all metabolites
MSK May cause neuromuscular blockade in overdose
GIT Reasonable incidence of GIT upset, with fatal pseudomembranous colitis reported. Deranged LFTs
Immune Atopy, eosinophilia, DRESS
References
2. Lexicomp. Clindamycin (systemic): Drug Information. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2017.
674
Metronidazole
Metronidazole
Metronidazole interrupts cellular metabolism by preferential reduction, capturing electrons that would be usually transferred to
other molecules. This leads to a build up of cytotoxic intermediate metabolic compounds and free radicals, that result in DNA
breakage and subsequent cell death.
Property Drug
Class Nitroimidazole
Uses Anaerobes and protozoa
Route of Administration PO/IV
Dosing 500mg BD
Absorption 100% bioavailability
Distribution Crosses BBB
Metabolism Hepatic to active metabolites
Elimination Renal of active metabolites
Metabolic Significant rash, nausea, vomiting, headache, flushing
GIT Nausea, vomiting, metallic taste
Immunological Hypersensitivity reactions
Interactions Disulfram-like reaction with ETOH
References
2. Lexicomp. Metronidazole (systemic): Drug information. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2017.
675
Antifungals
Antifungals
Antimicrobial agents targeting eukaryotic and heterotrophic microbes. Can be divided by class into:
Azoles
Inhibit erosterol synthesis. Subdivided into:
Triazoles
Fluconazole
Itraconazole
Voriconazole
Posaconazole
Imidazoles
Ketoconazole
Echinocandins
Inhibit glucan synthesis.
Caspofungin
Micafungin
Anidulafungin
Polyenes
Disrupt cell membrane.
Amphotericin B
Nystatin
Common Features
Mechanisms of Antifungal Resistance
Three broad mechanisms:
Increased efflux
Increased expression of transport proteins removing drug from cell.
Alteration of target enzyme
Changes to protein target prevent drug binding or inactivation.
Typically only requires changes in a few amino acids
Alteration of drug metabolism
Reduced enzyme activity prevents accumulation of toxic product.
Amphotericin resistance is rare in vivo, and is typically via different mechanisms:
Decreased ergosterol content

Altered sterol:phospholipid ratio
Comparison of Antifungals
Drug Fluconazole Voriconazole Caspofungin Amphotericin B
Class Azole AzoleEchinocandins Polyenes
Candida
(including
azole resistant
676
Antifungals
C. glabrata
Candida albicans (most and C. krusei
other species, especially C. and Candida
glabrataand to a lesser biofilms), Effective against
extent C. krusei are aspergillus. many fungi, with
resistant), as resistance Notably no notable exceptions
rapidly develops), As fluconazole, but activity being
Spectrum of against
cryptococcus, coccidioides, broader spectrum of Chromoblastomycosis,
Activity cryptococcus,
histoplasma, blastomyces, activity Aspergillus terreus,
and some aspergillus fusarium, and Candida lusitaniae,
(resistance may also trichosporon. Scedosporium, and
develop rapidly). At least as some Fusarium.
good as amphotericin in Additionally,
susceptible organisms. echinocandins
typically have
no cross-
resistance
with other
antifungals
Four different
formulations, most
Poor water Poor water common is
Pharmaceutics Poor water solubility
solubility solubility amphotericin B
colloidal dispersion
(ABCD)
Typically
70mg loading
Load with 0.25-
dose,
0.5kg.kg-1, followed
100-800mg OD, adjust in followed by
Dosing by 0.25-1.5mg.day-1,
renal failure 50mg daily;
reduced in severe
dose reduced
renal impairment
in hepatic
impairment
Route of IV only (high IV for systemic

IV or PO
Administration MW) indications
High PO bioavailability, PO
absorption at low pH <5% PO
Absorption
(interaction with antacids, bioavailability
vitamin supplements)
Rapid uptake by
reticuloendothelial
Essentially no system. Binds to
Not dialysable due CSF organic anion
Crosses BBB - good CSF
to very high protein penetration, transporting peptides
Distribution penetration. Very low
binding, VD. Good 97% protein (important in
protein binding (~10%)
tissue penetration. bound in hepatocyte drug
serum binding), important in
key drug interactions
(such as tacrolimus)
Metabolised by and cause

Extensive
reversible inhibition of
hydrolysis
multiple hepatic CYP450
and N-
Metabolism enzymes (including 3A4, As fluconazole Minimal metabolism
acetylation to
2C19, 2C9), leading to
inactive
increased concentrations of
metabolites
many drugs/metabolites
Renal and faecal

80% of fluconazole renally Mostly cleared via Renal of
Elimination elimination of
eliminated unchanged liver. metabolites
unchanged drug
Prevent cell
Inhibit ergosterol synthesis wall synthesis Binds sterols,
Mechanism of disrupting osmotic
677
Antifungals
Action by inhibiting CYP450 As fluconazole by blocking integrity of the cell

enzyme production of membrane
beta-glucan
Histamine
CVS HTN Long QT
release
Headache, visual Hallucinations,

CNS
disturbances psychosis
AKI via afferent

arteriolar constriction
and direct tubular
Renal
toxicity,
hypokalaemia, renal
tubular acidosis
Mild
GIT Hepatotoxicity hepatotoxicity
in up to ~15%
Thrombophlebitis,
Haeme
normocytic anaemia
References
1. Anderson JB. Evolution of antifungal-drug resistance: mechanisms and pathogen fitness. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005
Jul;3(7):547-56.
2. Drew RH. Pharmacology of Amphotericin B. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2018.
3. Ashley ED, Perfect JR. Pharmacology of azoles. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2018.
4. Lewis RE. Pharmacology of echinocandins. In: UpToDate, Post, TW (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2018.
5. Bekersky I, Fielding RM, Dressler DE, Lee JW, Buell DN, Walsh TJ. Pharmacokinetics, excretion, and mass balance of
liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) and amphotericin B deoxycholate in humans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002
Mar;46(3):828-33.
678
Endocrine
Insulins
Insulins are synthetic polypeptide hormones. They:
Have a similar mechanism of action and pharmacodynamics of endogenous insulin

One unit of insulin is defined as the amount required to make a previously healthy 2kg rabbit hypoglycaemic
Types of Insulin
Different insulins are categorised by their time of onset, peak, and duration, and are classified as either:
Fast acting
Intermediate acting
Long acting
Fast Acting
Fast acting insulins are used for controlling BSL spikes post meals, and for control of hyperglycaemia. Administered
subcutaneously they have have an:
Onset of 5-15 minutes

Peak at 1-2 hours
Last 4-6 hours.
Fast acting insulins include:
Insulin Aspart (Novorapid)

Insulin Lispro (Humalog)
Intermediate Acting
679
Endocrine
Intermediate acting insulins are used for control of BSL between meals as a pseudo-basal bolus. Administered subcutaneously
they have an:
Onset of 1-2 hours

Peak at 4-6 hours
Last >12 hours
Intermediate acting insulins include:
NPH
Protophane
Long Acting
Long acting insulins are used for creating a baseline insulin level. Administered subcutaneously they have an:
Onset of 1-1.5 hours

Peak at 5 hours
Last 24 hours
Long-acting insulins include:
Insulin glargine (Lantus)

Insulin detemir (Levemir)
Pharmacokinetics of Exogenous Insulin Preparations

Property Drug
Class Synthetic polypeptide hormones

2+
Uses Diabetes, hyperglycaemia, hyperkalaemia, β-blocker toxicity, Ca -blocker toxicity
Presentation Clear colourless solution typically at 100 IU.ml-1
Route of
SC, IM, IV
Administration
Variable, as described above. Insulin is complexed with different substances (e.g. protamine, zinc),
Absorption
which alter its rate of absorption
-1
Distribution Minimal protein binding and minimal redistribution out of ECF - VD 0.075L.kg
Glutathione insulin transhydrogenase. Metabolism is constant - duration of action is entirely due to

Metabolism
different rates of subcutaneous absorption.
Elimination Renal of inactive metabolites
References
1. Diabetes Education Online. Types of Insulin. UCSF. Accessed January 2016.
2. Graph of insulin activity profiles from: Diabetes Education Online. Types of Insulin. UCSF. Accessed January 2016.
3. Mudaliar S, Mohideen P, Deutsch R, Ciaraldi TP, Armstrong D, Kim B, Sha X, Henry RR. Intravenous glargine and regular
insulin have similar effects on endogenous glucose output and peripheral activation/deactivation kinetic profiles. Diabetes
Care. 2002 Sep;25(9):1597-602.
680
Endocrine
681
Oral Hypoglycaemics
Oral Hypoglycaemics
Class Biguanides Sulfonylureas Glitazones Gliflozins
Example Metformin Gliclazide Pioglitazone Dapagliflozin
Uses T2DM T2DM T2DM T2DM
Activates the
Delay glucose
intranucleic
absorption, Increase insulin
PPARγ
increase secretion from
receptor, Inhibits glucose reabsorption by the S-
Mechanism peripheral pancreatic β-
affecting gene GLUT2 co-transporter in the kidney,
of Action insulin cells. May
translation and increasing glucose elimination in urine
sensitivity, increase insulin
increasing
inhibit hepatic sensitivity
insulin
gluconeogenesis
sensitivity
Dosing 500mg-2g BD 40-160mg BD 15-30mg daily 5-10mg daily
High
bioavailability.
Bioavailability Bioavailability Delayed onset
Absorption Bioavailability > 75%
60% 80% and late peak
effect given
MoA
Extensively
bound to
albumin by
non-ionic
Minimally forces, such Low VD
Distribution
protein bound that they do not (0.6L.kg-1)
tend to displace
other highly
protein bound
drugs
Extensive
Partial hepatic hepatic phase I
Metabolism Not metabolised to inactive to inactive and Extensive hepatic to inactive metabolites
metabolites active
metabolites
Renal Renal and GI

Renal elimination of elimination of
Elimination elimination of active drug and active and Renal of inactive drug
active drug inactive inactive
May
CVS precipitate
fluid retention
Contraindicated
in renal
impairment due Containdicated in renal impairment (<
Renal -1
to increased risk 60ml.min ) as it has no benefit
of lactic
acidosis
MSK Photosensitivity
↑ Appetite,
weight gain. Weight loss, reduced insulin
Metabolic Hypoglycaemia requirements
682
Oral Hypoglycaemics
in fasting.
Renal Increased UTI and thrush risk
Nausea,
GIT Cholestasis
Diarrhoea
Severe lactic
acidosis May lead to euglycaemic diabetic
secondary to ketoacidosis due to blunted insulin
inhibition of production in the face of stress
Cross placenta,
oxidative hormones. Consider in patients with
Toxic causing foetal
glucose DKA symptoms (drowsiness, abdominal
hypoglycaemia.
metabolism, pain, nausea/vomiting), elevated
especially in ketones, and metabolic acidosis in the
renal failure and setting of a normal BSL.
alcoholics
References
3. Dapaglifozin for Type 2 Diabetes. 2013. Aust Prescr 2013;36:174-9.
4. Kilov G, Leow S, Thomas M. SGLT2 inhibition with dapagliflozin: A novel approach for the management of type 2 diabetes.
American Family Physician. Volume 42, No.10, October 2013 Pages 706-710.
5. ANZCA. Severe Euglycaemic Ketoacidosis with SGLT2 Inhibitor Use in the Perioperative Period. 2018.
683
Obstetric
Oxytocics
Oxytocics are agents which increase the force of uterine contraction.
Property Oxytocin Ergometrine PGF2α
Endogenous (typically synthetic version

Class Ergot alkaloid Prostaglandin
used) posterior pituitary hormone
Augmentation of labour, increase

Uses PPH PPH
uterine tone (PPH)
Presentation Clear liquid at 5-10 U.ml-1
Route of Intramyometrial
IV IV, IM
Administration injection, IM
250μg IM (IV in
Dosing 1.5-12mU.min-1
emergency via slow push)
Metabolism Oxytocinases in liver and kidney
Oxytocin GPCR in the uterus, increase Acts on α and 5HT2

Mechanism of
Ca2+ influx. Structurally similar to receptors on uterine and
Action
ADH. vascular smooth muscle
Bronchospasm (severe
Bronchospasm (may be
Resp if IV so this route is
severe)
contraindicated)
↑ SVR, ↑ BP (may cause, ↓

CVS ↑ HR, ↓ BP following boluses HR) coronary ↑ BP
vasoconstriction
CNS Headache, nausea, comiting Headache, nausea Nausea, vomiting
↓ UO due to ADH-like effects with

Renal
prolonged infusions
↑ Uterine tone (↑ frequency at low

↑ Uterine contraction
GU dose, tetanic contraction at high dose),
frequency and tone
foetal distress, lactation
May be metabolised by oxytocinases in

Contraindicated in pre-
Other blood products if coadministered on the
eclampsia due to HTN
same line
References
684
Obstetric
685
Tocolytics
Tocolytics
Tocolytics are agents which decrease uterine tone. Tocolytics include:
β2-agonists
Ca2+-channel antagonists
COX Inhibitors
MgSO4
Nitrates
Volatile anaesthetic agents
All tocolytics are discussed in more detail elsewhere - this covers just the mechanism of action of their uterine effects.
Ca2+-channel
Drug β2-agonists COX Inhibitors
antagonists
Example Salbutamol Nifedipine Indomethacin
Block L-type
Activate GPCR, ↑ cAMP, which activiates protein Inhibit prostaglandin
Mechanism Ca2+ channels,
kinase A and leads to inhibition of myosin light synthesis, which are vital
of Action causing
chain kinase and relaxation for uterine contraction
relaxation
References
1. Diaz, A. Describe the mechanism of action and side effects of three classes of drugs that are used to increase uterine tone,
and three classes of drugs used to decrease uterine tone. Primary SAQs.
686
Gastrointestinal
Acid Suppression
Non-
Particulate
Property Particulate Proton Pump Inhibitors H2 receptor antagonists
Antacids
Antacids
Aluminium
Sodium
Example Hydroxide/Calcium Omeprazole Ranitidine
citrate
carbonate
Aspiration Aspiration Aspiration prophylaxis, Aspiration prophylaxis,

Uses
prophylaxis prophylaxis GORD, peptic ulceration GORD, peptic ulceration
Rapid Lower water

absorption solubility results in
Absorbed in small bowel,
Absorption due to high slower absorption 50% PO bioavailability
high PO bioavailability
water and onset but no
solubility risk of alkalosis
Distribution Low VD of 0.3 L.kg-1 15% protein bound
Prodrug, activated within

parietal cell. CYP450
metabolised, inhibits
Metabolism Partial hepatic by CYP450
CYP2C19 (reducing, among
other things, the antiplatelet
effect of clopidogrel)
Renal of metabolites and Renal of metabolites and

Elimination
active drug active drug
Base reacts
Base reacts with of the (Gs) H2 receptor,
with gastric
Mechanism gastric acid to Irreversible antagonism of which ↓ cAMP
acid to + +
of Action produce salt and the parietal H /K ATPase production, ↓ intracellular
produce salt
water Ca2+, and ↓ activity of the
and water
H+/K+ ATPase
Potentially increased severity

Lower risk
Greater risk of of pneumonia if aspiration
of Pneumonitis/pneumonia
Resp pneumonitis if occurs (risk with
pneumonitis as per PPI
aspirated microaspiration in long-term
if aspirated
intubated patients)
↓ HR, ↓ BP, and

CVS arrhythmogenic with rapid
IV administration
Potential
Renal metabolic No risk of alkalosis Interstitial nephritis
alkalosis
↑ Gastric ↑ Gastric pH (pH ↑ by ~1), ↓

GIT ↑ Gastric pH
pH volume of secretions
Other Taste bad
References
687
Gastrointestinal
3. Smith S, Scarth E, Sasada M. Drugs in Anaesthesia and Intensive Care. Oxford University Press. 4th Ed. 2011.
688
Antiemetics
Antiemetics
Antiemetic drugs can be classified by their mechanism of action:
Serotonin antagonists
Ondansetron
Corticosteroids
Dexamethasone
Has additional effects on postsurgical pain and fatigue.
Dopamine antagonists
Phenothiazines
Chlorpromazine
Prochlorperazine
Butyrophenones
Droperidol
Benzamides
Metoclopramide
Anticholinergics
Hyoscine
Atropine
Antihistamines
Cyclizine
NK1 antagonists
Aprepitant
Others
Benzodiazepines
Cannabinoids
Propofol
Comparison of Antiemetic Drugs

Property Ondansetron Droperidol Metoclopramide Cyclizine
Benzamide Piperazine
Class Serotonin antagonist dopamine Dopamine antagonist derivative/H1
antagonist antagonist
Antiemetic
Nausea. Ineffective Antiemetic,
(including
for vomiting due to sedation,
Uses Prokinetic, antiemetic motion sickness
motion sickness or behavioural
and radiation
dopamine agonism control
sickness)
Clear solution in
50mg tablets or
Tablet, wafer, clear brown glass,
50mg.ml-1
Presentation solution for injection incompatible with Clear solution in plastic
light-sensitive
at 4mg.ml-1 thiopentone and
solution
methohexital
Route of
PO/SL/IV IV IV/PO PO/IV/IM
Administration
IV
4-8mg TDS
Give at end of 25-50mg IV (note 10mg has 1mg.kg-1 up to
Dosing Give on induction for
surgery for no antiemetic properties 150mg per day
689
Antiemetics
PONV PONV
PO
PO bioavailability
Absorption PO bioavailability 30-90% bioavailability
60%
80%
90% protein
Minimal protein binding,
Distribution 75% protein bound bound, VD
VD ~3L.kg-1
2L.kg-1
Hepatic to inactive
metabolites. Dose Hepatic to
Extensive hepatic
Metabolism reduction in hepatic Hepatic metabolism inactive
metabolism
impairment. t1/2 metabolites
3/24.
Renal and hepatic Renal of 20% unchanged

Renal elimination of Renal of
Elimination of drug and drug and remainder as
inactive metabolites metabolites
Central and
Central D2 Antiemetic activity via Competitive H1
peripheral
blockade and central D2 antagonism, antagonist and
Mechanism of antagonism of 5-HT3
post-synaptic prokinetic activity via anticholinergic
Action receptors, reducing
GABA muscarinic agonism, at M1, M2, M3
input to the vomiting
antagonism peripheral D2 antagonism receptors
centre
Bradycardia with QT prolongation,

↑ HR and ↓ BP
rapid IV hypotension
CVS ↑/↓ HR, ↑/↓ BP due to α
administration, QT secondary to α
antagonism
prolongation antagonism
Sedation
(neurolepsis), Extrapyramidal symptoms,
CNS Headache extrapyramidal neuroleptic malignant Sedation
symptoms in syndrome
~1%
Increased LoS
GIT Constipation Antiemetic Antiemetic, prokinetic
tone
Endocrine Hyperprolactinaemia
References
2. Sébastien Pierre, MD, Rachel Whelan. Nausea and Vomiting After Surgery. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2013; 13
(1): 28-32. doi: 10.1093/bjaceaccp/mks046
690
Other Drugs
Intravenous Contrast
Intravenous contrast may be divided into:
X-ray Contrast
These agents are all based on a tri-iodinated benzene ring, which absorbs x-ray radiation. Alterations to this ring alter
toxicity, lipophilicity, and elimination.
Agents are classified by these structural differences into:
Ionic
Ionic substances are strong acids and are water soluble due to ionisation. They are further divided into:
Monomers
Typically high molecular weight.
Dimers
Non-Ionic
Water soluble due to hydrophilic side chains. Lower molecular weight than ionic contrast agents.
Monomer
Agent of choice for angiography.
Easy to inject
Water soluble at physiologic pH
Dimer
Harder to inject than monomers due to higher viscosity. Typically used for urography.
All are renally eliminated, and may be retained in renal dysfunction
Gadolinium Contrast
Gd3+, due to its seven unpaired electrons, is paramagetic and will alters the magnetic field of an MRI machine.
Free gadolinium is nephrotoxic and must be chelated
This increases its solubility and allows it to be renally eliminated
Gadolinuim also attenuates x-rays, but is not used as x-ray contrast as doses required would be toxic
Adverse Reactions
Adverse reactions to low-osmolarity agents are uncommon (3%), with severe reactions being very rare (0.04%) and fatal reactions
being extremely rare (1:170,000).
General Adverse Reactions

Adverse ractions include:
Chemotoxicity
Platelet inhibition
Increased vagal tone
Negative inotropy
Negative chromotropy
Ionic toxicity
Cellular membrane dysfunction
May worsen myasthenia gravis.
Osmotoxicity
Pain
Emesis
Increased PAP
691
Other Drugs
Decreased PVR
Hypersensitivity reaction
Typically occur within 20 minutes of injection.
Risk factors include:
Asthma or atopy
Critically ill
Cardiac disease
Renal disease
Contrast Nephropathy
Defined as an increase in creatinine by 25% above baseline within three days of IV contrast administration.
It is theorised that osmotic stress and direct tubular toxic effects lead to renal tubular injury, and may cause acute tubular
necrosis
Typically is benign, with creatinine returning to baseline within 10-14 days
Significant uncertainty as to whether contrast media do cause acute kidney injury
IF this risk is present, it is probably only relevant in patients who have:
Impaired renal function
Arterial contrast
Rehydration and volume correction are effective in preventing a rise in creatinine
References
1. Dickinson MC, Kam PC. Intravascular iodinated contrast media and the anaesthetist. Anaesthesia. 2008 Jun;63(6):626-34.
2. The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Radiologists. Iodinated Contrast Media Guideline. Sydney: RANZCR;
2016.
692
Definitions
Definitions
This appendix is a list of key definitions that are common to many topics.
A
Absolute Humidity
Mass of water vapour in a given volume of air. Measured in mg.L-1.
Absorption
The rate at which a drug leaves its site of administration and the extent to which this occurs.
Accuracy
The ability of a measuring device to match the actual value of the quantity being measured.
Acid
A proton donor.
Acidaemia
Arterial blood pH < 7.35.
Acidosis
A process which leads to an excess of hydrogen ions, and may lead to acidaemia if there is inadequate compensation. Can be
subdivided into:
Respiratory acidosis: PaCO2 > 45
Metabolic acidosis: HCO3- < 22
Activity
The effective concentration of a substance in a reacting system.
Acute Pain
Defined as pain of:
Recent onset
Limited probable duration
Identifiable causal and temporal relationship to injury or disease
Adiabatic
A process that occurs without transfer of heat or matter. For example, gases heat up when compressed (greater than the
energy used to compress them), and cool when allowed to expand (adiabatic cooling).
Affinity
Ability of a drug to bind to a receptor.
Afterload
Sum of forces, both elastic and kinetic, opposing ventricular ejection.
Ageing
Naturally occurring, physiological decline in the structure and functional reserve of all organ systems.
Agonist
Drug which produces a maximal response at receptor site.
Alkalaemia
Arterial blood pH > 7.45.
693
Definitions
Alkalosis
A process which leads to a deficit of hydrogen ions, and may lead to alkalaemia if there is inadequate compensation. Can be
subdivided into:
Respiratory alkalosis: PaCO2 < 35
Metabolic alkalosis: HCO3- > 26
Allodynia
Pain caused by a previously non-painful stimulus.
Allosteric Modulator
Substance which binds a receptor distant to the ligand-binding site, and modifies (positively or negatively) the effect of the
ligand. Has no activity in absence of a ligand.
Anaesthesia
Without sensation.
Analogue Signal
Where the output of the transducer varies with the input signal.
Anion
Negatively charged ion.
Anode
The electrode which conventional current flows into.
Anrep effect
Method of myocardial autoregulation in which an increase in afterload causes an increase in contractility.
Antagonist
Drug which produces no response at the receptor, but prevents other ligands binding.
Autoregulation
Ability of an organ to maintain homeostasis in the presence of dynamic physiological conditions.
Azeotrope
A mixture of two substances that cannot be separated by fractional distillation, as each component shares same boiling point.
This is typically temperature dependent.
B
Base
Proton acceptor.
Base Excess
Amount of acid that must be added to a solution to lower its pH to 7.4, at 37°C and with a PaCO2 of 40mmHg.
Bathmotropy
Degree of myocardial excitability. Used with either positive or negative bathmotropy.
Bell-Magendie Law
The principle that in the spinal cord the dorsal roots are sensory and the ventral roots are motor.
Bias
The systematic distortion of the estimated intervention effect away from the “truth”, caused by inadequacies in the design,
conduct, or analysis of a trial.
694
Definitions
Black-body radiation
Electromagnetic radiation given off by all bodies at greater than 0°K. Wavelength of radiation emitted depends on the
temperature of the body.
Bohr Effect
An increase in [H+] or PaCO2 decreases Hb affinity for O2.
Boiling Point
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid.
Therefore boiling point decreases as environmental pressure falls, as there is less external pressure keeping molecules in
their liquid state
Boiling differs from evaporation as molecules anywhere in the liquid may enter the gaseous phase, whilst evaporation
occurs only at the surface
Bowditch Effect
Increase in contractility seen with an increase in HR. Also known as the Treppe effect.
Boyle's Law
Pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to volume.
Buffer
Solution containing a weak acid and its conjugate base and will resist a change in pH when a stronger acid of base is added.
C
Calibration
A process of checking a monitoring device for linearity of correlation between actual and measured values over a given
measurement range.
Capacitance
Ability of a system to store electrical charge. Measured in Farads.
Central Blood Volume

Volume of blood in heart and lungs.
Central Sensitisation
Increased responsiveness of nociceptive neurons in the central nervous system (i.e., post-synaptic) to their normal or
subthreshold afferent input.
Chemotaxis
Movement of cells along a gradient of increasing concentration of an attracting molecule.
Chronic Pain
Pain that:
Persists beyond the time of tissue healing
Frequently has no clearly identifiable cause
Clearance
Volume of plasma completely cleared of a substance per unit time.
Coronary Blood Flow

At rest is ~5% of CO, or 225 ml.min-1, and may increase 3-4x during exercise.
Colloid
Substance evenly dispersed throughout another solution in which it is insoluble.
Colligative Properties
695
Definitions
The properties of a solution that depend on the ratio of solute to solvent, and not on the type of moelcules present. These
include:
Vapour pressure
Boiling point
Freezing point
Osmotic pressure
Compliance
Distensibility of a system. Expressed as the change in volume for a given change in pressure.
Concentration Effect
Describes the disproportionately rapid rise in Fi/FA ratio of nitrous oxide, as its rapid diffusion across the alveolar membrane
increases the concentration of alveolar gas, and also augments respiration by drawing in dead space gas.
Context-Sensitive Half-Time
Time taken for plasma drug concentration to fall to 50% of its starting value after cessation of a drug infusion aimed to
maintain a constant plasma concentration. Varies with the context, or duration, of drug infusion.
Contractility
Factors affecting myocardial performance, independent of preload and afterload.
Critical Length
The length of axon which must be blocked in order to prevent action potential transmission. It is dependent on myelination
and fibre diameter.
Critical Point
The point on a phase diagram where the liquid and gas phases of a substance have the same density, and are therefore
indistinguishable.
This point is where a substance is at both its critical temperature and critical pressure
Critical Pressure
Pressure required to liquify a vapour at its critical temperature.
Critical Temperature
Temperature above which a substance cannot be liquified, irrespective of how much pressure is applied.
Critical Volume
The volume occupied by a given amount of substance at its critical point.
D
Dalton
Unit of mass equal to 1/12th of the mass of Carbon-12.
Dalton's Law
The partial pressure of a gas in a mixture is equal to the pressure that gas would exert if it occupied the volume alone.
Dead Space
Inspired gas not participating in gas exchange. Includes:
Apparatus dead space
Gas in the ventilator or breathing circuit.
Anatomical dead space
Gas in the conducting zone of the lung.
Alveolar dead space
Alveolar gas not participating in gas exchange. Also known as West Zone 1.
696
Definitions
Physiological dead space

Sum of alveolar and anatomical dead space.
Density
Mass per unit of volume.
Dependence
When a charcteristic withdrawal syndrome occurs when a drug is withdrawn, or an antagonist administered.
Diffusion
Passive movement of a substance down an activity gradient by Brownian motion.
Diffusion Hypoxia
Fall in alveolar PAO2 due to dilution of alveolar gas by N2O diffusing from blood to alveoli.
Digestion
Process of breaking down macromolecules into readily absorbed compounds.
Doppler Effect
Alteration in frequency of a signal due to a relative difference in velocity between the emitter and observer. Detected
frequencies will be:
Higher if the emitter is moving toward the observer
Lower if the emitter is moving away from the observer
Down regulation
Decrease in receptor number due to chronic agonist exposure.
Drift
A fixed deviation from the true value at all points in the measured range.
Drug
Substance administered to cause a change in a physiological system.
Duplicate Publication
Where the same set of results are published in multiple journals. Academically unethical, and will cause a systematic bias in
a meta-analyses as the same set of patients are inclulded twice.
Dyne
Force required to accelerate 1g by 1cm.sec-2.
E
Efficacy
Maximal effect produced by a drug. Analogous to intrinsic activity.
Electrocardiogram
Grapical recording of the vector sum of cardiac electrical activity, as measured by electrodes on the skin.
Emulsion
A fine dispersion of minute droplets of one liquid in another in which it is not soluble or miscible.
Enzyme
Biological catalyst.
Eutectic
A mixture of substances with the lowest possible melting point than any other mixture of the same substances (and lower
than that of either substance).
697
Definitions
Excitability
How rapidly an excitable cell depolarises. Given by the gradient of phase 0 of the action potential, and is dependent on the
function of voltage-gated sodium channels.
Exponential Function
Mathematical function where the rate of change is proportional to the current value.
External Validity
How well findings from one setting can be applied to another.
F
Fahraeus-Lindqvist effect
Decrease in apparent viscosity that occurs when a suspension (e.g. blood) flows through a tube of smaller diameter.
Fasting
Metabolic state achieved after complete digestion and absorption of a meal prior to the onset of starvation.
Fick Principle
Blood flow to an organ equals the uptake of a tracer substance by that organ, divided by the arterio-venous concentration
difference.
Flow
Quantity of fluid passing a point per unit time.
Fourier Analysis
Deconstruction of a complex waveform by separating it into its constituent sine waves. The slowest component is known as
the fundamental frequency.
Free radical
Extremely reactive molecular constituent carrying an unpaired electron.
Freezing point
Temperature at which molecular movement begins.
Functional Residual Capacity

Volume of gas in the lungs at the end of a normal tidal expiration, when the recoil pressure of the lungs equals the expansile
pressure of the chest wall.
G
Galvanometer
Device to measure electrical current, usually via deflection of a wire in a magnetic field.
Gas
Substance above its critical temperature.
General anaesthesia
Drug induced, controlled, and reversible production of unconsciousness.
Gibbs-Donnan Effect
Describes the tendency of diffusable ions to distribute themselves such that the ratios of the concentrations are equal when
they are in the presence of non-diffusable ions.
Grahams Law
The speed of diffusion of a gas through a membrane is inversely proportional to the square root of the molecular weight.
698
Definitions
H
Haldane effect
Deoxygenated blood forms carbamino compounds and buffers H+ better than oxygenated blood.
Half-Life
Time taken for drug concentration (typically in plasma) to fall by half.
Heat
Kinetic energy content of a body, as measured in joules.
Henry's Law
Amount of gas dissolved in a substance is directly proportional to the partial pressure of gas at the gas-liquid interface.
Heterometric autoregulation
Change in ventricular function based on myocardial fibre length. Also known as Starling's Law.
Homeometric autoregulation
Mechanisms which alter myocardial performance independent of fibre length.
Hormone
Chemical messenger secrted by a ductless gland and has action on a distant target cell.
Hyperalgesia
Greater than normal amount of pain from a noxious stimulus. May be:
Primary
Occurring in the region of tissue damage, e.g. in an inflammed area around a wound.
Secondary
Extending beyond the region of tissue damage.
Hypoxaemia
When PaO2 is less than 60mmHg.
Hypoxia
The point at which inadequate oxygenation of tissues results in anaerobic metabolism.
Hysteresis
When the future state of a system depends not only on its current state, but on the states preceeding it.
I
Ideal Gas
A gas which will obey the ideal gas law. An ideal gas must have:
Negligible intermolecular attraction
A small molecular volume compared to the space between the molcules
Idiosyncrasy
An effect of a drug affecting only a small number of patients, typically due to the action of a particular metabolite.
Inductance
Property of a conductor by which a change in current induces an electromotive force in the conductor and any nearby
conductors.
Inotrope
Drug which alters myocardial contractility.
699
Definitions
Intrinsic Activity
Maximal effect produced by a drug. Analogous to efficacy.
Impedance
Resistance to alternating current.
Internal Validity
Where a causal relationship between variables has been properly demonstrated, i.e. a lack of bias.
Irritability
How easily an excitable cell can be stimulated. Given by how close the resting membrane potential is to threshold potential.
Isomer
Compound with the same chemical formula, but different chemical structure or arrangement of atoms.
Isotherm
Line of constant temperature drawn on a pressure-volume graph for a gas, which describes the relationship between pressure,
temperature, and volume for a particular gas.
J
Joule
Energy transfered to an object when it is acted on by 1N for 1m.
L
Laminar Flow
Flow occurring smoothly and without turbulence.
Local Anaesthetic
Drug which reversibly prevents the conduction of the nerve impulse in the region to which it is applied, without affecting
consciousness.
M
MAC
The minimal alveolar concentration (measured in % of 1 atm) at steady state which prevents a movement response to a
standard surgical stimulus (midline incision) in 50% of a population.
Manometer
Device which measures gas pressure.
Mean Systemic Filling Pressure

The pressure measured anywhere in the systemic circulation when all flow of blood is stopped.
Mixed Venous Blood

Blood from the IVC, SVC and coronary sinus, which has been mixed by the pumping action of the RV and is typically
sampled from the pulmonary artery.
Mole
Amount of a substance which contains as many representative particules as there are atoms in 12g of carbon-12.
Molality
Number of moles of solute per kg of solvent.
700
Definitions
Molarity
Number of moles of solute per L of solvent. Varies with:
Temperature
Solvent density
Solute volume
N
Natural Frequency
Frequency at which a system will oscillate at if disturbed and left alone.
Nausea
Unpleasant subjective sensation associated with urge to vomit.
Neuropathic Pain
Pain caused by a lesion or disease of the somatosensory nervous system.
Nociception
Neural process of encoding a noxious stimulus.
O
Odds Ratio
Estimate of risk, where the OR is the ratio of odds of an outcome in those treated vs. those not treated. OR = 1 suggests no
effect, <1 suggests="" reduced="" risk="">1 suggests increased risk.
Ohm
Resistance which will allow one ampere of current to flow per volt of potential difference.
Opiate
Naturally occurring substance with morphine-like properties.
Oncotic Pressure
Proportion of osmotic pressure due to colloid.
Opioid
Describes any substance with activity at opioid receptors, and which can be reversed by naloxone.
Osmosis
Movement of a solvent across a semipermeable membrane to an area of greater solute concentration.
Osmotic Pressure
Pressure that must be applied to a solution to prevent the movement of a solvent from entering a solution with higher
osmolality.
Oxygen Flux
Volume of oxygen delivered to the tissues per minute.
P
p50
The partial pressure at which an oxygen-carrying protein is 50% saturated.
701
Definitions
Pain
Unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or ptential tissue damage, or expressed in terms of such
damage.
Partition Coefficient
Describe the relative affinity of an agent for two phases. It is defined as the ratio of the concentration of agent in each phase,
when both phases are of equal volume and the partial pressures are in equilibrium at STP.
Pasteur Point
PO2 at which oxidative phosphorylation ceases.
PEEP
Supra-atmospheric airway pressure at the end of expiration.
pH
The power of hydrogen. Describes the activity of hydrogen ions in a solution, and is expressed as
Preload
Load imposed on a muscle before contraction, and measured as the average myocardial fibre length at the onset of systole.
May be approximated clinically using EDV.
Precision
The ability of a measurement device to provide reproducible results upon repeated measurement.
Pseudo-critical temperature
Temperature at which a gas mixture will separate into its constituent components.
R
Radiation
Transfer of energy via electromagnetic radiation.
Receptor
Component of a cell which binds to a ligand and results in a change in function.
Reduction
Reaction which results in a gain of an electron.
Reflex
Unconscious, predictable response to a stimulus.
Regurgitation
Passive passage of gastric contents into the mouth.
Relative Humidity
Ratio of mass of water vapour in a given volume of air, to the mass required to saturate that volume at that temperature.
Expressed as a percentage.
Respiratory Exchange Ratio

Ratio of CO2 produced to O2 consumed at any given point.
Respiratory Quotient
Ratio of CO2 produced to O2 consumed at steady-state.
Reynolds Number
Dimensionless index which predicts the likelihood of turbulent flow.
702
Definitions
S
Saturated Vapour
Vapour which is in equilibrium with its own liquid state, i.e. there are as many molecules entering the vapour phase as there
there are those condensing into the liquid phase.
A saturated vapour contains the least amount of energy possible without condensing
Saturated Vapour Pressure
Pressure exerted by a vapour which is in equilibrium with its liquid state. Increases with temperature, since as the kinetic
energy (heat) content of molecules increase, more of them enter the vapour phase.
Second Gas Effect

Disproportionately rapid rise in FA/Fi ratio seen when an anaesthetic agent is coadministered with nitrous oxide.
Seebeck effect
The generation of a potential difference at the junction of two dissimilar metals, with its value dependent on the temperature
of the junction.
Shivering
Involuntary, oscillatory, muscular activity that augments metabolic heat production.
Shunt
Blood entering the left side of the circulation without being oxygenated via passage through the lungs.
Specific Gravity
Density of a liquid, in mass per unit volume.
Specific Heat Capacity

Amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1°K without a change in state.
Standard Base Excess

The base excess calculated for an Hb of 5g.L-1, and which gives a better representation of ECF pH.
Surface Tension
Describes the tendency of a fluid to minimise its surface area.
Suspension
Particles of any phase dispersed in a liquid.
Synergism
When two drugs interact to produce a greater effect than would be expected.
T
Temperature
Ability of a body to transfer heat energy to another body, as measured in degrees.
Thirst
Conscious sensation of the physiological urge to drink.
Time constant
Time it would take for an exponential function to complete if the initial rate of change continued. A process is:
63% complete at 1T
86.5% complete at 2T
95% complete at 3%
703
Definitions
Tonicity
Effective osmolality of a solution. Given by the osmolality, minus the concentration of freely diffusable osmoles (in plasma,
these are urea and glucose).
Tonometer
Device which measures pressure of liquid.
Transducer
Device which changes a signal from one energy form to another.
Treppe Effect
Increase in contractility with an increase in HR. Also known as the Bowditch effect.
Turbulent Flow
Irregular movement in radial, axial, and circumferential axes.
V
Valsalva Manouvre
Forced expiration against a closed glottis.
Vapour
Substance in a gaseous phase below its critical temperature.
Vapour pressure
Presure experted by a vapour.
Venous admixture
Amount of mixed venous blood that must be added to pulmonary end-capillary blood to give the observed arterial oxygen
content.
Viscosity
Describes the tendency of a fluid to resist flow.
Volt
Potential difference which dissipates 1W of energy per 1A of current.
Volume of Distribution
Apparent volume into which a drug is distributed to produce the identified plasma concentration.
704
Key Graphs
Key Graphs
Graphs:
Help you to convey knowledge and understanding efficiently in the written

Are often a feature of the viva as they allow examiners to assess depth of understanding
You will be asked to demonstrate how they change under different physiological states
It is easy to get distracted by the curve, and forget the basics (especially in the written). To avoid this, approach them in the same
way each time:
Axis
First draw the axis.
If the axis is continuous (e.g. PaO2), ensure you place an arrow at the far end
If the axis ends at a fixed point (e.g. SpO2), ensure you place a bar at the end to signify it does not continue indefinitely
Labels
Label each axis with what it is representing.
Units
Give each label appropriate units.
In the viva, you can just say this out loud as you're drawing the axes
Curve
Draw the curve.
Special Points
Identify the key points of the curve and label these points. These include:
Intercepts
Inflection points
Important values
e.g. The mixed venous point.
Pharmacology
Dose-Response:
Dose response curve is a wash-in exponential

Difficult to compare different drugs using this curve
LogDose-Response:
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Key Graphs
Log-transform of dose allows different drugs to be compared

Both red and blue drugs are full agonists (as they both reach 100% response), however the blue drug is more potent as it has
a lower ED50
Agonists:
Partial agonists do not reach 100% response

Inverse agonists have a negative response
Antagonists:
Non-competitive antagonists prevent maximal response being reached

Competitive agonists right shift the curve, as they can be overcome with increasing dose of agonist
Therapeutic Index:
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Key Graphs
Can be calculated from the ratio of the LD50 and ED50
Models
The One-Compartment Model:
Drug is added to and removed from the single central compartment

There is no distribution possible.
V1 is equal to the volume of distribution
k10 is the rate constant for elimination
Three-Compartment Model:
Drug is added to and removed from the central compartment

Drug will also distribute to (and redistribute from) the peripheral compartments
Plasma concentration will depend on:
Rate of drug delivery
Rate of drug distribution and redistribution
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Key Graphs
Rate of drug elimination
Effect-Site:
Drug distributes to the effect site from the central compartment

Effect site has no volume, but does have rate constants
t1/2ke0 is generally drawn with drug being eliminated from the effect site, however in reality this does not occur as drug
should only be eliminated from the central compartment
Pharmacokinetics
Zero-order kinetics:
A constant amount of drug is eliminated per unit time

Half-life is not a constant value
Half-life progressively shortens, as the time taken to go from 50% to 25% is half the time it took to go from 100% to 50%.
First-Order Kinetics:
A constant proportion of drug is eliminated per unit time

Half-life is a constant value
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Key Graphs
Biexponential elimination:
Note that concentration has been log-transformed

This describes the elimination of drug from a two compartment model
Pharmacodynamics
Isobologram:
Plots lines of equal activity versus concentration of two drugs
Plasma-Site Targeting:
TCI graphs are easy to draw if you remember that:
The pump aims to achieve the targeted concentration:

As rapidly as possible
Without overshoot
709
Key Graphs
Effect site concentrations fall slower than plasma site concentrations Drug can only redistribute back to plasma when effect
site concentration is greater than plasma concentration.
Therefore in plasma site targeting:
Plasma concentration rises rapidly with initial bolus dose

Does not overshoot
Effect site concentration rises more slowly
Exponential wash in curve as the concentration gradient between plasma and effect site falls over time
Effect-Site Targeting:
Plasma concentration overshoots effect-site target and then declines rapidly

Effect site concentration rises rapidly, and is achieved more quickly compared with plasma-site targeted model
Statistics
Boxplot:
Box is defined by the 25th and 75th centiles

Line in the middle of the box is the median ("50th centile")
"Whiskers" either side of the box define the 10th and 90th centiles
These may also refer to the 5th and 95th centiles
Results outside of whiskers are defined as outliers, and are represented by single dots
Respiratory
Oxygen
Oxygen Cascade:
710
Key Graphs
Graph of location versus oxygen partial pressure

Atmospheric (dry) air has a PO2 of 160mmHg
Tracheal (humidified) gas has a PO2 of 149mmHg
Reduced due to saturated vapour pressure of water.
Alveolar gas has a PO2 of 105mmHg
Reduced to the presence of CO2, as per the alveolar gas equation.
Arterial blood has a PO2 of ~100mmHg
Reduced to the Alveolar-arterial oxygen gradient.
Tissues have a PO2 of ~5mmHg
Mixed venous blood has a PO2 of ~40mmHg
Greater than tissue PO2 as not all oxygen in blood diffuses into or is consumed by tissues.
Oxyhaemoglobin Dissociation Curve:
Graph of PaO2 versus oxygen saturation

Note that PaO22 is continuous, and so an arrow should be drawn at the tip of the x-axis, whilst saturation is finite and so the
y-axis should be capped at 100%
The curve is a sigmoid shape
Key points:
At 10mmHg, saturation is 10%
711
Key Graphs
The p50 is at 27mmHg

The mixed venous point is at 40mmHg, where haemoglobin is 75% saturated
Note that due to the Haldane effect, the mixed venous point does not technically exist on the arterial curve. This is a
small point and is ignored in most graphs (including this one), but may be worth stating if you're feeling confident in the
viva.
The "ICU point" (the upper inflection) is at 60mmHg where haemoglobin is 93% saturated
The arterial point is 97% saturated at 100mmHg
The curve may be right-shifted by:

Increased H+
Increased PaCO2
Increased temperature
Increased 2-3 DPG
These shifts are defined by a movement of the p50
Double-Bohr Effect:
The double Bohr effect can easily become confusing, especially when you are under pressure and only allowed one colour
(as in the written exam)
Here is a straightforward method which minimises the confusion:
1. Draw an adult curve with a p50 of 27mmHg
2. Draw a foetal curve with a p50 of 17mmHg
3. Draw a right-shifted adult curve
4. Draw a left-shifted foetal curve
PaO2 and Minute Ventilation:
712
Key Graphs
Exponential curve
Minute ventilation doubles as PaO2 decreases from 100mmHg to 60mmHg
Inflection point is ~50-60mmHg
Below this there is a large increase in ventilation.
Hypercapnoea leads to a greater minute ventilation for any given PaO2
Isoshunt Diagram:
Plots the relationship between PAO2 versus PaO2 for different (fixed) shunt fractions
These are known as isoshunt lines
Key isoshunt lines are:
At 50% shunt, PaO2 is essentially independent of PAO2
At 30% shunt, PaO2 will not increase above 100mmHg on 100% oxygen at atmospheric pressure
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide Dissociation Curve:
Graph of carbon dioxide content versus partial pressure

Key points on this curve:
-1
713
Key Graphs
Arterial CO2 content is 48mls.100ml-1 of blood at 40mmHg

Mixed venous CO2 content is 52.mls.100ml-1 of blood at 46mmHg
Note that the mixed venous curve is up-shifted due to the Haldane effect
Remember that 50% of the difference in CO2 content is due to the Haldane effect. Therefore:
The mixed venous curve should be drawn such that CO2 content is 50mls.100ml-1 at 40mmHg
The arterial curve should be drawn such that CO2 content is 50mls.100ml-1 at 46mmHg
PaCO2 and Minute Ventilation:
Graphs the change in minute ventilation for primary change in PaCO2

Remember that minute ventilation increases by ~3L.min-1 for every 1mmHg increase in PaCO2
From this, the relationship to other states can be derived:
Minute ventilation is reduced during sleep, but the central response to CO2 is only minimally affected
The central response to CO2 is heavily affected during anaesthesia
Minute ventilation is increased for any given PaCO2 in the setting of acidosis
Alveolar Ventilation and PaCO2:
Graphs the change in PaCO2 for a primary change in minute ventilation

Exponential curve as PaCO2 is inversely proportional to minute ventilation
Minute ventilation is increased for any given PaCO2 during exercise
Anatomical and Physiological Interactions

Closing Capacity and Age:
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Key Graphs
Note that although FRC increases slightly with age, this is not generally shown on this graph
Closing capacity increases with increasing age
Key intersections are:
Greater than FRC when supine at 44 years of age
Greater than FRC when erect at 66 years of age
Diffusion and Perfusion Limitation:
Classically drawn as partial pressure versus distance along the capillary

Time along capillary may also be used, however note that total transit time will change with cardiac output.
Note that at the beginning of the capillary, oxygen partial pressure will be equal to that of mixed venous blood
In perfusion limitation, PaO2 will equal PAO2 before the end of the capillary
In diffusion limitation, partial pressures will not be equal at the end of the capillary
In normal circumstances, PaO2 equals PAO2 at ~1/32 of the distance along the capillary
If time is being graphed on the x-axis, then this will occur at ~0.25s, as total capillary transit time is ~0.75s.
Nitrous oxide rapidly diffuses into blood and is and not typically present in mixed venous blood, so this curve begins at the
origin and PaN2O will rapidly reach PAN2O (in this instance 100mmHg)
Carbon monoxide binds avidly to haemoglobin and so PaCO increases slowly, resulting in diffusion limitation
Regional Ventilation and Perfusion:
715
Key Graphs
Graph of alveolar ventilation and alveolar blood flow versus rib number in the erect person
Basal alveolar have greater perfusion and ventilation than apical alveoli
Note the perfusion gradient is steeper than the ventilation gradient
Note that the V/Q ratio is:
~1 at the 3rd rib
~3.3 at the apex
~0.63 at the base
Airway Resistance and Airway Generation:
Graph of airway resistance versus airway generation

Airway generations are from 1 to 23, and so this graph should not extend outside these values
Airway resistance is maximal at the 5th generation
This has the lowest total cross-sectional area.
Airway resistance is negligible in the respiratory zone, which exists after the 15th generation
Airway Resistance and Lung Volume:
Airway resistance decreases as lung volume increases as radial tension distends airways, increasing their cross-sectional area
and lowering airway resistance
716
Key Graphs
Pulmonary Vascular Resistance and Pulmonary Artery Pressure:
Pulmonary vascular resistance decreases as pulmonary artery pressure increases

Arterial pressure has a greater effect on PVR than venous pressure
Lung and Chest Wall Volume and Pressure Relationships:
Graph of lung volume versus recoil pressure

Expressing lung volume as a percentage of total lung capacity may make it easier to remember the key points on this
graph
Note that recoil pressure is the pressure generated between the lung and the chest wall when they are distended, it is
not intrapleural pressure
This graph is complex and it is easy to draw incorrectly
This is an approach to make it as easy as possible:
1. Draw a sigmoid graph for the pressure-volume relationship of the respiratory system as a whole
As recoil pressure is 0 at FRC this will be the y-intercept
The graph will asymptote at residual volume, as volume (by definition) cannot become lower than this volume
2. Draw a steep run-away exponential for the pressure-volume relationship of the chest wall
Recoil pressure should be ~-5cmH2O at FRC
Recoil pressure should be 0cmH2O at ~75% of TLC
Recoil pressure should not exceed ~5cmH2O at TLC
3. Draw a steep wash-in exponential for the pressure-volume relationship of the lung
Remember lung volume cannot fall below residual volume
Recoil pressure should be ~5cmH2O at FRC
This should be equal and opposite to the recoil pressure for the chest wall, as the sum of these must be 0 at FRC.
Note that this curve should slightly exceed the curve for the respiratory system as recoil pressure increases
Work of Breathing:
717
Key Graphs
Graph of lung volume (above FRC) versus intrapleural pressure

Note that intrapleural pressure becomes more negative along the x-axis.
The area under different sections of this curve give the work of breathing
Elastic inspiratory work of breathing is given the blue triangle
Resistive work of expiration is given by the red area
Note that as this is entirely contained within the area of elastic inspiratory work, expiration is passive and does not
require additional energy expenditure.
Resistive work of inspiration is given by the green area
Work of Breathing - Active Expiration:
When resistive expiratory work exceeds elastic inspiratory work, active expiration must occur
In this graph, active expiration is given by the red area not contained with the blue triangle
Neonatal First Breath:
This graph describes the pressure-volume changes of the neonate as it takes its first breaths and establishes FRC
This graph is easy to draw provided you remember that:
Prior to the first breath, lung volume is 0
As the lung initially has very poor compliance, the intrapleural pressure must become very negative more lung volume
718
Key Graphs
increases substantially
At the end of each breath, intrathoracic pressure is close to 0
With each subsequent breath:
Lung compliance improves
Therefore the magnitude of pressure swings is reduced.
FRC increases
Lung volume at end-inspiration is increased.
Spirometry
Forced Vital Capacity:
Graph of expired volume (vital capacity) over time

~80% of total volume is expired within the first second (FEV1)
Total FVC is 4.5L in the 70kg Guyton Man
The gradient of initial expiration is the peak expiratory flow rate
Spirometry:
Graph of lung volume over time

Includes a normal tidal breath and a vital capacity breath
Flow-Volume Loops
Normal loop:
719
Key Graphs
Peak expiratory flow is ~8L.s-1

Peak inspiratory flow is ~6L.s-1
Effort independent expiration occurs during expiration
Obstructive Disease:
Residual volume and total lung capacity are increased due to gas trapping
Peak expiratory flow is reduced
There is scalloping of the effort-independent portion of the curve
Also known as a concave curve.
Restrictive Disease:
Total lung capacity is reduced

Residual volume is normal
Peak expiratory flow may be reduced (as seen here)
However the FEV1:FVC ratio will be normal in purely restrictive lung disease.
Effort-independent expiration is linear and will join with the normal curve
Fixed Upper Airway Obstruction:
720
Key Graphs
Obstruction that does not change calibre throughout the respiratory cycle
Peak expiratory and inspiratory flow rates are limited
Extrathoracic Obstruction
Obstruction worsens during inspiration as it is 'pulled in' by negative intrathoracic pressure
Intrathoracic Obstruction
Obstruction worsens during expiration as it is compressed by dynamic airways compression
Anaesthetic Agents
FA/FI:
721
Key Graphs
Graph of the alveolar over inspired agent fraction versus time for various volatile agents
Indicates the relative speed of onset of different agents
Uptake of agent is proportional to solubility in blood, and therefore is in order of their blood:gas coefficients
The exception is nitrous oxide, which has a faster rate of rise than desflurane despite its greater blood:gas coefficent due
to the concentration effect
FA/FA0:
Graph of alveolar agent fraction versus time for a volatile agent

Note the logarithmic scale on the y-axis
Exponential washout curve
Function of two separate washout curves
Rapid washout with removal of agent from circuit and FRC
Slow washout due to diffusion of agent from tissues into blood, and then alveolus
Cardiovascular
Left Ventricular Coronary Blood Flow:
Graph of blood flow to the left ventricle over time

Systole should be clearly identified.
Left ventricular flow occurs predominantly in diastole
Peak flow is ~115ml.min-1.
There is a brief period of flow reversal during isovolumetric contraction
Right Ventricular Coronary Blood Flow:
722
Key Graphs
Graph of blood flow to the right ventricle over time

Right ventricular flow occurs throughout the cardiac cycle
This is because aortic root pressure exceeds cavity pressure throughout the cardiac cycle.
Peak flow is ~15ml.min-1
Baroreceptor Response:
Graph of heart rate versus systolic blood pressure

Note that the RR interval is inversely proportional to heart rate.
Heart rate responses asymptote at extremes of blood pressure
Starling Curve:
Typically drawn as a graph of stroke volume (or cardiac output, assuming a constant heart rate) versus preload (typically
estimated as end-diastolic volume, but may also be end-diastolic pressure)
Graph does not cross the origin as EDV is never 0ml
Starling Curve - Failing:
723
Key Graphs
Myocardium that has been overloaded by high end-diastolic volumes may lead to a decrease in tension generated by the
myocardium
Venous Return:
Graph of venous return versus right atrial pressure

The x-intercept is the point of no flow within the circulation (as VR = CO), and therefore is the mean systemic filling
pressure
The curve flattens when RAP becomes negative, as external tissues act as a Starling resistor and prevent further increases in
flow
Venous Return - Compliance and Volume:
Decreasing venous compliance or increasing circulating volume results in an increase in mean systemic filling pressure (as
for any given compliance, pressure must increase if volume increases) and an increase in venous return for any given right
atrial pressure
The opposite occurs with a decrease in circulating volume or an increase in venous compliance
Venous Return - Resistance to Venous Return:
724
Key Graphs
Altering resistance to venous return (e.g. during pregnancy, or laparascopic surgery) will alter venous return without
changing mean systemic filling pressure
Circulatory Function Curve:
Plotting the venous return curve and the Starling curve on the same axes generates this graph
This is only valid at steady state, i.e. when CO = VR
Note that as steady-state exists when CO=VR, the interecept of these two curves is the operating point of the circulation
Wiggers Diagram:
725
Key Graphs
Wiggers diagram is a graphical representation of the events during each phase of the cardiac cycle
Key points to note:
Aortic diastolic pressure occurs just prior to aortic valve opening
A common mistake is to label diastolic pressure at the dicrotic notch.
Ventricular pressure exceeds aortic pressure during ejection
Aortic pressure will slightly exceed ventricular pressure during the last part of ejection
This is due to the inertia of ejected blood causing ongoing forward flow despite the pressure gradient.
The dicrotic notch occurs on the aortic pressure curve
A common mistake is to draw this on the ventricular curve.
CVP slightly exceeds ventricular pressure during ventricular filling
The C wave occurs during isovolumetric contraction
The V wave begins prior to the T wave, but peaks after the T wave has finished
Electrical events slightly proceed ventricular mechanical events
Action Potentials
Pacemaker Potential:
726
Key Graphs
The pacemaker potential has only three phases, and notably no 'resting phase'
This is due to the funny current.
Maximal diastolic potential is -65mV
Peak membrane potential is ~20mV
Pacemaker Potential - Ion Flux:
Demonstrates the timing of electrolyte passage across the cell membrane

Funny current occurs throughout phase 4 and the early part of phase 0
T-type calcium current begins in late phase 4 and terminates prior to the onset of phase 0
L-type calcium current overlaps with the T-type current and continues throughout phase 3
Outward rectifying potassium current begins during phase 3 and continues during phase 4, restoring membrane potential
Pacemaker Potential - Autonomic Tone:
Alteration to autonomic tone alters the slope of the funny-current

(Some sources also note a change to maximal diastolic potential, although this is not shown here).
Ventricular Action Potential:
727
Key Graphs
The ventricular action potential consists of 5 phases

0: Rapid depolarisation
1: Partial repolarisation
Due to initial efflux of potassium without proportional calcium influx.
2: Plateau
Outward potassium current is matched by inward calcium current.
3: Repolarisation
Note that the absolute refractory period ends when resting membrane potential falls below -50mV, which typically
occurs at ~250ms.
4: Resting membrane potential
Note that:
Resting Membrane Potential is typically ~-85mV
The relative refractory period ends when the membrane potential is at its resting state
Ventricular Action Potential - Hyperkalaemia:
In hyperkalaemia:
The ventricle is more irritable as resting membrane potential is less negative, bringing it closer to threshold potential
The duration of the action potential is shorter, increasing the chance for a re-entrant arrhythmia
Basic Pressure-Volume Loops

Pressure-volume loops are covered in detail under pressure-volume relationships.
Left Ventricular P-V Loop:
728
Key Graphs
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Increased Preload:
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Increased Afterload:
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Increased Contractility:
Advanced-Pressure Volume Loops
729
Key Graphs
When drawing changes to more left-field pressure-volume loops which you may not have seen before approach them in the
following way:
How is preload changed?

How is afterload changed?
How is contractility changed?
How are isovolumetric contraction and isovolumetric relaxation changed?
Advanced pressure-volume loops are covered in detail under pressure-volume relationships.
Right Ventricular P-V Loop:
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Aortic Stenosis:
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Aortic Regurgitation:
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Mitral Stenosis:
730
Key Graphs
Left Ventricular P-V Loop - Mitral Regurgitation:
Antiarrhythmics
Ventricular Action Potential - Class Ia:
Prolong the rate of rise of phase 0

Lengthen the myocardial action potential
Ventricular Action Potential - Class Ib:
731
Key Graphs

Shorten the myocardial action potential
Ventricular Action Potential - Class Ic:

Do not alter the length of the myocardial action potential
Pacemaker Potential - Class II (Beta-Blockade):
Sympatholytic effect reduces the magnitude of the funny current
Ventricular Action Potential - Class III:
732
Key Graphs
Prolong duration of phase 3 of the myocardial action potential

This prolongs the refractory period and reduces the chance of a re-entry circuit occurring, and therefore reduces
tachyarrhythmias but may increase the risk of torsade de pointes due to an increased risk of after depolarisations.
Pacemaker Potential - Class IV (Calcium Channel Blockade):
In the pacemaker cell, reduce the magnitude of T-type and L-type calcium currents, reducing the rate of rise of phase 0 of the
pacemaker action potential
CNS
Monroe-Kellie Doctrine:
Graphs the intracranial pressure versus the volume of a component (blood, brain, or CSF) in the cranial vault
Note that overall volume is not correct, as this is unchanged - if overall volume increased the pressure would reduce (e.g.
such as a decompressive craniectomy).
Note the initial period of compensation, which occurs due to displacement of CSF to the spinal subarachnoid, decreased
cerebral blood volume, and a decrease in CSF volume.
Once compensatory responses are exhausted ICP will increase rapidly due to the poor elastance of the cranial vault
733
Key Graphs
Focal ischaemia occurs when ICP exceeds 20mmHg

Global cerebral ischaemia occurs when ICP exceeds 50mmhg
Cerebral Blood Flow and Cerebral Perfusion Pressure:
Cerebral blood flow is autoregulated for a CPP of 50-150mmHg

(Note that this classic relationship is probably incorrect, and that CBF is probably only autoregulated across a narrow range
of blood pressures).
Cerebral Blood Flow and PaCO2:
CBF increases by ~3% for every 1mmHg increase in CO2

Below a PaCO2 of 20mmHg, CBF cannot decrease further as the reduced flow results in tissue hypoxia, and metabolic
autoregulatory responses
Above a PaCO2 of 80mmHg, CBF cannot increase further as vessels are maximally dilated
Cerebral Blood Flow and PaO2:
Above a PaO2 of 60mmHg, CBF is essentially independent of PaO2

Below a PaO2 of 60mmHg, CBF increases rapidly
Cerebral Blood Flow and Temperature:
734
Key Graphs
Cerebral metabolic rate falls by ~6% per °C decrease in temperature

This results in a concominant reduction in CBF
This is an almost linear response.
Renal & Acid-Base

Ionised potential vs pH - Acids:
Acids are ionised above their pKa
Ionised potential vs pH - Bases:
Bases are ionised below their pka
Glomerular Filtration and Mean Arterial Pressure:
735
Key Graphs
GFR is autoregulated for a MAP between 60 and 160mmHg
Glomerular Filtration Rate and Serum Creatinine:
At steady-state, GFR and serum creatinine are inversely proportional

Following a step-change in GFR, it will take ~48 hours before steady-state is achieved again
During this period, estimates of GFR using serum creatinine will be less accurate.
Glucose Flux:
As glucose is frely filtered at the glomerulus, filtered plasma glucose will be directly proportional to serum glucose
This relationship is given by the dotted black line.
Under normal cirumstances, all filtered glucose will be reabsorbed
This relationship is given by the overlap of the red and dotted black lines.
When glucose filtration exceeds glucose reabsorption, glucose will begin to be excreted in urine.
This is given by the dotted blue line.
The serum concentration of a substance at which this occurs is known as the transport maximum, or Tmax
In reality, some glucose will be filtered before Tmax is reached. This is due to the different affinity of S-GLUT
channels, and is the cause of the gentle curves seen on the plots of reabsorption and excretion.
The serum concentration at which glucose starts to appear in urine is known as the threshold concentration
736
Key Graphs
The difference between threshold concentration and Tmax is known as splay
Haematology
Coagulation Cascade:
The coagulation cascade is covered in detail under clotting
Thromboelastography:
TEG/ROTEM can be used to guide coagulopathy treatment as:

Prolonged R time
Indicates decreased clotting factor concentration; give FFP.
737
Key Graphs
Decreased α-angle/prolonged K time

Decreased rapidity of fibrinogen cross-linking; give fibrinogen.
Decreased MA (may be associated with prolonged K time)
Decreased maximal clot strength; give platelets or DDAVP.
Decreased CL 30/CL 60
Fibronlysis; give antifibrinolytic.
Other
Heat Loss Under Anaesthesia:
Heat loss under anaesthesia occurs in three phases:

1. Rapid reduction: 1-1.5°C in 30 minutes
2. Gradual reduction: 1°C over 2-3 hours
3. Plateau: Further heat loss attenuated by metabolic heat reduction
Does not occur in neuraxial anaesthesia as vasoconstrictive responses are prevented by sympathectomy
Equipment & Measurement

Einthoven's Triangle:
Einthoven's triangle demonstrates the relationship between different limb leads and augmented leads on the ECG
Understanding the triangle means one can identify misplaced ECG electrodes by the changes in ECG morphology
e.g. if the RA and LA electrodes are switched:
Lead I will invert its polarity
738
Key Graphs
Lead II and III will be switched

Leads aVL and aVR will be switched
Lead aVF will be unchanged
Damping Coefficients:
Following a step-change:
An optimally-damped waveform will return to baseline with one overshoot and one undershoot
An underdamped waveform returns to baseline rapidly but overshoots and undershoots several times
A critically damped waveform returns to baseline as fast as possible without overshooting
An overdamped waveform returns to baseline slower than a critically damped waveform, and does not overshoot
Wheatstone Bridge:
Covered in detail under Wheatstone bridge
Gas Analysis
Clark Electrode:
Covered in detail under Oxygen Tension
pH Electrode:
739
Key Graphs
Covered in detail under pH Measurement
Severinghaus Electrode:
Covered in detail under Carbon Dioxide Tension
Capnography
Capnograph:
740
Key Graphs
The capnograph waveform consists of four components:

1. Baseline
Inspiration and early dead-space expiration (containing no CO2).
2. Alveolar exhalation
3. Alveolar plateau
Highest point is defined as ETCO2.
4. Inspiration
Variations on the waveform are covered under ETCO2 Waveform Variations
References
1. Wigger's Diagram (with some modifictions) from Wigger's Diagram. 21/3/2012. (Image). By DanielChangMD (revised
original work of DestinyQx); Redrawn as SVG by xavax. CC BY 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons.
2. Clotting Cascade 22/4/2007. (Image). By Joe D (Own work). CC BY 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons.
741
Laws and Equations
Laws and Equations

This appendix is a list of the key laws and equations common to many topics:
General Laws
Fick's Law of Diffusion
Diffusion of a substance across a membrane is given by:
, where:
= Area of the sheet
= Diffusion constant, which is proportional to the solubility of the gas and inversely proportional to the square root
of the molecular weight, i.e.

= Thickness of the sheet
Hagan-Poiseuille Equation
Calculates the flow for a given pressure different of a particular fluid. May also be rearranged to calculate pressure or
resistance.
Given by the equation:
, where:
Q is the flow
P is the driving pressure
η is the dynamic viscosity
L is the length of tubing
r is the radius
Has several limitations:
Only models laminar flow
Fluid must be incompressible
Not technically valid for air, but provides a good approximation when used clinically.
Fluid must be Newtonian
Fluid must be in a cylindrical pipe of uniform cross-section
Reynolds Number
Reynolds Number is a dimensionless index used to predict the likelihood of turbulent flow. R < 2000 is likely to be laminar,
R > 2000 is likely to be turbulent. Given by the equation:
, where:
v is the linear velocity of fluid in

d is the fluid density in
r is the radius in
n is the viscosity in
Cell Physiology
742
Laws and Equations
Nernst Equation
Calculates the electrochemical equilibrium for a given ion:
, where:
is the equilibrium potential for the ion
is the gas constant (8.314 J.deg-1.mol-1)
is the temperature in Kelvin
is Faraday's Constant
is the ionic valency (e.g. +2 for Mg+2, -1 for Cl-)
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation
Calculates the membrane potential for given values of intracellular and extracellular ionic concentrations:
, where:
is the permeability constant for the ion,
If the membrane is impermeable to , then .
Henderson-Hasselbalch
Calculates the pH of a buffer solution:
, where:
is the pH of the solution
is the pKa of the buffer
is the concentration of base

is the concentration of acid
Respiratory Laws
Modified Bohr Equation
The ratio of dead space to tidal volume ventilation equations the arterial - mixed-expired CO2 difference, over the arterial
CO2.
La Place's Law
The larger the vessel radius, the larger the wall tension required to withstand a given internal fluid pressure. For a thin-walled
sphere, Wall Tension (T) is half the product of pressure and radius, i.e.
Alveolar Gas Equation

The alveolar PO2 is equal to the PiO2 minus the alveolar CO2/the respiratory quotient, i.e.:
Gas Laws
Boyle's Law
, i.e. pressure and volume are inversely related at constant temperature and pressure.
743
Laws and Equations
Boyles Law can be used to work out how many litres of gas are remaining in gas cylinder, e.g.:
A standard C cylinder is 1.2L in size
Normal cylinder pressure is ~137bar, and atmospheric pressure is ~1bar
Therefore, the cylinder contains ~164L of oxygen

This can be used to calculate the volume of gas remaining in the cylinder during use, using the volume of the
cylinder (fixed) and the current pressure as measured at the regulator
Charle's Law
, i.e. volume and temperature are linearly related when pressure is constant.
Gay-Lussac's Law/The Third Gas Law , i.e. pressure and temperature are linearly related when volume is
constant.
The Universal Gas Equation

, i.e. combination of Boyle's, Charle's law combining each variable and the universal gas constant, R
(8.13).
Henry's Law
The number of molecules of dissolved gas is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas at the surface of the liquid
Graham's Law of Diffusion

Diffusion rates through orifices are inversely proportional to the square root of the molecular weight
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

In a mixture of gases, each gas exerts the pressure that it would exert if it occupied the volume alone.
Cardiovascular Equations
Fick's Principle
Flow of blood through an organ equals the uptake of a tracer substance by the organ divided by the concentration difference
of the substance across it, i.e.:
Starling's Law of Fluid Exchange

Flow of fluid across the capillaries is proportional to the hydrostatic pressure difference and the oncotic pressure difference
(times the reflection coefficient), all times by the filtraiton coefficient, i.e.:
Venous Admixture
Calculates the shunt fraction by identifying how much mixed venous blood must be added to ideal pulmonary capillary blood
to produce the identified arterial oxygen content.
Equipment
Doppler equation
Calculates the velocity of an object based on the change in observed frequency when a wave is reflected off (or emitted from)
744
Laws and Equations
the object:
where:
= Velocity of object
= Frequency shift
= Speed of sound (in blood)
= Frequency of the emitted sound

= Angle between the sound wave and the object
References
1. Davis & Kenny. Basic Physics and Measurement in Anaesthesia, 5th Edition.
2. Gorman. RAH Diving and Hyperbaric Medicine. Chapter 3: The physics of diving.
745
Structures for SAQs
Structures for SAQs

Structured answers are vital:
Structure aids both learning and recall of information

A structured format is easy to follow less likely to irritate the drunk/tired/hungover mind of the examiner
You may get marks for incomplete answers if your structure demonstrates you have an understanding of the topic, even if the
details are not filled in
Some questions lend themselves more easily to a particular structure than others, but all questions can be made to fit even a basic
structure.
Regulation of Physiological Responses

Sensor
Integration
Effector
Change in Level of a Substance

Intake
Distribution
Elimination
Compare and Contrast (Drugs)

Class
Pharmaceutics
Uses
Chemical
Presentation
Heat/light stability
Routes of administration
Doses
Pharmacokinetics
Absorption
Distribution
Metabolism
Elimination
Pharmacodynamics
Main Action
Mode of Action
Effects (See the physiological approach)
Side Effects
Toxic effects
Allergic
Dose-dependent
Idiopathic
746
Structures for SAQs
Drug interactions
Describe Why Two Drugs are Used in Combination

Definition
Brief, of each drug.
Consider the components of anaesthesia that each provides
Pharmacokinetics
Interactions
Relative onset
Metabolism
No effect/Induces/Inhibits
Elimination
Pharmacodynamics
Isobologram
Synergistic/additive/antagonistic.
Then list the effects of each drug, and how they are modified by the other
e.g. if drugs are synergistic, then decreased doses will be required
Increases beneficial effects
Decreases adverse effects
Describe the Physiology of...

Respiratory
Bronchodilation/constriction
Vasodilation/constriction
VT
RR
Secretion
Laryngeal reflexes
CVS
Preload
Contractility/Pump effects
Inotropy
Chronotropy/rhythm
Dromotropy
Lusitropy
Bathmotropy
Nodal effects
Coronary Blood Flow
Afterload/Pipe effects
SBP
DBP
MAP
SVR
PVR
Intraarterial injection
CNS
Sedation
747
Structures for SAQs
Analgesia
Pro/anticonvulsant
Amnestic
Cerebral Metabolic Rate
Cerebral Blood Flow
ICP
IOP
Musculocutaneous
Blood Flow
NMJ
Endocrine
Gynaecomastia
Hair
Bone
Renal and GU
Renal Blood Flow
Nephrotoxicity
Bladder tone
Uterine tone
GIT and Hepatic
Hepatotoxicity/LFTs
Secretions
Gastric emptying
N/V/D/C
Haematological
G6PD
Porphyrias
Bone marrow effects
Immunological
Analphylaxis
Histaminergic
Neutrophil function
Metabolic
Anatomical Structure
Anatomy of the structure
Relationships
Relevant surface anatomy
Layers of dissection
Physics and Measurement

Definition
Uses
Physical principles
Components
Calibration
Advantages/Disadvantages
748
Structures for SAQs
References
Dr. Podcast
Wisdom from drunk, tired, and/or hungover examiners.
749

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Table

How to Pass 1.3

The SAQ 1.4

Clinical Trial Design 2.1.3

Frequency Distributions 2.1.6

Statistical Tests 2.1.8

Significance Testing 2.1.11

Bolus and Infusion Kinetics 2.2.2.6

Drug Monitoring 2.2.2.7

TIVA and TCI 2.2.2.9

Variability in Drug Response 2.2.4

Adverse Effects 2.2.4.1

Alterations to Response 2.2.4.3

General Management 2.2.5.1

TCA Overdose 2.2.5.2

The Cell Membrane 2.3.1

Transport Across Membranes 2.3.4

Respiratory System 2.4

Chest Wall and Diaphragm 2.4.1.2

Mechanics of Breathing 2.4.3

Volumes and Capacities 2.4.3.6

Diffusion of Gases 2.4.4

Oxygen Cascade 2.4.4.1

V\Q Relationships 2.4.5

West's Zones 2.4.5.1

Gas Transport 2.4.6

Oxygen Storage 2.4.6.1

Applied Respiratory Physiology 2.4.7

Pulmonary Function Tests 2.4.7.1

Hypo and Hypercapnoea 2.4.7.4

Position and Ventilation 2.4.7.5

Non-Respiratory Functions 2.4.7.8

Neonates and Children 2.4.7.11

Cardiovascular System 2.5

Coronary Circulation 2.5.1.2

Cardiac Action Potential 2.5.2.1

Cardiac Output 2.5.3

Venous Return 2.5.3.2

Myocardial Oxygen Supply and Demand 2.5.3.3

Cardiac Reflexes 2.5.3.5

Peripheral Circulation 2.5.4

Variations in Blood Pressure 2.5.4.2

Pulmonary Circulation 2.5.4.3

Hepatic Blood Flow 2.5.4.5

Circulatory Control 2.5.5

CVS Effects of Ageing 2.5.5.4

Cardiovascular Pharmacology 2.5.6

Renal Physiology 2.6.1

Functional Anatomy and Control of Blood Flow 2.6.1.1

Glomerular Filtration and Tubular Function 2.6.1.2

Endocrine Functions of the Kidney 2.6.1.5

Fluids and Electrolytes 2.6.2

Acid-Base Physiology 2.7

Spinal Cord Anatomy 2.8.3

Intraocular Pressure 2.8.5

Autonomic Nervous System 2.8.8

Local Anaesthetics 2.8.9.3

Acetylcholine Receptors 2.8.9.5

Insulin, Glucagon, and Somatostatin 2.9.2