Chapter 2

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CHAPTER 2

The Study Area: A Natural & Socio-economic


Profile
2.1. Location and Extent
The present study area falls under the mountainous part of district Nainital. Six
development blocks, namely, Okhalkanda, Dhari, Bhimtal, Ramgarh, Betalghat and
Kotabagh constitute the mountainous part of district Nainital. Its coordinates are 28°43'N and
29°37'N and 78°43'E and 80°40'E. It is surrounded by districts Champawat, Pauri Garhwal,
Almora and Udham Singh Nagar, respectively on the east, west, north and south. The
northern boundary is demarcated by river Kosi, though some portion of the district lies
beyond the river in Almora district. The mountainous part of Nainital district as an area has
been delineated on the basis of land use data obtained from Block Development Office
(NIC). As mentioned above, the study area comprises six development blocks including
Kotabagh which falls partially in mountainous part as well as in the plains. As per the Census
of 2011, the total geographical area of Nainital district is 1787.11 km2 sq. with a population
of 223630 comprising 113923 males and 109707 females. The elevation of the region varies
from 387 to 2623 meters above the mean sea level. There is a variation in the size of rural
settlements in this area and the availability of area for habitation is not uniform. The study
area is divided in 4 tehsils and 6 development blocks.

2.2. Natural Environment


2.2.1. GEOLOGY
The geology of the present study area is mainly based on the work conducted by Valdiya
(1980), Auden (1934-37), Hein and Genseer (1936). Figure 2.1 explains the main geological
features of the study area. The major portion of the study area falls under 'Ramgarh Group'
comprising mainly of Nagthat, Berinag formations. In the north with a thrusted contact
Ramgarh Group is covered by quartzites. On the north of this quartzite a major thrust is
evidenced, known as Almora Thrust. Jaunsar group meta-sedimentary rocks consisting of
white to purple quartzite associated with phyllite, chlorite, and schist.
Along the Kosi River in the north-western area a large area falls under Nathuwakhan,
Betalghat, Bhatwari and Barakot are units of the Ramgarh Group. A significant area along the
north-eastern boundary falls under the Almora Group which is mainly associated with Saryu-
Gomilikhet and Munsairi formations.
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Fig. 2.1 Main geology groups of mountainous part of Nainital district

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Large patches of Krol Formation, surrounded by Balni Formation of the Mussoorie Group are
beneath the Nainital-Khurpatal lake region and the Nandaur Valley region. The Krol
Formation consists of limestone shale, quartz and basic rocks. Outer Lesser Himalaya
separates the southern part by a thrust which falls under the Shivaliks, covered with various
metamorphic rocks in the north containing sandstone, shale, limestone, dolomites, etc.

2.2.2. RELIEF
The maximum part of Nainital district falls under Lesser Himalayan region of
Kumaun Himalaya. A narrow belt comprises the Shiwalik Hills of the southern portion. The
area reflects diverse topographic features, crisscrossed by several perennial and seasonal
rivers and streams. The beautiful peaks and lakes are the striking features of this area. Slope,
altitude, drainage pattern are the significant aspects of the terrain which directly or indirectly
influence the terrain.
The altitude of this area ranges from 327 to 2623 meters. Variation in altitude directly
affects the land-use pattern of the area and the percentage of net-sown area, the cropping
pattern, irrigation etc. are greatly affected.

2.2.2.1. Absolute Relief


Absolute relief is the maximum height of any given region. In other words absolute
relief of a region can be analysed in two different ways. First with the help of contour map
divided in zones and second by regional distribution discrepancies based on different profiles
drawn for the study area has been divided into grid units of one sq. km.

Table 2.1 Various relief groups of the mountainous part of district Nainital
Area
Sl. No. Relief groups (in metre) Category
in km2 in %
1 < 500 47.03 2.63 Very Low
2 500- 1000 185.76 10.48 Low
3 1000 - 1500 548.66 30.70 Medium
4 1500 - 2000 678.86 37.93 Moderate
5 2000-2500 324.55 18.14 High
6 >2500 2.25 0.12 Very high
Total 1787.11 100

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Fig. 2.2 Absolute relief groups with area

Absolute Relief is significant and very important to understand the regional variation
of that particular area which is shown in Fig. 2.2 and 2.3. Table 2.1 reveals that the
mountainous part of Nainital District is divided into six categories, out of which: <500 m
altitude covers an area of 47.03 km2 or 2.63%, 500-1000 m covers 185.76 km2 or 10.48%,
1000-1500 m covers 548.66 km2 or 30.70%, 1500-2000 m covers 678.86 km2 or 37.93%,
2000-2500 m covers an area of 324.55 km2 or 18.14% and < 2500 m covers an area of 2.25
km2 or 0.12%.

2.2.2.2. Relative Relief


Relative relief is known as the difference between maximum and minimum relief .The
present study area is divided into 2075 grids of 1 km2. For analysing the relief, variation in
elevation between the highest and the lowest points within the grids has been computed for
each grid by following the inverse distance weighted (IDW) techniques. The highest
maximum value of relative relief is 2623 m and the minimum value is 379 m.

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Fig 2.3 Absolute relief map of mountainous part of district Nainital

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Table 2.2 Relative relief groups of the mountainous part of district Nainital
Area
Sl.No. Relative relief groups 2 Category of Relief
km %
1 < 200 164.44 9.20 Very Low
2 200-400 923.43 51.67 Low
3 400-600 672.72 37.64 Moderate
4 600-800 26.42 01.48 High
5 > 800 0.10 0.001 Very High
Total 1787.11 100.00

Fig. 2.4 Relative relief groups with area

The relative relief of the study area is divided into five groups ranging from: below
200 m to greater than 800 m with 200 m interval, as shown in the Figures 2.4 and 2.5. The
percentage and area calculated for the study area is in the Table 2.2. Very low relative relief
(<200 m) covers only 9.20% or 164.44 km2 of the total study area.
Low relative relief (200 m - 400 m) covers an area of 51.75% or 923.43 km2. Under
moderate category (400 m – 600 m) the area is 672.72 km2 or 37.64%. The high relief
category (600 m – 800 m) holds an area of 26.42 km2 or 1.48%. Very high relative relief
category has the minimum area of 0.10 km2 or 0.001%. This category occurs in the north and
north east part of the study area.

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Fig. 2.5 Relative relief map of mountainous part of district Nainital

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2.2.3. SLOPE
Figure 2.6 shows the slope category of mountainous part of Nainital district. Slope is
one of the most important physiographic aspects which influences land utilization pattern of
the study area. This influence may be both, direct or indirect. The slope is generally low in
the valleys and in the Shiwalik foothills and on the other hand it is higher in Betalghat,
Ramgarh and Okhalkanda areas. Observations on this aspect have been made by various
researchers in this field, notably MacGregor (1957), Symons (1967), etc. Figure 2.7 reveals
that the slope map has been derived on the basis of Wentworth's technique of slope analysis
and it is represented in the Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Various slope groups of the mountainous part of district Nainital
Slope group (in Area
Sl.No. Category of slope
degree) km2 %
1 < 15 411.84 23.05 Low
2 15 – 30 1015.81 56.84 Gentle
3 30 – 45 350.93 19.64 Moderate
4 45-60 8.45 0.46 Steep
5 > 60 0.08 0.01 Very steep
Total 1787.11 100.00

Fig. 2.6 Slope groups with area

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Fig. 2.7 Different slope groups of mountainous part of district Nainital

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Figure 2.6 shows that under <15 degree slope category, the area is 411.84 km2 or
23.05 percent, gentle slope category hold the maximum area which is 1015.81 km2 or 56.84
percent, between 30-45 degree slope group the area under moderate category is 350.93 km2
or 19.54 percent, slope group 45-60 degree falls under the steep slope category has an area of
8.45 km2 or 0.46 percent and slope group >60 degree has an area of 0.08 km2 or 0.01 percent.

2.2.4. ASPECT MAP


Aspect is a significant component in the slope analysis of any study area. Slope aspect
map shows the relative position of slope facets with respect to direction of sun angle.

Table 2.4 Various aspects of mountainous part of district Nainital


Area
Sl.No. Aspect Name Aspect ( in degree) 2
km %
1 Flat -1 – -0.000001 0.25 0.01

2 North 0 – 22.5 111.36 6.23

3 Northeast 22.5 – 67.5 229.83 12.88

4 East 67.5 – 112.5 213.11 11.92

5 Southeast 112.5 – 157.5 196.35 10.99

6 South 157.5 – 202.5 233.66 13.07

7 Southwest 202.5 – 247.5 276.31 15.46

8 West 247.5 – 292.5 242.61 13.57

9 Northwest 292.5 – 337.5 186.72 10.45

10 North 337.5-360 96.91 5.42

Total 1787.11 100.00

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Fig. 2.8 Different aspect groups with area

Table 2.4 reveals various slope aspects of the study area. To generate aspect map,
ArcGIS 9.3 software has been used and with the help of the DEM. Fig. 2.8 and Fig. 2.9
reveals that the Aspect of north facet ranges from 0-22.5°. It covers an area of 111.36 km2
which is 6.23% of the total study area. The northeast portion of slope lies between 22.5° and
67.5° which covers an area of 229.83 km2 or 12.88 % of the total area. Under the aspect of
east, the direction of slope lies between 67.5° to 112.5°. It occupies an area of 213.11 km2
which is 11.92% of the total area. This southeast aspect belongs to the aspect group of 112.5°
to 157.5°. It occupies an area of 196.35 km2 which is 10.99% of the total study area. About
233.66 km2 or 13.07% area falls under south faced aspect which falls under 157.5° to 202.5°.
The southwest slope aspect lies between 202.5° to 247.5° which covers an area of 276.31 km2
or 15.46% of the total study area. The aspect of the west lies between 247.5° to 292.5°. It has
an area of 242.61 km2 or 13.57 percent of the present study area. Under the west aspect the
slope direction ranges from 292.5° to 337.5° which covers an area of 186.72 km2 or 10.45
percent of the total area. The north aspect of the slope falls under 337.5°-360° which covers
an area of 96.91 km2 or 5.42 percent of the total area.

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Fig. 2.9 Various slope aspect groups of the mountainous part of district Nainital

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2.2.5. DRAINAGE
District Nainital is crisscrossed by the perennial and seasonal rivers and rivulets. This
region generally represents a dendrite pattern. The main drainage basins are Kosi and Gaula
Rivers while in the east the subsidiary basins are formed by Ladhiya and Nandhaur Rivers
and Nihal and Dabka Rivers in the south-west. Kosi is the main river of this drainage system
which enters at Kwarab band flows westwards and meets there with Garjia in Nainital and
Almora districts. The river approaches the study area at Khairna. Before entering into the
plains the river changes its direction and reaches at Ramnagar tehsil. Thus, river Kosi
contributes a lot to the prosperity of the region. river Gaula, which has second largest
catchment area, originates near Motia pathar. Near Ranibagh it meets with river Balia. The
main tributaries of the Gaula are Kalsa nadi, Kainabi-gad, Balia nadi etc. The river makes its
origin from Motia pathar and follows a vertical path from north to south. At Khansou it
changes its direction to south west and after travelling 50-70 km it enters Bhabar region at
Ranibagh. River Gaula is a boon to the inhabitants of Haldwani, Lalkuan, Udham Singh
Nagar. Apart from this it provides employment to thousands of people from neighbouring
states.

2.2.6. CLIMATE
Climate plays an important role to determine the use of land and human activities.
Variation in altitudes, slope, aspect, and forest cover of the area represents a complex
climatic condition which changes from place to place. Variations in temperature and amount
of rainfall are associated with the change of altitude. The climate and rainfall data obtained
from weather station IVRI Mukteshwar is a compilation of data of last 75 years. Table 2.5
illustrates the variation in temperature and rainfall for the whole year. The highest monthly
temperature was recorded in the month of May (23.68 ºC) and minimum in the month of
January (1.59 ºC). Maximum rainfall was recorded in the three monsoon months of July
(291.83 mm), August (285.38 mm), September (207.06 mm) and minimum rainfall registered
in the month of November (8.75 mm). Figure 2.10 and 2.11 shows the graphical
representation of the rainfall and temperature.

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Table 2.5 Temperature and rainfall of the study area


Month Temperature (oC) Rainfall(mm)
Max Min
January 11.12 1.59 51.62
February 12.35 2.38 56.50
March 16.51 5.67 52.90
April 21.4 9.94 36.92
May 23.68 12.32 56.66
June 23.67 27.98 134.52
July 21.22 14.05 291.83
August 20.55 13.80 285.38
September 20.46 12.39 207.06
October 19.45 9.37 62.82
November 16.35 5.75 8.75
December 13.59 3.39 19.41
Source: Weather station IVRI Mukteshwar 2013, the data is an average of last seventy five year.

Fig. 2.10 Graphical representation of rainfall

Fig. 2.11 Graphical representation of temperature (Maximum and Minimum)

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2.2.7. NATURAL VEGETATION


Vegetation plays a very significant role in influencing the properties of a drainage
system. Vegetation in the mountainous part of district Nainital is highly variable over a short
distance. Vegetation changes vertically because of the changes in temperature that come with
a changing altitude, but the slope has always been a very determining factor. According to
Pande (1991), the natural vegetation is an index of physical conditions like rainfall, altitude,
temperature and soils. There are mainly three types of vegetation found in the study area, viz.
subtropical forest, temperate forest, and subalpine moist deciduous forest. Subtropical forests
include mixed broadleaved species and shrubs, in temperate forests mainly hill saal, chir-
pine, banj-oak are found, and in the subalpine moist deciduous forest blue pine, fir, spruce,
deodar, cypress are found.

2.3. Land Use Pattern


The first basic need of man is the food and it is fulfilled with the natural products
found around in the surroundings. Among all the natural resources available on earth, land is
the most important source upon which the very existence of mankind is dependent.
Anthropogenic activities on the earth’s surface are unavoidable. It is one of the main aspects
of a geographical study. The land surface is the stage where the drama of living creatures is
performed. The availability of human needs is determined by how the land resources at our
disposal are used. According to Whitlesely (1936) for universal territory utilization of land
and land marking in agricultural area, man has tried to bring about a uniform model.
According to Fox (1956) every part of the land holding is a gift by nature. Underutilization of
land is found in primary stages, the part of a land is found covered with vegetation or it may
also be found uncovered with the same.
With the rapid growth of population in the Kumaun Himalaya and subsequent
encroachment of the virgin forest areas for agriculture, the process of environmental
deterioration already appears to have set in. As such, while the agricultural attributes in a
mountainous area tend to be governed by the physical factors, subsequently these are always
liable to be modified by socioeconomic and variants (Singh, 1974).
Urban land use which deals with surface utilization, is an important aspect of urban
geography (Ranjitkar, 1983). Growth and development of a city is reflexive to urban land use
changes because effects of urban growth are manifested in the shape, size, function, uses and

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urban environmental conditions. It is related to urban population growth, number of places,


economic growth and changes (Dikens, 1973). The land use pattern and changes in it are
directly related with the increasing number of human being and livestock population, their
demands, economic conditions of the inhabitants, levels of technological advancement and
nature of degree of civilization .The book on human impact on the natural environment
written by (Goudie 2005) has critically presented the pattern, magnitude and trend of change
on earth caused by various anthropogenic and technologic activities. In his book he has
looked at the impact that human societies have had on the different components of the
physical environment, vegetation, soil, water, landform, climate and animal etc. The basic
need of man is food, without food no civilization can exist and food availability depends
upon the availability of land. Land cover is a considerable variable which is associated with
many aspects of human activities as well as physical environment (Foody, 2002; Fisher et al.,
2005). Surface cover of ground, vegetation cover, urban infrastructure and water etc. are
known as land cover. Land cover mapping is important for global monitoring, resource
management and as well as for planning activities. In other words land use means, the
activities directly linked to the land (Clawsan and Stewart, 1965). Land use reflects the
societies cultural background, state and its physical needs and as well as the potential of land
(Balak and Kolarkar, 1993).
Land use directly links with the management and modification of natural environment
which consists of field, pastures and settlements. Land use applications used for baseline
mapping, monitoring and identifying the changes which occur year by year in a particular
area. This kind of knowledge and strategy helps to conserve the conflicting issues and
development pressures. It is very important to identify the difference between land use and
land cover. Depending upon the use, spatial information on land use / land cover is required
at different scales. For the support of the urban management and planning and sustainable
management of natural resources the socioeconomic development, information of land use /
land cover is important (Knotes et al., 2000). Updating the land use / land cover maps is
important for the study of changes in the given land use / land cover. According to (Ehlers et
al. (2003) fieldwork based conventional methods are expensive, time taking and often lack
with the necessary geometric accuracy.
After the first satellite launching, tremendous changes have been observed in terms of
the quality and quantity of the satellite data and their application (Cracknell and Varotsos,
2007). For updating the land use / land cover maps and mapping, remote sensing has been
used very widely and in this way the application of remote sensing is very useful (Lo and
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Choi et al., 2004; Ibraham et al., 2005; Laha et al., 2006). Nowadays, mapping land use /
land cover is done in a standardized method with accuracy. On the terrestrial surface of earth,
land use/land cover change is termed as human modification. Change detection is a way to
identify the process of observing the phenomena of an object in different time series (Singh,
1989). To monitor and manage the natural resources and urban development, quantitative
analysis of the spatial distribution and spatial pattern is very important (Macleod and
Congalton, 1998). The land use depends upon the objectives of life of the people living there.
Land use represents the interaction of physical and economic factors (Stamp, 1963).
Nowadays, urbanization has become an environmental problem globally. The
sufficient distribution and coverage of the urbanized land and the impact of urbanization on
biodiversity, ecosystem and environmental quality are matter of concern for scholars from the
different research field (Breuste et al., 1998; Pickett et al., 2001). It is now an established fact
that the spatial pattern of a landscape directly affects the ecological processes (Wu and
Loucks, 1995). At the same time, the inflow of people from local or distant places to urban
area changes the dynamics and morphology of the town and badly affects the productive land
as well as the human and natural resources. New developed and innovative approaches
related to urban land use planning and management as well as sustainable development have
been proposed and discussed (Kaiser et al., 1995). The spatial and temporal information
provided by remote sensing platforms are broadly applied and used for understanding and
developing the characteristics of the spatial processes (Herold, et al. 2005).
For the present study remote sensing techniques used for the assessment of land use /
land cover dynamics of mountainous part of Nainital district, Landsat TM 2010 was acquired
from USGS Earth Explorer. Supervised classification technique has been employed, using
Maximum Likelihood Technique in Erdas 9.3. Figure 2.12 and figure 2.13 reveals that the
image was categorized into five different classes, viz., built-up area, vegetation, agricultural
land, barren land, and water bodies. Table 2.6 reveals that out of the total area (1787.11 km2)
under the consideration vegetation covers 1328.21 km2 or 74.32 percent, cultivated land
includes 405.63 km2 or 22.68 percent, barren land occupies 40.70 km2 or 2.28 percent, built-
up area stretches up to 9.66 km2 or 0.54 percent and water bodies are distributed over 3.22
km2 or 0.18 percent of the study area.

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Table 2.6 Land use Pattern of the study area


Category Area (in square km2) In Percent (%)
Vegetation 1328.21 74.32
Cultivated 405.32 22.68
Barren Land 40.70 2.28
Built-up 9.66 0.54
Water body 3.22 0.18
Total 1787.11 100

Fig. 2.12 Land use of the study area

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Fig. 2.13 Land use map of the study area

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2.4. Demographic Pattern & Trends


In general the term urbanization draws its meaning as the movement of people in a
large number towards a particular place, which is later known as a city. In other words, it may
also be described as the change in priority of using the landmass which ultimately culminates
into urban centre. Urbanization is an outcome of migration of people from different areas to a
particular area which in due course of time expands its horizon in that area and results into an
urban area. It is now established that urbanization fosters goods and services. Greater
employment, higher literacy rate, good health and ultimately contributes for the economic
growth of the nation.
During the course of urbanization, the people and the landscape itself become urban.
In this process a large number of people become town’s people and a large number of people
accumulate in a particular area which ultimately results in expansion of the town which
changes its appearance and also the lifestyle of the people. This process continues and the
township become greater and greater and the people associated with the town both physically
and socially (Smailes, 1975).
It is a process of change from villages to cities, agricultural profession to other
economic activities which are more common in cities, which brings changes in behavioural
pattern (Breeze, 1969). It is the movement of people from small communities which are
basically dependent upon agriculture to the communities which are larger in size and largely
involved in trade, manufacturing, government jobs and similar activities (Thomsan, 1984). It
is the characteristic of urbanization that in the course of its development it becomes larger in
size with the accumulation of the people from other areas. Many issues are associated with
urbanization which is social, political, economic and ecological in nature and the city takes a
complicated shape.
The urbanization process exhibits distinct characteristic in the form of processes and
outcomes. The process part of the characteristics includes the mass movement of the people
from small area to a particular area and greater use of science and technology in different
aspects of human life. It imbibes all sorts of changes in social, political, economic and
physical environment. With the advent of urbanization the foremost change which comes
across is the change in employment structure, services and the beginning of small scale
industries which pave the path for heavy industries and service sectors. Latter the changes in
the society, economic structure, political pattern and ecological change do occur.

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Urbanization gives away itself through temporal and spatial change in social, economic,
ecological, technical and demographic facets of human life (Mishra, 1978). In this process
large numbers of people are accumulated in urban areas from different parts of the country
(Hope, 1942). Table 2.7 indicates that out of all six blocks, Bhimtal block shares high
population (107453 persons) followed by Okhalkanda (48337 persons) and low population
share in Kotabagh block (11539 persons). This difference is due to the impact of urbanization
in Bhimtal block where it received migration from its surrounding area. Figure 2.14 shows
the decadal demography change of the study area.

Table 2.7 Demography of mountainous part of district Nainital


Name of the Total population Total population Total population
block in 1991 in 2001 in 2011
Betalghat 35463 40007 41535
Ramgarh 33163 37012 39830
Bhimtal 80150 98917 107453
Dhari 20052 26213 30346
Okhalkanda 37540 43218 48337
Kotabagh 8947 10347 11539
Total 215315 255715 279040
Source: District Statistical Handbook, 2011

According to 2011 census the population of the study area is 279040. The decadal
population growth rate from 1991 to 2001 of study area was observed highest in Dhari Block
as 23.50 percent followed by Bhimtal Block as 22.60 percent and Kotabagh Block as 13.53
percent and the least population growth rate is found over Ramgarh Block. In 2011, the
growth rate shows a declining trend with 13.62 percent in Dhari, 10.59 percent in
Okhalkanda and 10.33 percent in Kotabagh. Table 2.8 illustrates that a huge change in
growth rate is observed in Bhimtal block with 16 percent increase. Figure 2.15 reveals the
decadal change in the population of the study area. The decadal growth rate of population
change expresses the expansion of urbanization in its surrounding areas, road connectivity,
growing urban centre nearby, etc.

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Fig. 2.14 Decadal Demography change of the study area

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Table 2.8 Block-wise Population growth in percentage of the study region


Name of Census Year and Growth Rate Growth Rate
the Block Population 1991-2001 2001-2011
1991 2001 2011 Change % Change %

Betalghat 35463 40007 41535 4544 11.25 1528 6.55

Ramgarh 33163 37012 39830 3809 9.44 2818 12.08

Bhimtal 80150 98918 107453 18768 46.50 8535 36.59

Dhari 20052 26213 30346 6161 15.27 4133 17.72

Okhalkanda 37540 43218 48337 5678 14.07 5119 21.95

Kotabagh 8947 10347 11539 1400 3.47 1192 5.11

Total 215315 255715 279040 40360 100.0 0 23325 100.00

Source: District Statistical Handbook 2011

Table 2.8 shows that in 1991 the total population of the Okhalkanda Block was highest
among all the other blocks, Bhimtal and Betalghat stands at second and third position
respectively. In 2001, Bhimtal Block held the highest population and in 2011 again Bhimtal
Block holds the highest population growth. Interestingly it is observed that in Betalghat
Block from 1991-2011, the female population ratio increased in comparison to the male
population. Figure 2.15 clearly shows the decadal population change of the study area.
According to the Census of India 2011, District Nainital has the third rank in
population and it is one of the highly urbanized districts of Uttarakhand. More than 38.94
percent of people are residing in urban areas. The population density of the district is 225
persons per sq. km. which is more than the state average of 189 persons per sq. km. Table
2.10 reveals that the population density in study area is uneven. Figure 2.17 shows the
population density map of the study area. The highest population density is recorded in
Bhimtal Block (553 persons) per sq. km. from 1991 to 2011. The lowest population density is
recorded in Kotabagh block (154 persons) per sq. km. High population density is outcome of
infrastructure facilities, modern means, commercial centre and communication, etc.

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Fig. 2.15 Decadal population change of the study area

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Table 2.9 Demographic pattern and trends of the study region

Name of the Population in 1991


Block Total % Male % Female %
Betalghat 35463 20.53 17805 19.47 17658 20.58
Ramgarh 33203 19.22 17209 18.82 15994 18.64
Bhimtal 37539 21.72 19747 21.60 17792 20.73
Dhari 20052 11.61 12786 14.00 11756 13.70
Okhalkanda 37540 21.73 19313 21.12 18227 21.24
Kotabagh 8947 5.18 4563 4.99 4384 5.12
Total 172744 100 91423 100 85811 100

Name of the Population in 2001


Block Total % Male % Female %
Betalghat 40007 19.49 19666 18.84 20341 20.15
Ramgarh 37012 18.03 19034 18.24 17978 17.81
Bhimtal 48501 23.63 25165 24.12 23336 23.12
Dhari 26213 12.77 13479 12.92 12734 12.61
Okhalkanda 43218 21.04 21754 20.85 21464 21.26
Kotabagh 10347 5.04 5247 5.03 5100 5.05
Total 205298 100 104345 100 100953 100

Name of the Population in 2011


Block Total % Male % Female %
Betalghat 41535 18.57 20518 18.01 21017 19.16
Ramgarh 39830 17.81 20423 17.93 19407 17.69
Bhimtal 52043 23.27 26966 23.67 25077 22.86
Dhari 30346 13.57 15677 13.76 14669 13.37
Okhalkanda 48337 21.61 24427 21.44 23910 21.79
Kotabagh 11539 5.16 5912 5.19 5627 5.13
Total 223630 100 113923 100 109707 100
Source Statistical Handbook

Table 2.9 reveals the demographic pattern and trend of the study area, that in 1991 out
of the total population Okhalkanda registered the highest population growth rate of 21.73
percent and, Bhimtal registered 23.63 percent in 2001 and 23.27 percent in 2011, while
Kotabagh block has the minimum of 5.18 percent, 5.04 percent, 5.16 percent respectively.
The increase in male population recorded highest in the decadal year of 1991, 2001, and 2011
in Bhimtal block by 21.60 percent, 24.12 percent and 23.67 and the female population

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recorded highest in the decadal year of 1991, 2001, and 2011 in Bhimtal block by 20.73
percent, 23.12 percent, 22.86 percent respectively. Kotabagh block shows the low trend of
male as well as female demographic trend and pattern minimum in decadal year of 1991,
2001 and 2011. Thus population growth in the study area is increasing continuously.
The population density of the study area indicates that from 1991-2011 highest
population density was experienced in Bhimtal Block and lowest in Kotabagh block. The
leading population density in Bhimtal block was due to urbanization impact and lowest
density in Kotabagh is of migration & relocation of family in search of better living. The
table 2.10 also reveals that highest population density is recorded in decade 2001 -2011 and
decadal change of population density with maximums has recorded in 2001-2011 than in
1991-2001,thus it can be inferred that population density is increasing constantly

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Fig. 2.16 Demographic pattern and trends of the study area

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Table 2.10 Population density of the mountainous part of district Nainital


Name of Area 1991 2001 2011 Decadal Change in Population
the Blocks density
km2
Population Density Population Density Population Density 1991-2001 2001-2011

Betalghat 143 35463 247.99 40007 279.77 41535 290.45 31.78 10.68

Ramgarh 142 33163 233.54 37012 260.65 39830 280.49 27.11 19.84

Bhimtal 94.12 42029 446.55 48501 515.31 52043 552.94 68.76 37.63

Dhari 104.12 20052 192.58 26213 251.76 30346 291.45 59.18 98.87

Okhalkanda 167.00 37540 224.79 43218 258.79 48337 289.44 34 30.65

Kotabagh 74.57 8947 119.98 10347 138.75 11539 154.74 18.77 15.99

Source Statistical Handbook

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Fig. 2.17 Block Wise Decadal population density map of the study area

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2.5. Settlements
It is always been a matter of concern by the urban theorists how cities form and
evolve over a period of time (Geddes, 1915; Lynch 1960; Mumford 1961). For understanding
the pattern and function of a city, it is important to examine the pattern and function which
co-evolve over space and time. Historical records give the picture of urban structure how they
evolve and change over time by means of transportation and communication, which are the
key determinants that govern how and where settlement pattern evolved. Urbanizing regions
provide an excellent laboratory to test hypothesis on emergent human ecological phenomena
(Alberti and Waddel, 2000). A complex set of social, political, economic, institutional and
bio-physical factors drives urbanization and affects when, where and how and by what rate
urban development proceeds. Institutional settings and policies governs the process of
urbanization and mediate the complex relationships between humans and ecological
processes (Folke et al., 2005).
Although the influences related to the physical conditions remain more or less
constant over a period of time, the effects exerted by cultural influences are variable and
depend to a large extent upon the cultural level of the people. In the primary stages of
grouping it seems to have been the first effort of man arising out of such needs as the sense of
security, cooperation in agriculture and other activities and to lead a community life.
Uttarakhand was originally settled by Kols, an aboriginal people of the Dravidian physical
type who were later joined by Indo-Aryan Khas tribes that arrived from the northwest during
the Vedic period. Among the first dynasties of Garhwal and Kumaun were the Kuninands in
the 2nd Century B.C. who practiced an early form of Shaivism. Between 7th and 14th
Centuries, the Katuri dynasty of Khas origin dominated lands of varying extent from the
Katyor to valley of Kumaun region. By the medieval period, the region was consolidated
under the Garhwal Kingdom in the west and the Kumaun Kingdom in the east. From the 13th
- 18th Century, Kumaun prospered under the Chand Rajas who had their origins in the plains
of India. During this period Garhwal was unified under the rule of Parmar. Panwar Rajas,
who along with the mass migration of Brahmins and Rajputs also arrived from the plains. In
1791, the expanding Gurkha Empire of Nepal overran Almora, the seat of Kumaun Kingdom.
After the Anglo-Nepalese War in 1816 a rump portion of the Garhwal Kingdom was re-
established. During the post-independence period, the Tehri princely state was merged into
Uttar Pradesh, where Uttarakhand represented Garhwal and Kumaun divisions. After the

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merger in Uttar Pradesh, new highways developed over the period of time. Transportation,
communication and basic amenities facilities enhanced the settlement pattern concentrated in
the foothills as well as in the hilly region like Bhimtal, Bhowali, Nainital, Ramgarh, Ranikhet
etc.
With the passage of time it was a compulsion to expand due to increasing population
and also to keep pace with changing requirement. Thus, in each case, whether it was the need
to relocate the dwellings according to the expansion of agriculture areas in different
directions of the village or to realign the grouping of houses due to a major change in the land
use, there was a definite tendency towards dispersal as per requirements. Thus, in several
villages in the mountainous part of Uttarakhand such a transformation has taken place
obviously due to developed methods and extensions of agriculture.
Firstly, the settlement pattern came into existence after the ruin of Aurungzeb. People
migrated from plains to hilly areas in view of safety. Besides, settlements have also come up
in the foothill zone due to the insecure conditions in the past and in order to secure
themselves and their belongings against dacoits, anti-social elements and wild animals.
People preferred to live close together for safety. Traditional settlements in hilly region of
Uttarakhand have usually developed on relatively flatter terrains which are often considered
more stable and less prone to natural hazard like landslides and cloudburst. Most of the hilly
settlement regions located on southern slopes have sufficient solar exposure throughout the
day and protection from northern cold winds, so that comfortable living conditions can be
achieved with minimal consumption of energy. Proximity to surface water source is one of
the main criteria for selecting site for settlement. Each type of settlement has its own unique
issues for development. Planning and designing of buildings vary in these settlements. For
example, in ridge settlement important buildings like temples, shops, public buildings like
post offices and schools, open grounds and other public areas/spaces are often located nearby
the ridge and general houses are located relatively at lower areas. Whereas in valley
settlements, main public places, temples and other public community areas and open grounds
are generally located in valley and houses are located in upper regions of sloping terrain.
Vernacular buildings are generally clustered along the open space for different activities i.e.
social and religious gathering, celebrating functions and ceremonies (Saini, 1991). The
placement of buildings around the open space is such that every building gets sufficient direct
solar exposure and no building casts its shadow on other buildings. The buildings in hilly
areas are mostly rectangular in shape and constructed with locally available material which
are having good climatic response. Floor to ceiling height is usually kept between 8 to 9 feet
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which is low as per contemporary buildings standards and as adopted in new buildings.
Seismically these houses are better than the contemporary buildings. Indigenous construction
techniques are adopted for construction of buildings which are developed with local
materials, have good climatic response, maintain indoor comfort conditions and have very
good response against earthquakes.
Towns in Uttarakhand, where the concept of planned urban settlement does not seem
to exist, are a sort of natural growth in their physical and cultural setting. Thus, although they
do not possess well-defined shapes and a distinct internal plan, there is considerable
organization, both in the internal structure and in external profile of towns. It is very closely
related to the attributes of the site and its cultural setting. The configuration of the site,
surface water, nature of soil, tracks, roads and the level of security in the past along with the
present social structure of the town are significant factors in the evolution of urban settlement
pattern.
Patterns of settlement have been defined as the relationship between one house or
building and another. The pattern of settlement may be easily identified by reading and
observing a large scale map, like that of the topographical maps prepared by the Survey of
India or the Ordinance Survey of Britain. The term "pattern of settlement" has its own shape.
The urban settlements have different shapes and sizes. The site of the town and the
surrounding topography and terrain influences the shape and size of a town. In fact, the
pattern of urban settlement is the result of a series of adjustments to the environment which
have been going on for centuries. More ever, socio-cultural factors like caste structure, living
in a town and the functional needs of the people also have close bearing on its shape and size.
In the valleys in mountainous areas, the pattern of settlement is generally linear, while in the
fertile plains their shapes may be rectangular, near the lakes and ponds the settlements are of
circular or semi-circular type, while at the cross roads, the shape may be rectangular, circular
or triangular (Hussain, 2003). In exceptional cases the settlement pattern resembles the
nebular form and on the river terraces of the stair-case type. Urban Settlements pattern of the
study area are discussed in the following paragraphs.
There are mainly three types of urban settlement patterns in the study area. These are
clustered settlement, semi-clustered settlement and the dispersed settlement. These patterns
are further divisible into sub-classes. A brief account of these classes and sub-classes is
presented hereafter:

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i. Clustered Settlement:

The clustered settlement pattern is also known as agglomerated or nucleated


settlement and consists of a compact of urban dwellings with narrow windings streets
separating two rows of houses. The dwelling clusters may be fragmented due to social
segregation on caste lines. Here, the hamlets inhabited by the low castes are generally
situated away from the main nucleus of the towns. These types of settlements are
found in all the towns of the study area, viz., Nainital, Bhimtal and Bhowali. The
clustered settlement pattern is further divisible into linear pattern, square pattern,
rectangular pattern, circular pattern and nuclear pattern. These sub classes of
settlement patterns are further discussed below:

a. Linear Pattern: It is very common along the main roads or along streams. It may
have a single row of houses arranged along the main artery. It may develop in course
of time into some other type if the conditions are favourable. Such types of
settlements are dissembled mainly in the towns of Nainital, Bhimtal and Bhowali
town areas.

b. Rectangular Pattern: This type of settlement finds its place around the rectangular
shape of the fields. There are places where considerably thick and flat landscapes are
available, though not continued but scattered are available, rectangular patterns are
best suited for these conditions. These types of settlements are found mainly in the
towns of Bhowali, Nainital, Bhimtal and Mukteshwar.

c. Nuclear Pattern: Nuclear pattern of settlement is mainly found near rural and urban
fringe area where a few villages also attached with the town area. The pattern of
house is single and scattered. A minor physical obstacle may be the cause of such a
form, which may include a nala, a pond, a mound or hillock, an intervening road
(Ahir, 2001). Such a pattern of settlement is found particularly around the
Naukuchiyatal in Bhimtal town area.

ii. Semi Clustered Settlement


Semi-clustered are also known as partially agglomerated settlements. Such
settlements are characterized by a small, but a compact nucleus around which hamlets are
dispersed and form a ring around the main settlement. In case the houses are situated along a
road or stream, the settlement looks like a linear cluster.

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iii. Dispersed Settlement


Dispersed Settlement is also known as isolated settlements. Such patterns are
characterized by settlement units of small size which may consist of a single hamlet. Hamlets
are scattered over a vast area and the settlement follow no specific plan (Ahir, 2001). Such
settlement patterns are generally distributed over undulating, hilly and forest areas those
settlements which are situated on hill rocks and knolls overlooking the fields along the slope
are generally associated with tribal communities. Here such type of settlements are found in
some portion of Nainital hill slope at Nainital town and also found in Bhimtal, Bhowali,
Mukteshwar, Garampani , etc.

2.5.1. Major Urban and Emerging Centres of District Nainital


The three major urban centres of District Nainital are: the lake city of Nainital, the
fruit market of Bhowali and the industrial hub of the Bhimtal. Each have evolved differently,
with Nainital being created as a summer retreat out of wilderness by the British after being
discovered by P. Barron and later even served as the summer capital for the province of Oudh
(now known as Uttar Pradesh). Over time, it also gained importance as a tourist spot due to
the beautiful setting accorded by the situation of the lake encircled by hills with an opening at
one end. The city after the creation of the state of Uttarakhand also became the seat of
Uttarakhand High Court as well which gave it further impetus to expand in its functions.
On the other hand, Bhowali was a hub where buses used to be available for journey
into the interior parts of the hills. Over a period of time shops were set-up along the route to
service the travellers passing through and in due time a township of a mostly linear pattern
developed. Later the settlements also spread away from the main roads over the hills to form
a semi-clustered pattern of habitation.
Perhaps Bhimtal has a history older than that of Nainital and has structures dating
back to the 17th Century A.D. Bhimtal has been a stoppage for the travellers of the region
from hills to plains or vice versa for a long time. The old pedestrian road is still in use here
and this road connects nearby Kathgodam to all Kumaun regions and even to Nepal and
Tibet. Bhimeshwara Mahadev Temple, an old Shiva temple on the banks of Bhimtal Lake, is
believed to have been built when Bhima visited the place during the banishment (vanvas)
period of Pandavas. However, the present temple was built in the 17th Century A.D. by Baz
Bahadur (1638–78 AD), a King of the Chand dynasty, and the Raja of Kumaon. Bhimtal

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came under British rule after the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16). In the recent times,
Bhimtal gained importance when it was setup as an industrial area in 1980s. Later, some
institutions like the Birla Institute of Applied Sciences, Department of Management Studies
of Kumaun University gave it further importance. After creation of the state of Uttarakhand,
the government offices were shifted from Nainital to Vikas Bhawan at Bhimtal. With this the
township grew even more with influx of people from nearby centres.
The three emerging urban centres of District Nainital are: Mukteshwar –famous for its
Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI) and as a tourist destination with beautiful view of
the Greater Himalayas, Jeolikote – similar to Bhowali as it falls enroute the highways leading
to Nainital and Almora, Garampani – which is strategic insofar as it is adjoin the juncture
Khairna from where roads bifurcate to Almora and Ranikhet, two of the oldest townships of
District Almora.

2.6 Conclusion
The study area lies in the mountainous part of District Nainital of Kumaun Region of
the state of Uttarakhand. Okhalkanda development block is the largest of the six blocks
accounting for over 50% of the total area of the district, while Kotabagh comprises the least,
i.e. 6.2%. Furthermore, part of Kotabagh is the plain area. Geologically the major portion of
the study area falls under 'Ramgarh Group' comprising mainly of Nagthat, Berinag
formations and is positioned just south of the Main Boundary Thrust. The maximum part of
District Nainital falls under Lesser Himalayan region of Kumaun Himalaya with only a
narrow belt comprising of the Shiwalik hills in the southern parts. The altitude of this area
varies from 327 to 2623 meters from mean sea level which gives a wide range of vegetation.
About 68% of the region falls in the absolute relief category of 1000 m – 2000 m, which also
explains the high density of population in this belt, while about 89% of the area is under the
200 m – 600 m range of relative relief. As for the slope of the land, almost 57% lies in the
range 15° – 30°. Followed by 23.05% for <15° category, indicate that the most of the area is
suitable for habitation and roads with only about 20% of the area having >30° slope. The
district is criss-crossed by many perennial and seasonal rivers and rivulets forming a
generally dendrite pattern. The main drainage basins are of river Kosi and Gaula.
The wide range of altitude gives vegetation in the mountainous part of district
Nainital a high variability over a short distance. Vegetation changes vertically because of the

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changes in temperature that come with a changing altitude, but the slope has always been a
very determining factor. There are mainly three types of vegetation found in the study area,
viz. subtropical forest, temperate forest, and subalpine moist deciduous forest.
The present study has employed remote sensing techniques used for the assessment of
land use / cover dynamics of the mountainous part of District Nainital. Supervised
classification technique has been employed on Landsat TM 2010 image acquired from USGS
Earth Explorer using Maximum Likelihood Technique using Erdas 9.3 software. The image
was categorized into five different classes, viz., built-up area, vegetation, agricultural land,
barren land, and water bodies. It was found that out of the total area (1787.11 km2) under the
consideration, vegetation covers 74.31 percent, cultivated land includes 22.69 percent, barren
land occupies 2.28 percent, built-up area covers 0.54 percent and water bodies are distributed
over only 0.18 percent of the study area.
The census data shows that in both the decades of 1991-2001 and 2001-2011, Bhimtal
Block recorded the maximum growth rates of 46.50% and 36.59%, respectively while
Kotabagh Block has the least growth during the same periods, being 3.47% and 5.11%,
respectively. It is interesting to note that the density also followed a similar pattern being the
highest for Bhimtal block and lowest for Kotabagh block across the decades. It has been
observed that Dhari block had the most increase in density during 1991-2001 (30.7%) and
also during 2001-2011 (15.8%) while all other blocks recorded a decrease in the density
during 2001-2011 as compared to 1991-2001.

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