BOTANY 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION OF BOTANY
- Scientific study of plants.
- Basis for our national and world economy
UNIFYING THEMES OF BOTANY
1. PLANTS CONSIST OF ORGANIZED PARTS
- Plants use the same building block
2. PLANTS EXCHANGE ENERGY WITH THEIR ENVIRONMENT
- Example: Solar To Chemical
3. PLANTS RESPOND AND ADAPT TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT
- Inherited, to ensure survival
4. PLANTS REPRODUCES
- Most plants reproduce sexually or asexually
- Variation DNA / GENES
5. PLANTS SHARE PARTS OF A COMMON ANCESTRY
- Autotrophs: they can make their own food
MATTER
- Anything that occupies space and has mass
- Compose of elements and atoms
PEROIDIC TABLE
I. 92 Naturally occurring elements
II. 25 Are only essential to life
III. 4 Made up about 96% of the weight of an organism. [ O, C, H, N ]
IV. 7 Made up much of the 4% [ Ca, P, K, S, Na, Cl, Mg ]
V. 14 The trace elements 0.001% of the body. [ B, Cr, Co, Cu, F, Fe, Mn,
Mo, Se, Si, Sn, V, Zn ]
MOLECULES
- Made of 2 or more atoms linked by chemical bonds
4 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
 CARBOHYDRATES : Monosaccharides
 LIPIDS : Fatty Acids
 PROTEINS : Amino Acids
 NUCLEIC ACID : Nucleotides
CARBOHYDRATES
- Single or Chains of molecules
- Most important source of energy
- Also known as Sugar

MONOSACCHARIDES
I. GALACTOSE ex. milk
II. FRUCTOSE ex. fruits
 III. GLUCOSE - food for brain and most commonly found in our body
IV. DEOXYRIBOSE - found in a large DNA molecule
POLYSACCHARIDES
I. CELLULOSE - rich in fiber, not easy to digest ex. Mais
II. STARCH – Energy storage nutrients in plants
III. GLYCOGEN - carbo storage in animals, energy source
IV. CHITIN - skeleton of insects and crustaceans
DISACCHARIDES
I. MACTOSE - 2 Glucose/ Used in making Beer
II. SUCROSE - Glucose + Fructose / Table sugar
III. LACTOSE - Glucose + Galactose/ Milk
LIPIDS
- Commonly known as fats
- Difficult to breakdown
- Aid to effective absorption of vitamins, serves as insulation (polar bears,
seals)
PROTEINS
- Not primarily source of energy
- For development of body parts
- Chemical activities [enzymes>digestion]
- Repair blood vessels [fibrin] “for wounds”
NUCLEIC ACIDS
- Found in RNA and DNA all living organism
- Store hereditary information
MICROSCOPE
- Used to see things that is not visible through naked eye
PROPERTIES OF MICROSCOPE
1. Uses lenses to produced magnified image (MAGNIFICATION)
2. Resolves fine details of objects that are too small (RESOLUTION or
RESOLVING POWER)
OBJECTIVES OF LIGHT MICROSCOPE
 Scanner – 4x or 5x – shortest
 Low Power Objective (LPO) - 10x
 High Power Objective (HPO) - 40x – 60x
 Oil Immersion Objective (OIO) – 100x
Ex. Election Microscope – Electron Beams
TRANSMISSION ELECTRONS MICROSCOPE (TEM)
- Visualize internal structure
- Beam of electron passed through the specimen
- Resolution 400x over light microscope
SCANNING ELECTRONS MICROSCOPE (SEM)
- Produced 3D images
- Imprints that recorded from the surface specimen
 CHAPTER 2

CELL AS THE FUNDAMETAL UNIT OF LIFE

CELL
 Structure and function of all living things
 Microscopic and capable of independent existence
 All living things are made up of cell
ORGANISM > BODY SYSTEM > ORGANS > TISSUES > CELL > ORGANELES
> MOLECULE
CELL THEORY
- Scientific theory which describes the properties of cell
FRANCES & ZACHARIAS JAISSEN (1959)
- Brothers who created a prototype microscope
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1670)
- Develop the microscope
- 1st to see the sperm cell
- 1st to se weeanimacules (now protozoa) – small animal like organism
- 1st to see red blood cells
CAROLUS LINNAEUS (1758)
- Father of Taxonomy
- Binomial system of nomericlature
ROBERT HOOKE (1665)
- 1ST to see the cell
- He named it cell because its similar to the monk’s cell
- Describe cell as honeycomb
FRANS BAUER (1802)
- 1ST see the nucleus
- Describe it as darkly stain in the middle
ROBERT BROWN (1831)
- Coined the term nucleus
MATTHIAS JAKOB SCHLEIDEN & THEODORE SCHWANN (1838-1839)
- Every part of the structure of plants and animals are made from cells or
product of cell
RUDOLPH VIRCHOW (1858)
- All cells comes from pre-existing cell
- Contradict the “ Spontaneous Theory” – out of nothing there will be organisms
MODERN CELL THEORY
 Basic unit of structure
 All living things are made up of cell
 Arise from pre-existing cell
 Contains hereditary info that is passed from cell to cell during cell division
 All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
 All energy flow occur within the cell
  Cell Wall consist of layers of
pepticloglycan (complex of
PROKARYOTIC proteins and carbo)
 No nuclear membrane: no true  Flagella- locomotion
nucleus  Ribosomes
 Most organelles are absent:  Cytoplasm
monera  Cell Membrane
 Bacteria and Archaea  - DNA
(unicellular: single cell) EUKARYOTIC
 Single close compartment with  True nucleus: membrane bound
 the cytosol (cytoplasm) >  Surrounded by plasma
bounded with plasma membrane
membrane  Most organelles are present
 H as plasmid – extra  Eukarya: Protests, Plants,
chromosomal DNA (to infect Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
other species)  1-50 linear structure of DNA
 Ribosomes are in the DNA-free called chromosomes
region  Ribosome
 Cell Wall just outside the  Cytoplasm
plasma membrane
 Cell Membrane
 DNA

ORGANELES
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
PLASMA MEMBRANE
- Has lipids, proteins, carbohydrates
- Follow fluid mosaic pattern (capable of flowing where in biomolecules are
embedded in cell membrane that has different substances to create bigger
things)
- Phospholipid bilayer of membrane ( hydrophilic head & hydrophobic tail)

FOR PLANTS:
- Cellulose
- Protection of plants
- Add shape to the plants
-
GENETIC CONTROL
NUCLEUS
- Contain the DNA/ hereditary info
- Border by a double membrane nuclear envelop
- Pores in the nuclear envelop
- NUCLEOLUS : Components of ribosomes are made
RIBOSOMES
- Small dots in the cell & Protein synthesis

MANUFACTURING AND DISTRIBUTING

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- Network of interconnected canals carries material throughout the cytoplasm
- Transport molecules to the Golgi Apparatus
ROUGH E.R
- Dotted with ribosomes
- Produced protein
SMOOTH E.R

- Not dotted with ribosome

- Produced lipids
GOLGI APPARATUS
- Modifies, stores and package and ship protein from the Rough E.R to the
other organelles through vesicles
VACUOLES
- Largest organelles in plants
- Sacs that bud off from E.R > Golgi Apparatus or Plasma Membrane
- Stores food and water and even pigments
- Contractile Vacuole: release water; responsible for making Makahiya leaves
close
- Central Vacuole
- Store nutrients
- Contribute to plants growth
- Contain pigments that attract pollinating insects
- Contain poisons that protect against plants-eating animals
LYSOSOME
- Digestive enzymes – for recycle & breakdown of materials
- Site of cell digestion
- Derived from Golgi Apparatus or Endoplasmic Reticulum

ENERGY CONVERSION

MITOCHONDRIA
- Site of cellular respiration process
- Energy from the food and sugar we ate then convert to ATP
- Generate energy & ATP
PEROXISOMES
- Enzymes that break down amino acids & fatty acids
- Breakdown toxic substances such as hydrogen peroxide
- Derived from E.R
CHLOROPLAST
- Unique to the photosynthesis cell of plant & algae ; inner and outer
membrane:
- STROMA: thick fluid
- GRANA: solar power packs; trap light energy and convert into chemical
- Converts light energy to chemical energy; produce glucose

CELL SHAPE

CYTOSKELETON
- Provide shape
- Serves as skeleton & muscle
- Mechanical support

CHAPTER 3

CELL MEMBRANE AND CELL WALL

CELL WALL
- Defines the shape of the cell
- 1st saw by Robert Hooke in 1665
- Provide rigidity
COMPONENTS OF CELL MEMBRANE
CELLULOSE
- 100-15000 glucose monomers
HEMICELLULOSE
- Glue-like substances
- Keeps the cellulose fibers intact
- Because of these, cellulose microfibrin is made
PECTIN
- Organic materials that gives stiffness
GLYCOPROTEIN
- Protein associate with sugar

LAYERS OF CELL MEMBRANE

MIDDLE LAMELLA
- Pectin
- Share by 2 adjacent plant cell
- Outermost layer of the cell

PRIMARY CELL WALL NOTE:

- Network of cellulose CELL WALL - outer
- Hemicellulose pectin & glycoproteins CELL MEMBRANE - inner
SECONDARY CELL WALL
- Inclusion of lignin (gives rigidness)
- Not all plants have it
- Woody plants contain it

COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CELLS

PLASMODESMATA
- Tiny structures of cytoplasm that extend between the cell through minute
openings
NOTE: Cell communicates by exchanging substances

CELL MEMBRANE
- Semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer
- For protection
- Movement of water and solutes
- Facilitates the entry of substances into the cells
Differential Permeability
- Blocking the entry of substances into the cell (not all substance can pass e.i,
glucose because its big)
Ion Pump
- ATP Synthesis
- Change molecule e.i, Calcium or Potassium
Enzyme Activity
- e.i, absorption of light energy
Cellular Communication
- binding proteins

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- unrestricted movement of a substances/ solutes through a biological
membrane
- doesn’t require energy because from greater-lesser concentration
- naturally occurring
- requires concentration gradient (difference in the amount of molecules)
-
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
- movement of solutes from an area of greater to lesser concentration
- randomly homogenous throughout the solution
- lipophilic molecules – fat loving molecule ex. Sugar cube slowly dissolves
OSMOSIS
- passive transport of water influence many activities of the:
- cell growth – mango seeds
 - structural/ rigidity – makahiya
- photosynthesis
- across the differentially permeable membrane from a solution with higher
concentration of water to lower concentration of water to attain equilibrium

NOTE: small number of solutes has higher concentration of water

ISOTONIC (equal)
- Greek- “so”- equal
- Cell is placed in a solution with solute concentration to that of inside the cell
- Water diffuse through the plasma membrane equally in both direction
HYPERTONIC (over)
- Cell is placed in a solution with a solute concentration higher to that of within
the cell
- Water moves out the water from the cell
- Cell will shrink
- Water molecules flow out the cell into the surrounding solution
HYPOTONIC (under)
- Cell is placed in a solution with a solute concentration lower than that of within
the cell
- Water flow into the cell from the surrounding solution
- Cell will swell or burst eventually
TURGOR PRESSURE
- Water in the plant cell
- Maintain by a process called osmosis
- Turgor force exerted outward a plant cell wall by the water contained in the
cell; gives the plant rigidity and may help to keep it erect.
TURGID FLACCID
 Water enter by the osmosis  Water lost from cell, vacuole
vacuoles swell and pushes shrink, cell lose shape
against cell

IMPOTANCE OF DIFFERENT PERMEABLE METHOD

 Keeps metabolically important substances inside the cell or organelle
 Prevent inappropriate/ toxic substances from entering

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- Requires concentration gradient
- Higher-Lower concentration with the help of transport protein
- TRANSPORT PROTEINS enable ions and large molecule to pass into the
(membrane) cell through specific membrane protein
2 TYPES OF TRANSPORT PROTEIN

CARRIER

- Binds into a molecule on one side of the membrane

- “flips” to bring the molecule to other side of the membrane (conformation
change be change of orientation)
- Transport is limited by the number of carriers available on the membrane.

CHANNEL

- Pathway
- Act as an opening through the membrane
- Selective for specific molecule usually such as Na, K, Cal

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

- Movements of particles/ solutes against a concentration gradient

- Lower to higher concentration
- Requires energy or cellular action with ATP.

TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

PRIMARY SECONDARY

- One molecule at a time > movement of one molecule couples with

- COTRANSPORT (symport) another.

°Same direction > COUNTER TRANSPORT (antiport)

° Opposite direction

CHAPTER 4

CHROMOSOMES AND CELL REPRODUCTION

CHROMOSOMES

- Rod shape structure made uo of DNA and proteins

- Coiled and long
- Eukaryotic- wraps tightly around protein called histones

CHROMATID

- ½ of chromosome
- Identical halves
- Form as the DNA makes a copy of itself before cell division
- CENTROMERE- Point where two chromatid attached
- CHROMATIN- less tightly coiled DNA protein complex
 NOTE: Every cell of an organism produced by sexual reproduction has two
copies of each autosome- HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES OR
HOMOLOGUES

2 TYPES OF CHROMOSOME IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

AUTOSOME

 22 pairs
 Carry Gene

SEX CHROMOSOME

 23rd chromosome
 1 pair, XX- Girl, XY- Boy

DIPLOID (2n)

 Cells having two sets of chromosome

 Pairing

HAPLOID (n)

 Only one sets of chromosome

 Gametes (sperm and egg cell)

CELL CYCLE
(Sets of Process That Foster Cell Growth And Division)
2 MAIN PARTS:
CELL GROWTH- Interphase
CELL DIVISION- Mitosis and Cytokinesis
- Mitosis (division of nucleus)
- Cytokinesis (Whole cell divided into 2)
PRODUCTIONS OF SEX CELL ARE RESULT FOR CELL DIVISION.
CELL DIVIDES FOR:
GROWTH
- Result of cell producing new cells through cell division
- The number of cell making up an organism increase, organism become
bigger.
REPAIR
- Accomplished by cell recognition at the site of injury
 - Replace cells that die
REPRODUCTION
- Asexual reproduction, bacteria
- Sex cells that combine during sexual reproduction
STAGES OF CELL CYCLE
G1 (FIRST GAP, GAP 1)
- Synthesis of the nucleotides will be used to make DNA in the S phase to
follow.
S PHASE (SYNTHESIS)
- The cell concentrates its effort on accuracy replicating its genetic materials.
G2 (SECOND GAP, GAP 2)
- Synthesis of proteins making tubulins for mitotic microtubules, making
proteins for processing chromosomes and breaking down the nuclear
envelope.
INTERPHASE

 Longest cycle, produce nucleotides, DNA replication

 Protein produced and chromosomes are thread-like
PROPHASE

 Chromosome are coin and condensed

 Sister chromatids coined by at the centromere
 Nucleolus disappear
 Nuclear envelop disappear
 Mitotic spindle fibers (made of microtubules) form between two pairs of
centromere.
METAPHASE

 Chromosome are pulled at the center of the cell by spindle fiber

 Line up on an imaginary lined called metaphase plate.
ANAPHASE

 Centromere of each pair of sister chromatids separate by spindle fibers

 Daughter chromosomes begin moving toward the opposite poles
 Chromosomes starting to assembled at each pole
TELOPHASE

 Chromosome assembled in sets at the two poles

 Two daughter nuclei are formed
 Nuclear envelopes form around each cell
  Chromosomes uncoil to form a loss mass of chromatin
 Mitotic spindle fiber disassemble
CYTOKINESIS

 Separation of cell
TYPES OF CYTOKINESIS
CELL PLATE
- Occur in plants
- Begin at the cytoplasm, inside, because plants cell wall consist of cellulose
CLEAVAGE FURROW
- Occur in animal
- Begin at cell membrane

CHAPTER 5

PLANT STRUCTURE
 Eukaryotic
 Multicellulars: cells arrange into tissues/organs
 Photoautotropic organism (can make their own food using the energy of sun)
 Cells with rigid cell wall and chloroplast
 Variety exiat among 300,000 species (90%- flowering plants)
 2 organs system= shoots and root system
ROOT SYSTEM
- Usually under the ground
- Anchor plants in the soil
- Absorb nutrients and water
- Conduct water and nutrients
- Food storage
SHOOT SYSTEM (Leaves, Stem)
- Usually above the ground
- Elevates the plants above the soil
- Photosynthesis
- Reproduction and dispersal
- Food and water conduction
LEAVES
- Absorb sunlight and process food; where photosynthesis occur
STEM
- Connect leaves and roots
ROOTS
- Absorb nutrients from the soil
HERBACIOUS
- Green and soft stem
- Small roots
- Don’t develop persistent woody parts above the ground
WOODY
- Usually brown and hard
- Hard and rigid stem
- Develop persistent wood parts above the ground like trees, shrubs
ANNUALS
- Grow, reproduce and die within a year or season
BIENNALS
- Two year /season to complete a cycle
- 1st season/year- produce carbohydrates, nonstop photosynthesis to store
food.
- 2nd season/year- invest for reproduction, develop flower and fruits
PERENIALS
- Live for more than two years
- Mostly woody plants
PLANT TISSUE
- Composed of only one kind of cell
- Other plants have two or more kinds of cells- tissue system
3 TISSUES SYSTEM
1. Dermal Tissue
2. Ground Tissue Permanent Tissues
3. Vascular Tissue
TISSUE SYSTEM

Tissue system Tissues Cell Types

Ground tissue Parenchyma Parenchyma cells
system tissue
Collenchyma Collenchyma cells
tissue
Sclerenchyma “sclerenchyma cells” sclereids, fibers
tissue
Vascular tissues Xylem (tracheids, vessels elements)- food
system
Phloem Sieve-tube-elements, companion cells- water
Dermal tissue Epidermis Parenchyma cells, guard cell trichomes
system
Periderm Cork cells, cambius cells, cork parenchyma

PLANT TISSUES
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE
- Specialized be it can develop into guard, dermal and vascular
- Don’t differentiate
- Formation of cell
- Immature cell- active mitotic division
APICAL MERISTEM
- Found at the tip of the plants
- Roots and shoot apices
- Primary growth: length (increase in length)
LATERAL MERISTEM
- Found along the length of shoot to the roots
- Secondary growth: girth (diameter)
INTERCALARY MERISTEM
- Can be found in the middle
- Between mature tissues
- For generation
PERMANENT TISSUES
- Matured or differentiated cells
DERMAL TISSUES
- Provide surface or protection tissues
GROUND TISSUES
- Various Function: photosynthesis, storage and support
VASCULAR TISSUES
- Conduction and transport of substances throughout plant body
GROUND TISSUES
- Make up the bulk of non woody plant organs and perform variety of function
PARENCHYMA TISSUE
- Thin cell wall
- Photosynthesis- Chlorenchyma
- Storage like starch, grains, oil droplets, water and salts
 - Secretion like hormones, enzymes, nectar
- Living and metabolizing cell
- Most common type of ground tissue
COLLENCHYMA TISSUE
- Unevenly thickened cell wall
- Flexible tissue
- Support
- Living cells
SCLERENCHYMA TISSUE
- Extreme thickening of cell wall
- Support
- Protection
- Dead at maturity because of lignin
- Fibers
- Sclereids
VASCULAR TISSUE
- Conduction and transport of substances throughout plant body
XYLEM
- Water and dissolves minerals
- Structural support
- Dead and maturity

 Tracheids- long tapering cells located in patches or clumps; water pass from
one tracheid to another through pits
 Vessels Elemements- holes in the end walls called perforations stack one on
top of the other (vessels), lateral pits
PHLOEM
- Transport food- carbo or dissolved sugar
- Structural support
- Living cells
 Sieve Tube Elements- long thin cell stacked end to form long sieve tubes,
end walls call sieve tubes have numerous holes- Plasmodesmata
 Companion Cells- adjacent to sieve tube elements ; assist functioning of the
Sieve Tube Elements and has nucleus
DERMAL TISSUE
- Provide surface or protection covering
EPIDERMIS
- Outermost layer; first layer
 Cutin: Lipids, wax; make up the cuticle and prevent evaporating water loss
 Trichomes(hair): extension of epidermis; some absorb gas directly
  Stromata: Gas and watee vapor exchange
 Guard cell: Outside tha stroma; opening and closing of stroma
PERIDERM
- Replace epidermis to become woody
 Cork cells: dead cell; hallow and smooth; make up outer bark seen on
mature trees
 Suberin: Lipid substance; prevents water loss and protects underlying tissue,
water proofing
FLOWERING PLANTS
MAGNOLIOPSIDA (DICOTS) & LILIOPSIDA (MONOCOTS)
POLLEN STRUCTURE
- Ancestor of flowering plants have single furrow or bore through the outer layer