Radio Handbook 15 1959

RADIO
#and&Wk
FIFTEENTH EDITION
This book is revised and brought up
to date (at irregular intervals) as
necessitated by technical progress.
111E
UDlO
11%I)BOOk
Fifteenth Edition
The Standard of the Field

for advanced amateurs
practical radiomen
practical engineers
practical technicians
$7.50 per copy of

WILLIAM I. ORR, W6SAI your dealer in U.S.A.
Editor, 15th Edition
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Published and Distributed to the Radio Trade by
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THE RADIO HANDBOOK
FIFTEENTH EDITION
Copyright, 1959, by
Editors and Engineers, Ltd.

Summerland, California, U.S.A.
Copyright under Pan- American Convention

All Translation Rights Reserved
Printed in U.S.A.
The "Radio Handbook" in Spanish or Italian is available from us at $8.25

postpaid. French and Dutch editions in preparation.
Outside North America, if more convenient, write: (Spanish) Marcombo, S.A., Av.
Jose Antonio, 584, Barcelona, Spain; (Italian) Edizione C.E.L.I., Via Gandino 1,
Bologna, Italy; (French or Dutch. P. H. Brans, Ltd., 28 Prins Leopold St., Borgerhout,
Antwerp, Belgium.
Other Outstanding Books from the Same Publisher

(See Announcements at Back of Book)
THE RADIOTELEPHONE LICENSE MANUAL
THE SURPLUS RADIO CONVERSION MANUALS
THE WORLDS RADIO TUBES ( RADIO TUBE VADE MECUM
THE WORLDS EQUIVALENT TUBES ( EQUIVALENT TUBE VADE MECUM
THE WORLD'S TELEVISION TUBES ( TELEVISION TUBE VADE MECUM
THE RADIO HANDBOOK
15th Edition
Table of Contents
Chapter One. INTRODUCTION TO RADIO 11
1-1 Amateur Radio 11
1-2 Station and Operator Licenses 12

1-3 The Amateur Bands 12
1-4 Starling Your Study 14
Chapter Two. DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS 21

2 -1 The Atom 21
2 -2
2 -3
2 -4
Electrostatics -
Fundamental Electrical Units and Relationships
Capacitors
Magnetism and Electromagnetism
22
30
35
2 -5 RC and RL Transients 38
Chapter Three. ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS 41

3 -1 Alternating Current 41
3 -2 Resonant Circuits 53
3 -3 Nonsinusoidal Waves and Transients 58
3 -4 Transformers 61
3 -5 Electric Filters 63
Chapter Four. VACUUM TUBE PRINCIPLES 67

4 -1 Thermionic Emission 67
4 -2 The Diode 71
4 -3 The Triode 72
4 -4 Tetrode or Screen Grid Tubes 77
4 -5 Mixer and Converter Tubes 79
4 -6 Electron Tubes at Very High Frequencies 80
4 -7 Special Microwave Electron Tubes 81
4 -8 The Cathode -Ray Tube 84
4 -9 Gas Tubes 87
4 -10 Miscellaneous Tube Types 88
Chapter Five. TRANSISTORS AND SEMI- CONDUCTORS 90

5 -1 Atomic Structure of Germanium and Silicon 90
5 -2 Mechanism of Conduction 90
5 -3 The Transistor 92
5 -4 Transistor Characteristics 94
5 -5 Transistor Circuitry 96
5 -6 Transistor Circuits 103
Chapter Six. VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 106
6 -1 Vacuum Tube Parameters 106
6 -2 Classes and Types of Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers 107
6 -3 Biasing Methods 108
6 -4 Distortion in Amplifiers 109
6 -5 Resistance- Capacitance Coupled Audio -Frequency Amplifiers _ 109
6 -6 Video- Frequency Amplifiers 113
6 -7 Other Interstage Coupling Methods 113
6 -8 Phase Inverters 115
6 -9 D -C Amplifiers 117
6 -10 Single -ended Triode Amplifiers 118
6 -11 Single -ended Pentode Amplifiers 120
6 -12 Push -Pull Audio Amplifiers 121
6 -13 Class B Audio Frequency Power Amplifiers 123
6 -14 Cathode-Follower Power Amplifiers 127
6 -15 Feedback Amplifiers 129
6 -16 Vacuum -Tube Voltmeters 130
Chapter Seven. HIGH FIDELITY TECHNIQUES 134

7 -1 The Nature of Sound 134
7 -2 The Phonograph 136
7 -3 The High Fidelity Amplifier 138
7 -4 Amplifier Construction 142
7 -5 The "Baby Hi Fi" 143
7 -6 A High Quality 25 Watt Amplifier 146
Chapter Eight. RADIO FREQUENCY VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 149

Tuned RF Vacuum Tube Amplifiers 149
8 -1 Grid Circuit Considerations 149
8 -2 Plate- Circuit Considerations 151
Radio -Frequency Power Amplifiers 152
8 -3 Class C R -F Power Amplifiers 152
8 -4 Class B Radio Frequency Power Amplifiers 157
8 -5 Special R -F Power Amplifier Circuits 160
8 -6 A Grounded -Grid 304TL Amplifier 163
8 -7 Class AB1 Radio Frequency Power Amplifiers 165
Chapter Nine. THE OSCILLOSCOPE 170

9 -1 A Typical Cathode -Ray Oscilloscope 170
9 -2 Display of Waveforms 175
9 -3 Lissajous Figures 176
9 -4 Monitoring Transmitter Performance with the Oscilloscope 179
9 -5 Receiver -F Alignment with an Oscilloscope
I 180
9 -6 Single Sideband Applications 182
Chapter Ten. SPECIAL VACUUM TUBE CIRCUITS 185

10 -1 Limiting Circuits 185
10 -1 Clamping Circuits 187
10 -3 Multivibrators 188
10 -4 The Blocking Oscillator 190
10 -5 Counting Circuits 190
10 -6 Resistance - Capacity Oscillators 191
10 -7 Feedback 192
Chapter Eleven. ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS 194
11 -1 Digital Computers 195
11 -2 Binary Notation 195
11 -3 Analog Computers 197
11 -4 The Operational Amplifier 199
11 -5 Solving Analog Problems 200
11 -6 Non -linear Functions 202
11 -7 Digital Circuitry 204
Chapter Twelve. RADIO RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 207

12 -1 Detection or Demodulation 207
12 -2 Superregenerative Receivers 209
12 -3 Superheterodyne Receivers 210
12 -4 Mixer Noise and Images 212
12 -5 R -F Stages 213
12 -6 Signal- Frequency Tuned Circuits 216
12 -7 -F Tuned Circuits
1 218
12 -8 Detector, Audio, and Control Circuits 225
12 -9 Noise Suppression 227
12 -10 Special Considerations in U -H -F Receiver Design 231
12 -11 Receiver Adjustment 235
12 -12 Receiving Accessories 236
Chapter Thirteen. GENERATION OF RADIO FREQUENCY ENERGY 239

13 -1 Self -Controlled Oscillators 239
13 -2 Quartz Crystal Oscillators 244
13 -3 Crystal Oscillator Circuits 247
13 -4 Radio Frequency Amplifiers 251
13 -5 Neutralization of R.F. Amplifiers 252
13 -6 Neutralizing Procedure 255
13 -7 Grounded Grid Amplifiers 258
13 -8 Frequency Multipliers 258
13 -9 Tank Circuit Capacitances 261
13 -10 L and Pi Matching Networks 265
13 -11 Grid Bias 267
13 -12 Protective Circuits for Tetrode Transmitting Tubes 269
13 -13 Interstage Coupling 270
13 -14 Radio- Frequency Chokes 272
13 -15 Parallel and Push -Pull Tube Circuits 273
Chapter Fourteen. R-F FEEDBACK 274

14 -1 R -FFeedback Circuits 274
14 -2 Feedback and Neutralization of a Two -Stage R -F Amplifier 277
14 -3 Neutralization Procedure in Feedback-Type Amplifiers 279
Chapter Fifteen. AMPLITUDE MODULATION 282

15 -1 Sidebands 282
15 -2 Mechanics of Modulation 283
15 -3 Systems of Amplitude Modulation 285
15 -4 Input Modulation Systems 292
15 -5 Cathode Modulation 297
15 -6 The Doherty and the Terman- Woodyard Modulated Amplifiers 298
15 -7 Speech Clipping 300
15 -8 The Bias -Shift Heising Modulator 307
5
Chapter Sixteen. FREQUENCY MODULATION AND REDIOTELETYPE
TRANSMISSION 312
16 -1 Frequency Modulation 312
16 -2 Direct FM Circuits 315
16 -3 Phase Modulation 319
16 -4 Reception of FM Signals 321
16 -5 Radio Teletype 326
Chapter Seventeen. SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION 327

17 -1 Commercial Applications of SSB 327
17 -2 Derivation of Single -Sideband Signals 328
17 -3 Carrier Elimination Circuits 332
17 -4 Generation of Single -Sideband Signals 334
17 -5 Single Sideband Frequency Conversion Systems 340
17 -6 Distortion Products Due to Nonlinearity of R -F Amplifiers 344
17 -7 Sideband Exciters 346
17 -8 Reception of Single Sideband Signals 351
17 -9 Double Sideband Transmission 353
Chapter Eighteen. TRANSMITTER DESIGN 356

18 -1 Resistors 356
18 -2 Capacitors 358
18 -3 Wire and Inductors 360
18 -4 Grounds 362
18 -5 Holes, Leads and Shafts 362
18 -6 Parasitic Resonances 364
18 -7 Parasitic Oscillation in R -F Amplifiers 365
18 -8 Elimination of V -H F Parasitic Oscillations 366
18 -9 Checking for Parasitic Oscillations 368
Chapter Nineteen. TELEVISION AND BROADCAST INTERFERENCE 371

19 -1 Types of Television Interference 371
19 -2 Harmonic Radiation 373
19 -3 Low -Pass Filters 376
19 -4 Broadcast Interference 379
19 -5 HI -FI Interference 386
Chapter Twenty. TRANSMITTER KEYING AND CONTROL 387

20 -1 Power Systems 387
20 -2 Transmitter Control Methods 391
20 -3 Safety Precautions 393
20 -4 Transmitter Keying 395
20 -5 Cathode Keying 397
20 -6 Grid Circuit Keying 398
20 -7 Screen Grid Keying 399
20 -8 Differential Keying Circuits 400
Chapter Twenty -One. RADIATION, PROPAGATION AND TRANSMISSION

LINES 403
21 -1 Radiation from an Antenna 403
21 -2 General Characteristics of Antennas 404
21 -3 Radiation Resistance and Feed -Point Impedance 407
21 -4 Antenna Directivity 410
21 -5 Bandwidth 413
21 -6 Propagation of Radio Waves 413
21 -7 Ground -Wave Communication 414
21 -8 Ionospheric Propagation 416
21 -9 Transmission Lines 420
21 -10 Non -Resonant Transmission Lines 421
21 -11 Tuned or Resonant Lines 424
21 -12 Line Discontinuities 425
Chapter Twenty-Two. ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA MATCHING 426

22 -1 End -Fed Half -Wave Horizontal Antennas 426
22 -2 Center -Fed Half -Wave Horizontal Antennas 427
22 -3 The Half -Wave Vertical Antenna 430
22 -4 The Ground Plane Antenna 431
22 -5 The Marconi Antenna 432
22 -6 Space- Conserving Antennas 434
22 -7 Multi -Band Antennas 436
22 -8 Matching Non -Resonant Lines to the Antenna 442
22 -9 Antenna Construction 448
22 -10 Coupling to the Antenna System 451
22 -11 Antenna Couplers 454
22 -12 A Single -Wire Antenna Tuner 456
Chapter Twenty- Three. HIGH FREQUENCY ANTENNA ARRAYS 459

23 -1 Directive Antennas 459
23 -2 Long Wire Radiators 461
23 -3 The V Antenna 462
23 -4 The Rhombic Antenna 464
23 -5 Stacked -Dipole Arrays 465
23 -6 Broadside Arrays 468
23 -7 End -Fire Directivity 473
23 -8 Combination End -Fire and Broadside Arrays 475
Chapter Twenty -Four. V -H -F AND U -H -F ANTENNAS 477

24 -1 Antenna Requirements 477
24 -2 Simple Horizontally -Polarized Antennas 479
24 -3 Simple Vertical -Polarized Antennas 480
24 -4 The Discone Antenna 481
24 -5 Helical Beam Antennas 483
24 -6 The Corner -Reflector and Horn -Type Antennas 485
24 -7 VHF Horizontal Rhombic Antenna 486
24 -8 Multi- Element V -H -F Beam Antennas 488
Chapter Twenty -Five. ROTARY BEAMS 494

25 -1 Unidirectional Parasitic End -Fire Arrays (Yogi Type) 494
25 -2 The Two Element Beam 494
25 -3 The Three -Element Array 496
25 -4 Feed Systems for Parasitic IYagi) Arrays 498
25 -5 Unidirectional Driven Arrays 504
25 -6 Bi- Directional Rotatable Arrays 505
25 -7 Construction of Rotatable Arrays 506
25 -8 Tuning the Array 509
25 -9 Antenna Rotation Systems 513
25 -10 Indication of Direction 514
25 -11 "Three- Bands" Beams 514
Chapter Twenty -Six. MOBILE EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND INSTALLATION 515
26 -1 Mobile Reception 515
26 -2 Mobile Transmitters 521
26 -3 Antennas for Mobile Work 522
26 -4 Construction and Installation of Mobile Equipment 524
26 -5 Vehicular Noise Suppression 527
Chapter Twenty -Seven. RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS 530

27 -1 Circuitry and Components 533
27-2 A Simple Transistorized Portable B -C Receiver 533
27 -3 A 455 Kc. Mechanical Filter Adapter 535
27 -4 A High Performance Amateur Band Receiver 540
27 -5 A "Handle- Talkie" for 144 Mc. 547
27 -6 Six Meter Transceiver for Home or Car 552
27 -7 A "Hot" Transceiver for 28 Megacycles 559
Chapter Twenty- Eight. LOW POWER TRANSMITTERS AND EXCITERS 567

28 -1 SSB Exciter for Fixed or Mobile Use 567
28 -2 A Mobile Transistorized SSB Exciter 574
28 -3 A VHF Transceiver of Advanced Design 578
28 -4 A Miniaturized SSB Transmitter for 14 Mc. 589
28 -5 A Duplex Transmitter- Receiver for 220 Mc. 598
28 -6 A High Stability V.F.O. For the DX Operator 604
Chapter Twenty -Nine. HIGH FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS 610

29 -1 Power Amplifier Design 610
29 -2 Push -Pull Triode Amplifiers 612
29 -3 Push -Pull Tetrode Amplifiers 614
29 -4 Tetrode Pi- Network Amplifiers 617
29 -5 A Compact Linear Amplifier for Mobile SSB 620
29 -6 A Multi -band Mobile Linear Amplifier 624
29 -7 An Inexpensive Cathode Driven Kilowatt Amplifier 626
29 -8 A Low Distortion Sideband Linear Amplifier 629
29 -9 Kilowatt Amplifier for Linear or Class C Operation 635
29 -10 A 2 Kilowatt P.E.P. All -band Amplifier 640
29 -11 A High Power Push -pull Tetrode Amplifier 644
Chapter Thirty. SPEECH AND AMPLITUDE MODULATION EQUIPMENT 647

30 -1 Modulation 647
30 -2 Design of Speech Amplifiers and Modulators 650
30 -3 General Purpose Triode Class B Modulator 651
30 -4 A 10 -Watt Amplifier- Driver 655
30 -5 500 -Watt 304TL Modulator 656
30 -6 A 15 -Watt Clipper -Amplifier 657
30 -7 A 200 -Watt 811 -A De -Luxe Modulator 658
30 -8 Zero Bias Tetrode Modulators 662
Chapter Thirty -One. TRANSMITTER CONSTRUCTION 663

31 -1 A 300 Watt Phone /C -W Transmitter for 50/144 Mc. 663
31 -2 A De -Luxe Transmitter for the 3.5 - 29.7 Mc. Range 673
Chapter Thirty -Two. POWER SUPPLIES 684
32 -1 Power Supply Requirements 684
32 -2 Rectification Circuits 689
32 -3 Standard Power Supply Circuits 690
32 -4 Selenium and Silicon Rectifiers 695
32 -5 100 Watt Mobile Power Supply 697
32 -6 Transistorized Power Supplies 703
32 -7 Two Transistorized Mobile Supplies 706
32 -8 Power Supply Components 707
32 -9 Special Power Supplies 709
32 -10 Power Supply Design 712
32 -11 300 Volt, 50 Ma. Power Supply 715
32 -12 500 Volt, 200 Milliampere Power Supply 716
32 -13 1500 Volt, 425 Milliampere Power Supply 717
32 -14 A Dual Voltage Transmitter Supply 718
32 -15 A Kilowatt Power Supply 718
Chapter Thirty- Three. WORKSHOP PRACTICE 720

33 -1 Tools 720
33 -2 The Material 723 -A
33 -3 TVI-Proof Enclosures 724 -A
33 -4 Enclosure Openings 725 -A
33 -5 Summation of the Problem 725 -A
33 -6 Construction Practice 726 -A
33 -7 Shop Layout 729 -A
Chapter Thirty -Four. ELECTRONIC TEST EOUIPMENT 721 -B

34 -1 Voltage, Current and Power 721 -B
34 -2 Measurement of Circuit Constants 727 -B
34 -3 Measurements with a Bridge 728 -B
34 -4 Frequency Measurements 729 -B
34 -5 Antenna and Transmission Line Measurements 730 -B
34 -6 A Simple Coaxial Reflectometer 732
34 -7 Measurements on Balanced Transmission Lines 734
34 -8 A "Balanced" SWR Bridge 736
34 -9 The Antennascope 738
34 -10 A Silicon Crystal Noise Generator 740
Chapter Thirty -Five. RADIO MATHEMATICS AND CALCULATIONS 742
FOREWORD TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION
Over two decades ago the historic first edition of the RADIO HANDBOOK was
published as a unique, independent, communications manual written especially for the
advanced radio amateur and electronic engineer. Since that early issue, great pains have
been taken to keep each succeeding edition of the RADIO HANDBOOK abreast of
the rapidly expanding field of electronics.
So quickly has the electron invaded our everyday affairs that it is now no longer
possible to segregate one particular branch of electronics and define it as radio com-
munications; rather, the transfer of intelligence by electrical means encompasses more
than the vacuum tube, the antenna, and the tuning capacitor.
Included in this new, advanced Fifteenth Edition of the RADIO HANDBOOK are
fresh chapters covering electronic computers, r.f. feedback amplifiers, and high fidelity
techniques, plus greatly expanded chapters dealing with semi -conductors and special
vacuum tube circuits. The other chapters of this Handbook have been thoroughly
revised and brought up to date, touching briefly on those aspects in the industrial
and military electronic fields that are of immediate interest to the electronic engineer
and the radio amateur. The construction chapters have been completely re- edited. All
new equipments described therein are of modern design, free of TVl problems and
various unwanted parasitic oscillations. An attempt has been made not to duplicate
items that have been featured in contemporary magazines. The transceiver makes its
major bow in this edition of the RADIO HANDBOOK, and it is felt that this
complete, inexpensive, compact "radio station" design will become more popular
during the coming years.
The writing and preparation of this Handbook would have been impossible without
the lavish help that was tended the editor by fellow amateurs and sympathetic elec-
tronic organizations. Their friendly assistance and helpful suggestions were freely
given in the true amateur spirit to help make the 15th edition of the RADIO HAND-
BOOK an outstanding success.
The editor and publisher wish to thank these individuals and companies whose
unselfish support made the compilation and publication of this book an interesting
and inspired task. -WILLIAM I. ORR, W6SAI, 3A2AF, Editor
E. P. Alvemaz, W6DMN, Wesley Schum, W9DYV, Raytheon Mfg. Co., Inc.
Jennings Radio Co. Central Electronics, Inc. Sarkes -Tarzian, Inc.
Kenneth Bay, W2GSJ, Aaron Self, W8FYR, Sprague Electric Co.
General Electric Co. Continental Electronics Triad Transformer Co.
& Sound Co.
Orrin H. Brown, W6HB, Bob Adams, W6AVA
Eitel- McCullough, Inc. Harold Vance, K2FF,
Radio Corporation of Frank Clement, WBKPC
Wm. E. Bruring, W9ZSO, America Al Cline, W6LGU
E. F. Johnson, Inc. J. A. Haimes, Semi -conductor Temple Ehmsen, W7VS
Thomas Consalvi, W3EOZ, Division, Radio Corporation Ted Gillett, W6HX
Barker & Williamson, Inc. of America Bill Glaser, W6OKG
Cal Hadlock, W1CTW, Special thanks are due Collins Bill Guimont,W6YMD
National Co., Inc. Radio Co. for permission to Ted Henry, W6UOU
Jo E. Jennings, W6EI, reprint portions of their Herbert Johnson, W7GRA
Jennings Radio Co. Sideband Report CTR -113 James Lee, W6VAT
Al Kahn, W8DUS, by Warren Bruene, WOTTK Earl Lucas, W2JT
Electrovoice, Inc. Bud Radio Co., Inc. Bill Mauzey, W6WWQ
Ken Klippel, WOSQO, California Chassis Co., Inc. Ken Pierce, W6SLQ
Collins Radio Co. Cardwell Condenser Co., Inc. Don Stoner, W6TNS
Centralab, Inc. Bob Thompson, K6SSJ
Roger Mace, W8MWZ, Cornell -Dubilier Electric Karl Trovinger, W6KMK
Heath Co. Co., Inc. Bill Vandermay, W7DET
E. R. Mullings, W8VPN, Cowan Publishing Corp. Dick West, W6IUG
Heath Co. International Business Edward Willis, W6TS
Edw. A. Neal, W2JZK, Machines Co., Inc. Joseph Jasgur
General Electric Co. Marion Electrical (photography)
Edw. Schmeichel, W9YFV, Instrument Co., Inc. B. A. Ontiveros, WBFFF
Chicago -Standard Miller Coil Co., Inc. (drafting)
Transformer Co. Raypar, Inc. Del Rairigh, W6ZAT
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction to Radio
The field of radio is a division of the much to the teaching of the principles of equipment
larger field of electronics. Radio itself is such design and signal propagation. It is in response
a broad study that it is still further broken to requests from schools and agencies of the
down into a number of smaller fields of which Department of Defense, in addition to persist-
only shortwave or high- frequency radio is cov- ent requests from the amateur radio fraternity,
ered in this book. Specifically the field of com- that coverage of these principles has been ex-
munication on frequencies from 1.8 to 450 meg- panded.
acycles is taken as the subject matter for this
work. 1 -1 Amateur Radio
The largest group of persons interested in
the subject of high - frequency communication is
the more than 150,000 radio amateurs located Amateur radio is a fascinating hobby with
in nearly all countries of the world. Strictly many phases. So strong is the fascination of-
speaking, a radio amateur is anyone interested fered by this hobby that many executives, en-
in radio non -commercially, but the term is ordi- gineers, and military and commercial operators
narily applied only to those hobbyists possess- enjoy amateur radio as an avocation even
ing transmitting equipment and a license from though they are also engaged in the radio field
the government. commercially. It captures and holds the inter-
It was for the radio amateur, and particu- est of many people in all walks of life, and in
larly for the serious and more advanced ama- all countries of the world where amateur acti-
teur, that most of the equipment described in vities are permitted by law.
this book was developed. However, in each Amateurs have rendered much public ser-
equipment group simple items also are shown vice through furnishing communications to and
from the outside world in cases where disaster
for the student or beginner. The design prin-
ciples behind the equipment for high- frequency has isolated an area by severing all wire com-
radio communication are of course the same
munications. Amateurs have a proud record of
whether the equipment is to be used for com-
heroism and service in such occasion. Many
mercial, military, or amateur purposes, the expeditions to remote places have been kept
in touch with home by communication with ama-
principal differences lying in construction teur stations on the high frequencies. The ama-
practices, and in the tolerances and safety teur's fine record of performance with the
factors placed upon components. "wireless" equipment of World War I has been
With the increasing complexity of high -fre-
surpassed by his outstanding service in World
quency communication, resulting primarily from War II.
increased utilization of the available spec-
trum, it becomes necessary to delve more deep- By the time peace came in the Pacific in
ly into the basic principles underlying radio the summer of 1945, many thousand amateur
communication, both from the standpoint of operators were serving in the allied armed
equipment design and operation and from the forces. They had supplied the army, navy,
standpoint of signal propagation. Hence, it will marines, coast guard, merchant marine, civil
be found that this edition of the RADIO HAND- service, war plants, and civilian defense or-
BOOK has been devoted in greater proportion ganizations with trained personnel for radio,
11
12 Introduction to Radio THE RADIO
radar, wire, and visual communications and of several specified reasons are unable to ap-
for teaching. Even now, at the time of this pear for examination.
writing, amateurs are being called back into (d) Technician Class. This is a new class
the expanded defense forces, are returning to of license which is available to any citizen of
defense plants where their skills are critically the United States. The examination is the same
needed, and are being organized into communi- as that for the General Class license, except
cation units as an adjunct to civil defense that the code test is at a speed of 5 words per
groups. minute. The holder of a Technician class li-
cense is accorded all authorized amateur privi-
1 -2 Station and Operator Licenses leges in the amateur frequency bands above
220 megacycles. and in the 50 -Mc. band.
(e) Novice Class. This is a new class of
Every radio transmitting station in the license which is available to any U. S. citizen
United States no matter how low its power who has not previously held an amateur li-
must have a license from the federal govern- cense of any class issued by any agency of
ment before being operated; some classes of the U. S. government, military or civilian. The
stations must have a permit from the govern - examination consists of a code test at a speed
ment even before being constructed. And every of 5 words per minute, plus an examination on
operator of a transmitting station must have the rules and regulations essential to begin-
an operator's license before operating a trans- ner's operation, including sufficient elemen-
mitter. There are no exceptions. Similar laws tary radio theory for the understanding of those
apply in practically every major country. rules. The Novice Class of license affords
severely restricted privileges, is valid for only
Classes of Amateur There are at present six a period of one year (as contrasted to all other
Operator Licenses classes of amateur oper- classes of amateur licenses which run for a
ator licenses which have term of five years), and is not renewable.
been authorized by the Federal Communica- All Novice and Technician class examina-
tions Commission. These classes differ in tions are given by volunteer examiners, as reg-
many respects, so each will be discussed ular examinations for these two classes are
briefly. not given in FCC offices. Amateur radio clubs
(a) Amateur Extra Class. This class of li- in the larger cities have established examin
cense is available to any U. S. citizen who at ing committees to assist would -be amateurs
any time has held for a period of two years or of the area in obtaining their Novice and Tech-
more a valid amateur license, issued by the nician licenses.
FCC, excluding licenses of the Novice and
Technician Classes. The examination for the
license includes a code test at 20 words per 1 -3 The Amateur Bands
minute, the usual tests covering basic amateur
practice and general amateur regulations, and Certain small segments of the radio frequen-
an additional test on advanced amateur prac- cy spectrum between 1500 kc. and 10,000 Mc.
tice. All amateur privileges are accorded the are reserved for operation of amateur radio
holders of this operator's license. stations. These segments are in general agree-
(b) General Class. This clas" of amateur ment throughout the world, although certain
license is equivalent to the old Amateur Class parts of different amateur bands may be used
B license, and accords to the holders all ama- for other purposes in various geographic re-
teur privileges except those which may be set gions. In particular, the 40 -meter amateur band
aside for holders of the Amateur Extra Class is used legally (and illegally) for short wave
license. This class of amateur operator's li- broadcasting by many countries in Europe,
cense is available to any U. S. citizen. The Africa and Asia. Parts of the 80 -meter band
examination for the license includes a code are used for short distance marine work in Eu-
test at 13 words per minute, and the usual ex- rope, and for broadcasting in South America.
aminations covering basic amateur practice The amateur bands available to American ra-
and general amateur regulations. dio amateurs are:
(c) Conditional Class. This class of ama-
teur license and the privileges accorded by it 160 Meters The 160 -meter band is di-
are equivalent to the General Class license. (1800 Kc. -2000 Kc.)vided into 25-kilocycle
However, the license can be issued only to segments on a regional
those whose residence is more than 125 miles basis, with day and night power limitations,
airline from the nearest location at which FCC and is available for amateur use provided no
examinations are held at intervals of not more interference is caused to the Loran (Long
than three months for the General Class ama- Range Navigation) stations operating in this
teur operator license, or to those who for any band. This band is least affected by the 11-
HANDBOOK Amateur Bands 13
year solar sunspot cycle. The Maximum Us- misters. In Europe and Asia the band is in a
able Frequency (MUF) even during the years chaotic state, and amateur operation in this re-
of decreased sunspot activity does not usually gion is severely hampered.
drop below 4 Mc., therefore this band is not
subject to the violent fluctuations found on 20 Meters At the present time,
the higher frequency bands. DX contacts on
(14,000 Kc.- 14,350 Kc.) the 20 -meter band is
on this band are limited by the ionospheric
absorption of radio signals, which is quite by far the most popular
high. During winter nighttime hours the ab- band for long distance contacts. High enough
sorption is often of a low enough value to per- in frequency to be almost obliterated at the
mit trans -oceanic contacts on this band. On bottom of the solar cycle, the band neverthe-
rare occasions, contacts up to 10,000 miles less provides good DX contacts during years
have been made. As a usual rule, however, of minimal sunspot activity. At the present
160 -meter amateur operation is confined to time, the band is open to almost all parts of
ground -wave contacts or single -skip contacts the world at some time during the year. Dur-
of 1000 miles or less. Popular before World ing the summer months, the band is active un-
War II, the 160 -meter band is now only sparse- til the late evening hours, but during the win-
ly occupied since many areas of the country ter months the band is only good for a few
are blanketed by the megawatt pulses of the hours during daylight. Extreme DX contacts
Loran chains. are usually erratic, but the 20-meter band is
80 Meters The 80-meter band is the the only band available for DX operation the
(3500 Kc. -4000 Kc.) most popular amateur year around during the bottom of the DX cycle.
band in the continental As the sunspot count increases and the MUF
United States for local "rag- chewing" and rises, the 20 -meter band will become open for
traffic nets. During the years of minimum sun- longer hours during the winter. The maximum
spot activity the ionospheric absorption on skip distance increases, and DX contacts are
this band may be quite low, and long distance possible over paths other than the Great Circle
DX contacts are possible during the winter route. Signals can be heard the "long paths,"
night hours. Daytime operation, in general, is 180 degrees opposite to the Great Circle path.
limited to contacts of 500 miles or less. Dur- During daylight hours, absorption may become
ing the summer months, local static and high apparent on the 20 -meter band, and all signals
ionospheric absorption limit long distance con- except very short skip may disappear. On the
tacts on this band. As the sunspot cycle ad- other hand, the band will be open for world-
vances and the MUF rises, increased iono- wide DX contacts all night long. The 20 -meter
spheric absorption will tend to degrade the band is very susceptible to "fade- outs"
long distance possibilities of this band. At caused by solar disturbances, and all except
the peak of the sunspot cycle, the 80 -meter local signals may completely disappear for
band becomes useful only for short -haul com-
munication. periods of a few hours to a day or so.
40 Meters The 40 -meter band is high 15 Meters This is a relatively

(7000 Kc. -7300 Kc.)enough in frequency to be (21,000 Kc.- 21,450 Kc.) new band for radio
severely affected by the amateurs since it has
11 -year sunspot cycle. During years of mini- only been available for amateur operation
mum solar activity, the MUF may drop below since 1952. Not too much is known about the
7 Mc., and the band will become very erratic, characteristics of this band, since it has not
with signals dropping completely out during been occupied for a full cycle of solar activi-
the night hours. Ionospheric absorption of sig- ty. However, it is reasonable to assume that
nals is not as large a problem on this band as it will have characteristics similar to both the
20 and 10 -meter amateur bands. It should have
it is on 80 and 160 meters. As the MUF grad-
a longer skip distance than 20 meters for a
ually rises, the skip- distance will increase on given time, and sporadic -E (short -skip) should
40 meters, especially during the winter months. be apparent during the winter months. During
At the peak of the solar cycle, the daylight a period of low sunspot activity, the MUF will
skip distance on 40 meters will be quite long, rarely rise as high as 15 meters, so this band
and stations within a distance of 500 miles or will be "dead" for a large part of the year.
so of each other will not be able to hold com- During the next few years, 15 -meter activity
munication. DX operation on the 40 -meter band should pick up rapidly, and the band should
is considerably hampered by broadcasting sta- support extremely long DX contacts. Activity
tions, propaganda stations, and jamming trans- on the 15 -meter band is limited in some areas,
since the older model TV receivers have a bands are sparsely occupied in the rural sec-
21 Mc. i -f channel, which falls directly in the tions of the United States, but are quite heavi-
15 -meter band. The interference problems ly congested in the urban areas of high popu-
brought about by such an unwise choice of lation.
intermediate frequency often restrict operation In recent years it has been found that v -h -f
on this band by amateur stations unfortunate signals are propagated by other means than by
enough to be situated near such an obsolete line -of-sight transmission. "Scatter signals,"
receiver. Aurora reflection, and air -mass boundary bend-
ing are responsible for v -h -f communication up
10- Meters During the peak of the to 1200 miles or so. Weather conditions will
(28.000 Kc.- 29,700 Kc.) sunspot cycle, the 10- often affect long distance communication on
meter band is without the 2 -meter band, and all the v -h -f bands are
doubt the most popular particularly sensitive to this condition.
amateur band. The combination of long skip The other v -h -f bands have had insufficient
and low ionospheric absorption make reliable occupancy to provide a clear picture of their
DX contacts with low powered equipment pos- characteristics. In general, they behave much
sible. The great width of the band (1700 kc.) as does the 2 -meter band, with the weather
provides room for a large number of amateurs. effects becoming more pronounced on the high-
The long skip(1500 miles or so) prevents nearer frequency bands.
by amateurs from hearing each other, thus
dropping the interference level. During the win-
1 -4 Starting Your Study
ter months, sporadic -E (short skip) signals
up to 1200 miles or so will be heard. The 10-
meter band is poorest in the summer months, When you start to prepare yourself for the
even during a sunspot maximum. Extremely amateur examination you will find that the cir-
long daylight skip is common on this band, and cuit diagrams, tube characteristic curves, and
and in years of high MUF the 10 -meter band formulas appear confusing and difficult of un-
will support intercontinental DX contacts dur- derstanding. But after a few study sessions
ing daylight hours. one becomes sufficiently familiar with the
The second harmonic of stations operating notation of the diagrams and the basic con-
in the 10 -meter band falls directly into tele- cepts of theory and operation so that the ac-
vision channel 2, and the higher harmonics of quisition of further knowledge becomes easier
10 -meter transmitters fall into the higher TV and even fascinating.
channels. This harmonic problem seriously As it takes a considerable time to become
curtailed amateur 10 -meter operation during proficient in sending and receiving code, it is
the late 40's. However, with the new circuit a good idea to intersperse technical study ses-
techniques and TVI precautionary measures sions with periods of code practice. Many
stressed in this Handbook, 10 -meter operation short code practice sessions benefit one more
should cause little or no interference to near- than a small number of longer sessions. Alter-
by television receivers of modern design. nating between one study and the other keeps
the student from getting "stale" since each
Six Meters At the peak of the sunspot type of study serves as a sort of respite from
(50 Mc. -54 Mc.) cycle, the MUF occasional- the other.
ly rises high enough to per- When you have practiced the code long
mit DX contacts up to 10,000 miles or so on enough you will be able to follow the gist of
6 meters. Activity on this band during such a the slower sending stations. Many stations
period is often quite high. Interest in this band send very slowly when working other stations
wanes during a period of lesser solar activity, at great distances. Stations repeat their calls
as contacts, as a rule, are restricted to short- many times when calling other stations before
skip work. The proximity of the 6 -meter band contact is established, and one need not have
to television channel 2 often causes interfer- achieved much code proficiency to make out
ence problems to amateurs located in areas their calls and thus determine their location.
where channel 2 is active. As the sunspot cy-
cle increases, activity on the 6 -meter band will The Code The applicant for any class of ama-
increase. teur operator license must be able
to send and receive the Continental Code
The V -H -F Bands Thev -h -f bands are (sometimes called the International Morse
(Two Meters and "Up ") least affected by
the Code). The speed required for the sending and
the vagaries of the receiving test may be either 5, 13, or 20 words
sunspot cycle and the Heaviside layer. Their per minute, depending upon the class of li-
predominant use is for reliable communication cense, assuming an average of five characters
over distances of 150 miles or less. These to the word in each case. The sending and re-
e
HANDBOOK Learning the Code 15
A
.
4. N
~o
eees
ee
1
fj
e
O
ee
=a 2
e
3
C
D
p
Q eee
e 4 ....
E
F . 4=1
R
S
e
5
6
ee
G
H
J
4~1 411M T
U
v
W
e
ee
ee
7
g
9
0
eee
ease
eee 0
e
K ñ MEANS ZERO. AND IS WRITTEN IN THIS
WAY TO DISTINGUISH IT FROM THE LETTER Ò,
L Y IT OFTEN IS TRANSMITTED INSTEAD AS ONE
M Z ,M LONG DASH (EQUIVALENT TO 5 DOTS)
PERIOD (.) WAIT SIGN (AS)

COMMA (,) DOUBLE DASH (BREAK) 41=DOla
INTERROGATION (7) ERROR (ERASE SIGN)
QUOTATION MARK( FRACTION BAR (I)
COLON (:1
")
END OF MESSAGE (AR) I 4~

SEMICOLON
PARENTHESIS
(;)
( I
END OF TRANSMISSION (SK)
INTERNAT. DISTRESS SIG. (SOS)
IMMI
111 ~I
Figure 1
The Continental (or International Morse) Code is used for substantially all non -automatic radio
communication. DO NOT memorize from the printed page; code is a language of SOUND, and
must not be learned visually; learn by listening as explained in the text.
ceiving tests run for five minutes, and one Since code reading requires that individual
minute of errorless transmission or reception letters be recognized instantly, any memoriz-
must be accomplished within the five -minute ing scheme which depends upon orderly se-
interval. quence, such as learning all "dah" letters
If the code test is failed, the applicant must
and all "dit" letters in separate groups, is to
wait at least one month before he may again
be discouraged. Before beginning with a code
appear for another test. Approximately 30% of practice set it is necessary to memorize the
amateur applicants fail to pass the test. It whole alphabet perfectly. A good plan is to
should be expected that nervousness and ex- study only two or three letters a day and to
citement will at least to some degree tempo- drill with those letters until they become part
rarily lower the applicant's code ability. The of your consciousness. Mentally translate each
best prevention against this is to master the day's letters into their sound equivalent
code at a little greater than the required speed wherever they are seen, on signs, in papers,
under ordinary conditions. Then if you slow indoors and outdoors. Tackle two additional
down a little due to nervousness during a test letters in the code chart each day, at the same
the result will not prove fatal. time reviewing the characters already learned.
Avoid memorizing by routine. Be able to
Memorizing There is no shortcut to code pro- sound out any letter immediately without so
the Code ficiency. To memorize the al- much as hesitating to think about the letters
phabet entails but a few eve- preceding or following the one in question.
nings of diligent application, but considerable Know C, for example, apart from the sequence
time is required to build up speed. The exact ABC. Skip about among all the characters
time required depends upon the individual's learned, and before very long sufficient letters
ability and the regularity of practice. will have been acquired to enable you to spell
While the speed of learning will naturally out simple words to yourself in "dit dabs."
vary greatly with different individuals, about This is interesting exercise, and for that rea-
70 hours of practice (no practice period to be son it is good to memorize all the vowels first
over 30 minutes) will usually suffice to bring and the most common consonants next.
a speed of about 13 w.p.m.; 16 w.p.m. requires Actual code practice should start only when
about 120 hours; 20 w.p.m., 175 hours. the entire alphabet, the numerals, period, corn-
Lion, do it incode. It makes more interesting

practice than confining yourself to random
practice material.
When two co- learners have memorized the
code and are ready to start sending to each
other for practice, it is a good idea to enlist
the aid of an experienced operator for the first
practice session or two so that they will get
an idea of how properly formed characters
sound.
During the first practice period the speed
should be such that substantially solid copy
Figure 2 can be made without strain. Never mind if this
These code characters are used in languages is only two or three words per minute. In the
other than English. They may occasionally next period the speed should be increased
he encountered so it is well to know them. slightly to a point where nearly all of the
characters can be caught only through con-
scious effort. When the student becomes pro-
ma, and question mark have been memorized ficient at this new speed, another slight in-
so thoroughly that any one can be sounded crease may be made, progressing in this man-
without the slightest hesitation. Do not bother ner until a speed of about 16 wj rds per minute
with other punctuation or miscellaneous sig- is attained if the object is to pass the amateur
nals until later. 13-word per minute code test. The margin of
3 w.p.m. is recommended to overcome a possi-
Sound - Each letter and figure must be ble excitement factor at examination time.
Not Sight memorized by its sound rather Then when you take the test you don't have to
than its appearance. Code is a worry about the "jitters" or an "off day."
system of sound communication, the same as Speed should not be increased to a new
is the spoken word. The letter A, for example, level until t h e student finally makes solid
is one short and one long sound in combina- copy with ease for at l e a s t a five-minute
tion sounding like dit dab, and it must be re- period at the old level. How frequently in-
membered as such, and not as "dot dash." creases of speed can be made depends upon
individual ability and the amount of practice.
Each increase is apt to prove disconcerting,
Practice Time, patience, and regularity are but remember "you are never learning when
required to learn the code properly. you are comfortable."
Do not expect to accomplish it within a few A number of amateurs are sending code
days. practice on the air on schedule once or twice
Don't practice too long at one stretch; it each week; excellent practice can be obtained
does more harm than good. Thirty minutes at after you have bought or constructed your re-
a time should be the limit. ceiver by taking advantage of these sessions.
Lack of regularity in practice is the most If you live in a medium -size or large city,
common cause of lack of progress. Irregular the chances are that there is an amateur radio
practice is very little better than no practice club in your vicinity which offers free code
at all. Write down what you have heard; then practice lessons periodically.
forget it; do not look back. If your mind dwells
even for an instant on a signal about which
you have doubt, you will miss the next few Skill When you listen to someone speaking
characters while your attention is diverted. you do not consciously think how his
While various automatic code machines, words are spelled. This is also true when you
phonograph records, etc., will give you prac- read. In code you must train your ears to read
tice, by far the best practice is to obtain a code just as your eyes were trained in school
study companion who is al so interested in to read printed matter. With enough practice
learning the code. When you have both memo- you acquire skill, and from skill, speed. In
rized the alphabet you can start sending to other words, it becomes a habit, something
each other. Practice with a key and oscillator which can be done without conscious effort.
or key and buzzer generally proves superior Conscious effort is fatal to speed; we can't
to all automatic equipment. Two such sets think rapidly enough; a speed of 25 words a
operated between two rooms are fine -or be- minute, which is a common one in commercial
tween your house and his will be just that operations, means 125 characters per minute
much better. Avoid talking to your partner or more than two per second, which leaves
while practicing. If you must ask him a ques- no time for conscious thinking.
Perfect Formation 'hen transmitting on the OCCYJOOOOO

of Characters code practice set to your
partner, concentrate on the
quality of your sending, not on your speed.
Your partner will appreciate it and he could
not copy you if you speeded up anyhow.
If you want to get a reputation as having an al Imo Imo titti rmli lime
excellent "fist" on the air, just remember that A T O N E
speed alone won't do the trick. Proper execu-
tion of your letters and spacing will make
Figure 3
much more of an impression. Fortunately, as
you get so that you can send evenly and accu- Diagram illustrating relative lengths of
dashes and spaces referred to the duration
rately, your sending speed will automatically of a dot. A dash is exactly equal in duration
increase. Remember to try to see how evenly to three dots; spaces between parts of a
you can send, and how fast you can receive. letter equal one dot; those between letters,
Concentrate on making signals properly with three dots; space between words, five dots.
Note that a slight increase between two parts
your key. Perfect formation of characters is of a letter will make it sound like two
paramount to everything else. Make every sig- letters.
nal right no matter if you have to practice it
hundreds or thousands of times. Never allow Be particularly careful of letters like B.
yourself to vary the slightest from perfect for- Many beginners seem to have a tendency to
mation once you have learned it. leave a longer space after the dash than that
If possible, get a good operator to listen to which they place between succeeding dots,
your sending for a short time, asking him to thus making it sound like TS. Similarly, make
criticize even the slightest imperfections. sure that you do not leave a longer space after
Timing It is of the utmost importance to the first dot in the letter C than you do be-
maintain uniform spacing in charac- tween other parts of the same letter; otherwise
ters and combinations of characters. Lack of it will sound like NN.
uniformity at this point probably causes be-
ginners more trouble than any other single fac- Sending vs. Once you have memorized the
tor. Every -dot, every dash, and every space Receiving code thoroughly you should con-
must be correctly timed. In other words, ac- centrate on increasing your re-
curate timing is absolutely essential to intel- ceiving speed. True, if you have to practice
ligibility, and timing of the spaces between with another newcomer who is learning the
the dots and dashes is just as important as code with you, you will both have to do some
the lengths of the dots and dashes themselves. sending. But don't attempt to practice sending
The characters are timed with the dot as a just for the sake of increasing your sending
speed.
"yardstick." A standard dash is three times
as long as a dot. The spacing between parts When transmitting on the code practice set
of the same letter is equal to one dot; the to your partner so that he can get receiving
space between letters is equal to three dots, practicg, concentrate on the quality of your
and that between words equal to five dots. sending, not on your speed.
The rule for spacing between letters and Because it is comparatively easy to learn
words is not strictly observed when sending to send rapidly, especially when no particular
slower than about 10 words per minute for the care is given to the quality of sending, many
benefit of someone learning the code and de- operators who have just received their licenses
siring receiving practice. Vihen sending at, get on the air and send mediocre or worse code
say, 5 w.p.m., the individual letters should be at 20 w.p.m. when they can barely receive
made the same as if the sending rate were good code at 13. Most oldtimers remember their
about 10 w.p.m., except that the spacing be- own period of initiation and are only too glad
tween letters and words is greatly exaggerated. to be patient and considerate if you tell them
The reason for this is obvious. The letter that you are a newcomer. But the surest way
for instance, will then sound exactly the same to incur their scorn is to try to impress them
at 10 w.p.m. as at 5 w.p.m., and when the with your "lightning speed," and then to re-
speed is increased above 5 w.p.m. the student quest them to send more slowly when they
will not have to become familiar with what come back at you at the same speed.
may seem to him like a new sound, although Stress your copying ability; never stress
it is in reality only a faster combination of your sending ability. jt should be obvious that
dots and dashes. At the greater speed he will that if you try to send faster than you can re-
merely have to learn the identification of the ceive, your ear will not recognize any mis-
same sound without taking as long to do so. takes which your hand may make.
fingers to become tense. Send with a full, free

arm movement. Avoid like the plague any fin-
ger motion other than the slight cushioning
effect mentioned above.
Stick to the regular hand key for learning
code. No other key is satisfactory for this pur-
pose. Not until you have thoroughly mastered
both sending and receiving at the maximum
speed in which you are interested should you
tackle any form of automatic or semi -automatic
key such as the Vibroplex ( "bug ") or an elec-
tronic key.
Difficulties Should you experience difficulty

Figure 4 in increasing your code speed
PROPER POSITION OF THE FINGERS FOR
after you have once memorized the characters,
there is no reason to become discouraged. It
OPERATING A TELEGRAPH KEY
is more difficult for some people to learn code
The fingers hold the knob and act as a cush- than for others, but there is no justification
ion. The hand rests lightly on the key. The
muscles of the forearm provide the power, for the contention sometimes made that "some
the wrist acting as the fulcrum. The power people just can't learn the code." It is not a
should not come from the fingers, but rather matter of intelligence; so don't feel ashamed
from the forearm muscles. if you seem to experience a little more than
the usual difficulty in learning code. Your re-
action time may be a little slower or your co-
Using the Key Figure 4 shows the proper posi- ordination not so good. If this is the case,
tion of the hand, fingers and remember you can still learn the code. You
wrist when manipulating a telegraph or radio may never e a r n to send and receive at 40
1
key. The forearm should rest naturally on the w.p.m., but you can learn sufficient speed for
desk. It is preferable that the key be placed all non -commercial purposes and even for most
far enough back from the edge of the table commercial purposes if you have patience,
(about 18 inches) that the elbow can rest on and refuse to be discouraged by the fact that
the table. Otherwise, pressure of the table others seem to pick it up more rapidly.
edge on the arm will tend to hinder the circu- When the sending operator is sending just
lation of the blood and weaken the ulnar nerve a bit too fast for you (the best speed for prac-
at a point where it is close to the surface, tice), you will occasionally miss a signal or a
which in turn will tend to increase fatigue small group cf them. When you do, leave a
considerably. blank space; do not spend time futilely trying
The knob of the key is grasped lightly with to recall it; dismiss it, and center attention
the thumb along the edge; the index and third on the next letter; otherwise you'll miss more.
fingers rest on the top towards the front or far Do not ask the sender any questions until the
edge. The hand moves with a free up and down transmission is finished.
motion, the wrist acting as a fulcrum. The To prevent guessing and get equal practice
power must come entirely from the arm mus- on the less common letters, depart occasional-
cles. The third and index fingers will bend ly from plain language material and use a jum-
slightly during the sending but not because of ble of letters in which the usually less com-
deliberate effort to manipulate the finger mus- monly used letters predominate.
cles. Keep your finger muscles just tight As mentioned before, many students put a
enough to act as a cushion for the arm motion greater space after the dash in the letter B
and let the slight movement of the fingers take than between other parts of the same letter so
care of itself. The key's spring is adjusted to it sounds like TS. C, F, Q, V, X, Y and Z
the individual wrist and should be neither too often give similar trouble. Make a list of words
stiff nor too loose. Use a moderately stiff ten- or arbitrary combinations in which these let-
sion at first and gradually lighten it as you ters predominate and practice them, both send-
become more proficient. The separation being and receiving until they no longer give you
tween the contacts must be the proper amount trouble. Stop everything e l s e and stick at
for the desired speed, being somewhat under them. So long as they give you trouble you are
1/16 inch for slow speeds and slightly closer not ready for anything else.
together (about 1/32 inch) for faster speeds. Follow the same procedure w i th letters
Avoid extremes in either direction. which you may tend to confuse such as F and
Do not allow the muscles of arm, wrist, or L, which are often confused by beginners.
Figure 5
THE SIMPLEST CODE PRACTICE
SET CONSISTS OF A KEY AND A
BUZZER
rBUZ2ER T
1 INEXPENSIVE 500
OHM POTENTIOMETER
The buzzer is adjusted to give a VOLUME CONTROL
steady, high -pitched whine. If de- I.5 70 45 VOLTS
Or BATTERY
sired, the phones may be omitted, PHONES.
in which case the buzzer should be 1 TO 4
PAIR
mounted firmly on a sounding board.
Crystal, magnetic, or dynamic ear-
T / i
KEY THESE PARTS REQUIRED
phones may be used. Additional ONLY IV HEADPHONE
sets of phones should be connected OPERATION IS DESIRED
in parallel, not in series.
Keep at it until you always get them right punctuate copy as he goes along. It is not rec-
without having to stop even an instant to think ommended that the beginner attempt to do this
about it. until he can send and receive accurately and
If you do not instantly recognize the sound with ease at a speed of at least 12 words a
of any character, you have not learned it; go minute.
back and practice your alphabet further. You It requires a considerable amount of train-
should never have to omit writing down every ing to dissociate the action of the subcon-
signal you hear except when the transmission scious mind from the direction of the conscious
is too fast for you. mind. It may help some in obtaining this train-
Write down what you hear, not what you ing to write down two columns of short words.
think it should be. It is surprising how often Spell the first word in the first column out loud
the word which you guess will be wrong. while writing down the first word in the second
column. At first this will be a bit awkward,
Copying Behind All good operators copy sev- but you will rapidly gain facility with practice.
eral words behind, that is, Do the same with all the words, and then re-
while one word is being received, they are verse columns.
writing down or typing, say, the fourth or fifth Next try speaking aloud the words in the one
previous word. At first this is very difficult, column while writing those in the other column;
but after sufficient practice it will be found then reverse columns.
actually to be easier than copying close up. After the foregoing can be done easily, try
It also results in more accurate copy and en- sending with your key the words in one col-
ables the receiving operator to capitalize and umn while spelling those in the other. It won't
be easy at first, but it is well worth keeping
after if you intend to develop any real code
CK-722
proficiency. Do not attempt to catch up. There
1= COLLECTOR
2= BASE
is a natural tendency to close up the gap, and
RED DOT
3= EMITTER you must train yourself to overcome this.
Next have your code companion send you a
word either from a list or from straight text;
do not write it down yet. Now have him send
the next word; a /ter receiving this second
2000 2.
PHONES word, write down the first word. After receiv-
10K
0.5 W
KEY ing the third word, write the second word; and
so on. Never mind how slowly you must go,
even if it is only two or three words per minute.
1.5 V
Stay behind.
It will probably take quite a number of prac-
Figure 6 tice sessions before you can do this with any
SIMPLE TRANSISTOR CODE facility. After it is relatively easy, then try
PRACTICE OSCILLATOR staying two words behind; keep this up until
it is easy. Then try three words, four words,
An inexpensive Raytheon CK -722 transistor
and five words. The more you practice keep-
requires only o single 11/2-volt flashlight
battery for power. The inductance of the ear- ing received material in mind, the easier it
phone windings forms part of the oscillatory will be to stay behind. It will be found easier
circuit. The pitch of the note may be changed at first to copy material with which one is
by varying the value of the two capacitors fairly familiar, then gradually switch to less
connected across the earphones. familiar material.
20 Introduction to Radio
Automatic Code The two practice sets which the help of a partner by sending "dit-dah"
Machines are described in this chapter messages to each other while riding to work,
are of most value when you eating lunch, etc. It is better, however, to use
have someone with whom to practice. Automa- a buzzer or code practice oscillator in con-
tic code machines are not recommended to any- junction with a regular telegraph key.
one who can possibly obtain a companion with As a good key may be considered an invest-
whom to practice, someone who is also inter- ment it is wise to make a well -made key your
ested in learning the code. If you are unable first purchase. Regardless of what type code
to enlist a code partner and have to practice practice set you use, you will need a key, and
by yourself, the best way to get receiving later on you will need one to key your trans-
practice is by the use of a tape machine (auto- mitter. If you get a good key to begin with,
matic code sending machine) with several you won't have to buy another one later.
practice tapes. Or you can use a set of phono- The key should be rugged and have fairly
graph code practice records. The records are heavy contacts. Not only will the key stand
of use only if you have a phonograph whose up better, but such a key will contribute to
turntable speed is readily adjustable. The tape the "heavy" type of sending so desirable for
machine can be rented by the month for a rea- radio work. Morse (telegraph) operators use
sonable fee. a "light" style of sending and can send some-
Once you can copy about 10 w.p.m. you can what faster when using this light touch. But,
also get receiving practice by listening to slow in radio work static and interference are often
sending stations on your receiver. Many ama- present, and a slightly heavier dot is desir-
teur stations send slowly particularly when able. If you use a husky key, you will find
working far distant stations. When receiving yourself automatically sending in this manner.
conditions are particularly poor many commer- To generate a tone simulating a code signal
cial stations also send slowly, sometimes re- as heard on a receiver, either a mechanical
peating every word. Until you can copy around buzzer or an audio oscillator may be used. Fig-
10 w.p.m. your receiver isn't much use, and
ure 5 shows a simple code -practice set using
either another operator or a machine or records a buzzer which may be used directly simply
are necessary for getting receiving practice
by mounting the buzzer on a sounding board,
after you have once memorized the code. or the buzzer may be used to feed from one to
four pairs of conventional high -impedance
Code Practice If you don't feel too foolish phones.
Sets doing it, you can secure a An example of the audio -oscillator type of
measure of code practice with code -practice set is illustrated in figures 6
and 7. An inexpensive Raytheon CK -722 trans-
istor is used in place of the more expensive,
power consuming vacuum tube. A single "pen -
lite" 1% -volt cell powers the unit. The coils
of the earphones form the inductive portion
of the resonant circuit. 'Phones having an
impedance of 2000 ohms or higher should be
used. Surplus type R -14 earphones also work
well with this circuit.
Figure 7
The circuit of Figure 6 is used in this

miniature transistorized code Practice
oscillator. Components are mounted in a
small plastic case. The transistor is
attached to a three terminal phenolic
mounting strip. Sub- miniature jacks are
used for the key and phones connections.
A hearing aid earphone may also be used,
as shown. The phone is stored in the
plastic case when not in use.
CHAPTER TWO
Direct Current Circuits
All naturally occurring matter (excluding so different particles, but this further sub-
artifically produced radioactive substances) is division can be left to quantum mechanics and
made up of 92 fundamental constituents called atomic physics. As far as the study of elec-
elements. These elements can exist either in tronics is concerned it is only necessary for
the free state such as iron, oxygen, carbon, the reader to think of the normal atom as being
copper, tungsten, and aluminum, or in chemi- composed of a nucleus having a net positive
cal unions commonly called compounds. The charge that is exactly neutralized by the one
smallest unit which still retains all the origi- or more orbital electrons surrounding it.
nal characteristics of an element is the atom. The atoms of different elements differ in
Combinations of atoms, or subdivisions of respect to the charge on the positive nucleus
compounds, result in another fundamental and in the number of electrons revolving
unit, the molecule. The molecule is the small- around this charge. They range all the way
est unit of any compound. All reactive ele- from hydrogen, having a net charge of one
ments when in the gaseous state also exist on the nucleus and one orbital electron, to
in the molecular form, made up of two or more uranium with a net charge of 92 on the nucleus
atoms. The nonreactive gaseous elements and 92 orbital electrons. The number of orbital
helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and electrons is called the atomic number of the
radon are the only gaseous elements that ever element.
exist in a stable monatomic state at ordinary
temperatures. Action of theFrom the above it must not be
Electrons thought that the electrons re-
2-1 The Atom volve in a haphazard manner
around the nucleus. Rather, the electrons in
An atom is an extremely small unit of an element having a large atomic number are
matter -there are literally billions of them grouped into rings having a definite number of
making up so small a piece of material as a electrons. The only atoms in which these rings
speck of dust. To understand the basic theory are completely filled are those of the inert
of electricity and hence of radio, we must go gases mentioned before; all other elements
further and divide the atom into its main have one or more uncompleted rings of elec-
components, a positively charged nucleus and trons. If the uncompleted ring is nearly empty,
a cloud of negatively charged particles that the element is metallic in character, being
surround the nucleus. These particles, swirling most metallic when there is only one electron
around the nucleus in elliptical orbits at an in the outer ring. If the incomplete ring lacks
incredible rate of speed, are called orbital only one or two electrons, the element is
electrons. usually non -metallic. Elements with a ring
about half completed will exhibit both non-
It is upon the behavior of these electrons metallic and metallic characteristics; carbon,
when freed from the atom, that depends the silicon, germanium, and arsenic are examples.
study of electricity and radio, as well as Such elements are called semi -conductors.
allied sciences. Actually it is possible to sub- In metallic elements these outer ring elec-
divide the nucleus of the atom into a dozen or trons are rather loosely held. Consequently,
21
22 Direct Current Circuits THE RADIO
there is a continuous helter -skelter movement charge, but one more negative than the other,
of these electrons and a continual shifting the one with the lesser negative charge will
from one atom to another. The electrons which act as though it were positively charged with
move about in a substance are called free respect to the other body. It is the algebraic
electrons, and it is the ability of these elec- potential difference that determines the force
trons to drift from atom to atom which makes with which electrons are attracted or repulsed,
possible the electric current. the potential of the earth being taken as the
zero reference point.
Conductors and If
the free electrons are nu-
Insulators merous and loosely held, the
The Electric The flow of electrons along a
element is a good conductor.
Current conductor due to the application
On the other hand, if there are few free elec-
of an electromotive force con-
trons, as is the case when the electrons in an stitutes an electric current. This drift is in
outer ring are tightly held, the element is a addition to the irregular movements of the
poor conductor. If there are virtually no free
electrons. However, it must not be thought
electrons, the element is a good insulator.
that each free electron travels from one end
of the circuit to the other. On the contrary,
2 -2 Fundamental Electrical each free electron travels only a short distance
Units and Relationships before colliding with an atom; this collision
generally knocking off one or more electrons
from the atom, which in turn move a short
Electromotive Force: The free electrons in distance and collide with other atoms, knock-
Potential Difference a conductor move con- ing off other electrons. Thus, in the general
stantly about and change drift of electrons along a wire carrying an
their position in a haphazard manner. To electric current, each electron travels only a
produce a drift of electrons or electric current short distance and the excess of electrons at
along a wire it is necessary that there be a one end and the deficiency at the other are
difference in "pressure" or potential between balanced by the source of the e.m.f. When this
the two ends of the wire. This potential dif- source is removed the state of normalcy re-
ference can be produced by connecting a turns; there is still the rapid interchange of
source of electrical potential to the ends of free electrons between atoms, but there is no
the wire. general trend or "net movement" in either
As will be explained later, there is an ex- one direction or the other.
cess of electrons at the negative terminal of
a battery and a deficiency of electrons at the Ampere and There are two units of measure-
positive terminal, due to chemical action. Coulomb ment associated with current,
When the battery is connected to the wire, the and they are often confused.
deficient atoms at the positive terminal attract The rate of /low of electricity is stated in
free electrons from the wire in order for the amperes. The unit of quantity is the coulomb.
positive terminal to become neutral. The A coulomb is equal to 6.28 x lots electrons,
attracting of electrons continues through the and when this quantity of electrons flows by
wire, and finally the excess electrons at a given point in every second, a current of
the negative terminal of the battery are at- one ampere is said to be flowing. An ampere
tracted by the positively charged atoms at the is equal to one coulomb per second; a coulomb
end of the wire. Other sources of electrical is, conversely, equal to one ampere- second.
potential (in addition to a battery) are: an Thus we see that coulomb indicates amount,
electrical generator (dynamo), a thermocouple, and ampere indicates rate of flow of electric
an electrostatic generator (static machine), a current.
photoelectric cell, and a crystal or piezo- Older textbooks speak of current flow as
electric generator. being from the positive terminal of the e.m.f.
Thus it is seen that a potential difference source through the conductor to the negative
is the result of a difference in the number of terminal. Nevertheless, it has long been an
electrons between the two (or more) points in established fact that the current flow in a
question. The force or pressure due to a metallic conductor is the electronic flow from
potential difference is termed the electro- the negative terminal of the source of voltage
motive force, usually abbreviated e.m.f. or through the conductor to the positive terminal.
E. M. F. It is expressed in units called volts. The only exceptions to the electronic direction
It should be noted that for there to be a of flow occur in gaseous and electrolytic con-
potential difference between two bodies or ductors where the flow of positive ions toward
points it is not necessary that one have a the cathode or negative electrode constitutes
positive charge and the other a negative a positive flow in the opposite direction to the
charge. If two bodies each have a negative electronic flow. (An ion is an atom, molecule,
HANDBOOK Resistance 23
or particle which either lacks one or more

electrons, or else has an excess of one or TABLE OF RESISTIVITY
more electrons.) ' es.stivity in
Ohms per Temp. Coeff. of
In radio work the terms "electron flow" and Circular resistance per rC
"current" are becoming accepted as being Material Mil -Foot at 20. C.
synonymous, but the older terminology is still Aluminum 17 0.0049

Brass 45 0.003 to 0.007
accepted in the electrical (industrial) field. Cadmium 46 0.0038
Chromium 16 0.00
Because of the confusion this sometimes Copper 10.4 0.0039
causes, it is often safer to refer to the direc- Iron
Silver
59
9.8
0.006
0.004
tion of electron flow rather than to the direc- Zinc 36 0.0035
Nichrome 650 0.0002
tion of the "current." Since electron flow Constantan 295 0.00001
consists actually of a passage of negative Manganin
Monet
290 0.00001
255 0.0019
charges, current flow and algebraic electron
flow do pass in the same direction.
FIGURE 1
Resistance The flow of current in a material

depends upon the ease with The resistance also depends upon tempera-
which electrons can be detached from the ture, increasing with increases in temperature
atoms of the material and upon its molecular for most substances (including most metals),
structure. In other words, the easier it is to due to increased electron acceleration and
detach electrons from the atoms the more free hence greater number of impacts between
a
electrons there will be to contribute to the electrons and atoms. However, in the case of
flow of current, and the fewer collisions that some substances such as carbon and glass the
occur between free electrons and atoms the temperature coefficient is negative and the
greater will be the total electron flow. resistance decreases as the temperature in-
The opposition to a steady electron flow creases. This is also true of electrolytes. The
is called the resistance of a material, and is temperature may be raised by the external ap-
one of its physical properties. plication of heat, or by the flow of the current
The unit of resistance is the ohm. Every itself. In the latter case, the temperature is
substance has a specific resistance, usually raised by the heat generated when the electrons
expressed as ohms per mil -foot, which is deter- and atoms collide.
mined by the material' s molecular structure
and temp e r a t u r e. A mil -foot is a piece of Conductors and In the molecular structure of
material one circular mil in area and one foot Insulators many materials such as glass,
long. Another measure of resistivity frequently porcelain, and mica all elec-
used is expressed in the units microhms per trons are tightly held within their orbits and
centimeter cube. The resistance of a uniform there are comparatively few free electrons.
length of a given substance is directly pro- This type of substance will conduct an elec-
portional to its length and specific resistance, tric current only with great difficulty and is
and inversely proportional to its cross- section- known as an insulator. An insulator is said to
al area. A wire with a certain resistance for a have a high electrical resistance.
given length will have twice as much resist- On the other hand, materials that have a
ance if the length of the wire is doubled. For large number of free electrons are known as
a given length, doubling the cross -sectional conductors. Most metals, those elements which
area of the wire will halve the resistance, have only one or two electrons in their outer
while doubling the diameter will reduce the ring, are good conductors. Silver, copper, and
resistance to one fourth. This is true since aluminum, in that order, are the best of the
the cross -sectional area of a wire varies as common metals used as conductors and are
the square of the diameter. The relationship said to have the greatest conductivity, or low-
between the resistance and the linear dimen- est resistance to the flow of an electric
sions of a conductor may be expressed by the current.
following equation: Fundamental These units are the volt,
rl Electrical Units the ampere, and the ohm.
R They were mentioned in the
A preceding paragraphs, but were not completely
defined in terms of fixed, known quantities.
Where The fundamental unit of current, or rate of
R = resistance in ohms flow of electricity is the ampere. A current of
r = resistivity in Ohms per mil -foot one ampere will deposit silver from a speci-
= length of conductor in feet fied solution of silver nitrate at a rate of
A = cross - sectional area in circular mils 1.118 milligrams per second.
-- ----
Figure 2
TYPICAL RESISTORS
Shown aboyo art various typas of resistors used in electronic circuits. Tho tarsier units are
power resistors. On the loft is a variable power resistor. Thr.e precision -type resistors are
shown in the conter with two small composition resistors beneath them. At the right is o
composition -typo potentiometer, used for audio circuitry.
The international standard for the ohm is amount of current may be drawn from it with-
the resistance offered by a uniform column of out disturbing its characteristics.
mercury at 0°C., 14.4521 grams in mass, of
constant cross - sectional area and 106.300 Ohm's Law The relationship between the
centimeters in length. The expression megohm electromotive force (voltage),
(1,000,000 ohms) is also sometimes used the flow of current (amperes), and the resist-
when speaking of very large values of resistance which impedes the flow of current (ohms),
ance. is very clearly expressed in a simple but
A volt is the e.m.f. that will produce a cur- highly valuable law known as Obm's law.
rent of one ampere through a resistance of This law states that the current in amperes is
one ohm. The standard of electromotive force equal to the voltage in volts divided by the
is the Weston cell which at 20° C. has a resistance in ohms. Expressed as an equation:
potential of 1.0183 volts across its terminals.
This cell is used only for reference purposes
in a bridge circuit, since only an infinitesimal
I = -
E
R
If the voltage (E) and resistance (R) are

RESISTANCE R, - Ra
known, the current (I) can be readily found.
If the voltage and current are known, and the
CONDUCTORS
BATTERY
-i-
lO
-.
-- E
resistance is unknown, the resistance (R) is
equal to -
E
. When the voltage is the un-
known quantity, it can be found by multiply-

ing These three equations are all secured
I x R.
Figure 3 from the original by simple transposition.
SIMPLE SERIES CIRCUITS The expressions are here repeated for quick
At (A) the battery is in serios with a single reference:
resistor. At (B) the battery Is in series with
two resistors, the resistors themselves being
in serlas. The arrows Indicate the direction of
electron flow.
E
R
R=-E I
E = IR
HANDBOOK Resistive Circuits 25
Figure 4 Figure 5
SIMPLE PARALLEL SERIES -PARALLEL
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
Ti,. two resistors R, and R2 are said to be in In this type of circuit the resistors are ar-
parallel since the flow of current is offered ranged in series groups, and these seriesed
two parallel paths. An electron leaving point groups are then placed In parallel.
A will pass either through Rr or R2, but not
through both, to reach the positive terminal
of the battery. If a large number of lectrons
are considered, the greater numb. will pass in the source. The voltage measured with no
through whichever of the two resistors has current flowing is termed the no load voltage;
the lower resistance. that measured with current flowing is the load
voltage. It is apparent that a voltage source
having a low internal resistance is most de-
where I is the current in amperes, sirable.
R is the resistance in ohms,
E is the electromotive force in volts. Resistances The current flowing in a series
in Series circuit is equal to the voltage
impressed divided by the total
Application of All electrical circuits fall in- resistance across which the voltage is im-
Ohm's Low to one of three classes: series pressed. Since the same current flows through
circuits, parallel circuits, and every part of the circuit, it is merely nec-
series -parallel circuits. A series circuit is essary to add all the individual resistances to
one in which the current flows in a single obtain the total resistance. Expressed as a
continuous path and is of the same value at formula:
every point in the circuit (figure 3). In a par-
allel circuit there are two or more current
paths between two points in the circuit, as
R10181 R, +R,+R, +... + RN .
shown in figure 4. Here the current divides at Of course, if the resistances happened to be
A, part going through R, and part through R2, all the same value, the total resistance would
and combines at B to return to the battery. be the resistance of one multiplied by the
Figure 5 shows a series -parallel circuit. There number of resistors in the circuit.
are two paths between points A and B as in
the parallel circuit, and in addition there are Resistances Consider two resistors, one of
two resistances in series in each branch of In Parallel 100 ohms and one of 10 ohms,
the parallel combination. Two other examples connected in parallel as in fig-
of series -parallel arrangements appear in figure 4, with a voltage of 10 volts applied
ure 6. The way in which the current splits to across each resistor, so the current through
flow through the parallel branches is shown by each can be easily calculated.
the arrows.
In every circuit, each of the parts has some
resistance: the batteries or generator, the con-
I= -
E
R
necting conductors, and the apparatus itself.
Thus, if each part has some resistance, no E = 10 volts 10
matter how little, and a current is flowing I, = = 0.1 ampere
R = 100 ohms 100
through it, there will be a voltage drop across
it. In other words, there will be a potential E = 10 volts 10
difference between the two ends of the circuit = 1.0 ampere
element in question. This drop in voltage is R= 10 ohms 12 10
equal to the product of the current and the Total current = I, + 1, = 1.1 ampere
resistance, hence it is called the IR drop.
The source of voltage has an internal re- Until it divides at A, the entire current of
sistance, and when connected into a circuit 1.1 amperes is flowing through the conductor
so that current flows, there will be an IR drop from the battery to A, and again from B through
in the source just as in every other part of the the conductor to the battery. Since this is more
circuit. Thus, if the terminal voltage of the current than flows through the smaller resistor
source could be measured in a way that would it is evident that the resistance of the parallel
cause no current to flow, it would be found combination must be less than 10 ohms, the
to be more than the voltage measured when a resistance of the smaller resistor. We can find
current flows by the amount of the IR drop this value by applying Ohm's law.
-E
A
R=
I
E = 10 volts 10
R = = 9.09 ohms
I = 1.1 amperes 1.1
The resistance of the parallel combination is
9.09 ohms.
Mathematically, we can derive a simple
formula for finding the effective resistance of
two resistors connected in parallel.
This formula is:
R,xR, Figure 6
R -
+R,
R, OTHER COMMON SERIES -PARALLEL
CIRCUITS
where R is the unknown resistance,
R, is the resistance of the first resistor,
R2 is the resistance of the second re- more resistors connected in parallel is always
sistor. less than the value of the lowest resistance in
the combination. It is well to bear this simple
If the effèctive value required is known, rule in mind, as it will assist greatly in ap-
and it is desired to connect one unknown re- proximating the value of paralleled resistors.
sistor in parallel with one of known value,
the following transposition of the above for- Resistors In To find the total resistance of
mula will simplify the problem of obtaining Series Parallel several resistors connected in
the unknown value: series -parallel, it is usually
easiest to apply either the formula for series
resistors or the parallel resistor formula first,
R, x R in order to reduce the original arrangement to
R, _
R, -R a simpler one. For instance, in figure 5 the
series resistors should be added in each
where R is the effective value required, branch, then there will be but two resistors in
R, is the known resistor, parallel to be calculated. Similarly in figure 7,
R2 is the value of the unknown resist- although here there will be three parallel re-
ance necessary to give R when sistors after adding the series resistors in
in parallel with R,. each branch. In figure 6B the paralleled re-
sistors should be reduced to the equivalent
The resultant value of placing a number of series value, and then the series resistance
unlike resistors in parallel is equal to the re- values can be added.
ciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the Resistances in series -parallel can be solved
various resistors. This can be expressed as: by combining the series and parallel formulas
1
into one similar to the following (refer to
R= figure 7):
- +- - +.... -R
1
R,
1
R,
+
1
R,
1
R
1 1
1
1
+
The effective value of placing any number R,+R, R,+R R, +R,+R,
of unlike resistors in parallel can be deter-
mined from the above formula. However, it
is commonly used only when there are three Voltage Dividers A voltage divider is ex-
or more resistors under consideration, since actly what its name im-
the simplified formula given before is more plies: a resistor or a series of resistors con-
convenient when only two resistors are being nected across a source of voltage from which
used. various lesser values of voltage may be ob-
From the above, it also follows that when tained by connection to various points along
two or more resistors of the same value are the resistor.
placed in parallel, the effective resistance of A voltage divider serves a most useful pur-
the paralleled resistors is equal to the value pose in a radio receiver, transmitter or ampli-
of one of the resistors divided by the number fier, because it offers a simple means of
of resistors in parallel. obtaining plate, screen, and bias voltages of
The effective value of resistance of two or different values from a common power supply
HANDBOOK Voltage Divider 27
Rs
RB R
RT BLEEDER CURRENT
FLOWS BETWEEN
POINTS A AND B
Figure 7
ANOTHER TYPE OF
SERIES -PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Figure 8
SIMPLE VOLTAGE DIVIDER
source. It may also be used to obtain very low CIRCUIT
voltages of the order of .01 to .001 volt with The arrows Indicate the m In which the
a high degree of accuracy, even though a current flow divides between the voltage divider
means of measuring such voltages is lacking. Itself and the sternal load circuit.
The procedure for making these measurements
can best be given in the following example.
Assume that an accurately calibrated volt-
meter reading from 0 to 150 volts is available, bleeder resistor and voltage divider, such as
and that the source of voltage is exactly 100 is commonly used in radio equipment, is illus-
volts. This 100 volts is then impressed through trated in the following example:
a resistance of exactly 1,000 ohms. It will, A power supply delivers 300 volts and is
then, be found that the voltage along various conservatively rated to supply all needed cur-
points on the resistor, with respect to the rent for the receiver and still allow a bleeder
grounded end, is exactly proportional to the current of 10 milliamperes. The following volt-
resistance at that point. From Ohm's law, the ages are wanted: 75 volts at 2 milliamperes
current would be 0.1 ampere; this current re- for the detector tube, 100 volts at 5 milli-
mains unchanged since the original value of amperes for the screens of the tubes, and
resistance (1,000 ohms) and the voltage source 250 volts at 20 milliamperes for the plates of
(100 volts) are unchanged. Thus, at a 500 - the tubes. The required voltage drop across R,
ohm point on the resistor (half its entire reis 75 volts, across R, 25 volts, across R, 150
sistance), the voltage will likewise be halved volts, and across R4 it is 50 volts. These
or reduced to 50 volts. values are shown in the diagram of figure 9.
The equation (E = I x R) gives the proof: The respective current values are also indi-
E = 500 x 0.1 = 50. At the point of 250 ohms cated. Apply Ohm's law:
on the resistor, the voltage will be one - fourth
the total value, or 25 volts (E = 250 x 0.1 = 25). E 75
R, = = 7,500 ohms.
Continuing with this process, a point can be I .01
found where the resistance measures exactly
1 ohm and where the voltage equals 0.1 volt. E 25
It is, therefore, obvious that if the original 2,083 ohms.
R,
-
0 =
I
source of voltage and the resistance can be
measured, it is a simple matter to predeter- E 150
mine the voltage at any point along the resist- R, -= 017 =
8,823 ohms.
or, provided that the current remains constant, I
and provided that no current is taken from the

tap -on point unless this current is taken into R4
50
=-E = .037 = 1,351 ohms.
consideration.
Voltage Divider Proper design of a voltage Rrorel = 7,500 + 2,083 + 8,823 +
Calculations divider for any type of radio 1,351 = 19,757 ohms.
equipment is a relatively
simple matter. The first consideration is the A 20,000 -ohm resistor with three sliding taps
amount of "bleeder current" to be drawn. will be of the approximately correct size, and
In addition, it is also necessary that the de- would ordinarily be used because of the diffi-
sired voltage and the exact current at each tap culty in securing four separate resistors of the
on the voltage divider be known. exact odd values indicated, and because no
Figure 8 illustrates the flow of current in a adjustment would be possible to compensate
simple voltage divider and load circuit. The for any slight error in estimating the probable
light arrows indicate the flow of bleeder cur- currents through the various taps.
rent, while the heavy arrows indicate the flow When the sliders on the resistor once are
of the load current. The design of a combined set to the proper point, as in the above ex-
-2 AMPS
SO VOLTS DROP
L, R4
0V OMA -2 AMPS
A
R2
10 +2 +5 MA.
150 VOLTS DROP 4 AM{=
300 VOLTS
I1I10
10+ 2 MA.
25 VOLTS DROP
Figure 10
BLEEDER CURRENT.10 MA.J
75 VOLTS DROP
4./
l ILLUSTRATING KIRCHHOFF'S
FIRST LAW
The current flowing toward point "A" is equal
-POWER SUPPLY LOAD to the current flowing away from point "A."
Figure 9
MORE COMPLEX VOLTAGE DIVIDER
The method for computing the values of the
tive, the sum of all currents flowing toward
-
and away from the point
account
taking signs into
is equal to zero. Such a sum is
-
resistors Is di d In the accompanying test.
known as an algebraic sum; such that the law
can be stated thus: The algebraic sum of all
ample, the voltages will remain constant at currents entering and leaving a point is zero.
the values shown as long as the current re- Figure 10 illustrates this first law. Since the
mains a constant value. effective resistance of the network of resistors
is 5 ohms, it can be seen that 4 amperes flow
Disadvantages of One of the serious disadvan- toward point A, and 2 amperes flow away
Voltage Dividers cages of the voltage divider through the two 5-ohm resistors in series. The
becomes evident when the remaining 2 amperes flow away through the 10-
the current drawn from one of the taps changes. ohm resistor. Thus, there are 4 amperes flowing
It is obvious that the voltage drops are inter- to point A and 4 amperes flowing away from
dependent and, in turn, the individual drops the point. If R is the effective resistance of
are in proportion to the current which flows the network (5 ohms), R, = 10 ohms, R2 = 5
through the respective sections of the divider ohms, R, = 5 ohms, and E = 20 volts, we can
resistor. The only remedy lies in providing a set up the following equation:
heavy steady bleeder current in order to make E E E
the individual currents so small a part of the -0
total current that any change in current will R R, R2 + R,
result in only a slight- change in voltage. This
can seldom be realized in practice because of
the excessive values of bleeder current which
--- -=0
20
5
20
10
20
5+5
would be required.
4 -2 -2 =0
Kirchhoff's Laws Ohm's law is all that is Kirchhoff's second law is concerned with
necessary to calculate the net voltage drop around a closed loop in a
values in simple circuits, such as the pre- circuit and states that:
ceding examples; but in more complex prob-
lems, involving several loops or more than In any closed path or loop in a circuit
one voltage in the same closed circuit, the the sum of the IR drops must equal
use of Kirchhoff's laws will greatly simplify the sum of the applied e.m.f.'s.
the calculations. These laws are merely rules
for applying Ohm's law. The second law also may be conveniently
Kirchhoff's first law is concerned with net stated in terms of an algebraic sum as: The
current to a point in a circuit and states that: algebraic sum of all voltage drops around a
closed path or loop in a circuit is zero. The
At any point in a circuit the current applied e.m.f.'s (voltages) are considered
flowing toward the point is equal to positive, while IR drops taken in the direction
the current flowing away from the of current flow (including the internal drop
point. of the sources of voltage) are considered
negative.
Stated in another way: if currents flowing to Figure 11 shows an example of the applica-
the point are considered positive, and those tion of Kirchhoff's laws to a comparatively
flowing from the point are considered nega- simple circuit consisting of three resistors and
HANDBOOK Kirchoff's Laws 29
an e.m.f. of 1 volt forces a current of 1 ampere

3 OHMS
through a circuit. The power in a resistive
circuit is equal to the product of the volt-
age applied across, and the current flowing
-
2 OHMS
= 3 VOLTS
+ 12
3 VOLTS
in, a given circuit. Hence: P (watts) = E
(volts) x I (amperes).
T_ Since it is often convenient to express
I. SET VOLTAGE DROPS AROUND EACH LOOP EQUAL TO ZERO.
power in terms of the resistance of the circuit
112(OHMS) +2(1.1- 12)+3 =0 (FIRST Loop)
and the current flowing through it, a substi-
tution of IR for E (E = IR) in the above formula
-6+2 (12-11) +312=0 (SECOND LOOP)
gives: P = IR x I or P = PR. In terms of volt-
2. SIMPLIFY age and resistance, P = E2/R. Here, I = E/R
21,+211 -212 +3 =0 212- 2I1+312 -6 =0 and when this is substituted for I the original
41,+3 512-211-6 =0 formula becomes P = E x E /R, or P = E' /R.
2 -12 21,+6 12 To repeat these three expressions:
5
3. EQUATE P= EI, P= I2R, and P =E' /R,
411 +3 2I,+6
2 5 where P is the power in watts,
E is the electromotive force in volts,
4. SIMPLIFY and
2011+15= 41,+12 I is the current in amperes.
11=4 AMPERE
5. RE- SUBSTITUTE To apply the above equations to a typical

I2= -2 = I+ AMPERE
problem: The voltage drop across a cathode
resistor in a power amplifier stage is 50 volts;
the plate current flowing through the resistor
Figure 11
is 150 milliamperes. The number of watts the
ILLUSTRATING KIRCHHOFF'S resistor will be required to dissipate is found
SECOND LAW from the formula: P = EI, or 50 x .150 = 7.5
The voltage drop around any closed loop In a
network Is equal to zero.
watts (.150 amperes is equal to 150 milli-
amperes). From the foregoing it is seen that
a 7.5 -watt resistor will safely carry the re-
quired current, yet a 10- or 20 -watt resistor
two batteries. First assume an arbitrary direc- would ordinarily be used to provide a safety
tion of current flow in each closed loop of the factor.
circuit, drawing an arrow to indicate the as- In another problem, the conditions being
sumed direction of current flow. Then equate similar to those above, but with the resistance
the sum of all IR drops plus battery drops (R = 333'/, ohms), and current being the known
around each loop to zero. You will need one factors, the solution is obtained as follows:
equation for each unknown to be determined. P = I2R = .0225 x 333.33 = 7.5. If only the volt-
Then solve the equations for the unknown cur- age and resistance are known, P = E2/R =
rents in the general manner indicated in figure 2500/333.33 = 7.5 watts. It is seen that all
11. If the answer comes out positive the di- three equations give the same results; the
rection of current flow you originally assumed selection of the particular equation depends
was correct. If the answer comes out negative, only upon the known factors.
the current flow is in the opposite direction to
the arrow which was drawn originally. This is Power, Energy It is important to remember
illustrated in the example of figure 11 where and Work that power (expressed in watts,
the direction of flow of I, is opposite to the horsepower, etc.), represents
direction assumed in the sketch. the rate of energy consumption or the rate of
doing work. But when we pay our electric bill
Power in In order to cause electrons
Resistive Circuits to flow through a conductor,
constituting a current flow,
it is necessary to apply an electromotive force
(voltage) across the circuit. Less power is Figure 12 RI
expended in creating a small current flow MATCHING OF
through a given resistance than in creating RESISTANCES
a large one; so it is necessary to have a unit
T' RL1
of power as a reference.
To deliver the greatest amount of power to the
The unit of electrical power is the watt, load, the load resistance RI, should be equal to
which is the rate of energy consumption when the internal resistance of the battery RI.
is said to have a certain capacitance. The

energy stored in an electrostatic field is ex-
pressed in joules (watt seconds) and is equal
to CE' /2, where C is the capacitance in farads
(a unit of capacitance to be discussed) and E
is the potential in volts. The charge is equal
to CE, the charge being expressed in coulombs.
Capacitance and Two metallic plates sep-

Capacitors crated from each other by
a thin layer of insulating
+evil% material (called a dielectric, in this case),

becomes a capacitor. When a source of d-c
potential is momentarily applied across these
"ft, plates, they may be said to become charged.
I I If the same two plates are then joined to-
gether momentarily by means of a switch, the
capacitor will discharge.
When the potential was first applied, elec-
trons immediately flowed from one plate to the
other through the battery or such source of
d-c potential as was applied to the capacitor
Figure 13
plates. However, the circuit from plate to
TYPICAL CAPACITORS plate in the capacitor was incomplete (the two
The two large units are high value Alter capaci- plates being separated by an insulator) and
tors. Shown beneath these are various types of thus the electron flow ceased, meanwhile es-
by -pass capacitors for r-f and audio application tablishing a shortage of electrons on one plate
and a surplus of electrons on the other.
Remember that when a deficiency of elec-
to the power company we have purchased a trons exists at one end of a conductor, there
specific amount of energy or work expressed is always a tendency for the electrons to move
in the common units of kilowatt -hours. Thus about in such a manner as to re- establish a
rate of energy consumption (watts or kilowatts) state of balance. In the case of the capacitor
multiplied by time (seconds, minutes or hours) herein discussed, the surplus quantity of elec-
gives us total energy or work. Other units of trons on one of the capacitor plates cannot
energy are the watt -second, BTU, calorie, erg, move to the other plate because the circuit
and joule. has been broken; that is, the battery or d-c po-
tential was removed. This leaves the capaci-
Heating Effect Heat is generated when a tor in a charged condition; the capacitor plate
source of voltage causes a with the electron deficiency is positively
current to flow through a resistor (or, for that charged, the other plate being negative.
matter, through any conductor). As explained In this condition, a considerable stress
earlier, this is due to the fact that heat is exists in the insulating material (dielectric)
given off when free electrons collide with the which separates the two capacitor plates, due
atoms of the material. More heat is generated to the mutual attraction of two unlike poten-
in high resistance materials than in those of tials on the plates. This stress is known as
low resistance, since the free electrons must electrostatic energy, as contrasted with elec-
strike the atoms harder to knock off other tromagnetic energy in the case of an inductor.
electrons. As the heating effect is a function This charge can also be called potential
of the current flowing and the resistance of energy because it is capable of performing
the circuit, the power expended in heat is work when the charge is released through an
given by the second formula: P = I'R. external circuit. The charge is proportional to
the voltage but the energy is proportional to
2-3 Electrostatics - Capacitors

Electrical energy can be stored in an elec-
the voltage squared, as shown in the following
analogy.
The charge represents a definite amount of
electricity, or a given number of electrons.
trostatic field. A device capable of storing The potential energy possessed by these
energy in such a field is called capacitor electrons depends not only upon their number,
(in earlier usage the term condenser was but also upon their potential or voltage.
frequently used but the IRE standards call for Compare the electrons to water, and two
the use of capacitor instead of condenser) and capacitors to standpipes, a 1 µfd. capacitor to
HANDBOOK Capacitance 31
EEL ORO
ST AT iC 1 micro-microfarad = 1/1,000,000 of a micro-
SHORTAGE
OF ELECTRONS
- SURPLUS farad, or .000001 microfarad, or 10'6 mi-
OF ELECTRONS
crofarads.
3
1 micro-microfarad = one - millionth of one -

millionth of a farad, or 10'l' farads.
If the capacitance is to be expressed in
microfarads in the equation given for energy
CHARGING CURRENT storage, the factor C would then have to be
divided by 1,000,000, thus:
Figure 14 CxE2
SIMPLE CAPACITOR Stored energy in joules -
Illustrating this imaginary linos of force repre- 2 x 1,000,000
senting the paths along which the repelling force
of the electrons would act on a free electron
This storage of energy in a capacitor is one
located between the two capacitor plates. of its very important properties, particularly
in those capacitors which are used in power
supply filter circuits.
a standpipe having a cross section of 1 square Dielectric Although any substance which has
inch and a 2 pfd. capacitor to a standpipe hav- Materials the characteristics of a good in-
ing a cross section of 2 square inches. The sulator may be used as a dielec-
charge will represent a given volume of water, tric material, commercially manufactured ca-
pacitors make use of dielectric materials
as the "charge" simply indicates a certain which have been selected because their char-
number of electrons. Suppose the water is acteristics are particularly suited to the job at
equal to 5 gallons. hand. Air is a very good dielectric material,
Now the potential energy, or capacity for
doing work, of the 5 gallons of water will be but an air - spaced capacitor does not have a
twice as great when confined to the 1 sq. in. high capacitance since the dielectric constant
standpipe as when confined to the 2 sq. in. of air is only slightly greater than one. A
standpipe. Yet the volume of water, or "charge" group of other commonly used dielectric mate -
is the same in either case. ials is listed in figure 15.
Likewise a 1 pfd. capacitor charged to 1000 Certain materials, such as bakelite, lucite,
volts possesses twice as much potential and other plastics dissipate considerable
energy as does a 2 pfd. capacitor charged to energy when used as capacitor dielectrics.
500 volts, though the charge (expressed in
coulombs: Q = CE) is the same in either case.
TABLE OF DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
The Unit of Capoc- If the external circuit of MATERIAL
DIELECTRIC
CONSTANT FAC TOR APO
POINT
itance: The Farad the two capacitor plates is 10 MC. _ 10 MC. fAHRENHEIT
-
ANILNINE -FORMALDEHYDE
completed by joining the RESI
3.4 0.004 2606
terminals together with a piece of wire, the BARIUM TIT 1200 1.0
electrons will rush immediately from one plate CASTOR OIL 4.57
to the other through the external circuit and

establish a state of equilibrium. This latter
CELLULOSE ACETATE
GLASS. WINDOW
3.7
S - 0.04
POOR
ISO.
2000
phenomenon explains the discharge of a capac-

GLASS, PYREX
KEL -F FLUOROTNENE
4.5
2.5
0.02
0.6 -
itor. The amount of stored energy in a charged
METHYL -METHACRYLATE-
LUCITE 2. 0.007 160
capacitor is dependent upon the charging po-
MICA 5. 0.0003
MYCALCX, MYRROY 7.0 0.002 550
tential, as well as a factor which takes into PHENOL -FORMALDEHYDE.
LOW -LOSS YELLOW 5.0 0.015 270
account the size of the plates, dielectric PHENOL-FORMALDEHYDE
5.5 0.03 SSO
BLACK BAKELITE
thickness, nature of the dielectric, and the PORCELAIN 7.0 0.005 2500__
number of plates. This factor, which is de- POLYETHYLENE 2.25 0.0003 220
termined by the foregoing, is called the capaci- POLYSTYRENE 2.55 0.0002 175
QUARTZ, FUSED ~ -4.2 0.0002 2500
tanceof a capacitor and is expressed in farads. RUBBER, HARD- EBONITE 2.4 0.007 150
The farad is such a large unit of capaci- STEATITE 5.1 0.003 2700
tance that it is rarely used in radio calcula-
tions, and the following more practical units
SULFUR
TEFLON
TITANIUM DIOXIDE
3.5
2.1
100 -175
0.003
0.02
0.0001
-
235
2700
TRANSFORMER OIL 2.2 0.003
have, therefore, been chosen. UREA -FORMALDEHYDE 5.0 0.05 250
VINYL RESINS .0 0.02 200
WOOD, 4.4 POOR
1 microfarad =1/1,000,000 of a farad, or
.000001 farad, or 10'6 farads. FIGURE 15
C,
1
C2
1
C,
1
II
C. C,
1
C,
EQUAL
CAPACITANCE
%
EQUAL
RESISTANCE
Capacitors in A -C a capacitor is con -

When
and D -C Circuitsnected into a direct -cur- Figure 18
rent circuit, it will block SHOWING THE USE OF VOLTAGE EQUAL-
the d.c., or stop the flow of current. Beyond IZING RESISTORS ACROSS CAPACITORS
the initial movement of electrons during the CONNECTED IN SERIES
period when the capacitor is being charged,
there will be no flow of current because the
circuit is effectively broken by the dielectric
of the capacitor. advisable to check several on an accurate
Strictly speaking, a very small current may ohmmeter to find two that are as close as
actually flow because the dielectric of the possible in resistance. The exact resistance
capacitor may not be a perfect insulator. This is unimportant, just so it is the same for the
minute current flow is the leakage current two resistors used.
previously referred to and is dependent upon
Capacitors in When two capacitors are con -
the internal d-c resistance of the capacitor.
This leakage current is usually quite notice- Series on A.C. nected in series, alternating
able in most types of electrolytic capacitors. voltage pays no heed to the
When an alternating current is applied to relatively high internal resistance of each
a capacitor, the capacitor will charge and dis-
capacitor, but divides across the capacitors
charge a certain number of times per second in inverse proportion to the capacitance. Be-
in accordance with the frequency of the alter- cause, in addition to the d.c. across a capac-
nating voltage. The electron flow in the charge itor in a filter or audio amplifier circuit there
and discharge of a capacitor when an a-c is usually an a -c or a -f voltage component, it
potential is applied constitutes an alternating is inadvisable to series- connect capacitors
current, in effect. It is for this reason that a of unequal capacitance even if dividers are
capacitor will pass an alternating current yet provided to keep the d.c. within the ratings of
offer practically infinite opposition to a direct the individual capacitors.
current. These two properties are repeatedly For instance, if a 500 -volt 1 -µfd. capacitor
in evidence in a radio circuit. is used in series with a 4-pfd. 500 -volt capac-
itor across a 250 -volt a-c supply, the 1-pfd.
Voltage Rating Any good paper dielectric capacitor will have 200 volts a.c. across it
of Capacitors filter capacitor has such a and the 4 -µfd. capacitor only 50 volts. An
in Series internal resistance (in-
high equalizing divider to do any good in this case
dicating a good dielectric) would have to be of very low resistance be-
that the exact resistance will vary consider- cause of the comparatively low impedance of
ably from capacitor to capacitor even though the capacitors to a.c. Such a divider would
they are made by the same manufacturer and draw excessive current and be impracticable.
are of the same rating. Thus, when 1000 volts The safest rule to follow is to use only
d.c. is connected across two 1-pfd. 500 -volt capacitors of the same capacitance and volt-
capacitors in series, the chances are that the age rating and to install matched high resist-
voltage will divide unevenly and one capacitor ance proportioning resistors across the various
will receive more than 500 volts and the other capacitors to equalize the d-c voltage drop
less than 500 volts. across each capacitor. This holds regardless
of how many capacitors are series-connected.
Voltage Equalizing By connecting a half -
Resistors megohm 1 -watt carbon re- Electrolytic Electrolytic capacitors use a very
sistor across each capac- Capacitors thin film of oxide as the dielec-
itor, the voltage will be equalized because the tric, and are polarized; that is,
resistors act as a voltage divider, and the they have a positive and a negative terminal
internal resistances of the capacitors are so which must be properly connected in a circuit;
much higher (many megohms) that they have otherwise, the oxide will break down and the
but little effect in disturbing the voltage di- capacitor will overheat. The unit then will no
vider balance. longer be of service. When electrolytic capac-
Carbon resistors of the inexpensive type itors are connected in series, the positive ter-
are not particularly accurate (not being de- minal is always connected to the positive lead
signed for precision service); therefore it is of the power supply; the negative terminal of
HANDBOOK Magnetism 35
the capacitor connects to the positive terminal

of the next capacitor in the series combination.
The method of connection for electrolytic ca-
pacitors in series is shown in figure 18. Elec- ELECTRON DRIFT
trolytic capacitors have very low cost per SWITCH
microfarad of capacity, but also have a large
power factor and high leakage; both dependent
upon applied voltage, temperature and the age
of the capacitor. The modern electrolytic ca- Figure 19
pacitor uses a dry paste electrolyte embedded LEFT -HAND RULE
in a gauze or paper dielectric. Aluminium foil Showing the direction of the magnetic lines of
and the dielectric are wrapped in a circular force produced around a conductor carrying an
electric current.
bundle and are mounted in a cardboard or metal
box. Etched electrodes may be employed to
increase the effective anode area, and the
total capacity of the unit. and pointing in the direction of electron flow.
The fingers then indicate the direction of the
The capacity of an electrolytic capacitor is magnetic field around the conductor.
affected by the applied voltage, the usage of Each electron adds its field to the total ex-
the capacitor, and the temperature and humidity ternal magnetic field, so that the greater the
of the environment. The capacity usually drops number of electrons moving along the con-
with the aging of the unit. The leakage current ductor, the stronger will be the resulting field.
and power factor increase with age. At high One of the fundamental laws of magnetism
frequencies the power factor becomes so poor is that like poles repel one another and unlike
that the electrolytic capacitor acts as a series poles attract one another. This is true of cur-
resistance rather than as a capacity. rent- carrying conductors as well as of perman-
ent magnets. Thus, if two conductors are placed
2-4 Magnetism side by side and the current in each is flowing
and Electromagnetism in the same direction, the magnetic fields will
also be in the same direction and will combine
The common bar or horseshoe magnet is to form a larger and stronger field. If the cur-
familiar to most people. The magnetic field rent flow in adjacent conductors is in opposite
which surrounds it causes the magnet to at- directions, the magnetic fields oppose each
tract other magnetic materials, such as iron other and tend to cancel.
nails or tacks. Exactly the same kind of mag- The magnetic field around a conductor may
netic field is set up around any conductor be considerably increased in strength by wind-
carrying a current, but the field exists only ing the wire into a coil. The field around each
while the current is flowing. wire then combines with those of the adjacent
turns to form a total field through the coil
Magnetic Fields Before a potential, or volt- which is concentrated along the axis of the
age, is applied to a con- coil and behaves externally in a way similar
ductor there is no external field, because there to the field of a bar magnet.
is no general movement of the electrons in If the left hand is held so that the thumb
one direction. However, the electrons do pro- is outstretched and parallel to the axis of a
gressively move along the conductor when an coil, with the fingers curled to indicate the
e.m.f. is applied, the direction of motion de- direction of electron flow around the turns of
pending upon the polarity of the e.m.f. Since the coil, the thumb then points in the direc-
each electron has an electric field about it, the tion of the north pole of the magnetic field.
flow of electrons causes these fields to build
up into a resultant external field which acts in The Magnetic In the magnetic circuit, the
a plane at right angles to the direction in Circuit units which correspond to cur-
which the current is flowing. This field is rent, voltage, and resistance
known as the magnetic field. in the electrical circuit are flux, magneto
-
The magnetic field around a current -carrying motive force, and reluctance.
conductor is illustrated in figure 19. The
direction of this magnetic field depends en- Flux, Flux As a current is made up of a drift
tirely upon the direction of electron drift or Density of electrons, so is a magnetic
current flow in the conductor. When the flow field made up of lines of force, and
is toward the observer, the field about the the total number of lines of force in a given
conductor is clockwise; when the flow is away magnetic circuit is termed the flux. The flux
from the observer, the field is counter- clock- depends upon the material, cross section, and
wise. This is easily remembered if the left length of the magnetic circuit, and it varies
hand is clenched, with the thumb outstretched directly as the current flowing in the circuit.
The unit of flux is the maxwell, and the sym- duce in air. It may be expressed by the ratio
bol is the Greek letter 56 (phi). B/H or B /H. In other words,
Flux density is the number of lines of force B B
per unit area. It is expressed in gauss if the or µ
unit of area is the square centimeter (1 gauss H H
= 1 line of force per square centimeter), or
in lines per square inch. The symbol for flux where p is the premeability, B is the flux
density is B if it is expressed in gausses, or density in gausses, B is the flux density in
B if expressed in lines per square Inch. lines per square inch, H is the m.m.f. in
gilberts per centimeter (oersteds), and H is
Magnetomotive The force which produces a the m.m.f. in ampere -turns per inch. These
Force flux in a magnetic circuit relations may also be stated as follows:
is called magnetomotive force. B B
It is abbreviated m.m.f. and is designated by H=- or H=-, and B=Hµ or B=Hµ
the letter F. The unit of magnetomotive force 11 µ
is the gilbert, which is equivalent to 1.26 x NI,
where N is the number of turns and I is the It can be seen from the foregoing that per-
current flowing in the circuit in amperes. meability is inversely proportional to the
The m.m.f. necessary to produce a given specific reluctance of a material.
flux density is stated in gilberts per centi-
meter (oersteds) (H), or in ampere -turns per Saturation Permeability is similar to electric
inch (H). conductivity. There is, however,
one important difference: the permeability of
Reluctance Magnetic reluctance corresponds magnetic materials is not independent of the
to electrical resistance, and is
the property of a material that opposes the magnetic current (flux) flowing through it,
creation of a magnetic flux in the material. although electrical conductivity is substan-
It is expressed in reis, and the symbol is the
tially independent of the electric current in a
wire. When the flux density of a magnetic
letter R. A material has a reluctance of 1 rel
when an m.m.f. of 1 ampere -turn (NI) generates conductor has been increased to the saturation
a flux of 1 line of force in it. Combinations
point, a further increase in the magnetizing
force will not produce a corresponding in-
of reluctances are treated the same as re-
sistances in finding the total effective reluc- crease in flux density.
tance. The specific reluctance of any sub- Calculations To magnetic circuit
simplify
stance is its reluctance per unit volume. calculations, a magnetization
Except for iron and its alloys, most common
materials have a specific reluctance very curve may be drawn for a given unit of ma-
nearly the same as that of a vacuum. which, terial. Such a curve is termed a B -H curve, and
may be determined by experiment. When the
for all practical purposes, may be considered
the same as the specific reluctance of air. current in an iron core coil is first applied,
the relation between the winding current and
Ohm's Law for The relations between flux, the core flux is shown at A-B in figure 20. If
Magnetic Circuits magnetomotive force, and the current is then reduced to zero, reversed,
reluctance are exactly the brought back again to zero and reversed to the
same as the relations between current, volt-
age, and resistance in the electrical circuit.
These can be stated as follows:
=-FR R =-F F =R MAGNETIZING FORCE

H -
where c6. = flux, F = m.m.f., and R = reluctance.

Permeability Permeability expresses the ease
with which a magnetic field may
be set up in a material as compared with the Figure 20
effort required in the case of air. Iron, for ex- TYPICAL HYSTERESIS LOOP
ample, has a permeability of around 2000 (B -H CURVE = A -B)
times that of air, which means that a given Showing relationship between the current in the
amount of magnetizing effect produced in an winding of an Iron core inductor and the core
iron core by a current flowing through a coil flus. A direct current flowing through the Indue-
of wire will produce 2000 times the flux density tance brings the magnetic state of the core to
that the same magnetizing effect would pro- some point on the hysteresis loop, such as C.
HANDBOOK Inductance 37
original direction, the flux passes through a the current. Thus, it can be seen that self-
typical hysteresis loop as shown. induction tends to prevent any change in the
current in the circuit.
Residual Magnetism; The magnetism remaining The storage of energy in a magnetic field
Retentivity in a material after the is expressed in joules and is equal to (LI2) /2.
magnetizing force is re- (A joule is equal to 1 watt- second. L is de-
moved is called residual magnetism. Reten- fined immediately following.)
tivity is the property which causes a magnetic
material to have residual magnetism after Inductance is usually denoted by
The Unit of
having been magnetized. the letter L, and is expressed in
Inductance;
The Henry henrys. A coil has an inductance
Hysteresis; Hysteresis is the character - of 1 henry when a voltage of 1
Coercive Force istic of a magnetic system volt is induced by a current change of 1 am-
which causes a loss of power pere per second. The henry, while commonly
due to the fact that a negative magnetizing used in audio frequency circuits, is too large
force must be applied to reduce the residual for reference to inductance coils, such as
magnetism to zero. This negative force is those used in radio frequency circuits; milli-
termed coercive /orce. By "negative" mag- henry or microhenry is more commonly used,
netizing force is meant one which is of the in the following manner:
opposite polarity with respect to the original
magnetizing force. Hysteresis loss is apparent henry = 1,000 millihenrys,
1 or 10' milli-
in transformers and chokes by the heating of henrys.
the core.
1 millihenry = 1 /1,000 of a henry, .001 henry,
Inductance If
the switch shown in figure 19 or 10' henry.
is opened and closed, a pulsating
direct current will be produced. When it is 1 microhenry = 1 /1,000,000 of a henry, or
first closed, the current does not instanta- .000001 henry, or 10 -6 henry.
neously rise to its maximum value, but builds
up to it. While it is building up, the magnetic 1 microhenry = 1 /1,000 of a millihenry, .001
field is expanding around the conductor. Of or 10 -' millihenrys.
course, this happens in a small fraction of a
second. If the switch is then opened. the cur- 1,000 microhenrys = 1 millihenry.
rent stops and the magnetic field contracts
quickly. This expanding and contracting field
will induce a current in any other conductor When one coil is near an-
Mutual Inductance
that is part of a continuous circuit which it
other, a varying current in
cuts. Such a field can be obtained in the way
one will produce a varying magnetic field
just mentioned by means of a vibrator inter - which cuts the turns of the other coil, inducing
ruptor, or by applying a.c. to the circuit in
a current in it. This induced current is also
place of the battery. Varying the resistance of
varying, and will therefore induce another cur-
the circuit will also produce the same effect.
rent in the first coil. This reaction between
This inducing of a current in a conductor due
two coupled circuits is called mutual induction,
to a varying current in another conductor not
and can be calculated and expressed in henrys.
in acutal contact is called electromagnetic in-
The symbol for mutual inductance is M. Two
duction.
circuits thus joined are said to be inductively
coupled.
Self- inductance Ifan alternating current flows The magnitude of the mutual inductance de-
.
through a coil the varying pends upon the shape and size of the two cir-
magnetic field around each turn cuts itself and cuits, their positions and distances apart, and
the adjacent turn and induces a voltage in the the premeability of the medium. The extent to
coil of opposite polarity to the applied e. m. f.
The amount of induced voltage depends upon
the number of turns in the coil, the current M
flowing in the coil, and the number of lines
of force threading the coil. The voltage so
induced is known as a counter- e.m./. or back -
e.m. f., and the effect is termed self- induction.
I , I I Z 1
When the applied voltage is building up, the Figure 21

counter- e.m.f. opposes the rise; when the ap- MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
plied voltage is decreasing, the counter- e.m.f. The quantity M represents the mutual inductance
is of the same polarity and tends to maintain between the two coils Li and 1-2.
-- L INDUCTANCE OF
SINGLE -LAYER
SOLENOID COILS
as the frequency is increased. The principal
use for conventional magnetic cores is in the
audio - frequency range below approximately
ORO N TURNS
L
R2 N2
9R+ 10L
MICROHENRIES 15,000 cycles, whereas at very low frequencies
(50 to 60 cycles) their use is mandatory if
an appreciable value of inductance is desired.
WHERE R = RADIUS OF COIL TO CENTER OF WIRE An air core inductor of only 1 henry in-
L = LENGTH OF COIL ductance would be quite large in size, yet
N = NUMBER OF TURNS
values as high as 500 henrys are commonly
Figure 22
available in small iron core chokes. The in-
FORMULA FOR
ductance of a coil with a magnetic core will
vary with the amount of current (both a-c and
CALCULATING INDUCTANCE
d -c) which passes through the coil. For this
Through the use of the equation and the sketch
shown above the inductance of single -layer
reason, iron core chokes that are used in power
solenoid coils can be calculated with on ac- supplies have a certain inductance rating at a
curacy of about one per cent for the types of predetermined value of d-c.
coils normally used in the h -f and v -h -f range. The premeability of air does not change
with flux density; so the inductance of iron
core coils often is made less dependent upon
which two inductors are coupled is expressed flux density by making part of the magnetic
by a relation known as coefficient of coupling. path air, instead of utilizing a closed loop of
This is the ratio of the mutual inductance ac- iron. This incorporation of an air gap is nec-
tually present to the maximum possible value. essary in many applications of iron core coils,
The formula for mutual inductance is L = particularly where the coil carries a consider-
L, + L2 + 2M when the coils are poled so that able d-c component. Because the permeability
their fields add. When they are poled so that of air is so much lower than that of iron, the
their fields buck, then L = L, + L, - 2M air gap need comprise only a small fraction of
(figure 21). the magnetic circuit in order to provide a sub-
stantial proportion of the total reluctance.
Inductors in Inductors in parallel are corn- Iron Cored Inductors Iron-core inductors may
Parallel bined exactly as are resistors in at Rodio Frequencies be used at radio frequen-
parallel, provided that they are cies if the iron is in a
far enough apart so that the mutual inductance very finely divided form, as in the case of the
is entirely negligible. powdered iron cores used in some types of r -f
coils and i -f transformers. These cores are
Inductors in Inductors in series are additive, made of extremely small particles of iron. The
Series just as are resistors in series, particles are treated with an insulating mater-
again provided that no mutual ial so that each particle will be insulated from
inductance exists. In this case, the total in- the others, and the treated powder is molded
ductance L is: with a binder into cores. Eddy current losses
L =L, +L2+ etc. are greatly reduced, with the result that these
special iron cores are entirely practical in cir-
Where mutual inductance does exist: cuits which operate up to 100 Mc. in frequency.
L = L, + L2 + 2M,
where M is the mutual inductance. R C and R L Transients
2 -5
This latter expression assumes that the
coils are connected in such a way that all flux A voltage divider may be constructed as
linkages are in the same direction, i.e., ad- shown in figure 23. Kirchhoff's and Ohm's
ditive. If this is not the case and the mutual Laws hold for such a divider. This circuit is
linkages subtract from the self-linkages, the known as an RC circuit.
following formula holds:
L = L, + L2 - 2M, Time Constant - When switch S in figure 23 is
RC and RL placed in position 1, a volt -
where M is the mutual inductance. Circuits meter across capacitor C will
indicate the manner in which
Core Material Ordinary magnetic cores can- the capacitor will become charged through the
not be used for radio frequen- resistor R from battery B. If relatively large
cies because the eddy current and hysteresis values are used for R and C, and if a v -t volt-
losses in the core material becomes enormous meter which draws negligible current is used
HANDBOOK Time Constant 39
to measure the voltage e, the rate of charge of

the capacitor may actually be plotted with the
aid of a stop watch.
Voltage Gradient It will be found that the volt-
age e will begin to rise
rapidly from zero the instant the switch is
,00
ii
closed. Then, as the capacitor begins to
11, eo charge, the rate of change of voltage across
a the capacitor will be found to decrease, the
t"' charging taking place more and more slowly
as the capacitor voltage e approaches the bat-
á J 20 tery voltage E. Actually, it will be found that
u0>
0
in any given interval a constant percentage of
a TIMEt. IN TERMS OR TIME CONSTANT RC3 the remaining difference between e and E
100
will be delivered to the capacitor as an in-
<k
'1°<
~a
ó0
crease in voltage. A voltage which changes in
>2
aó so
0
this manner is said to increase logarithmically,
úú- or is said to follow an exponential curve.
40
=Q
z
Oe 20 Time Constant mathematical analysis of
A
ó3a
2 J
o the charging of a capacitor in
o
TIME t, IN TERMS OF TIME CONSTANT RC
3
this manner would show that the relationship
úúN
'eat') between the battery voltage E and the voltage
across the capacitor e could be expressed in
Figure 23 the following manner:
TIME CONSTANT OF AN R -C CIRCUIT
Shown at (A) is the circuit upon which is based e= E(1_c-t/Rc)
the curves of (B) and (C). (8) shows the rate at
which capacitor C will charge from the Instant
where e,E,R, and C have the values discussed
at which switch S is placed In position 1. (C) above, c = 2.716 (the base of Naperian or
shows the discharge curve of capacitor C from natural logarithms), and t represents the time
the instant at which switch S 1s placed in which has elapsed since the closing of the
position 3. switch. With t expressed in seconds, R and C
Figure 24
TYPICAL INDUCTANCES
The large inductance is a 1000 -watt transmitting
coil. To
choke :. Several varieties of low power capability colts
h
right and left of this coil are small r -f
are shown below, along with various types of r-f
chokes intended for high -frequency operation.
40 Direct Current Circuits
R (INCLUDING D.C. RESISTANCE means that the voltage across the capaci-
OF INDUCTOR L) tor will have increased to 63.2 per cent of
the battery voltage in an interval equal to the
time constant or RC product of the circuit.
Then, during the next period equal to the time
constant of the RC combination, the voltage
across the capacitor will have risen to 63.2
per cent of the remaining difference in voltage.
or 86.5 per cent of the applied voltage E.
RL Circuit In the case of a series combination

F
40 of a resistor and an inductor, as
W 20 shown in figure 25, the current through the
combination follows a very similar law to that
i 0 2 3 given above for the voltage appearing across
TIME t, IN TERMS OF TIME CONSTANT
N
the capacitor in an RC series circuit. The
equation for the current through the combina-
tion is:
Figure 25
TIME CONSTANT OF AN R -L CIRCUIT E
Note that the time constant for the increase in
_E-IR/L)
current through an R -L circuit is identical to R
the rate of increase in voltage across the
capacitor in an R -C circuit. where i represents the current at any instant
through the series circuit, E represents the
applied voltage, and R represents the total
may be expressed in farads and ohms, or R resistance of the resistor and the d -c resist-
and C may be expressed in microfarads and ance of the inductor in series. Thus the time
megohms. The product RC is called the time constant of the RL circuit is L /R, with R ex-
constant of the circuit, and is expressed in pressed in ohms and L expressed in henrys.
seconds. As an example, if R is one megohm
and C is one microfarad, the time constant Voltage Decay When the switch in figure 23 is
RC will be equal to the product of the two, moved to position 3 after the
or one second. capacitor has been charged, the capacitor volt-
When the elapsed time t is equal to the age will drop in the manner shown in figure
time constant of the RC network under con- 23 -C. In this case the voltage across the ca-
sideration, the exponent of t becomes -1. pacitor will decrease to 36.8 per cent of the
-t is equal to 1 /(, or 1/2.716, which
Now initial voltage (will make 63.2 per cent of the
is 0.368. The quantity (1 - 0.368) then is equal total drop) in a period of time equal to the
to 0.632. Expressed as percentage, the above time constant of the RC circuit.
a wr
TYPICAL IRON -CORE INDUCTANCES
At the right is an upright mounting filter choke intended for use in low powered trans-
mitters and audio equipment. At the center is a hermetically sealed inductance for use
under poor environmental conditions. To the left is an inexpensive receiving -type choke,
with a small iron -core r -f choke directly in front of it.
CHAPTER THREE
Alternating Current Circuits
The previous chapter has been devoted to Frequency Spectrum present the usable fre-
At
a discussion of circuits and circuit elements quency range for alternat-
upon which is impressed a current consisting ing electrical currents extends over the enor-
of a flow of electrons in one direction. This mous frequency range from about 15 cycles per
type of unidirectional current flow is called second to perhaps 30,000,000,000 cycles per
direct current, abbreviated d. c. Equally as im- second. It is obviously cumbersome to use a
portant in radio and communications work, frequency designation in c.p.s. for enormously
and power practice, is a type of current flow high frequencies, so three common units which
whose direction of electron flow reverses are multiples of one cycle per second have
periodically. The reversal of flow may take been established.
place at a low rate, in the case of power sys-
tems, or it may take place millions of times
per second in the case of communications
frequencies. This type of current flow is
called alternating current, abbreviated a. c.
W
a
a
U o TIME -
3 -1 Alternating Current DIRECT CURRENT
1 CYCLE
Frequency of on An alternating current is cYCLt
Alternating Current one whose amplitude of
current flow periodically
rises from zero to a maximum in one direction, TIME
decreases to zero, changes its direction,
rises to maximum in the opposite direction,
and decreases to zero again. This complete
process, starting from zero, passing through ALTERNATING CURRENT
two maximums in opposite directions, and re-
turning to zero again, is called a cycle. The Figure 1
number of times per second that a current ALTERNATING CURRENT

passes through the complete cycle is called AND DIRECT CURRENT
the frequency of the current. One and one Graphical comparison between unldrectlonal
quarter cycles of an alternating current wave (direct) current and alternating current as plotted
are illustrated diagrammatically in figure 1. against time.
41
42 Alternating Current Circuits THE RADIO
These units are:

(1) the kilocycle (abbr., kc.), 1000 c.p.s.
(2) the Megacycle (abbr., Mc.), 1,000,000
c.p.s. or 1000 kc.
(3) the kilo -Megacycle (abbr., kMc.),
1,000,000,000 c.p.s. or 1000 Mc.
With easily handled units such as these we
can classify the entire usable frequency range
into frequency bands. Figure 2
The frequencies falling between about 15 THE ALTERNATOR
and 20,000 c.p.s. are called audio frequencies, Sem! -schematic representation of the simplest
abbreviated a.f., since these frequencies are form of the alternator.
audible to the human ear when converted from
electrical to acoustical signals by a loud-
speaker or headphone. Frequencies in the motion between the conductor and the field,
vicinity of 60 c.p.s. also are called power fre- and its strength depends upon the intensity of
quencies, since they are commonly used to the field, the rate of cutting lines of force, and
distribute electrical power to the consumer. the number of turns in the conductor.
The frequencies falling between 10,000
c.p.s. (10 kc.) and 30,000,000,000 c.p.s. (30 Alternators A machine that generates an alter-
kMc.) are commonly called radio frequencies, nating current is called an alter-
abbreviated r./., since they are commonly used nator or a -c generator. Such a machine in its
in radio communication and allied arts. The basic form is shown in figure 2. It consists of
radio- frequency spectrum is often arbitrarily two permanent magnets, M, the opposite poles
classified into seven frequency bands, each of which face each other and are machined so
one of which is ten times as high in frequency that they have a common radius. Between
as the one just below it in the spectrum (ex- these two poles, north (N) and south (S),
cept for the v -1-f band at the bottom end of a substantially constant magnetic field exists.
the spectrum). The present spectrum, with If a conductor in the form of C is suspended
classifications, is given below. so that it can be freely rotated between the
Frequency Classification Abbrev. two poles, and if the opposite ends of con-
ductor C are brought to collector rings, there
10 to 30 kc. Very-low frequencies v.l.f will be a flow of alternating current when con-
30 to 300 kc. Low frequencies l.f.
300 to 3000 kc. Medium frequencies
ductor C is rotated. This current will flow out
m. f.
High frequencies through the collector rings R and brushes B
3 to 30 Mc. h.f. to the external circuit, X -Y.
30 to 300 Mc. Very-high frequencies v.h.f.
300 to 3000 Mc. Ultra -high frequencies u.h.f. The field intensity between the two pole
3 to 30 kMc. Super-high frequencies s.h.f. pieces is substantially constant over the entire
30 to 300 kMc. Extremely -high area of the pole face However, when the
frequencies conductor is moving parallel to the lines of
e.h.f. force at the top or bottom of the pole faces,
no lines are being cut. As the conductor moves
Generation of Faraday discovered that if on across the pole face it cuts more and more
Alternating Current a conductor which forms lines of force for each unit distance of travel,
part of a closed circuit is until it is cutting the maximum number of
moved through a magnetic field so as to cut lines when opposite the center of the pole.
across the lines of force, a current will flow Therefore, zero current is induced in the con-
in the conductor. He also discovered that, if a ductor at the instant it is midway between
conductor in a second closed circuit is brought the two poles, and maximum current is in-
near the first conductor and the current in the duced when it is opposite the center of the
first one is varied, a current will flow in the pole face. After the conductor has rotated
second conductor. This effect is known as through 180° it can be seen that its position
induction, and the currents so generated are with respect to the pole pieces will be exactly
induced currents. In the latter case it is the opposite to that when it started. Hence, the
lines of force which are moving and cutting second 180° of rotation will produce an alter-
the second conductor, due to the varying cur- nation of current in the opposite direction to
rent strength in the first conductor. that of the first alternation.
A current is induced in a conductor if there The current does not increase directly as
is a relative motion between the conductor the angle of rotation, but rather as the sine
and a magnetic field, its direction of flow de- of the angle; hence, such a current has the
pending upon the direction of the relative mathematical form of a sine wave. Although
HANDBOOK The Sine Wave 43
LINES OF FORCE
: :111111 " h
I dill i 81rt..
A IS C O E
III
IllllllllliiIii lliiI
TIME -e
LINES OF FORCE
UNIFORM DENSITY
Figure 3
OUTPUT OF THE ALTERNATOR
Graph showing sine -wave output current of the WHERE F FREQUENCY IN CYCLES
alternator of figure 2.
Figure 4
THE SINE WAVE
most electrical machinery does not produce a illustrating one cycle of a sine wove. One
strictly pure sine curve, the departures are complote cycle of alternation is broken up
usually so slight that the assumption can be into 360 degrees. Then ono -half cycle is 180
regarded as fact for most practical purposes. degrees, one- quarter cycle is 90 degrees, and
All that has been said in the foregoing para- so on down to the smallest division of the
graphs concerning alternating current also is wave. A cosine wave has a shape identical to
applicable to alternating voltage.
The rotating arrow to the left in figure 3
-
a sine wave but is shifted 90 degrees in phase
in other words the wove begins at full
plitude, the 90-degree point comes at zero am-
am-
represents a conductor rotating in a constant plitude, the 180 -degree point comes at full
magnetic field of uniform density. The arrow amplitude in the opposite direction of current
flow, etc.
also can be taken as a vector representing the
strength of the magnetic field. This means that
the length of the arrow is determined by the
strength of the field (number of lines of force), angular rotation. Points A, B, C, etc., rep-
which is constant. Now if the arrow is rotating resent the same units of time as before. When
at a constant rate (that is, with constant the voltage corresponding to each point is
angular velocity), then the voltage developed projected to the corresponding time unit, the
across the conductor will be proportional to familiar sine curve is the result.
the rate at which it is cutting lines of force, The frequency of the generated voltage is
which rate is proportional to the vertical proportional to the speed of rotation of the
distance between the tip of the arrow and the alternator, and to the number of magnetic poles
horizontal base line. in the field. Alternators may be built to produce
If EO is taken as unity or a voltage of 1, radio frequencies up to 30 kilocycles, and
then the voltage (vertical distance from tip of some such machines are still used for low
arrow to the horizontal base line) at point C frequency communication purposes. By means
for instance may be determined simply by of multiple windings, three -phase output may
referring to a table of sines and looking up the be obtained from large industrial alternators.
sine of the angle which the arrow makes with
Radian Notation 1 we see that the
From figure
the horizontal.
When the arrow has traveled from A to point value of an a -c wave varies
E, it has traveled 90 degrees or one quarter continuously. It is often of importance to know
cycle. The other three quadrants are not shown the amplitude of the wave in terms of the
because their complementary or mirror relation- total amplitude at any instant or at any time
ship to the first quadrant is obvious. within the cycle. To be able to establish the
It is important to note that time units are instant in question we must be able to divide
represented by degrees or quadrants. The fact the cycle into parts. We could divide the cycle
that AB, BC, CD, and DE are equal chords into eighths, hundredths, or any other ratio that
(forming equal quadrants) simply means that suited our fancy. However, it is much more
the arrow (conductor or vector) is traveling convenient mathematically to divide the cycle
at a constant speed, because these points on either into electrical degrees (360° represent
the radius represent the passage of equal one cycle) or into radians. A radian is an arc
units of time. of a circle equal to the radius of the circle;
The whole picture can be represented in hence there are 2n radians per cycle -or per
another way, and its derivation from the fore- circle (since there are n diameters per circum-
going is shown in figure 3. The time base is ference, there are 2n radii).
represented by a straight line rather than by Both radian notation and electrical degree
notation are used in discussions of alternating

current circuits. However, trigonometric cables WHERE'
are much more readily available in terms of e (THETA)' PHASE ANGLE' 2 rr r T
degrees than radians, so the following simple A'S RADIANS OR 90

conversions are useful. 1 e'? RADIANS OR 160
C IF RADIANS OR 270
2n radians = 1 cycle = 360°
D' 27r RADIANS OR 360
e radians = t/ cycle RADIAN' 57.324 DEGREES
= 180° 1
-2
r adians =2/4 cycle = 90°
Figure 5
-
3
r adians =1/6 cycle = 60°
ILLUSTRATING RADIAN NOTATION
The radian is o unit of phase angle, equal to
57.324 degrees. It is commonly used in mathe-
matical relationships involving phase angles
- radians ='/6 cycle =
4
e
45° since such relationships are simplified when
radian notation is used.
1
1 radian = -cycle = 57.3°
2n
where e = the instantaneous voltage
When the conductor in the simple alter- E = maximum crest value of voltage,
nator of figure 2 has made one complete revo-
lution it has generated one cycle and has ro- f = frequency in cycles per second, and
tated through 2n radians. The expression 2ef t = period of time which has elapsed
then represents the number of radians in one since t = 0 expressed as a fraction
cycle multiplied by the number of cycles per of one second.
second (the frequency) of the alternating
voltage or current. The expression then repre- The instantaneous current can be found from
sents the number of radians per second through the same expression by substituting i for e
which the conductor has rotated. Hence 274 and )max for Emax.
represents the angular velocity of the rotating It is often easier to visualize the process of
conductor, or of the rotating vector which determining the instantaneous amplitude by
represents any alternating current or voltage, ignoring the frequency and considering only
expressed in radians per second. one cycle of the a -c wave. In this case, for a
In technical literature the expression 27rf sine wave, the expression becomes:
is often replaced by to, the lower-case Greek
letter omega. Velocity multiplied by time e= EA= sin B
gives the distance travelled. so 2nft (or rot)
represents the angular distance through which
the rotating conductor or the rotating vector where O represents the angle through which
has travelled since the reference time t = 0. the vector has rotated since time (and ampli-
In the case of a sine wave the reference time tude) were zero. As examples:
t = 0 represents that instant when the voltage
when O = 30°
or the current, whichever is under discussion,
also is equal to zero. sin O = 0.5
so e = 0.5 Erna:
Instantaneous Value The instantaneous volt -
of Voltage or age or current is propor- when O = 60°
Current tional to the sine of the sin O = 0.866
angle through which the so e = 0.866 Emax
rotating vector has travelled since reference
time t = 0. Hence, when the peak value of the
when O = 90°
a -c wave amplitude (either voltage or cur-
rent amplitude) is known, and the angle through sin O = 1.0
which the rotating vector has travelled is soe =Etna:
established, the amplitude of the wave at
this instant can be determined through use when O = 1 radian
of the following expression:
sin O = 0.8415
e = Erna: sin 2nft, so e = 0.8415 Ems
HANDBOOK A -C Relationships 45
Effective Value The instantaneous value

of an of an alternating current
Alternating Current or voltage varies continu-
ously throughout the cycle.
So some value of an a -c wave must be chosen
to establish a relationship between the effec-
tiveness of an a-c and a d -c voltage or cur- Figure 6
rent, The heating value of an alternating
current has been chosen to establish the refer- FULL -WAVE RECTIFIED
ence between the effective values of a.c. and SINE WAVE
d.c. Thus an alternating current will have an Waveform obtained at the output of a fullwave
rectifier being fed with a sine wave and having
effective value of 1 ampere when it produces
100 per cent rectification efficiency. Each
the same heat in a resistor as does 1 ampere pulse has the some shape as one -half cycle of
of direct current. a sine wove. This type of current is known as
The effective value is derived by taking the pulsating direct current.
instantaneous values of current over a cycle of
alternating current, squaring these values.
taking an average of the squares, and then It is thus seen that the average value is 63.6
taking the square root of the average. By this per cent of the peak value.
procedure, the effective value becomes known
as the root mean square or r.m.s. value. This
Relationship Between To summarize the three
is the value that is read on a -c voltmeters and Peak, R.M.S. or most significant values
a -c ammeters. The r.m.s. value is 70.7 (for
Effective, and of an a -c sine wave: the
sine waves only) per cent of the peak or maxi- Average Values peak value is equal to
mum instantaneous value and is expressed as
1.41 times the r.m.s. or
follows:
effective, and the r.m.s. value is equal to
Eel(. or Er.m.s. = 0.707 x Ernas or 0.707 times the peak value; the average value
of a full -wave rectified a -c wave is 0.636
left. Or Ir.m.s. = 0.707 x leas. times the peak value, and the average value
The following relations are extremely useful of a rectified wave is equal to 0.9 times the
in radio and power work: r.m.s. value.
E If. M.S. = 0.707 x Emax, and
R.M.S. = 0.707 x Peak
Erna: = 1.414 x Er.m.s. Average = 0.636 x Peak
Rectified Alternating If an alternating current Average = 0.9 x R.M.S.

Current or Pulsat- is passed through a recti- R.M.S. = 1.11 x Average
ing Direct Current fier, it emerges in the
form of a current of
varying amplitude which flows in one direc- Peak = 1.414 x R.M.S.
tion only. Such a current is known as rectified Peak = 1.57 x Average
a. c. or pulsating d.c. A typical wave form of a
pulsating direct current as would be obtained law
Ohm's applies
Applying Ohm's Law
from the output of a full -wave rectifier is
shown in figure 6.
to Alternating Current equally to direct or al-
ternating current, pro-
Measuring instruments designed for d -c
operation will not read the peak for instantan- vided the circuits under consideration are
purely resistive, that is, circuits which have
eous maximum value of the pulsating d -c out-
neither inductance (coils) nor capacitance
put from the rectifier; they will read only the
(capacitors). Problems which involve tube
average value. This can be explained by as- filaments, drop resistors, electric lamps,
suming that it could be possible to cut off
heaters or similar resistive devices can be
some of the peaks of the waves, using the cut-
solved from Ohm's law, regardless of whether
off portions to fill in the spaces that are open. the current is direct or alternating. When a
thereby obtaining an average d -c value. A
capacitor or coil is made a part of the circuit,
milliammeter and voltmeter connected to the a property common to either. called reactance,
adjoining circuit, or across the output of the must be taken into consideration. Ohm's law
rectifier, will read this average value. It is re- still applies to a -c circuits containing react-
lated to peak value by the following expres- ance, but additional considerations are in-
sion: volved; these will be discussed in a later
Eavg = 0.636 x Fea: paragraph.
TIME TIME
'I
CURRENT LAGGING VOLTAGE BY 90° CURRENT LEADING VOLTAGE BY 90°
(CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE INDUCTANCE ONLY) (CIRCUIT CONTAINING PURE CAPACITANCE ONLY)
Figure 7 Figure 8
LAGGING PHASE ANGLE LEADING PHASE ANGLE
Showing the m in which the current lags Showing the manner in which the current leads
the voltage in an o-c circuit containing pure the voltage in on a -c circuit containing pure
inductance only. The lag is equal to one- quarter capacitance only. The lead is equal to one -
cycle or 90 degrees. quarter cycle or 90 degrees.
Inductive As was stated in Chapter Two, Capacitors have a similar property although
Reactance when a changing current flows in this case the opposition is to any change in
through an inductor a back- or the voltage across the capacitor. This property
counter- electromotive force is developed, is called capacitive reactance and is ex-
opposing any change in the initial current. pressed as follows:
This property of an inductor causes it to offer
1
opposition or impedance to a change in cur- Xc
rent. The measure of impedance offered by an 2nfC
inductor to an alternating current of a given
frequency is known as its inductive reactance. where Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms,
This is expressed as XL. n = 3.1416
f = frequency in cycles,
XL = 2nfL,
C = capacitance in farads.
where XL = inductive reactance expressed in
ohms. Capacitive Re- Here again, as in the case
actance at of inductive reactance, the
n= 3.1416 (277 = 6.283), Radio Frequencies units of capacitance and
f = frequency in cycles, frequency can be converted
L = inductance in henrys. into smaller units for practical problems en-
countered in radio work. The equation may
Inductive Reactance It is very often neces- be written:
at Radio Frequencies sary to compute induc- 1,000,000
tive reactance at radio Xc -
frequencies. The same formula may be used, 2rrfC
but to make it less cumbersome the inductance where f = frequency in megacycles,
is expressed in millihenrys and the frequency
in kilocycles. For higher frequencies and C -
capacitance in micro -microfarads.
smaller values of inductance, frequency is In the audio range it is often convenient to
expressed in megacycles and inductance in express frequency (f) in cycles and capac-
microbenrys. The basic equation need not be itance (C) in micro farads, in which event the
changed, since the multiplying factors for same formula applies.
inductance and frequency appear in numerator
and denominator, and hence are cancelled out. Phase When an alternating current flows
However, it is not possible in the same equa- through a purely resistive circuit, it
tion to express L in millihenrys and f in cycles will be found that the current will go through
without conversion factors. maximum and minimum in perfect step with
the voltage. In this case the current is said to
Capacitive It has been explained that induc- be in step or in phase with the voltage. For
Reactance tive reactance is the measure of this reason, Ohm's law will apply equally well
the ability of an inductor to offer for a. c. or d. c. where pure resistances are con-
impedance to the flow of an alternating current. cerned, provided that the same values of the
HANDBOOK Reactance 47
wave (either peak or r.m.s.) for both voltage Y-AxiS

and current are used in the calculations.
However, in calculations involving alternat-
ing currents the voltage and current are not
necessarily in phase. The current through the
circuit may lag behind the voltage, in which
case the current is said to have lagging phase.
Lagging phase is caused by inductive react-
ance. If the current reaches its maximum value
ahead of the voltage (figure 8) the current is
said to have a leading phase. A leading phase
angle is caused by capacitive reactance.
In an electrical circuit containing reactance
only, the current will either lead or lag the Figure 9
voltage by 90 °. If the circuit contains induc-
Operation on the vector (+A) by the quantity ( -1)
tive reactance only, the current will lag the
to rotate through 180 degrees.
voltage by 90 °. If only capacitive reactance is
in the circuit, the current will lead the voltage
by 90 °. reactance, or a complex combination of both
reactance and resistance. The designation for
Reactances Inductive and capacitive re- impedance is Z. An impedance must be de-
in Combination actance have exactly opposite fined in such a manner that both its magnitude
effects on the phase relation and its phase angle are established. The
between current and voltage in a circuit. designation may be accomplished in either of
Hence when they are used in combination two ways-one of which is convertible into
their effects tend to neutralize. The combined the other by simple mathematical operations.
effect of a capacitive and an inductive react-
ance is often called the net reactance of a The "J" Operator The first method of des-
circuit. The net reactance (X) is found by sub- ignating an impedance is
tracting the capacitive reactance from the in- actually to specify both the resistive and the
ductive reactance, X = XL Xc. reactive component in the form R + jX. In this
The result of such a combination of pure form R represents the resistive component in
reactances may be either positive, in which ohms and X represents the reactive component.
case the positive reactance is greater so that The "j" merely means that the X component
the net reactance is inductive, or it may be is reactive and thus cannot be added directly
negative in which case the capacitive react- to the R component. Plus jX means that the
ance is greater so that the net reactance is reactance is positive or inductive, while if
capacitive. The net reactance may also be minus jX were given it would mean that the
zero in which case the circuit is said to be reactive component was negative or capacitive.
resonant. The condition of resonance will be In figure 9 we have a vector ( +A) lying along
discussed in a later section. Note that induc- the positive X -axis of the usual X-Y coordi-
tive reactance is always taken as being posi- nate system. If this vector is multiplied by the
tive while capacitive reactance is always quantity ( -1), it becomes ( A) and its position
taken as being negative. now lies along the X -axis in the negative
direction. The operator ( -1) has caused the
Impedance; Circuits
Containing Reactance
and Resistance
Pure reactances intro -
duce a phase angle of
90° between voltage and
current; pure resistance
vector to rotate through an angle of 180 de-
grees. Since ( -1) is equal to (V -1 x
same result may be obtained by operating on
),
the
introduces no phase shift between voltage and the vector with the operator (s/ -1 x V-1).
current. Hence we cannot add a reactance and
a resistance directly. When a reactance and a However if the vector is operated on but once
resistance are used in combination the re- by the operator (V-1), it is caused to rotate
sulting phase angle of current flow with re-
spect to the impressed voltage lies somewhere only 90 degrees (figure 10). Thus the operator
between plus or minus 90° and 0° depending (//- 1)rotates a vector by 90 degrees. For con-
upon the relative magnitudes of the reactance
and the resistance. venience, this operator is called the j operator.
The term impedance is a general term which In like fashion, the operator ( j)
rotates the
can be applied to any electrical entity which vector of figure 9 through an angle of 270
impedes the flow of current. Hence the term degrees, so that the resulting vector ( jA)
may be used to designate a resistance, a pure falls on the ( Y) axis of the coordinate system.
Y-AXIS
+J3
C (+V ECTOR THRWGH gaES 4
+JA
Z. 4+J3
X AXIS
IzI=
L 36.85° 121=5 ton'o.is
-R
RESISTANCE IZI= 5 b e.es
^ -R= OHMS
Figure 10
Figure 11
Operation on the vector (+A) by the quantity (1)
causes vector to rotate through 90 degrees. THE IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE
Showing the graphical construction of a triangle
for obtaining the net (scalar) impedance re-
sulting from the connection of a resistance and
Polar Notation The second method of repre- a reactance in series. Shown also alongside is
senting an impedance is to the alternative mathematical procedure for
specify its absolute magnitude and the phase obtaining the values associated with the triangle.
angle of current with respect to voltage, in
the form Z L O. Figure 11 shows graphically
the relationship between the two common ways
and the phase angle 9, when resistance and
of representing an impedance. reactance are known; hence, of converting
The construction of figure 11 is called an from the Z = R + jX to the IZI L O form. In this
impedance diagram. Through the use of such case we use two of the expressions just given:
a diagram we can add graphically a resistance
and a reactance to obtain a value for the re- IZI = N/R2 + X2
sulting impedance in the scalar form. With
zero at the origin, resistances are plotted to
the right, positive values of reactance (induc-
tan O = -,
X
R
(or O = tan-t-)
X
R
tive) in the upward direction, and negative
values of reactance (capacitive) in the down- The inverse problem, that of converting
ward direction. from the IZI LO to the R + jX form is done
Note that the resistance and reactance are
with the following relationships, both of which
drawn as the two sides of a right triangle, are obtainable by simple division from the
with the hypotenuse representing the resulting trigonometric expressions just given for de-
impedance. Hence it is possible to deter- termining the angle O:
mine mathematically the value of a resultant R =IZI cose
impedance through the familiar right -triangle
relationship-the square of the hypotenuse is jX = IZI j sin O
equal to the sum of the squares of the other By simple addition these two expressions may
two sides: be combined to give the relationship between
Z' =R2 +X2 the two most common methods of indicating
an impedance:
or IZI = ß/R2 + X'
R + jX = IZI (cos B + j sin B)
Note also that the angle O included between
R and Z can be determined from any of the In the case of impedance, resistance, or re-
following trigonometric relationships: actance, the unit of measurement is the ohm;
hence, the ohm may be thought of as a unit of
sin O = -X
IZI
opposition to current flow, without reference
to the relative phase angle between the ap-
plied voltage and the current which flows.
cos O = -R
IZI
Further, since both capacitive and inductive
reactance are functions of frequency, imped-
ance will vary with frequency. Figure 12
shows the manner in which IZI will vary with
tan O = -
X
R
frequency in an RL series circuit and in an
RC series circuit.
One common problem is that of determining Series RLC Circuits In a series circuit contain -
the scalar magnitude of the impedance, IZI, ing R, L, and C, the im-
HANDBOOK Impedance 49
pedance is determined as discussed before ex-

cept that the reactive component in the ex-
pressions becomes: (The net reactance the
difference between XL and Xc.) Hence (XL
-
Xc) may be substituted for X in the equations.
Thus:
IZI = VR2 +(XL Xc)2
O=tan
_,(XL Xc)
A series RLC circuit thus may present
R
an
-- F
R
-- --
impedance which is capacitively reactive if
the net reactance is capacitive, inductively o FREQUENCY
reactive if the net reactance is inductive, or
resistive if the capacitive and inductive re- Figure 12
actances are equal. IMPEDANCE AGAINST FREQUENCY
FOR R -L AND RC CIRCUITS
Addition of The addition of complex The Impedance of an R -C circuit approaches
Complex Quantities quantities (for example, infinity os the frequency approaches zero (d.c.),
impedances in series) is while the Impedance of a series R -L circuit
approaches infinity as the frequency approaches
quite simple if the quantities are in the rect- infinity. The impedance of an R -C circuit ap-
angular form. If they are in the polar form proaches the impedance of the series resistor
they only can be added graphically, unless as the frequency approaches infinity, while the
they are converted to the rectangular form by impedance of a series R -L circuit approaches
the relationships previously given. As an ex- the impedance of the resistor as the frequency
ample of the addition of complex quantities approaches zero.
in the rectangular form, the equation for the
addition of impedances is:
(R, + jX,) + (R, + jX2)= (R, + R2) + j(X, + X2) Division is accomplished by dividing the
denominator into the numerator, and sub-
For example if we wish to add the imped- tracting the angle of the denominator from
ances (10 + j50) and (20 j30) we obtain: that of the numerator, as:
(10 +j50) +(20 j30)
= (10 + 20) + j(50 + ( -30) )
1Z11
1Z21
LO,
LO2
IZ,
1Z21
(LO, L 02)
= 30 + j(50 -30)
= 30 + j20 For example, suppose that an impedance of
1501 L67° is to be divided by an impedance
of 1101 L45 °. Then:
Multiplication and It is often necessary in
Division of solving certain types of 1501 L67° IS1
Complex Quantities circuits to multiply or di- L67° L45 °) = Is I(L22 °)
vide two
1101 L 45°-
5 11001
complex quan-
tities. It is a much simplier mathematical
operation to multiply or divide complex quan- Ohm's Law for The simple form of Ohm's
tities if they are expressed in the polar form. Complex Quantities Law used for d -c circuits
Hence if they are given in the rectangular may be stated in a more
form they should be converted to the polar general form for application to a -c circuits
form before multiplication or division is begun. involving either complex quantities or simple
Then the multiplication is accomplished by resistive elements. The form is:
multiplying the IZI terms together and adding
algebraically the L O terms, as:
1 =- F-
(IZ1I Let) (IZ21 L02) = IZ,I Iz21(L0, + L02) T.
For example, suppose that the two impedances in which, in the general case, /, E, and Z are
1201 L43° and 1321 L -23° are to be multi- complex (vector) quantities. In the simple
plied. Then: case where the impedance is a pure resistance
with an a -c voltage applied, the equation
( 1201 L43°) ( 1 32 1 L -23 °) = 20.321
1
simplifies to the familiar I = E /R. In any case
(L43° + L -23 °) the applied voltage may be expressed either
= 640 L 20° as peak, r.m.s., or average; the resulting
Since the applied voltage will be the reference

for the currents and voltages within the cir-
100 VOLTS 100
cuit, we may define it as having a zero phase
angle: E = 100 LO °. Then:
o T3 I =
loo Lo °
= 0.354 L0 ° -45
( °)
282 L -45°
Figure 13
SERIES R -L -C CIRCUIT = 0.354 L45° amperes.
This same current must flow through all three
current always will be in the same type of elements of the circuit, since they are in
units as used to define the voltage. series and the current through one must al-
ready have passed through the other two.
In the more general case vector algebra Hence the voltage drop across the resistor
must be used to solve the equation. And, (whose phase angle of course is 0 °) is:
since either division or multiplication is in-
volved, the complex quantities should be ex- E =IR
pressed in the polar form. As an example, E. = (0.354 L45 °) (200 L0 °)
take the case of the series circuit shown in
figure 13 with 100 volts applied. The imped- = 70.8 L 45° volts
ance of the series circuit can best be obtained The voltage drop across the inductive react-
first in the rectangular form, as: ance is:
200 + j (100 300) = 200 j200 E = I XL
Now, to obtain the current we must convert (0.354 L45 °) (100 L90° )
E =
this impedance to the polar form.
35.4 L 135° volts
=
IZI = V200'+(-200)' Similarly, the voltage drop across the capac-
itive reactance is:
= J40,000 + 40,000
E =IXc
= V80,000 E = (0.354 L 45 °) (300 /--90 °)
= 282 52 = 106.2 L -45°
Note that the voltage drop across the capac-
200
O=
X
tan' -=tan'
R 200
= tan' 1 itive reactance is greater than the supply
voltage. This condition often occurs in a
series RLC circuit, and is explained by the
= 45°. fact that the drop across the capacitive react-
Therefore Z = 282 L -45° ance is cancelled to a lesser or greater ex-
tent by the drop across the inductive reactance.
Note that in a series circuit the resulting im- It is often desirable in a problem such as
pedance takes the sign of the largest react- the above to check the validity of the answer
ance in the series combination. by adding vectorially the voltage drops across
the components of the series circuit to make
Where a slide -rule is being used to make
the computations, the impedance may be found
without any addition or subtraction operations
sure that they add up to the supply voltage
or to use the terminology of Kirchhoff's Second
-
by finding the angle O first, and then using Law, to make sure that the voltage drops
the trigonometric equation below for obtain- across all elements of the circuit, including
ing the impedance. Thus: the source taken as negative, is equal to zero.
In the general case of the addition of a
X 200 number of voltage vectors in series it is best
8 =tan' = tan' tan' -1 to resolve the voltages into their in -phase
R 200
and out -of-phase components with respect to
= -45° the supply voltage. Then these components
may be added directly. Hence:
R
Then IZI = cos 45° = 0.707 ER = 70.8L45°
cos O
= 70.8 ( cos 45°+ j sin 45 °)
200 = 70.8 (0.707 + j0.707)
IZi = 28252
0.707 = 50 + j50
HANDBOOK Vector Algebra 51
9D
.140.
VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS
Xi =35 4 Z aa DROP ACROSS RESISTOR
70.e 43
INE VOLTAGE'100Zso
.1160* 0 PARALLEL CIRCUIT EQUIVALENT SERIES CIRCUIT
i
DROP ACROSS XC =10e. 2/-45* Figure 15
THE EQUIVALENT SERIES CIRCUIT
Showing a parallel R -C circuit and the equiv-
NET DROP ACROSS XL + XC .700/-45*
alent series R -C circuit which represents the
90- same net impedance as the parallel circuit.
Figure 14
Graphical construction of the voltage drops
associated with the series R -L -C circuit of ments which go to make up the series circuit
figure 13. is the same. But the voltage drops across
each of the components are, in general, dif-
ferent from one another. Conversely, in a
parallel RLC or RX circuit the voltage is,
EL = 35.4 L 135° obviously, the same across each of the ele-
= 35.4 ( cos 135° + j sin 135 °) ments. But the currents through each of the
= 35.4 ( -0.707 + j0.707) elements are usually different.
= -25 + j25 There are many ways of solving a problem
involving paralleled resistance and reactance;
several of these ways will be described. In
Ec = 106.2 L45° general, it may be said that the impedance of
= 106.2 (cos-45° + j sin -45 °) a number of elements in parallel is solved
= 106.2 (6.707 -j0.707) using the same relations as are used for
= 75 -j75 solving resistors in parallel, except that com-
plex quantities are employed. The basic re-
lation is:
ER + EL + Ec = (50 + j50) + (-25 + j25)
+(75 -j75)
=(50- 25+75) +j(50 +25 -75)
1
Z[Ot
--+-+-+
1
Z, Z,
1 1
z3
= 100 +j0
or when only two impedances are involved:
= 100 LO °, which is equal to the
supply voltage. Z, Z,
ZtOt Z + Z
Checking by It is frequently desirable As an example, using the two- impedance
Construction on the to check computations in-
relation, take the simple case, illustrated in
Complex Plane volving complex quantities figure 15, of a resistance of 6 ohms in paral-
by constructing vectors lel with a capacitive reactance of 4 ohms. To
representing the quantities on the complex
plane. Figure 14 shows such a construction
simplify the first step in the computation it is
for the quantities of the problem just com- best to put the impedances in the polar form
pleted. Note that the answer to the problem for the numerator, since multiplication is in-
may be checked by constructing a parallel-
volved, and in the rectangular form for the
ogram with the voltage drop across the re- addition in the denominator.
sistor as one side and the net voltage drop
across the capacitor plus the inductor (these (6 L0°) (4 Z..-90°)
may be added algrebraically as they are 180° Z 43 =
out of phase) as the adjacent side. The vector 6-j4
sum of these two voltages, which is repre- 24 L-90°
sented by the diagonal of the parallelogram,
is equal to the supply voltage of 100 volts at 6 -j4
zero phase angle. Then the denominator is changed to the polar
form for the division operation:
Resistance and Re- In a series circuit, such
-4
actanee in Parallel as just discussed, the cur- O= tan' -=tan `- 0.667 = -33.7°
rent through all the ele- 6
6 6
ZI _ 7.21 ohms
cos 33.7° 0.832
6 j4 = 7.21 L -33.7°
Then:
EzE1 ExE1 xCIxC+xcx
z Ez'E1
Li+ Lx
24 L -90° Rí+Rz
Ztot = = 3.33 L -56.3° Ex. Ei
Ca
7.21 L -33.7° +cz
= 3.33 ( cos 56.3° + j sin 56.3°) O

= 3.33 [ 0.5548 + j (- 0.832)1 Figure 16
SIMPLE A -C VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
= 1.85 j 2.77
Equivalent Series Through the series of op- may elect to use either of two methods of
Circuit erations in the previous solution. These methods are called the admit-
paragraph we have convert- tance method and the assumed - voltage method.
ed a circuit composed of two impedances in However, the two methods are equivalent
parallel into an equivalent series circuit com- since both use the sum-of-reciprocals equation:
posed of impedances in series. An equivalent
series circuit is one which, as far as the ter-
minals are concerned, acts identically to the
1
Z,o,
- +- +-
1
Z,
1
Z2
1
Z,
original parallel circuit; the current through In the admittance method we use the relation
the circuit and the power dissipation of the Y = 1 /Z, where Y = G + jB; Y is called the
resistive elements are the same for a given admittance, defined above, G is the conduct-
voltage at the specified frequency. ance or R/Z2 and B is the susceptance or
We can check the equivalent series circuit X/Z2. Then Y,0, = 1 /Z,o, = Y, + Y, + Y,
of figure 15 with respect to the original cir- In the assumed -voltage method we multiply
cuit by assuming that one volt a.c. (at the both sides of the equation above by E, the
frequency where the capacitive reactance in assumed voltage, and add the currents, as:
the parallel circuit is 4 ohms) is applied to
the terminals of both.
In the parallel circuit the current through
E
Z,o,
- +-+- ...
E
Z, Z,
E E
Z,
= lz, +Iz, +Iz, ..
the resistor will be '/6 ampere (0.166a.) while
the current through the capacitor will be j '/ Then the impedance of the parallel com-
ampere (+ j 0.25 a.). The total current will be bination may be determined from the relation:
the sum of these two currents, or 0.166 + Z,o, = E,IZ tot
j 0.25 a. Adding these vectorially we obtain:
AC Voltage Voltage dividers for use with

_ ß/0.166x +0.25'= \/0.09 =0.3 a. Dividers alternating current are quite simi-
The dissipation in the resistor will be 12/6 = lar to d -c voltage dividers. How-
0.166 watts. ever, since capacitors and inductors oppose
In the case of the equivalent series circuit the flow of a -c current as well as resistors,
the current will be: voltage dividers for alternating voltages may
E 1
take any of the configurations shown in fig-
=IZI a. ure 16.
3.33=0.3 Since the impedances within each divider
And the dissipation in the resistor will be: are of the same type, the output voltage is in
phase with the input voltage. By using com-
=1'R = 0.3' x 1.85
W
binations of different types of impedances, the
= 0.9 x 1.85
phase angle of the output may be shifted in
= 0.166 watts
relation to the input phase angle at the same
time the amplitude is reduced. Several di-
So we see that the equivalent series circuit viders of this type are shown in figure 17.
checks exactly with the original parallel cir- Note that the ratio of output voltage to input
cuit. voltage is equal to the ratio of the output
impedance to the total divider impedance.
Parallel RLC In solving a more complicated This relationship is true only if negligible
Circuits circuit made up of more than current is drawn by a load on the output ter-
two impedances in parallel we minals.
HANDBOOK Resonant Circuits 53
Ez=Ei xc XL
Ez Ei
Rz+XCz xL2
Figure
0 SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT
18
If the values of inductance and capacitance

both are fixed, there will be only one resonant
frequency.
If both the inductance and capacitance are
E2 EI
XL
X -Xc Ez E,
Rziz made variable, the circuit may then be changed
or tuned, so that a number of combinations
OD Ea-E, Xc of inductance and capacitance can resonate at
R: t(XL-X02 the same frequency. This can be more easily
X-xc understood when one considers that inductive
reactance and capacitive reactance travel in
Figure 17
opposite directions as the frequency is changed.
COMPLEX A -C VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
For example, if the frequency were to remain
constant and the values of inductance and
capacitance were then changed, the following
combinations would have equal reactance:
3 -2 Resonant Circuits Frequency is constant at 60 cycles.
L is expressed in henrys.
A series circuit such as shown in figure 18 C is expressed in microfarads (.000001
is said to be in resonance when the applied farad.)
frequency is such that the capacitive react-
L XL C
ance is exactly balanced by the inductive re- XC
actance. At this frequency the two reactances .265 100 26.5 100
will cancel in their effects, and the impedance 2.65 1,000 2.65 1,000
of the circuit will be at a minimum so thát 26.5 10,000 .265 10.000
maximum current will flow. In fact, as shown 265.00 100,000 .0265 100,000
2,650.00 1,000,000 .00265 1.000,000
in figure 19 the net impedance of a series
circuit at resonance is equal to the resistance Frequency From the formula for reson-
which remains in the circuit after the react-
of Resonance ance, 2nfL = 1 /2rrfC. the res-
ances have been cancelled. onant frequency is determined:
Resonant Frequency Some resistance is always
present in a circuit be-
f- I
cause it is possessed in some degree by both 2nN /LC
the inductor and the capacitor. If the fre- where f = frequency in cycles,
quency of the alternator E is varied from L = inductance in henrys,
nearly zero to some high frequency, there will C = capacitance in farads.
be one particular frequency at which the in-
ductive reactance and capacitive reactance It is more convenient to express L and C
will be equal. This is known as the resonant in smaller units, especially in making radio -
frequency, and in a series circuit it is the frequency calculations; f can also be ex-
frequency at which the circuit current will be pressed in megacycles or kilocycles. A very
a maximum. Such series resonant circuits are
useful group of such formulas is:
chiefly used when it is desirable to allow a 25,330 25,330 25,330
certain frequency to pass through the circuit f' = or L = or C -
(low impedance to this frequency), while at LC f'C f2L
the same time the circuit is made to offer where f = frequency in megacycles,
considerable opposition to currents of other L = inductance in microhenrys,
frequencies. C = capacitance in micromicrofarads.
RESONANCE
II
XL-Xc
úr
X I
r
FREQUENCY
O.
J`T
Xc ro
NW
°W
z
Figure 19
IMPEDANCE OF A ii
SERIES -RESONANT CIRCUIT FREQUENCY
Showing the variation in reactance of the sepa-
rate elements and in the net impedance of o Figure 20
series resonant circuit (such os figure 1$) with RESONANCE CURVE
changing frequency. The vertical line Is drawn Showing the increase in impedance at reson-
at the point of resonance (XL -
Xc = 0) in the
ance for o parallel- resonant circuit, and simi-
series circuit. larly, the increase in current at resonance for
a series -r t circuit. The sharpness of
resonance is determined by the Q of the circuit,
os illustrated by a comparison between A,
Impedance of Series The impedance across 8, and C.
Resonant Circuits the terminals of a series
resonant circuit (figure
18) is:
Current and Voltage Formulas for calculating
Z= Jr' + (XL Xc)', in Series Resonant currents and voltages in
where Z = impedance in ohms, Circuits a series resonant circuit
are similar to those of
r = resistance in ohms, Ohm's law.
Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms,
XL = inductive reactance in ohms. I=-EZ E=IZ
From this equation, it can be seen that the
The complete equations:
impedance is equal to the vector sum of the
circuit resistance and the difference between E
the two reactances. Since at the resonant fre- I=
quency XL equals Xc, the difference between Jr' + (XL Xc)t
them (figure 19) is zero, so that at resonance
the impedance is simply equal to the resist- E= 1,H/r'+ (XL Xc)'
ance of the circuit; therefore, because the
resistance of most normal radio -frequency Inspection of the above formulas will show
circuits is of a very low order, the impedance the following to apply to series resonant cir-
is also low. cuits: When the impedance is low, the current
At frequencies higher and lower than the will be high; conversely, when the impedance
resonant frequency, the difference between is high, the current will be low.
the reactances will be a definite quantity and Since it is known that the impedance will
will add with the resistance to make the imbe very low at the resonant frequency, it fol-
pedance higher and higher as the circuit is lows that the current will be a maximum at
tuned off the resonant frequency. this point. If a graph is plotted of the current
If Xc should be greater than XL, then the against the frequency either side of resonance,
term (XL Xc) will give a negative number. the resultant curve becomes what is known as
However, when the difference is squared the a resonance curve. Such a curve is shown in
product is always positive. This means that figure 20, the frequency being plotted against
the smaller reactance is subtracted from the current in the series resonant circuit.
larger, regardless of whether it be capacitive Several factors will have an effect on the
or inductive, and the difference squared. shape of this resonance curve, of which re-
HANDBOOK Circuit Q 55
sistance and L -to -C ratio are the important strands connected together only at the ends of
considerations. The curves B and C in figure the coils.
20 show the effect of adding increasing values
of resistance to the circuit. It will be seen Variation of Q Examination of the equation
that the peaks become less and less prominent with Frequency for determining Q might give
as the resistance is increased; thus, it can be rise to the thought that even
said that the selectivity of the circuit is though the resistance of an inductor increases
thereby decreased. Selectivity in this case with frequency, the inductive reactance does
can be defined as the ability of a circuit to likewise, so that the Q might be a constant.
discriminate against frequencies adjacent to Actually, however, it works out in practice
the resonant frequency. that the Q of an inductor will reach a relative-
ly broad maximum at some particular frequency.
Voltage Across Coil Because the a.c. or r-f Hence, coils normally are designed in such a
and Capacitor in voltage across a coil and manner that the peak in their curve of Q with
Series Circuit capacitor is proportional frequency will occur at the normal operating
to the reactance (for a frequency of the coil in the circuit for which
given current), the actual voltages across the it is designed.
coil and across the capacitor may be many The Q of a capacitor ordinarily is much
times greater than the terminal voltage of the higher than that of the best coil. Therefore,
circuit. At resonance, the voltage across the it usually is the merit of the coil that limits
coil (or the capacitor) is Q times the applied the overall Q of the circuit.
voltage. Since the Q (or merit factor) of a At audio frequencies thr core losses in an
series circuit can be in the neighborhood of iron -core inductor greatly reduce the Q from
100 or more, the voltage across the capacitor, the value that would be obtained simply by
for example, may be high enough to cause dividing the reactance by the resistance. Ob-
flashover, even though the applied voltage is viously the core losses also represent circuit
of a value considerably below that at which resistance, just as though the loss occurred
the capacitor is rated. in the wire itself.
Circuit Q -Sharp- An extremely important

ness of Resonance
Parallel In radio circuits, parallel reson-
property of a capacitor or Resonance ance (more correctly termed anti -
an inductor is its factor -
of- merit, more generally called its Q. It is this resonance) is more frequently
encountered than series resonance; in fact, it
factor, Q, which primarily determines the
sharpness of resonance of a tuned circuit. is the basic foundation of receiver and trans-
mitter circuit operation. A circuit is shown in
This factor can be expressed as the ratio of figure 21.
the reactance to the resistance, as follows:
274 The "Tank" In this circuit, as contrasted with
Q= Circuit a circuit for series resonance, L
R
(inductance) and C (capacitance)
where R = total resistance. are connected in parallel, yet the combination
can be considered to be in series with the
Skin Effect The actual resistance in a wire remainder of the circuit. This combination
or an inductor can be far greater of L and C, in conjunction with R, the re-
than the d -c value when the coil is used in a sistance which is principally included in L, is
radio -frequency circuit; this is because the sometimes called a tank circuit because it ef-
current does not travel through the entire fectively functions as a storage tank when in-
cross - section of the conductor, but has a tend- corporated in vacuum tube circuits.
ency to travel closer and closer to the surface Contrasted with series resonance. there are
of the wire as the frequency is increased. This two kinds of current which must be considered
is known as the skin effect. in a parallel resonant circuit: (1) the line cur-
The actual current -carrying portion of the rent, as read on the indicating meter M (2)
wire is decreased, as a result of the skin the circulating current which flows within the
effect, so that the ratio of a -c to d -c resist- parallel L -C -R portion of the circuit. See
ance of the wire, called the resistance ratio, figure 21.
is increased. The resistance ratio of wires to At the resonant frequency, the line current
be used at frequencies below about 500 kc. (as read on the meter M,) will drop to a very
may be materially reduced through the use of low value although the circulating current in
Utz wire. Litz wire, of the type commonly used the L -C circuit may be quite large. It is inter-
to wind the coils of 455 -kc. i -f transformers, esting to note that the parallel resonant cir-
may consist of 3 to 10 strands of insulated cuit acts in a distinctly opposite manner to
wire, about No. 40 in size, with the individual that of a series resonant circuit, in which the
plifier circuit, the impedance curve must have

a sharp peak in order for the circuit to be
selective. If the curve is broad -topped in
shape, both the desired signal and the inter-
fering signals at close proximity to resonance
will give nearly equal voltages on the grid of
the tube, and the circuit will then be non-
selective; i.e., it will tune broadly.
Figure 21 that the highest
In order
Effect of L/C Ratio
PARALLEL -RESONANT CIRCUIT in Parallel Circuits possible voltage can be
The inductance L. and capacitance C comprise developed across a paral-
the reactive elements of the parallel -resonant
lel resonant circuit, the impedance of this
(anti -resonant) tank circuit, and the resistance
R indicates the sum of the r-f resistance of the
circuit must be very high. The impedance will
coil and capacitor, plus the resistance coupled be greater with conventional coils of limited
into the circuit from the external load. In most Q when the ratio of inductance-to- capacitance
cases the tuning capacitor has much lower r -f is great, that is, when L is large as compared
resistance than the coil and can therefore be with C. When the resistance of the circuit is
ignored in comparison with the coil resistance
and the coupled -in resistance. The instrument
very low. XL will equal Xc at maximum im-
My indicates the "line current" which keeps
pedance. There are innumerable ratios of L
the circuit in a state of oscillation -this cur- and C that will have equal reactance, at a
rent is the same as the fundamental component given resonant frequency, exactly as in the
of the plate current of a Class C amplifier which case in a series resonant circuit.
might be feeding the tank circuit. The in- In practice, where a certain value of in-
strument M2 indicates the "tank current" which ductance is tuned by a variable capacitance
is equal to the line current multiplied by the
operating Q of the tank circuit.
over a fairly wide range in frequency, the
L/C ratio will be small at the lowest fre-
quency end and large at the high- frequency end.
The circuit, therefore, will have unequal gain
current is at a maximum and the impedance is and selectivity at the two ends of the band of
minimum at resonance. It is for this reason frequencies which is being tuned. Increasing
that in a parallel resonant circuit the principal the Q of the circuit (lowering the resistance)
consideration is one of impedance rather than will obviously increase both the selectivity
current. It is also significant that the imped- and gain.
ance curve for parallel circuits is very nearly
identical to that of the current curve for series Circulating Tank The Q of a circuit has
resonance. The impedance at resonance is Current at Resonance a definite bearing on
expressed as: the circulating tank
(2rrfL)2 current at resonance. This tank current is
Z- very nearly the value of the line current multi-
R plied by the effective circuit Q. For example:
where Z = impedance in ohms, an r-f line current of 0.050 amperes, with a
L = inductance in henrys,
circuit Q of 100, will give a circulating tank
current of approximately 5 amperes. From this
f = frequency in cycles, it can be seen that both the inductor and the
R = resistance in ohms. connecting wires in a circuit with a high Q
Or, impedance can be expressed as a func- must be of very low resistance, particularly in
tion of Q as: the case of high power transmitters, if heat
losses are to be held to a minimum.
Z = 2nf LQ, Because the voltage across the tank at
showing that the impedance of a circuit is resonance is determined by the Q, it is pos-
directly proportional to its effective Q at sible to develop very high peak voltages
resonance. across a high Q tank with but little line cur-
The curves illustrated in figure 20 can be rent.
applied to parallel resonance. Reference to the
curve will show that the effect of adding re- Effect of Coupling If a parallel resonant cir-
sistance to the circuit will result in both a on Impedance cuit is coupled to another
broadening out and lowering of the peak of the circuit, such as an antenna
curve. Since the voltage of the circuit is output circuit, the impedance and the effective
directly proportional to the impedance, and Q of the parallel circuit is decreased as the
since it is this voltage that is applied to the coupling becomes closer. The effect of closer
grid of the vacuum tube in a detector or am- (tighter) coupling is the same as though an
HANDBOOK Circuit Impedance 57
LOOSE COUPLING OVE RCOUPLI NG

NIGH 0 LOW 0
O O O
Figure 22
EFFECT OF COUPLING ON CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE AND Q
actual resistance were added in series with inertia, and continue to oscillate with de-
the parallel tank circuit. The resistance thus creasing amplitude for a time after being given
coupled into the tank circuit can be con- a "kick." With such a circuit, almost pure
sidered as being reflected from the output or sine -wave voltage will be developed across
load circuit to the driver circuit. the tank circuit even though power is supplied
The behavior of coupled circuits depends to the tank in short pulses or spurts, so long
largely upon the amount of coupling, as shown as the spurts are evenly spaced with respect
in figure 22. The coupled current in the sec- to time and have a frequency that is the same
ondary circuit is small, varying with frequency, as the resonant frequency of the tank.
being maximum at the resonant frequency of Another way to visualize the action of the
the circuit. As the coupling is increased tank is to recall that a resonant tank with
between the two circuits, the secondary res- moderate Q will discriminate strongly against
onance curve becomes broader and the reso- harmonics of the resonant frequency. The dis-
nant amplitude increases, until the reflected torted plate current pulse in a Class C ampli-
resistance is equal to the primary resistance. fier contains not only the fundamental fre-
This point is called the critical coupling quency (that of the grid excitation voltage)
point. With greater coupling, the secondary but also higher harmonics. As the tank offers
resonance curve becomes broader and develops low impedance to the harmonics and high im-
double resonance humps, which become more
pronounced and farther apart in frequency as
the coupling between the two circuits is
the latter), only the fundamental
wave voltage
-
pedance to the fundamental (being resonant to
- a sine -
appears across the tank circuit
increased. in substantial magnitude.
Tank Circuit When the plate circuit of a Loaded and Confusion sometimes exists as
Flywheel Effect Class B or Class C operated Unloaded Q to the relationship between the
tube is connected to a par- unloaded and the loaded Q of the
allel resonant circuit tuned to the same fre- tank circuit in the plate of an r -f power ampli-
quency as the exciting voltage for the amplifier. In the normal case the loaded Q of the
fier, the plate current serves to maintain this tank circuit is determined by such factors as
L/C circuit in a state of oscillation. the operating conditions of the amplifier, band=
The plate current is supplied in short pulses width of the signal to be emitted, permissible
which do not begin to resemble a sine wave, level of harmonic radiation, and such factors.
even though the grid may be excited by a sine - The normal value of loaded Q for an r -f ampli-
wave voltage. These spurts of plate current fier used for communications service is from
are converted into a sine wave in the plate perhaps 6 to 20. The unloaded Q of the tank
tank circuit by virtue of the "Q" or "flywheel circuit determines the efficiency of the output
effect" of the tank. circuit and is determined by the losses in the
If a tank did not have some resistance tank coil, its leads and plugs and jacks if any,
losses, it would, when given a "kick" with a and by the losses in the tank capacitor which
single pulse, continue to oscillate indefinitely. ordinarily are very low. The unloaded Q of a
With a moderate amount of resistance or "fric- good quality large diameter tank coil in the
tion" in the circuit the tank will still have high- frequency range may be as high as 500
to 800, and values greater than 300 are quite -- -FUNDAMENTAL SINE WAVECA )
common. - FUNDAMENTAL PLUS
3RD HARMONIC(C)
SQUARE WAVE
Tank Circuit Since the unloaded Q of a tank
Efficiency circuit is determined by the JRD HARMONIC (B)
minimum losses in the tank,
while the loaded Q is determined by useful
loading of the tank circuit from the external
load in addition to the internal losses in the
tank circuit, the relationship between the two
Q values determines the operating efficiency
of the tank circuit. Expressed in the form of
an equation, the loaded efficiency of a tank Figure 23
circuit is: COMPOSITE WAVE- FUNDAMENTAL
PLUS THIRD HARMONIC
Tank efficiency = 1 _Qi
tt x 100
Q.
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD HARMONIC
where Qu unloaded Q of the tank circuit
=
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD AND
Qi = loaded Q of the tank circuit 5TH HARMONICS(E)
As an example, if the unloaded Q of the STH HARMONIC

(D)
tank circuit for a class C r -f power amplifier
is 400, and the external load is coupled to the
tank circuit by an amount such that the loaded
Q is 20, the tank circuit efficiency will be:
eff. = (1 - 20/400) x 100, or (1 - 0.05) x 100,
or 95 per cent. Hence 5 per cent of the power
output of the Class C amplifier will be lost Figure 24
as heat in the tank circuit and the remaining THIRD HARMONIC WAVE PLUS
95 per cent will be delivered to the load. FIFTH HARMONIC
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD. STH.

AND 7TM HARMONICS
3 -3 Nonsinusoidal Waves (G)
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD AND
and Transients 5TH HARMONICS
SQUARE WAVE
7TH HARMONIC
(F )
Pure sine waves, discussed previously, are
basic wave shapes. Waves of many different
and complex shape are used in electronics,
particularly square waves, saw-tooth waves,
and peaked waves.
Wave Composition Any periodic wave (one that

repeats itself in definite Figure 25
time intervals) is composed of sine waves of RESULTANT WAVE, COMPOSED OF
different frequencies and amplitudes, added FUNDAMENTAL, THIRD, FIFTH,
together. The sine wave which has the same AND SEVENTH HARMONICS
frequency as the complex, periodic wave is
called the fundamental. The frequencies higher
than the fundamental are called harmonics,
and are always a whole number of times higher This resultant curve (figure 24) is added to
than the fundamental. For example, the fre- a fifth harmonic curve (D), and the sides of
quency twice as high as the fundamental is the resulting curve (E)are steeper than before.
called the second harmonic. This new curve is shown in figure 25 after a
7th harmonic component has been added to it,
The Square Wave Figure compares a square
23 making the sides of the composite wave even
wave with a sine wave (A) steeper. Addition of more higher odd harmonics
of the same frequency. If another sine wave will bring the resultant wave nearer and nearer
(B) of smaller amplitude, but three times the to the desired square wave shape. The square
frequency of (A), called the third harmonic, is wave will be achieved if an infinite number of
added to (A), the resultant wave (C) more odd harmonics are added to the original sine
nearly approaches the desired square wave. wave.
HANDBOOK Nonsinusoidal Waves 59
IUND. PLUS 2ND ]R ATM,

AND 7TH MAR MSNICS FUNDAMENTAL PLUS
/UNO. PLUS 2ND MANA.. FUND PLUS 2ND SRO, ANO 3RD HARMONIC
IUNOAM -TH MARMOIIIC3 FUNDAMENTAL
2ND NARY. STA. HARMONIC
N. \350 HARMONIC
,I \ I' \
FUND. PLUS 2ND ANO

IUND. PLUS 2Nq ORO ATN,
STN AND STN MARMONICS
\/
FUN0. PLUS 2ND. 3ND, ATH,
MA 2ND NARY. A \AMO STH NARMON ICS
NANNONIC cPTA HARMONIC
/\ fUND PLUS 2ND,

AND ATM HARMONIC;
F
S
]R
NO. PLUS 2ND ANO
HA MONKS
N.
FUND. PLUS END_, ]RD, aTN,

13TH STO, AND TM HARMS.
!K
\
ANGUITVItEAUC ICS'
/
C4TM HARMONIC TTM HARMONIC

FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD
AND STA. HARMONICS
WSW FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 350 HARM.
7k.5_TM HARMONIC
SA
IUND. PLUS 2ND, SRO. ATN, STA., STA..
AND 7TH HARMONICS
Figure 26
COMPOSITION OF A SAWTOOTH WAVE
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS ]RD, STM,
AND 7THHARMONICS
FUNDAMENTAL PLUS 3RD
AND STM HARMONIC
The Sawtooth Wave In the same fashion, a ,7TH HARMONIC

sawtooth wave is made up
of different sine waves (figure 26). The ad-
dition of all harmonics, odd and even, produces
the sawtooth wave form.
The Peaked Wave Figure 27 shows the com-

position of a peaked wave.
Note how the addition of each sucessive har-
monic makes the peak of the resultant higher
and the sides steeper.
Figure 27
COMPOSITION OF A PEAKED WAVE
Other Waveforms The three preceeding ex-
amples show how a complex
periodic wave is composed of a fundamental
wave and different harmonics. The shape of must be long with respect to the period of the
the resultant wave depends upon the harmonics lowest frequency contained in the voltage
that are added, their relative amplitudes, and wave.
relative phase relationships. In general, the
steeper the sides of the waveform, the more RC Differentiator An RC voltage divider that
harmonics it contains. and Integrator is designed to distort the in-
put waveform is known as a
AC Transient If
an a -c voltage is sub-
Circuits differentiator or integrator, depending upon
stituted for the d -c in- the locations of the output taps. The output
put voltage in the RC Transient circuits dis- from a differentiator is taken across the re-
cussed in Chapter 2, the same principles may sistance, while the output from an integrator
be applied in the analysis of the transient is taken across the capacitor. Such circuits
behavior. An RC coupling circuit is designed will change the shape of any complex a -c
to have a long time constant with respect to waveform that is impressed upon them. This
the lowest frequency it must pass. Such a distortion is a function of the value of the
circuit is shown in figure 28. If a nonsinus- time constant of the circuit as compared to
oidal voltage is to be passed unchanged the period of the waveform. Neither a dif-
through the coupling circuit, the time constant ferentiator nor an integrator can change the
C2 0.1 LF
100 V.
1000 C.P.S. e°i00v
OUTPUT (PEAT)
R =o.SM VOLTAGE 1000C PS.
R %C = 50000 1lSECONDS
PERIOD OF e c 1000 LSECONDS
Figure 28
- +1000
R -C COUPLING CIRCUIT WITH

OUTPUT WAVE FORM
LONG TIME CONSTANT e0 OF GENERATOR
100 V.
I
+125v.
ec
INTEGRATOR +75V.
E=100v.
OUTPUT
I I
r
(PEAR) OUTPUT Of
10001. e0 DIFPERENTIAT0R (eR)
I
eR -100v.
DIFFERENTIATOR
OUTPUT I
-0.-r-,
1 1 I
-L -L- -I--
%
1
+ 300
1 1 1
eR o r
I 1
i I
+ ESV. -I- - I
e0
OTPUT
V.
Uz5 of
INTEGRATOR (ecl
Figure 30
DIFFERENTIATOR AND
R -C
INTEGRATOR ACTION ON
Figure 29 A SQUARE WAVE
R -C DIFFER ENTIATOR AND
A SINE WAVE
Sawtooth Wove Input If
a back -to -back saw -
shape of a pure sine wave, they will merely tooth voltage is applied
shift the phase of the wave (figure 29). The to an RC circuit having a time constant one -
differentiator output is a sine wave leading sixth the period of the input voltage, the re-
the input wave, and the integrator output is a sult is shown in figure 31. The capacitor
sine wave which lags the input wave. The sum voltage will closely follow the input voltage,
of the two outputs at any instant equals the if the time constant is short, and the integra-
instantaneous input voltage. tor output closely resembles the input. The
amplitude is slightly reduced and there is a
Square Wave Input If
a square wave voltage is
slight phase lag. Since the voltage across the
impressed on the circuit of capacitor is increasing at a constant rate, the
figure 30, a square wave voltage output may charging and discharging current is constant.
be obtained across the integrating capacitor
The output voltage of the differentiator, there-
if the time constant of the circuit allows the fore, is constant during each half of the saw-
capacitor to become fully charged. In this tooth input.
particular case, the capacitor never fully
charges, and as a result the output of the Miscellaneous Various voltage waveforms
integrator has a smaller amplitude than the Inputs other than those represented
input. The differentiator output has a maximum here may be applied to short
value greater than the input amplitude, since RC circuits for the purpose of producing
the voltage left on the capacitor from the across the resistor an output voltage with an
previous half wave will add to the input volt- amplitude proportional to the rate of change of
age. Such a circuit, when used as a differen- the input signal. The shorter the RC time con-
tiator, is often called a peaker. Peaks of stant is made with respect to the period of the
twice the input amplitude may be produced. input wave, the more nearly the voltage across
HANDBOOK Transformers 61
INTEGRATOR
e=Ioov. OUTPUT (ec)
(PEAK)
1000 C.P.S.
1 DIFFERENTIATOR
JOUTPUT (e,)
+100
OUTPUT WAVEFORM
OF GENERATOR
-100
e0 r 010
ERÉiTiATOp1(éM)
OUTPUT OF
INTEGRATOR (eG)
Figure 31
R -CDIFFERENTIATOR AND
A SAWTOOTH WAVE
Figure 32
the capacitor conforms to the input voltage.
Thus, the differentiator output becomes of Differentiator outputs of short r -c circuits for
various input voltage waveshapes. The output
particular importance in very short RC cir- voltage is proportional to the rate of change
cuits. Differentiator outputs for various types of the input voltage.
of input waves are shown in figure 32.
Square Wave Test The application of a square the original flux is produced is called the
for Audio Equipment wave input signal to audio primary; the inductance which receives the
equipment, and the ob- induced current is called the secondary. In a
servation of the reproduced output signal on radio receiver power transformer, for example,
an oscilloscope will provide a quick and ac- the coil through which the 110 -volt a.c. passes
curate check of the overall operation of audio is the primary, and the coil from which a higher
equipment. Low -frequency and high -frequency or lower voltage than the a -c line potential is
response. as well as transient response can be obtained is the secondary.
examined easily. If the amplifier is deficient Transformers can have either air or mag-
in low- frequency response, the flat top of the netic cores, depending upon the frequencies at
square wave will be canted, as in figure 33. which they are to be operated. The reader
If the high -frequency response is inferior, the should thoroughly impress upon his mind the
rise time of the output wave will be retarded fact that current can be transferred from one
(figure 34). An amplifier with a limited high- circuit to another only if the primary current
and low- frequency response will turn the is changing or alternating. From this it can be
square wave into the approximation of a saw - seen that a power transformer cannot possibly
tooth wave (figure (35). function as such when the primary is supplied
with non -pulsating d.c.
3-4 Transformers A power transformer usually has a magnetic
When two coils are placed in such inductive core which consists of laminations of iron,
relation to each other that the lines of force built up into a square or rectangular form,
from one cut across the turns of the other with a center opening or window. The second-
inducing a current, the combination can be ary windings may be several in number, each
called a trans former. The name is derived from perhaps delivering a different voltage. The
the fact that energy is transformed from one secondary voltages will be proportional to the
winding to another. The inductance in which turns ratio and the primary voltage.
---
o ® © ®
Figure 33
Amplifier deficient in low frequency response will distort square wave applied to the input circuit, as
shown. A 60 -cycle square wave may b. used.
A: Drop in gain at low frequencies
B: Lending phase shift at low frequencies
C: Lagging phase shift at low frequencies
D: Accentuated low frequency gain
Types of Transformers are used in alter- Es voltage across the secondary

=
Transformers nating- current circuits to trans- winding
fer power at one voltage and im- practice,
pedance to another circuit at another voltage In the transformation ratio of a
and impedance. There are three main classifi-
transformer is somewhat less than the turns
cations of transformers: those made for use ratio, since unity coupling does not exist
in power -frequency circuits, those made for between the primary and secondary windings.
audio - frequency applications, and those made Ampere Turns (NI)
for radio frequencies. The current that flows in
the secondary winding as a
The Transformation In a perfect transformer all
result of the induced voltage must produce a
Ratio
flux which exactly equals the primary flux.
the magnetic flux lines The magnetizing force of a coil is expressed
produced by the primary as the product of the number of turns in the
winding link every turn of the secondary wind-
--
ing. For such a transformer, the ratio of the coil times the current flowing in it:
primary and secondary voltages is exactly Np Is
the same as the ratio of the number of turns NpxIpwNsXIs, or
in the two windings: Ns Ip
Np Ep where Ip = primary current
Is = secondary current
Ns Es
It can be seen from this expression that
where Np = number of turns in the primary when the voltage is stepped up, the current
winding is stepped down, and vice -versa.
Ns = number of turns in the secondary
winding
Ep = voltage across the primary winding
Leakage Reactance Since unity coupling does
not exist in a practical
Figure 34 Figure 35
Output waveshape of amplifier having deficiency Output waveshape of amplifier having limited
in high -frequency response. Tested with 10 -kc. low -frequency and high -frequency response.
square wave. Tested with 1 -kc. square wave.
HANDBOOK Electric Filters 63
Figure 36 Figure 37
IMPEDANCE -MATCHING TRANSFORMER
THE AUTO- TRANSFORMER
The reflected impedance Zp varies directly in
proportion to the secondary load Z¡ , and Schematic diagram of an autotransformer
directly in proportion to the square of the showing the method of connecting it to the line
primary -to- scondary turns ratio. and to the load. When only a small amount of
step up or step down is required, the auto -
transformer may be much smaller physically
than would be a transformer with o separate
transformer, part of the flux passing from the secondary winding. Continuously variable
primary circuit to the secondary circuit fol- auto-transformers (Variac and Powerstat) are
widely used commercially.
lows a magnetic circuit acted upon by the
primary only. The same is true of the second-
ary flux. These leakage fluxes cause leakage
reactance in the transformer, and tend to age. In effect, it is merely a continuous wind-
cause the transformer to have poor voltage ing with taps taken at various points along
regulation. To reduce such leakage reactance, the winding, the input voltage being applied
the primary and secondary windings should to the bottom and also to one tap on the wind-
be in close proximity to each other. The more ing. If the output is taken from this same
expensive transformers have interleaved wind- tap, the voltage ratio will be 1 -to -1; i.e., the
ings to reduce inherent leakage reactance. input voltage will be the same as the output
voltage. On the other hand, if the output tap
Impedance In the ideal transformer, the
is moved down toward the common terminal,
Transformation impedance of the secondary there will be a step -down in the turns ratio
load is reflected back into the with a consequent step -down in voltage. The
primary winding in the following relationship: initial setting of the middle input tap is chosen
so that the number of turns will have suffi-
Zp = N'Zs , or N = N/Zp /Zs cient reactance to keep the no -load primary
current at a reasonably low value.
where Zp = reflected primary impedance
N = turns ratio of transformer
Zs = impedance of secondary load 3 -5 Electric Filters
Thus any specific load connected to the
secondary terminals of the transformer will There are many applications where it is
be transformed to a different specific value desirable to pass a d -c component without
appearing across the primary terminals of the passing a superimposed a -c component, or to
transformer. By the proper choice of turns
ratio, any reasonable value of secondary load
impedance may be "reflected" into the pri- ELEMENTARY FI LTER SECTIONS
mary winding of the transformer to produce the
desired transformer primary impedance. The l -SCLTION! 7- NETWORK
phase angle of the primary "reflected" im- HZA

pedance will be the same as the phase angle
of the load impedance. A capacitive second- ZS ZB ze
ary load will be presented to the transformer
source as a capacity, a resistive load will T T T
present a resistive "reflection" to the primary VI NETWORK
source. Thus the primary source "sees" a
transformer load entirely dependent upon the
secondary load impedance and the turns ratio
of the transformer (figure 36). I I
The Auto The type of transformer in figure

Transformer 37, when wound with heavy wire
over an iron core, is a common Figure 38
device in primary power circuits for the pur- Complex filters may be made up from these basic
pose of increasing or decreasing the line volt- filter sections.
64 A l te rnat i n g C u r r en t C i r c u i t s T H E R A D I O
LOW -PASS SHUNT -DERIVED FILTER HIGH-PASS SERIES-DERIVED FILTER

(SERIES -ARM RESONATED) (S)1UNT-ARM RESONATED)
2C1 2C1
TC2
F2 f4 Fq
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
R. LOAD RESISTANCE R. LOAD RESISTANCE

LI' MLR CI' M
C1 =IQM2 XCA Cz- CA
x
C2= MCR L2- MI5_
LRA A.1.411.1-)2 CR= -747m- LI TIRFT M-1/1 )2

/
CR 4RfiR
\
1 I
fa= CUT -OFF FREQUENCY. fq' FEQ HRIGH

U
TION
ATTENENCY UAOF
f1'CUT -OFF FREQUENCY. fq' FREQUEN
HIGH ATTCY
OF
ENUATION
Figure 39
TYPICAL LOW -PASS AND HIGH -PASS FILTERS, ILLUSTRATING SHUNT AND SERIES
DERIVATIONS
pass all frequencies above or below a certain illustrated in figure 38. A finite number of L
frequency while rejecting or attenuating all sections may be combined into basic filter
others, or to pass only a certain band or bands sections, called T networks or pi networks,
of frequencies while attenuating all others. also shown in figure 38. Both the T and pi
All of these things can be done by suitable networks may be divided in two to form half -
combinations of inductance, capacitance and sections.
resistance. However, as whole books have
been devoted to nothing but electric filters, it
can be appreciated that it is possible only to Filter Sections The most common filter sec-
touch upon them superficially in a general tion is one in which the two
coverage book. impedances ZA and ZB are so related that
their arithmetical product is a constant: ZA X
Filter Operation filter acts by virtue of its
A ZB = K2 at all frequencies. This type of filter
property of offering very high section is called a constant -K section.
impedance to the undesired frequencies, while A section having a sharper cutoff frequency
offering but little impedance to the desired than a constant -K section, but less attenua-
frequencies. This will also apply to d.c. with tion at frequencies far removed from cutoff is
a superimposed a -c component, as d.c. can the M- derived section. so called because the
be considered as an alternating current of zero shunt or series element is resonated with a
frequency so far as filter discussion goes. reactance of the opposite sign. If the comple-
mentary reactance is added to the series arm,
Basic Filters Filters are divided into four the section is said to be shunt derived; if
classes, descriptive of the fre- added to the shunt arm, series derived. Each
quency bands which they are designed to impedance of the M- derived section is related
transmit: high pass, low pass, band pass and to a corresponding impedance in the constant-
band elimination. Each of these classes of K section by some factor which is a function
filters is made up of elementary filter sections of the constant m. M, in turn, is a function of
called L sections which consist of a series the ratio between the cutoff frequency and
element (ZA) and a parallel element (ZB) as the frequency of infinite attenuation, and will
HANDBOOK Filter Design 65
TT-SECTION FILTER DESIGN
Vo
CONSTANT K M=0.6 TERMINATING HALF-SECTIONS
R LOAD RESISTANCE Lt -WC,-
0--1
N t
e
1
f2 =CUT-OFF FREQUENCY
//
O -1 0p0 O
fo
I
Lt Lt
FREQUENCY OF VERY C2 gt Cz fC2 £C2
t
U C2
HIGH ATTENUATION
o T T o o T T o o T tf o
LK- R Lt=LK
Li. o.6LK=MLK1_ z
%%f2 Ct = 0.26T CA CK
Cz CK 4 SAME VALUES AS M = 0.6
Í
LOW PAS SI C2 =o.6CK=MCK
CK-
Ufa R 1
z z
¡fa
Q o
jz j
2
SAME CURVE AS M=0.6
M=
1-1
/
fi/2 -o.e
1 F
<
FREQUENCY
<
FREQUENCY
R. LOAD RESISTANCE C, L1 t I I }L1 ¡LI 000
fl. CUT-OFF FREQUENCY

¿CI
z0
2C11I-v
faa=FREQUCNCYOF VERY
HIGH ATTENUATION 2L2 2L2 2L2- 2L2 2L2- I Ñ I
2L2
O. L. O
KA Ct=CK Lt=3.7SLK= ALK
HIGH PASS
4/R7ft
L 2= L K G t== M SAME VALUES AS M= 0.6
t
Lz=óé=
CK=
4/TftR
-f,a
M=f- 1 ft / 2
ó
`
i
¡ft
ó
.
i
` t
SAME CURVE AS M = 0.6
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
Figure 40
Through the use of the curves and equations which accompany the diagrams ln the illustration above it is
possible to determine the Correct values of inductance and capacitance for the usual types of pi- section
filters.
have some value between zero and one. As the cies within the pass band. The insertion loss
value of m approaches zero, the sharpness of varies with the type of filter, the Q of the
cutoff increases, but the less will be the components and the type of termination em-
attenuation at several times cutoff frequency. ployed.
A value of 0.6 may be used for min most appli-
cations. The "notch" frequency is determined Electric Filter Electric wave filters have long
by the resonant frequency of the tuned filter
Design been used in some amateur sta-
element. The amount of attenuation obtained tions in the audio channel to
at the "notch" when a derived section is used
reduce the transmission of unwanted high fre-
is determined by the effective Q of the reso- quencies and hence to reduce the bandwidth
nant arm (figure 39). occupied by a radiophone signal. The effec-
tiveness of a properly designed and properly
Filter Assembly Constant -K sections and de- used filter circuit in reducing QRM and side -
rived sections may be cas- band splatter should not be underestimated.
caded to obtain the combined characteristics In recent years, high frequency filters have
of sharp cutoff and good remote frequency become commonplace in TVI reduction. High -
attenuation. Such a filter is known as a compass type filters are placed before the input
posite filter. The amount of attenuation will stage of television receivers to reject the
depend upon the number of filter sections fundamental signal of low frequency trans-
used, and the shape of the transmission curve mitters. Low -pass filters are used in the out-
depends upon the type of filter sections used. put circuits of low frequency transmitters to
All filters have some insertion loss. This prevent harmonics of the transmitter from
attenuation is usually uniform to all frequen- being radiated in the television channels.
66 Alternating Current Circuits
The chart of figure 40 gives design data is most constant over the pass band of the
and procedure on the pi- section type of filter. filter section.
M- derived sections with an M of 0.6 will be Simple filtersmay use either L, T, or n sec-
found to be most satisfactory as the input tions. Since the n section is the more com-
section (or half- section) of the usual filter monly used type figure 40 gives design data
since the input impedance of such a section and characteristics for this type of filter.
A PUSH -PULL 250 -TH AMPLIFIER WITH TVI SHIELD REMOVED

Use of harmonic filters in power leads and antenna circuit reduces radiation of TVI -producing harmonics
of typical push -pull amplifier. Shielded enclosure completes harmonic reduction measures.
CHAPTER FOUR
Vacuum Tube Principles
In the previous chapters we have seen the electron tubes the cathode energy is applied
manner in which an electric current flows in the form of heat; electron emission from a
through a metallic conductor as a result of an heated cathode is called thermionic emission.
electron drift. This drift, which takes place In another common type of electron tube, the
when there is a difference in potential between photoelectric cell, energy in the form of light
the ends of the metallic conductor, is in addi- is applied to the cathode to cause photo-
tion to the normal random electron motion electric emission.
between the molecules of the conductor.
The electron may be considered as a minute
negatively charged particle, having a mass of 4 -1 Thermionic Emission
9 x 10'3° gram, and a charge of 1.59 x 10'
coulomb. Electrons are always identical, Electron Emission of electrons from the
regardless of the source from which they are Emission cathode of a thermionic electron
obtained. tube takes place when the cathode
An electric current can be caused to flow of the tube is heated to a temperature suffi-
through other media than a metallic conductor. ciently high that the free electrons in the
One such medium is an ionized solution, such emitter have sufficient velocity to overcome
as the sulfuric acid electrolyte in a storage the restraining forces at the surface of the
battery. This type of current flow is called material. These surface forces vary greatly
electrolytic conduction. Further, it was shown with different materials. Hence different types
at about the turn of the century that an elec- of cathodes must be raised to different temper-
tric current can be carried by a stream of free atures to obtain adequate quantities of elec-
electrons in an evacuated chamber. The flow tron emission. The several types of emitters
of a current in such a manner is said to take found in common types of transmitting and
place by electronic conduction. The study of receiving tubes will be described in the fol-
electron tubes (also called vacuum tubes, or lowing paragraphs.
valves) is actually the study of the control and
use of electronic currents within an evacuated Cathode Types The emitters or cathodes as
or partially evacuated chamber. used in present -day thermi-
Since the current flow in an electron tube onic electron tubes may be classified into
takes place in an evacuated chamber, there two groups: the directly- heated or filament
must be located within the enclosure both a type and the indirectly- heated or heater- cathode
source of electrons and a collector for the type. Directly- heated emitters may be further
electrons which have been emitted. The elec- subdivided into three important groups, all
tron source is called the cathode, and the of which are commonly used in modern vacuum
electron collector is usually called the anode. tubes. These classifications are: the pure -
Some external source of energy must be ap- tungsten filament, the thoriated- tungsten
plied to the cathode in order to impart suffi- filament, and the oxide- coated filament.
cient velocity to the electrons within the
cathode material to enable them to overcome The Pure Tung- Pure tungsten wire was used
the surface forces and thus escape into the sten Filament as the filament in nearly all
surrounding medium. In the usual types of the earlier transmitting and
67
68 Vacuum Tube Principles THE RADIO
Figure 1
ELECTRON TUBE TYPES

The new G e n e r a I Electric ceramic triade (6BY4) is shown alongside a con-
ventional miniature tube (6265) and an octal -based receiving tube (25L6). The ceramic
tube Is designed for rugged service and features extremely low lead inductance.
receiving tubes. However, the thermionic effi- the filament is burned for a longer period at
ciency of tungsten wire as an emitter (the about 2100° Kelvin to form a layer of thor-
number of milliamperes emission per watt of ium on the surface of the tungsten; (4) the
filament heating power) is quite low, the fila- temperature is reduced to about 1600° Kelvin
ments become fragile after use, their life is and some pure hydrocarbon gas is admitted
rather short, and they are susceptible to burn- to form a layer of tungsten carbide on the
out at any time. Pure tungsten filaments must surface of the tungsten. This layer of tungsten
be run at bright white heat (about 2500° Kel- carbide reduces the rate of thorium evapora-
vin). For these reasons, tungsten filaments tion from the surface at the normal operating
have been replaced in all applications where temperature of the filament and thus increases
another type of filament could be used. They the operating life of the vacuum tube. Thor-
are, however, still universally employed in ium evaporation from the surface is a natural
large water-cooled tubes and in certain large, consequence of the operation of the thoriated-
high -power air- cooled triodes where another tungsten filament. The carburized layer on the
filament type would be unsuitable. Tungsten tungsten wire plays another role in acting as
filaments are the most satisfactory for high - a reducing agent to produce new thorium from
power, high -voltage tubes where the emitter the thoria to replace that lost by evapora-
is subjected to positive ion bombardment tion. This new thorium continually diffuses to
caused by the residual gas content of the the surface during the normal operation of
tubes. Tungsten is not adversely affected by the filament. The last process, (5), in the
such bombardment. activation of athoriated tungsten filament con-
sists of re- evacuating the envelope and then
The Thoriated- In the course of experi- burning or ageing the new filament for a con-
Tungsten Filament ments made upon tungsten siderable period of time at the normal operat-
emitters, it was found that ing temperature of approximately 1900°K.
filaments made from tungsten having a small One thing to remember about any type of
amount of thoria (thorium oxide) as an im- filament, particularly the thoriated type, is
purity had much greater emission than those that the emitter deteriorates practically as
made from the pure metal. Subsequent develop- fast when "standing by" (no plate current) as
ment has resulted in the highly efficient car- it does with any normal amount of emission
burized thoriated- tungsten filament as used in load. Also, a thoriated filament may be either
virtually all medium -power transmitting tubes temporarily or permanently damaged by a
today. heavy overload which may strip the surface
Thoriated-tungsten emitters consist of a layer of thorium from the filament.
tungsten wire containing from 1% to 2% thoria.
The activation process varies between dif- Reactivating Thoriated- tungsten fila-
ferent manufacturers of vacuum tubes, but Thoriated- Tungsten ments (and only thoriated-
it is essentially as follows: (1) the tube is Filaments tungsten filaments) which
evacuated; (2) the filament is burned for a have lost emission as
short period at about 2800° Kelvin to clean a result of insufficient filament voltage, a
the surface and reduce some of the thoria severe temporary overload, a less severe ex-
within the filament to metallic thorium; (3) tended overload, or even normal operation
HANDBOOK Types of Emitters 69
Figure 2
V -H -F and U -H -F TUBE TYPES
The tube to the left in this photograph is a 955 "acorn" triode. The 6F4 triode is very similar in
appearance to the 955 but has two leads brought out each for the grid and for the plate tion. The
second tube is a 446A "lighthouse" triode. The 2C40, 2C43, and 2C44 are more recent examples of the
same type tube and are essentially the same in external appearance. The third tube from the left is a
2C39 "oilcan" tube. This tube type is flatly the i f the lighthouse variety since the cathode
and heater connections come out the small end and the plate is the large finned radiator on the large end.
The use of the finned plate radiator makes the oilcan tube capable of approximately 10 times as much
plate dissipation as the lighthouse type. The tube to the right is the 4X150A beam tetrads. This tube, a
comparatively recent release, is capable of somewhat greater power output than any of the other tube
types shown, and Is rated for full output at S00 Mc. and at reduced output at frequencies greater than
1000 Mc.
may quite frequently be reactivated to their sists of a mixture of barium and strontium
original characteristics by a process similar oxides coated upon a nickel alloy wire or
to that of the original activation. However, strip. This type of filament operates at a dull -
only filaments which have not approached too red to orange -red temperature (1050' to 1170°
close to the end of their useful life may be K) at which temperature it will emit large
successfully reactivated. quantities of electrons. The oxide -coated
The actual process of reactivation is rel- filament is somewhat more efficient than the
atively simple. The tube which has gone thoriated- tungsten type in small sizes and it
"flat" is placed in a socket to which only the is considerably less expensive to manufacture.
two filament wires have been connected. The For this reason all receiving tubes and quite
filament is then "flashed" for about 20 to 40 a number of the low- powered transmitting
seconds at about l'% times normal rated volt- tubes use the oxide- coated filament. Another
age. The filament will become extremely bright advantage of the oxide -coated emitter is its
during this time and, if there is still some
thoria left in the tungsten and if the tube did
-
extremely long life the average tube can be
expected to run from 3000 to 5000 hours, and
not originally fail as a result of an air leak, when loaded very lightly, tubes of this type
some of this thoria will be reduced to metallic have been known to give 50,000 hours of life
thorium. The filament is then burned at 15 to before their characteristics changed to any
25 per cent overvoltage for from 30 minutes to great extent.
3 to 4 hours to bring this new thorium to the
surface. Oxide filaments are unsatisfactory for use
The tube should then be tested to see if it at high continuous plate voltages because: (1)
shows signs of renewed life. If it does, but is their activity is seriously impaired by the
still weak, the burning process should be con- high temperature necessary to de -gas the high -
tinued at about 10 to 15 per cent overvoltage voltage tubes and, (2) the positive ion bom-
for a few more hours. This should bring it bardment which takes place even in the best
back almost to normal. If the tube checks still evacuated high -voltage tube causes destruc-
very low after the first attempt at reactivation, tion of the oxide layer on the surface of the
the complete process can be repeated as a filament.
last effort. Oxide -coated emitters have been found cap-
able of emitting an enormously large current
The Oxide- The most efficient of all pulse with a high applied voltage for a very
Coated Filament modern filaments is the short period of time without damage. This
oxide -coated type which con- characteristic has proved to be of great value
age from 2 to 117 volts, although 6.3 is the

most common value. The heater is operated
at quite a high temperature so that the cathode
itself usually may be brought to operating
RI
temperature in a matter of 15 to 30 seconds.
Heat -coupling between the heater and the
CATHODE cathode is mainly by radiation, although there
is some thermal conduction through the in-
HEATER sulating coating on the heater wire, as this
coating is also in contact with the cathode
thimble.
Indirectly heated cathodesare employed in
all a -c
operated tubes which are designed to
Figure 3
operate at a low level either for r -f or a -f use.
CUT -AWAY DRAWING OF A 6C4 TRIODE However, some receiver power tubes use
heater cathodes (6L6, 6V6, 6F6, and 6K6 -GT)
as do some of the low -power transmitter tubes
(802, 807, 815, 3E29, 2E26, 5763, etc.). Heater
in radar work. For example, the relatively cathodes are employed almost exclusively
small cathode in a microwave magnetron may when a number of tubes are to be operated in
be called upon to deliver 25 to 50 amperes at series as in an a.c. -d.c. receiver. A heater
an applied voltage of perhaps 25,000 volts for
cathode is often called a uni- potential cathode
a period in the order of one microsecond.
because there is no voltage drop along its
After this large current pulse has been passed, length as there is in the directly- heated or
plate voltage normally will be removed for filament cathode.
1000 microseconds or more so that the cathode
surface may be restored in time for the next The Bombardment special bombardment cath-
A
pulse of current. If the cathode were to be Cathode ode is employed in many of
subjected to a continuous current drain of this the new high powered tele-
magnitude, it would be destroyed in an ex- vision transmitting klystrons(Eimac 3K 20,000
ceedingly short period of time. LA). The cathode takes the form of a tantalum
The activation of oxide- coated filaments diode, heated to operating temperature by the
also varies with tube manufacturers but con- bombardment of electrons from a directly
sists essentially in heating the wire which has heated filament. The cathode operates at a
been coated with a mixture of barium and positive potential of 2000 volts with respect
strontium carbonates to a temperature of about to the filament, and a d -c bombardment cur-
1500° Kelvin for a time and then applying a rent of 0.66 amperes flows between filament
potential of 100 to 200 volts through a pro- and cathode. The filament is designed to
tective resistor to limit the emission current. operate under space -charge limited conditions.
This process reduces the carbonates to oxides Cathode temperature is varied by changing the
thermally, cleans the filament surface of bombardment potential between the filament
foreign materials, and activates the cathode and the cathode.
surface.
Reactivation of oxide- coated filaments is The Emission The emission of electrons from
not possible since there is always more than Equation a heated cathode is quite sim-
sufficient reduction of the oxides and diffusion ilar to the evaporation of mole-
of the metals to the surface of the filament to cules from the surface of a liquid. The mole-
meet the emission needs of the cathode. cules which leave the surface are those having
sufficient kinetic (heat) energy to overcome
The Heater The heater type cathode was de- the forces at the surface of the liquid. As the
Cathode veloped as a result of the re- temperature of the liquid is raised, the aver-
quirement for a type of emitter age velocity of the molecules is increased,
which could be operated from alternating cur- and a greater number of molecules will acquire
rent and yet would not introduce a -c ripple sufficient energy to be evaporated. The evapor-
modulation even when used in low -level stages. ation of electrons from the surface of a ther-
It consists essentially of a small nickel -alloy mionic emitter is similarly a function of aver-
cylinder with a coating of strontium and bar- age electron velocity, and hence is a function
ium oxides on its surface similar to the coat- of the temperature of the emitter.
ing used on the oxide- coated filament. Inside Electron emission per unit area of emitting
the cylinder is an insulated heater element surface is a function of the temperature T
consisting usually of a double spiral of tung- in degrees Kelvin, the work function of the
sten wire. The heater may operate on any volt- emitting surface b (which is a measure of the
HANDBOOK Thermionic Emission 71
600
TYPE 6W4 -GT
Er ° 6.3 VOLTS
600
VI
W
W
a /
Q400
200
á
Figure 4
o 10 20 a0 40 50
CUT-AWAY DRAWING OF A 6CB6 PENTODE
D.C. PLATE VOLTS
surface forces of the material and hence of Figure 5

the energy required of the electron before it
may escape), and of the constant A which AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS
also varies with the emitting surface. The re- OF A POWER DIODE
lationship between emission current in am-
peres per square centimeter, I, and the above
quantities can be expressed as: the cathode and are replaced by others emitted
= ATTE -b /T by it.
Secondary The bombarding of most metals
Emission and a few insulators by electrons 4 -2 The Diode
will result in the emission of other
electrons by a process called secondary emis- If a cathode capable of being heated either
sion. The secondary electrons are literally indirectly or directly is placed in an evacuated
knocked from the surface layers of the bom- envelope along with a plate, such a two -
barded material by the primary electrons which element vacuum tube is called a diode. The
strike the material. The number of secondary diode is the simplest of all vacuum tubes and
electrons emitted per primary electron varies is the fundamental type from which all the
from a very small percentage to as high as others are derived.
5 to 10 secondary electrons per primary.
The phenomena of secondary emission is Characteristics the cathode within a

When
undesirable for most thermionic electron tubes. of the Diode diode is heated, it will be
However, the process is used to advantage in found that a few of the elec-
certain types of electron tubes such as the trons leaving the cathode will leave with suf-
image orthicon (TV camera tube) and the ficient velocity to reach the plate. If the plate
electron -multiplier type of photo -electric cell. is electrically connected back to the cathode,
In types of electron tubes which make use of the electrons which have had sufficient veloc=
secondary emission, such as the type 931 ity to arrive at the plate will flow back to the
photo cell, the secondary -electron- emitting cathode through the external circuit. This
surfaces are specially treated to provide a small amount of initial plate current is an
high ratio of secondary to primary electrons. effect found in all two -element vacuum tubes.
Thus a high degree of current amplification in If a battery or other source of d -c voltage
the electron -multiplier section of the tube is is placed in the external circuit between the
obtained. plate and cathode so that it places a positive
potential on the plate, the flow of current from
The Space As a cathode is heated so that the cathode to plate will be increased. This is
Charge Effect it begins to emit, those elec- due to the strong attraction offered by the posi-
trons which have been dis- tively charged plate for any negatively charged
charged into the surrounding space form a particles (figure 5).
negatively charged cloud in the immediate
vicinity of the cathode. This cloud of electrons Space- Charge Limited values of
At moderate
around the cathode is called the space charge. Current plate voltage the cur-
The electrons comprising the charge are con- rent flow from cathode
tinuously changing, since those electrons to anode is limited by the space charge of
making up the original charge fall back into electrons around the cathode. Increased values
AIDE COATED
qIATED TUNGSTON
TUNGSTEN rl A ENT
POINT OF MAXIMUM SPACE -

CNANGE -LIMITED EMISSION
Figure 7
ACTION OF THE GRID IN A TRIODE
PLATE VOLTAGE (A) shows the triode tube with cutoff bias on
the grid Note that all the electrons emitted
Figure 6 by the cathode remain inside the grid mesh.
MAXIMUM SPACE -CHARGE -LIMITED (B) shows the same tube with an intermediate
value of bias on the grid Note the medium
EMISSION FOR DIFFERENT value of plate current and the fact that there
TYPES OF EMITTERS is a reserve of electrons remaining within the
grid mesh. (C) shows the operation with a
relatively small amount of bias which with
certain tube types will allow substantially all
of plate voltage will tend to neutralize a the electrons emitted by the cathode to reach
greater portion of the cathode space charge the plate. Emission is said to be saturated in
and hence will cause a greater current to flow. this case. In a majority of tube types a high
Under these conditions, with plate current value of positive grid voltage is required be-
limited by the cathode space charge, the plate fore plate- current saturation takes place.
current is not linear with plate voltage. In
fact it may be stated in general that the plate -
current flow in electron tubes does not obey a lowering of the surface work function by the
Ohm's Law. Rather, plate current increases as field at the cathode resulting from the plate
the three -halves power of the plate voltage. potential.
The relationship between plate voltage, E,
and plate current, I, can be expressed as: Electron Energy The current flowing in the
=KE3/2
1
Dissipation plate- cathode space of a con-
ducting electron tube repre-
where K is a constant determined by the sents the energy required to accelerate elec-
geometry of the element structure within the trons from the zero potential of the cathode
electron tube. space charge to the potential of the anode.
Then, when these accelerated electrons strike
Plate Current As plate voltage is raised to the anode, the energy associated with their
Saturation the potential where the cath- velocity is immediately released to the anode
ode space charge is neutral- structure. In normal electron tubes this energy
ized, all the electrons that the cathode is cap- release appears as heating of the plate or
able of emitting are being attracted to the anode structure.
plate. The electron tube is said then to have
reached saturation plate current. Further in-
crease in plate voltage will cause only a 4 -3 The Triode
relatively small increase in plate current. The
initial point of plate current saturation is If an element consisting of a mesh or spiral
sometimes called the point of Maximum Space - of wire is inserted concentric with the plate
Charge- Limited Emission (MSCLE). and between the plate and the cathode, such
The degree of flattening in the plate- voltage an element will be able to control by electro-
plate- current curve after the MSCLE point will static action the cathode -to -plate current of
vary with different types of cathodes. This ef- the tube. The new element is called a grid, and
fect is shown in figure 6. The flattening is a vacuum tube containing a cathode, grid, and
quite sharp with a pure tungsten emitter. With plate is commonly called a triode.
thoriated tungsten the flattening is smoothed
somewhat, while with an oxide -coated cathode Action of If this new element through which
the flattening is quite gradual. The gradual the Grid the electrons must pass in their
saturation in emission with an oxide- coated course from cathode to plate is made
emitter is generally considered to result from negative with respect to the cathode, the nega-
HANDBOOK
o
i
"MAW
I
511/1P11111111111
/
,IÌ
II11II,UfI
I//!II
Í/iI!%CiCne
100
',;__
200
Figure
NEGATIVE-GRID CHARACTERISTICS Op
VS. Ep CURVES) OF A TYPICAL
TRIODE
triode amplifier stage.

8
r
Average plate characteristics of this type

are most commonly used in determining the
Class A operating characteristics of a
I
300
PLATE VOLTS (EP)
tive charge on this grid will effectively repel

the negatively charged electrons (like charges
repel; unlike charges attract) back into the
space charge surrounding the cathode Hence,
the number of electrons which are able to pass
through the grid mesh and reach the plate will
be reduced, and the plate current will be re-
duced accordingly. If the charge on the grid
is made sufficiently negative, all the electrons
v
TYPE
Er= 6.3
6J5
/I
400
VOLTS
/%%
ti
500
ment).
Triode Characteristics
with ip constant (L1 represents a small incre-
The µ can be determined experimentally by

making a small change in grid bias, thus
slightly changing the plate current. The plate
current is then returned to the original value
by making a change in the plate voltage. The
ratio of the change in plate voltage to the
change in grid voltage is the p of the tube
under the operating conditions chosen for the
test.
Current Flow
in a Triode
In a diode it was shown that
the electrostatic field at the
cathode was proportional to
the plate potential, Ep. and that the total
cathode current was proportional to the three-
halves power of the plate voltage. Similiarly,
in a triode it can be shown that the field at
the cathode space charge is proportional to
the equivalent voltage (E5 + Ep /p), where
the amplification factor, p, actually represents
the relative effectiveness of grid potential and
plate potential in producing a field at the
cathode.
It would then be expected that the cathode
current in a triode would be proportional to
the three- halves power of (E5 + Ep /ft). The
cathode current of a triode can be represented
with fair accuracy by the expression:
Cathode current = K (E5 +
where K is a constant determined by element

geometry within the triode.
Ev 3/2
73
leaving the cathode will be repelled back to Plate Resistance The plate resistance of a
it and the plate current will be reduced to zero. vacuum tube is the ratio of a
Any d -c voltage placed upon a grid is called change in plate voltage to the change in plate
a bias (especially so when speaking of a con- current which the change in plate voltage
trol grid). The smallest negative voltage which produces. To be accurate, the changes should
will cause cutoff of plate current at a particu- be very small with respect to the operating
lar plate voltage is called the value of cutoff values. Expressed as an equation:
bias (figure 7).
Amplification The amount of plate current in a
Factor triode is a result of the net field
Rp = -
AE,
c,Ip
Eg = constant, A= small
increment
at the cathode from interaction The plate resistance can also be determined
between the field caused by the grid bias and by the experiment mentioned above. By noting
that caused by the plate voltage. Hence, both the change in plate current as it occurs when
grid bias and plate voltage affect the plate the plate voltage is changed (grid voltage
current. In all normal tubes a small change in held constant), and by dividing the latter by
grid bias has a considerably greater effect the former, the plate resistance can be deter-
than a similar change in plate voltage. The mined. Plate resistance is expressed in Ohms.
ratio between the change in grid bias and the
change in plate current which will cause the Transconductance The mutual conductance,
same small change in plate current is called also referred to as trans -
the amplification factor or t of the electron conductance, is the ratio of a change in the
tube. Expressed as an equation: plate current to the change in grid voltage
AE which brought about the plate current change,
R = the plate voltage being held constant. Ex-
-4E g pressed as an equation:
74
400
400
220
xoo
SO-
Vacuum
10 20
6J S
3(.4 43
Ebbloo
30
Tube
40 20
GRID VOLTAGE (Eg)
Principles
00 o 00 20
.,'
100
-,
,
.3MMOEL.
eo-.,.
=MIMEO
-.',
"MR= MEO
ENNE MI
-20 -15 - 0 -S
GRID VOLTS
Figure 10
THE
,M
0
(Es)
N
.,
*5
RADIO
4.10 *15 *20
CONSTANT CURRENT (Ep VS. E9)

Figure 9 CHARACTERISTICS OF A
TYPICAL TRIODE TUBE
POSITIVE -GRID CHARACTERISTICS
This type of graphical representation is used
Op VS. E9) OF A TYPICAL TRIODE for Class C amplifier calculations since the
Plate characteristics of this type are mort operating characteristic of o Class C amplifier
commonly used In determining the pulse -signal is a straight line when drown upon o constant
operating characteristics of a triode amplifier current- graph.
stage. Note the large emission capability of
the oside - coated heater cathode in tubes of the
general type of the 6JS.
passing through the plate circuit of the tube
for various values of plate -load resistance and
AI plate -supply voltage. Figure 11 illustrates a
Gm = Es = constant, A = small triode tube with a resistive plate load, and a
AEg increment supply voltage of 300 volts. The voltage at
The transconductance is also numerically the plate of the tube (es) may be expressed
equal to the amplification factor divided by as:
ep =Ep -Gp xRL)
the plate resistance. Gm = it/Rs.
where Es is the plate supply voltage, is is the
Transconductance is most commonly ex- plate current, and RL is the load resistance in
pressed in microreciprocal -ohms or micro - ohms.
mbos. However, since transconductance ex- Assuming various values of is flowing in
presses change in plate current as a function the circuit, controlled by the internal resist-
of a change in grid voltage, a tube is often ance of the tube, (a function of the grid bias)
said to have a transconductance of so many values of plate voltage may be plotted as
milliamperes- per -volt. If the transconductance shown for each value of plate current (is). The
in milliamperes -per -volt is multiplied by 1000 line connecting these points is called the
it will then be expressed in micromhos. Thus load line for the particular value of plate -load
the transconductance of a 6A3 could be called resistance used. The slope of the load line is
either 5.25 ma. /volt or 5250 micromhos. equal to the ratio of the lengths of the vertical
and horizontal projections of any segment of
Characteristic Curves The operating character - the load line. For this example it is:
of a Triode Tube istics of a triode tube
may be summarized in .01 - .02 1
Slope = - - .0001 -
three sets of curves: The Ip vs. Es curve 100 - 200 10,000
(figure 8), the Is vs. Eg curve (figure 9) and
the Es vs. E curve (figure 10). The plate The slope of the load line is equal to
resistance (Rd of the tube may be observed - /RL. At point A on the load line, the volt-
1
from the Is vs. Es curve, the transconductance age across the tube is zero. This would be
(Gm) may be observed from the Is vs. Eg curve, true for a perfect tube with zero internal volt-
and the amplification factor (fi) may be deter- age drop, or if the tube is short -circuited from
mined from the Es vs. E8 curve. cathode to plate. Point B on the load line
corresponds to the cutoff point of the tube,
The Load Line load line is a graphical
A where no plate current is flowing. The op-
representation of the voltage erating range of the tube lies between these
on the plate of a vacuum tube, and the current two extremes. For additional information re-
HANDBOOK Triode Load Line 75
Ir(YA) Er
o 300
s 250
10 200 RL=6K
Is ISO
20 loo
2! SO
30 0
Figure 12
TRIODE TUBE CONNECTED FOR DETER-
MINATION OF PLATE CIRCUIT LOAD
LINE, AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
OF THE CIRCUIT
Er 300 volts, and the plate load is 8,000 ohms.

If the tube is considered to be an open circuit
Figure 11
no plate current will flow, and there is no
The static load line for a typical triode voltage drop across the plate load resistor,
tube with a plate load resistance of 10,000 RL. The plate voltage on the tube is therefore
ohms. 300 volts. If, on the other hand, the tube is
considered to be a short circuit, maximum
possible plate current flows and the full 300
garding dynamic load lines, the reader is volt drop appears across RL. The plate volt-
referred to the Radiotron Designer's Handbook, age is zero, and the plate current is 300/8,000,
4th edition, distributed by Radio Corporation or 37.5 milliamperes. These two extreme con-
of America. ditions define the load line on the I, vs. Ep
characteristic curve, figure 13.
For this application the grid of the tube is
Application of Tube As an example of the ap- returned to a steady biasing voltage of -4
Characteristics plication of tube charac- volts. The steady or quiescent operation of the
teristics, the constants tube is determined by the intersection of the
of the triode amplifier circuit shown in figure load line with the -4 volt curve at point Q.
12 may be considered. The plate supply is By projection from point Q through the plate
40
It
37.5
35
30
o
OAO '
LINI\ODOR
25
Figure 13
INSTANTN20u3
!MI :1:1
2
20
APPLICATION OF Ip VS. Ep
CHARACTERISTICS OF
I r YAIN
Yl
1
IS
-
/-
rÀ
VACUUM TUBE
- UAL
-- Enity
1!'i!iiU
Ir MUM-. 7.5
o wo 3 200 300 400 Sao
2
} PLATE VOLTS (Er)
1 ;
W
r__..1
44 VOLT PLATE SWING
76 Vacuum Tube P r i n c i p l e s T H E R A D I O
D.C. BIAS LEVEL (EC)
T-+
+18.25
Figure 15
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
OF INTERELECTRODE
STEADY STATE ti
IP +12.75 PLATE CURRENT% CAPACITANCE
+ 7.5
comes apparerrt. A voltage variation of 8 volts

(peak -to -peak) on the grid produces a variation
of 84 volts at the plate.
+240 Polarity Inversion When the signal voltage ap-

plied to the grid has its
+198 STEADY STATE (E)
maximum positive instantaneous value the
PLATE VOLTAGE
plate current is also maximum. Reference to
EP figure 12 shows that this maximum plate cur-
+154 rent flows through the plate load resistor RL,
producing a maximum voltage drop across it.
The lower end of RL is connected to the plate
supply, and is therefore held at a constant
potential of 300 volts. With maximum voltage
Figure 14 drop across the load resistor, the upper end of
POLARITY REVERSAL BETWEEN GRID RL is at a minimum instantaneous voltage.
AND PLATE VOLTAGES The plate of the tube is connected to this end
of RL and is therefore at the same minimum
instantaneous potential.
current axis it is found that the value of plate This polarity reversal between instantaneous
current with no signal applied to the grid is grid and plate voltages is further clarified by
12.75 milliamperes. By projection from point a consideration of Kirchhoff's law as it ap-
Q through the plate voltage axis it is found plies to series resistance. The sum of the IR
that the quiescent plate voltage is 198 volts. drops around the plate circuit must at all times
This leaves a drop of 102 volts across RL equal the supply voltage of 300 volts. Thus
which is borne out by the relation 0.01275 x when the instantaneous voltage drop across
8,000 = 102 volts. RL is maximum, the voltage drop across the
An alternating voltage of 4 volts maximum tube is minimum, and their sum must equal
swing about the normal bias value of -4 volts 300 volts. The variations of grid voltage,plate
is applied now to the grid of the triode ampli- current and plate voltage about their steady
fier. This signal swings the grid in a positive state values is illustrated in figure 14.
direction to 0 volts, and in a negative direction
to -8 volts, and establishes the operating Interelectrode Capacitance always exists be-
region of the tube along the load line between Capacitance tween any two pieces of metal
points A and B. Thus the maxima and minima separated by a dielectric. The
of the plate voltage and plate current are exact amount of capacitance depends upon the
established. By projection from points A and size of the metal pieces, the dielectric be-
B through the plate current axis the maximum tween them, and the type of dielectric. The
instantaneous plate current is found to be electrodes of a vacuum tube have a similar
18.25 milliamperes and the minimum is 7.5 characteristic known as the interelectrode
milliamperes. By projections from points A and capacitance, illustrated in figure 15. These
B through the plate voltage axis the minimum direct capacities in a triode are: grid -to-
instantaneous plate voltage swing is found to cathode capacitance, grid -to -plate capacitance,
be 154 volts and the maximum is 240 volts. and plate -to- cathode capacitance. The inter-
By this graphical application of the 1p vs. electrode capacitance, though very small, has
E characteristic of the 6SN7 triode the opera- a coupling effect, and often can cause un-
tion of the circuit illustrated in figure 12 be- balance in a particular circuit. At very high
HANDBOOK Tetrodes and P entodes 77
TYPE 24-A ec=-

esc =90 V.
TYPE 6SK7
esc = loo V.
est.= ov.
-4.5
100 200 300 400 500 100 200 300 400 s00
VOLTS (Er) VOLTS (Er)
Figure 16
Figure 17
TYPICAL Ip VS. Ep TETRODE TYPICAL 1p VS. Ep PENTODE
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
frequencies (v-h -f), interelectrode capacities the electrons pass through it and on to the
become very objectionable and prevent the use plate. Due also to the screen, the plate cur-
of conventional tubes at these frequencies. rent is largely independent of plate voltage,
Special v -h -f tubes must be used which are thus making for high amplification. When the
characterized by very small electrodes and screen voltage is held at a constant value, it
close internal spacing of the elements of the is possible to make large changes in plate
tube. voltage without appreciably affecting the plate
current, (figure 16).
When the electrons from the cathode ap-
4 -4 Tetrode or Screen Grid Tubes proach the plate with sufficient velocity, they
dislodge electrons upon striking the plate.
Many desirable characteristics can be ob- This effect of bombarding the plate with high
tained in a vacuum tube by the use of more velocity electrons, with the consequent dis-
than one grid. The most common multi -element lodgement of other electrons from the plate,
tube is the tetrode (four electrodes). Other gives rise to the condition of secondary emis-
tubes containing as many as eight electrodes sion which has been discussed in a previous
are available for special applications. paragraph. This effect can cause no particular
difficulty in a triode because the secondary
The Tetrode The quest for a simple and easily electrons so emitted are eventually attracted
usable method of eliminating the back to the plate. In the screen -grid tube, how-
effects of the grid -to -plate capacitance of the ever, the screen is close to the plate and is
triode led to the development of the screen- maintained at a positive potential. Thus, the
grid tube or tetrode. When another grid is screen will attract these electrons which have
added between the grid and plate of a vacuum been knocked from the plate, particularly when
tube the tube is called a tetrode, and because the plate voltage falls to a lower value than
the new grid is called a screen, as a result of the screen voltage, with the result that the
its screening or shielding action, the tube is plate current is lowered and the amplification
often called a screen -grid tube. The inter- is decreased.
posed screen grid acts as an electrostatic In the application of tetrodes, it is neces-
shield between the grid and plate, with the sary to operate the plate at a high voltage in
consequence that the grid -to -plate capacitance relation to the screen in order to overcome
is reduced. Although the screen grid is main- these effects of secondary emission.
tained at a positive voltage with respect to
the cathode of the tube, it is maintained at The Pentode The undesirable effects of sec-
ground potential with respect to r.f. by means ondary emission from the plate
of a by -pass capacitor of very low reactance can be greatly reduced if yet another element
at the frequency of operation. is added between the screen and plate. This
In addition to the shielding effect, the additional element is called a suppressor, and
screen grid serves another very useful purpose. tubes in which it is used are called pentodes.
Since the screen is maintained at a positive The suppressor grid is sometimes connected
potential, it serves to increase or accelerate to the cathode within the tube; sometimes it is
the flow of electrons to the plate. There being brought out to a connecting pin on the tube
large openings in the screen mesh, most of base, but in any case it is established nega-
GRID GR ;0
ATMOOt r CATPIOOE
REMOTE CUT -OFF SHARP CUT -OFF

GRID GRID
- GRID VOLTS
Figure 18 Figure 19
REMOTE CUTOFF GRID STRUCTURE ACTION OF A REMOTE CUTOFF
GRID STRUCTURE
cive with respect to the minimum plate volt- of the manner in which the electrodes are
age. The secondary electrons that would travel spaced, the electrons which travel to the
to the screen if there were no suppressor are plate are slowed down when the plate voltage
diverted back to the plate. The plate current is low, almost to zero velocity in a certain
is, therefore, not reduced and the amplifica- region between screen and plate. For this
tion possibilities are increased (figure 17). reason the electrons form a stationary cloud,
Pentodes for audio applications are de- or space cbarge. The effect of this space
signed so that the suppressor increases the charge is to repel secondary electrons emitted
limits to which the plate voltage may swing; from the plate and thus cause them to return
therefore the consequent power output and to the plate. In this way, secondary emission
gain can be very great. Pentodes for radio - is suppressed.
frequency service function in such a manner Another feature of the beam power tube is
that the suppressor allows high voltage gain, the low current drawn by the screen. The
at the same time permitting fairly high gain screen and the grid are spiral wires wound so
at low plate voltage. This holds true even if that each turn in the screen is shaded from
the plate voltage is the same or slightly lower the cathode by a grid turn. This alignment of
than the screen voltage. the screen and the grid causes the electrons
to travel in sheets between the turns of the
Remote Cutoff Remote cutoff tubes (variable screen so that very few of them strike the
Tubes mu) are screen grid tubes in screen itself. This formation of the electron
which the control grid struc- stream into sheets or beams increases the
ture has been physically modified so as to charge density in the screen -plate region and
cause the plate current of the tube to drop off assists in the creation of the space charge in
gradually, rather than to have a well defined this region.
cutoff point (figure 18). A non -uniform control Because of the effective suppressor action
grid structure is used, so that the amplifica- provided by the space charge, and because of
tion factor is different for different parts of the the low current drawn by the screen, the beam
control grid. power tube has the advantages of high power
Remote cutoff tubes are used in circuits output, high power -sensitivity, and high ef-
where it is desired to control the amplification ficiency. The 6L6 is such a beam power tube,
by varying the control grid bias. The charac- designed for use in the power amplifier stages
teristic curve of an ordinary screen grid tube of receivers and speech amplifiers or modulat-
has considerable curvature near the plate cur- ors. Larger tubes employing the beam -power
rent cutoff point, while the curve of a remote principle are being made by various manu-
cutoff tube is much more linear (figure 19). facturers for use in the radio -frequency stages
The remote cutoff tube minimizes cross- of transmitters. These tubes feature extremely
talk interference that would otherwise be high power- sensitivity (a very small amount
produced. Examples of remote cutoff tubes of driving power is required for a large out-
are: 6BD6, 6K7, 6SG7 and 6SK7. put), good plate efficiency, and low grid -to-
Beam Power A beam power tube makes use plate capacitance. Examples of these tubes
Tubes of another method for suppressing are 813, 4 -250A, 4X150A, etc.
secondary emission. In this tube
there are four electrodes: a cathode, a grid, a Grid-Screen The grid- screen mu factor (µ,$)
screen, and a plate, so spaced and placed that Mu Factoris analogous to the amplification
secondary emission from the plate is sup- factor in a triode, except that
pressed without actual power loss. Because the screen of a pentode or tetrode is sub-
HANDBOOK Mixer and Converter Tubes 79
stituted for the plate of a triode. p5g denotes The Effect of The current equations show how
the ratio of a change in grid voltage to a Grid Current the total cathode current in
change in screen voltage, each of which will triodes, tetrodes, and pentodes
produce the same change in screen current. is a function of the potentials applied to the
Expressed as an equation: various electrodes. If only one electrode is
positive with respect to the cathode (such as
AE,, would be the case in a triode acting as a
Ps: 1 sg = constant, A = small class A amplifier) all the cathode current goes
AE, increment to the plate. But when both screen and plate
are positive in a tetrode or pentode, the cath-
The grid- screen mu factor is important in ode current divides between the two elements.
determining the operating bias of a tetrode Hence the screen current is taken from the
or pentode tube. The relationship between con- total cathode current, while the balance goes
trol -grid potential and screen potential deter- to the plate. Further, if the control grid in a
mines the plate current of the tube as well as tetrode or pentode is operated at a positive
the screen current since the plate current is potential the total cathode current is divided
essentially independent of the plate voltage between all three elements which have a posi-
in tubes of this type. In other words, when tive potential. In a tube which is receiving a
the tube is operated at cutoff bias as deter- large excitation voltage, it may be said that
mined by the screen voltage and the grid - the control grid robs electrons from the output
screen mu factor (determined in the same way electrode during the period that the grid is
as with a triode, by dividing the operating positive, making it always necessary to limit
voltage by the mu factor) the plate current the peak -positive excursion of the control
will be substantially at cutoff, as will be the grid.
screen current. The grid- screen mu factor is
numerically equal to the amplification factor Coefficients of In general it may be stated
of the same tetrode or pentode tube when Tetrads: and that the amplification factor
it is triode connected. Pentodes of tetrode and pentode tubes
is a coefficient which is not
Current Flow The following equation is the of much use to the designer. In fact the ampli-
inTetrodes expression for total cathode cur- fication factor is seldom given on the design
ond Pentodes rent in a triode tube. The ex- data sheets of such tubes. Its value is usually
pression for the total cathode very high, due to the relatively high plate
current of a tetrode and a pentode tube is the resistance of such tubes, but bears little
same, except that the screen -grid voltage and relationship to the stage gain which actually
the grid- screen p- factor are used in place of will be obtained with such tubes.
the plate voltage and p of the triode. On the other hand, the grid -plate transcon-
ductance is the most important coefficient of
/ E 5/2 pentode and tetrode tubes. Gain per stage can
Cathode current = K 1 Eg + sg be computed directly when the Gm is known.
Psg The grid -plate transconductance of a tetrode
Cathode current, of course, is the sum of the or pentode tube can be calculated through use
screen and plate current, plus control grid cur-
rent in the event that the control grid is posi-
tive with respect to the cathode. It will be
noted that total cathode current is independent
of plate voltage in a tetrode or pentode. Also,
of the *expression:
Gm =
with Esg and ED constant.

-
Al
AEg
in the usual tetrode or pentode the plate cur- The plate resistance of such tubes is of
rent is substantially independent of plate less importance than in the case of triodes,
voltage over the usual operating range- which though it is often of value in determining the
means simply that the effective plate resist- amount of damping a tube will exert upon the
ance of such tubes is relatively high. How- impedance in its plate circuit. Plate resist-
ever, when the plate voltage falls below the ance is calculated from:
normal operating range, the plate current
falls sharply, while the screen current rises to AE,
RD
such a value that the total cathode current
remains substantially constant. Hence, the D
screen grid in a tetrode or pentode will almost with Eg and Esg constant.
invariably be damaged by excessive dissipa-
tion if the plate voltage is removed while the 4 -5 Mixer and Converter Tubes
screen voltage is still being applied from a
low -impedance source. The superheterodyne receiver always in-
OSCILLATOR GRID
wSCREEN GRID
PLATE
'`r
p 1
CATHODE METAL SHELL
FILAMENT
I
- SUPPRESSOR AND SHELL
SIGNAL GRID
Figure 21
SHOWING THE EFFECT OF CATHODE
Figure 20 LEAD INDUCTANCE
GRID STRUCTURE OF 6SA7 The degenrotive action of cathode lead in-
CONVERTER TUBE ductance tends to reduce the effective grid-to-
cathode voltage with respect to the voltage
available across the input tuned circuit. Cath-
ode lead inductance also introduces undesir-
cludes at least one stage for changing the able coupling between the input and the out-
frequency of the incoming signal to the fixed put circuits.
frequency of the main intermediate amplifier
in the receiver. This frequency changing
process is accomplished by selecting the low, the local oscillator must furnish con-
beat -note difference frequency between a siderable power to the diode mixer. A good
locally generated oscillation and the incoming diode mixer has an overall gain of about 0.5.
signal frequency. If the oscillator signal is
supplied by a separate tube, the frequency
changing tube is called a mixer. Alternatively, The Triode Mixer Atriode mixer has better
the oscillation may be generated by additional gain and a better noise figure
elements within the frequency changer tube. than the diode mixer. At low frequencies, the
In this case the frequency changer is common- gain and noise figure of a triode mixer closely
ly called a converter tube. approaches those figures obtained when the
tube is used as an amplifier. In the u -h -f and
Conversion The conversion conductance(Ge) v -h -f range, the efficiency of the triode mixer
Conductance a coefficient of interest in the
is deteriorates rapidly. The optimum local oscil-
case of mixer or converter tubes, lator voltage for a triode mixer is about 0.7 as
or of conventional triodes, tetrodes, or pen- large as the cutoff bias of the triode. Very
todes operating as frequency changers. The little local oscillator power is required by a
conversion conductance is the ratio of a triode mixer.
change in the signal -grid voltage at the input
frequency to a change in the output current at Pentode Mixers and The most common multi -
the converted frequency. Hence Gc in a mixer Converter Tubes grid converter tube for
is essentially the same as transconductance broadcast or shortwave
in an amplifier, with the exception that the use is the pensa grid converter, typified by
input signal and the output current are on dif- the 6SA7, 6SB7 -Y and 6BA7 tubes (figure 20).
ferent frequencies. The value of Gc in con- Operation of these converter tubes and pentode
ventional mixer tubes is from 300 to 1000 mixers will be covered in the Receiver Funda-
micromhos. The value of Gc in an amplifier mentals Chapter.
tube operated as a mixer is approximately 0.3
the Ga of the tube operated as an amplifier.
The voltage gain of a mixer stage is equal to 4 -6 Electron Tubes at Very
GcZ1 where ZL is the impedance of the plate High Frequencies
load into which the mixer tube operates.
The Diode Mixer The simplest mixer tube is As the frequency of operation of the usual
the diode. The noise figure, type of electron tube is increased above about
or figure of merit, for a mixer of this type is 20 Mc., certain assumptions which are valid
not as good as that obtained with other more for operation at lower frequencies must be re-
complex mixers; however, the diode is useful examined. First, we find that lead inductances
as a mixer in u -h -f and v -h -f equipment where from the socket connections to the actual
low interelectrode capacities are vital to cir- elements within the envelope no longer are
cuit operation. Since the diode impedance is negligible. Second, we find that electron
HANDBOOK The Klystron 81
transit time no longer may be ignored; an increase rapidly as frequency is increased

appreciable fraction of a cycle of input signal above the value where they become just ap-
may be required for an electron to leave the preciable. These effects may be reduced by
cathode space charge, pass through the grid scaling down tube dimensions; a procedure
wires, and travel through the space between which also reduces lead inductance. Further,
grid and plate. transit-time effects may be reduced by the
obvious procedure of increasing electrode po-
Effects of The effect of lead induct - tentials so that electron velocity will be in-
Lead Inductance ance is two -fold. First, as creased. However, due to the law of electron -
shown in figure 21, the motion in an electric field, transit time is
combination of grid-lead inductance, grid - increased only as the square root of the ratio
cathode capacitance, and cathode lead induct- of operating potential increase; therefore this
ance tends to reduce the effective grid -cathode expedient is of limited value due to other
signal voltage for a constant voltage at the limitations upon operating voltages of small
tube terminals as the frequency is increased. electron tubes.
Second, cathode lead inductance tends to
introduce undesired coupling between the
various elements within the tube. 4 -7 Special Microwave
Tubes especially designed for v -h -f and
u -h -f use have had their lead inductances Electron Tubes
minimized. The usual procedures for reducing
lead inductance are: (1) using heavy lead Due primarily to the limitation imposed by
conductors or several leads in parallel (ex- transit time, conventional negative -grid elec-
amples are the 6SH7 and 6AK5), (2) scaling tron tubes are capable of affording worthwhile
down the tube in all dimensions to reduce amplification and power output only up to a
both lead inductances and interelectrode definite upper frequency. This upper frequency
capacitances (examples are the 6AK5, 6F4, limit varies from perhaps 100 Mc. for con-
and other acorn and miniature tubes), and (3) ventional tube types to about 4000 Mc. for
the use of very low inductance extensions of specialized types such as the lighthouse tube.
the elements themselves as external connec- Above the limiting frequency, the conventional
tions (examples are lighthouse tubes such as negative -grid tube no longer is practicable and
the 2C40, oilcan tubes such as the 2C29, and recourse must be taken to totally different
many types of v -h -f transmitting tubes). types of electron tubes in which electron
transit time is not a limitation to operation.
Effect of When an electron tube is op- Three of the most important of such microwave
Transit Time erated at a frequency high tube types are the klystron, the magnetron, and
enough that electron transit the travelling wave tube.
time between cathode and plate is an ap-
preciable fraction of a cycle at the input fre- The Power Klystron The klystron is a type
quency, several undesirable effects take place. of electron tube in which
First, the grid takes power from the input electron transit time is used to advantage,
signal even though the grid is negative at all Such tubes comprise, as shown in figure 22,
times. This comes about since the grid will a cathode, a focussing electrode, a resonator
have changed its potential during the time connected to a pair of grids which afford
required for an electron to pass from cathode velocity modulation of the electron beam
to plate. Due to interaction, and a resulting (called the "buncher "), a drift space, and
phase difference between the field associated another resonator connected to a pair of grids
with the grid and that associated with a mov- (called the "catcher "). A collector for the
ing electron, the grid presents a resistance to expended electrons may be included at the
an input signal in addition to its normal end of the tube, or the catcher may also per-
"cold" capacitance. Further, as a result of form the function of electron collection.
this action, plate current no longer is in phase The tube operates in the following manner:
with grid voltage. The cathode emits a stream of electrons which
An amplifier stage operating at a frequency is focussed into a beam by the focussing
high enough that transit time is appreciable: electrode. The stream passes through the
(a) Is difficult to excite as a result of grid buncher where it is acted upon by any field
loss from the equivalent input grid resistance, existing between the two grids of the buncher
(b) Is capable of less output since trans - cavity. When the potential between the two
conductance is reduced and plate current is grids is zero, the stream passes through with-
not in phase with grid voltage. out change in velocity. But when the potential
The effects of transit time increase with the between the two grids of the buncher is in-
square of the operating frequency, and they creasingly positive in the direction of electron
IsvAC
Figure 22
TWO- CAVITY KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR Figure 23
A conventional two -cavity klystron is shown
REFLEX KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR
with o feedback loop connected between the
two cavities so that the tube may be used as A conventional reflex klystron oscillator of
an oscillator. the type commonly used as a local oscillator
in superheterodyne receivers operating above
about 2000 Mc. is shown above. Frequency
modulation of the output frequency of the oscil-
motion, the velocity of the electrons in the lator, or a-f-c operation in a receiver, may be
beam is increased. Conversely, when the field obtained by varying the negative voltage on the
becomes increasingly negative in the direction repeller electrode.
of the beam (corresponding to the other half
cycle of the exciting voltage from that which
produced electron acceleration) the velocity
of the electrons in the beam is decreased. carried on mechanically in some klystrons by
When the velocity -modulated electron beam altering (by means of knob settings) the shape
reaches the drift space, where there is no field, of the resonant cavity.
those electrons which have been sped up on
one half-cycle overtake those immediately The Reflex Klystron two- cavity klystron
The
ahead which were slowed down on the other as described in the pre-
half -cycle. In this way, the beam electrons be- ceding paragraphs is primarily used as atrans-
come bunched together. As the bunched groups mitting device since quite reasonable amounts
pass through the two grids of the catcher of power are made available in its output cir-
cavity, they impart pulses of energy to these cuit. However, for applications where a much
smaller amount of power is required -power
grids. The catcher grid -space is charged to
different voltage levels by the passing electron
bunches, and a corresponding oscillating field
-
levels in the milliwatt range for low -power
transmitters, receiver local oscillators, etc.,
is set up in the catcher cavity. The catcher is another type of klystron having only a single
designed to resonate at the frequency of the cavity is more frequently used.
velocity- modulated beam, or at a harmonic of The theory of operation of the single- cavity
this frequency. klystron is essentially the same as the multi -
In the klystron amplifier, energy delivered cavity type with the exception that the veloc-
by the buncher to the catcher grids is greater ity- modulated electron beam, after having left
than that applied to the buncher cavity by the the "buncher" cavity is reflected back into
input signal. In the klystron oscillator a feed- the area of the buncher again by a repeller
back loop connects the two cavities. Coupling electrode as illustrated in figure 23. The
to either buncher or catcher is provided by potentials on the various electrodes are ad-
small loops which enter the cavities by way of justed to the value such that proper bunching
concentric lines. of the electron beam will take place just as a
The klystron is an electron- coupled device. particular portion of the velocity -modulated
When used as an oscillator, its output voltage beam reenters the area of the resonant cavity.
is rich in harmonics. Klystron oscillators of Since this type of klystron has only one circuit
various types afford power outputs ranging it can be used only as an oscillator and not as
from less than 1 watt to many thousand watts. an amplifier. Effective modulation of the fre-
Operating efficiency varies between 5 and 30 quency of a single- cavity klystron for FM
per cent. Frequency may be shifted to some work can be obtained by modulating the re-
extent by varying the beam voltage. Tuning is peller electrode voltage.
HANDBOOK The Magnetron 83
PLATE I
ANODE
ANODE
FIL FIL
FILAMENT
GRID ANODE ANODE
TERMINAI T RMINAL GLASS PLATE 2 GLASS ENVELOPE
SEAL
CATHODE
ANODE
GRID NEATER
FILAMENT PLATE
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
EYELET`
GLASS Figure 25
SEAS 1
SIMPLE MAGNETRON OSCILLATOR
LEAD
TERMINAL
An external tank circuit is used with this type
EYELET TUIULA T ION
of magnetron oscillator for operation In the
lower u -h -f range.
Figure 24
CUTAWAY VIEW OF
WESTERN ELECTRIC 416- B/6280
VHF PLANAR TRIODE TUBE In its simplest form the magnetron tube is a
The 416 -8, designed by the Bell
filament -type diode with two half -cylindrical
Telephone Laboratories is intended plates or anodes situated coaxially with re-
for amplifier or frequency multiplier spect to the filament. The construction is
service in the 4000 me region. Em- illustrated in figure 25A. The anodes of the
ploying grid wires having a diameter magnetron are connected to a resonant circuit
equal to fifteen wavelengths of light, as illustrated on figure 25B. The tube is sur-
the 416 -8 has a transconductance of rounded by an electromagnet coil which, in
50,000. Spacing between grid and turn, is connected to a low- voltage d -c ener-
cathode is .0005', to reduce transit
gizing source through a rheostat R for control-
time effects. Entire tube is gold plated.
ling the strength of the magnetic field. The
field coil is oriented so that the lines of
magnetic force it sets up are parallel to the
axis of the electrodes.
The Magnetron The
magnetron is an s -h -f Under the influence of the strong magnetic
oscillator tube normally em- field, electrons leaving the filament are de-
ployed where very high values of peak power flected from their normal paths and move in
or moderate amounts of average power are circular orbits within the anode cylinder. This
required in the range from perhaps 700 Mc. effect results in a negative resistance which
to 30,000 Mc. Special magnetrons were de- sustains oscillations. The oscillation fre-
veloped for wartime use in radar equipments quency is very nearly the value determined by
which had peak power capabilities of several L and C. In other magnetron circuits, the fre-
million watts (megawatts) output at frequen- quency may be governed by the electron rota-
cies in the vicinity of 3000 Mc. The normal tion, no external tuned circuits being em-
duty cycle of operation of these radar equip- ployed. Wavelengths of less than 1 centi-
ments was approximately 1 /10 of one per meter have been produced with such circuits.
cent (the tube operated about 1 /1000 of the More complex magnetron tubes employ no
time and rested for the balance of the operat- external tuned circuit, but utilize instead one
ing period) so that the average power output or more resonant cavities which are integral
of these magnetrons was in the vicinity of with the anode structure. Figure 26 shows a
1000 watts. magnetron of this type having a multi -cellular
WAVE GUI DE WAVE GUIDE

INPUT OUTPUT
ELECTRON BEAM
ANODE COLLECTOR
Figure 27
Figure 26 THE TRAVELLING WAVE TUBE
MODERN MULTI- CAVITY MAGNETRON Operation of this tube is the result of Inter-
Illustrated is on external -anode strapped mag- action between the electron beam and wave
netron of the type commonly used in radar quip- travelling along the helix.
ment for the 10 -cm. range. A permanent magnet
of the general type used with such a magnetron
is shown ln the right -hand portion of the drawing,
with the magnetron in place between the pole electron tube which permits the visual observa-
pieces of the magnet. tion of electrical signals. It may be incorpo-
rated into an oscilloscope for use as a test
instrument or it may be the display device for
anode of eight cavities. It will be noted, also, radar equipment or a television receiver.
that alternate cavities (which would operate at
the same polarity when the tube is oscillating) Operation of Acathode -ray tube always in-
are strapped together. Strapping was found to the CRT cludes an electron gun for pro-
improve the efficiency and stability of high - ducing a stream of electrons, a
power radar magnetrons. In most radar appli- grid for controlling the intensity of the elec-
cations of magnetron oscillators a powerful tron beam, and a luminescent screen for con-
permanent magnet of controlled characteristics verting the impinging electron beam into visi-
is employed to supply the magnetic field ble light. Such a tube always operates in con-
rather than the use of an electromagnet. junction with either a built-in or an external
means for focussing the electron stream into a
The Travelling Travelling Wave Tube
The narrow beam, and a means for deflecting the
Wave Tube (figure 27) consists of a helix electron beam in accordance with an electrical
located within an evacuated signal.
envelope. Input and output terminations are The main electrical difference between
affixed to each end of the helix. An electron types of cathode -ray tubes lies in the means
beam passes through the helix and interacts employed for focussing and deflecting the
with a wave travelling along the helix to pro- electron beam. The beam may be focussed
duce broad band amplification at microwave and/or deflected either electrostatically or
frequencies. magnetically, since a stream of electrons can
When the input signal is applied to the gun be acted upon either by an electrostatic or a
end of the helix, it travels along the helix wire magnetic field. In an electrostatic field the
at approximately the speed of light. However, electron beam tends to be deflected toward the
the signal velocity measured along the axis positive termination of the field (figure 28).
of the helix is considerably lower. The elec- In a magnetic field the stream tends to be
trons emitted by the cathode gun pass axially deflected at right angles to the field. Further,
through the helix to the collector, located at an electron beam tends to be deflected so that
the output end of the helix. The average veloc-
ity of the electrons depends upon the potential
of the collector with respect to the cathode.
-
it is normal (perpendicular) to the equipotential
lines of an electrostatic field and it tends to
be deflected so that it is parallel to the lines
When the average velocity of the electrons is of force in a magnetic field.
greater than the velocity of the helix wave, Large cathode-ray tubes used as kinescopes
the electrons become crowded together in the in television receivers usually are both focused
various regions of retarded field, where they and deflected magnetically. On the other hand,
impart energy to the helix wave. A power gain the medium -size CR tubes used in oscillo-
of 100 or more may be produced by this tube. scopes and small television receivers usually
are both focused and deflected electrostat-
4 -8 The Cathode -Ray Tube ically. But CR tubes for special applications
may be focused magnetically and deflected
The Cathode -Ray Tube The cathode -ray tube electrostatically or vice versa.
is a special type of There are advantages and disadvantages to
HANDBOOK The Cathode Ray Tube 85
DORI ZONTAL DEFLECTION anode, A, which is operated at a high positive

ICI
BASE
\NEATE
ACCELERATING ANODE IRI
FOCUSSING
potential.ln some tubes this electrode is oper-
IFI
AOUADAG SECONDARY
atcd at a higher potential than the first accel-
T1 COATING ELECTIIpI]!i erating electrode, H, while in other tubes both
CLCCfA3NEEAN
accelerating electrodes are operated at the
CONTROL ACCELERATI
FLUORESCENT SCREEN same potential.
GRID (61 ANODE IA)
CATHODE IN) The electrodes which have been described
ERTICAL DEFLECTION
1111 up to this point constitute the electron gun,
which produces the free electrons and focusses
Figure 28 them into a slender, concentrated, rapidly -
TYPICAL ELECTROSTATIC traveling stream for projecting onto the view-
CATHODE -RAY TUBE ing screen.
Electrostatic To make the tube useful, means

both types of focussing and deflection. How- Deflection must be provided for deflecting
ever, it may be stated that electrostatic deflec- the electron beam along two axes
tion is much better than magnetic deflection at right angles to each other. The more com-
when high -frequency waves are to be displayed mon tubes employ electrostatic deflection
on the screen; hence the almost universal use plates, one pair to exert a force on the beam
of this type of deflection for oscillographic in the vertical plane and one pair to exert a
work. But when a tube is operated at a high force in the horizontal plane. These plates
value of accelerating potential so as to obtain are designated as B and C in figure 28.
a bright display on the face of the tube as for Standard oscilloscope practice with small
television or radar work, the use of magnetic cathode-ray tubes calls for connecting one of
deflection becomes desirable since it is rela- the B plates and one of the C plates together
tively easier to deflect a high -velocity electron and to the high voltage accelerating anode.
beam magnetically than electrostatically. With the newer three -inch tubes and with five -
However, an ion trap is required with mag- inch tubes and larger, all four deflecting plates
netic deflection since the heavy negative ions are commonly used for deflection. The positive
emitted by the cathode are not materially de- high voltage is grounded, instead of the nega-
flected by the magnetic field and hence would tive as is common practice in amplifiers, etc.,
burn an "ion spot" in the center of the lumi- in order to permit operation of the deflecting
nescent screen. With electrostatic deflection plates at a d -c potential at or near ground.
the heavy ions are deflected equally as well An Aquadag coating is applied to the inside
as the electrons in the beam so that an ion of the envelope to attract any secondary elec-
spot is not formed. trons emitted by the flourescent screen.
In the average electrostatic -deflection CR
Construction of The construction of a typical tube the spot will be fairly well centered if all
Electrostatic CRT electrostatic- focus, electro- four deflection plates are returned to the po-
static- deflection cathode-ray tential of the second anode (ground). How-
tube is illustrated in the pictorial diagram of ever, for accurate centering and to permit mov-
figure 28. The indirectly heated cathode K re- ing the entire trace either horizontally or
leases free electrons when heated by the vertically to permit display of a particular
enclosed filament. The cathode is surrounded waveform, horizontal and vertical centering
by a cylinder G, which has a small hole in its controls usually are provided on the front of
front for the passage of the electron stream. the oscilloscope.
Although this element is not a wire mesh as After the spot is once centered, it is neces-
is the usual grid, it is known by the same sary only to apply a positive or negative volt-
name because its action is similar: it controls age (with respect to ground) to one of the
the electron stream when its negative potential ungrounded or "free" deflector plates in order
is varied. to move the spot. If the voltage is positive
Next in order, is found the first accelerating with respect to ground, the beam will be
anode, H, which resembles another disk or attracted toward that deflector plate, while if
cylinder with a small hole in its center. This negative the beam and spot will be repulsed.
electrode is run at a high or moderately high The amount of deflection is directly propor-
positive voltage, to accelerate the electrons tional to the voltage (with respect to ground)
towards the far end of the tube. that is applied to the free electrode.
The focussing electrode, F, is a sleeve With the larger- screen higher -voltage tubes
which usually contains two small disks, each it becomes necessary to place deflecting volt-
with a small hole. age on both horizontal and both vertical plates.
After leaving the focussing electrode, the This is done for two reasons: First, the amount
electrons pass through another accelerating of deflection voltage required by the high-
FOCUS COIL \TERMINAL

BASE FIRS DEFLECTION
ION COILS
ANOOE
, __-___
S[CONDANODr
(AGUADAGI
__?'rC[CYIiDIfs[Ad__.__ _v
/CONTROL
GRID IGI
® III
CATHODE I Ni
Figure 29
TYPICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC
CATHODE -RAY TUBE
voltage tubes is so great that a transmitting

tube operating from a high voltage supply Figure 30
would be required to attain this voltage with- Two pairs of coils arranged for electro-
out distortion. By using push -pull deflection magnetic deflection in two directions.
with two tubes feeding the deflection plates,
the necessary plate supply voltage for the de-
flection amplifier is halved. Second, a certain the current flowing in the coil may be varied.
amount of de- focussing of the electron stream A second pair of coils, the deflection coils
is always present on the extreme excursions in are mounted at right angles to each other
deflection voltage when this voltage is applied around the neck of the tube. In some cases,
only to one deflecting plate. When the de- these coils can rotate around the axis of the
flecting voltage is fed in push -pull to both tube.
deflecting plates in each plane, there is no de- Two anodes are used for accelerating the
focussing because the average voltage acting electrons from the cathode to the screen. The
on the electron stream is zero, even though the second anode is a graphite coating (Aquadag)
net voltage (which causes the deflection) on the inside of the glass envelope. The func-
acting on the stream is twice that on either tion of this coating is to attract any secondary
plate. electrons emitted by the flourescent screen,
The fact that the beam is deflected by a and also to shield the electron beam.
magnetic field is important even in an oscillo- In some types of electromagnetic tubes, a
scope which employs a tube using electro- first, or accelerating anode is also used in
static deflection, because it means that pre- addition to the Aquadag.
cautions must betaken to protect the tube from
the transformer fields and sometimes even the Electromagnetic A magnetic field will deflect
earth's magnetic field. This normally is done Deflection an electron beam in a direc-
by incorporating a magnetic shield around the tion which is at right angles
tube and by placing any transformers as far to both the direction of the field and the direc-
from the tube as possible, oriented to the position of motion of the beam.
tion which produces minimum effect upon the In the general case, two pairs of deflection
electron stream. coils are used (figure 30). One pair is for
horizontal deflection, and the other pair is for
Construction of Electro- The electromagnetic vertical deflection. The two coils in a pair
magnetic CRT cathode -ray tube allows are connected in series and are wound in such
greater definition than directions that the magnetic field flows from
does the electrostatic tube. Also, electro- one coil, through the electron beam to the
magnetic definition has a number of advan- other coil. The force exerted on the beam by
tages when a rotating radial sweep is required the field moves it to any point on the screen
to give polar indications. by application of the proper currents to these
The production of the electron beam in an coils.
electromagnetic tube is essentially the same
as in the electrostatic tube. The grid structure
is similar, and controls the electron beam in The Trace The human eye retains an image
an identical manner. The elements of a typical for about one -sixteenth second
electromagnetic tube are shown in figure 29. after viewing. In a CRT, the spot can be
The focus coil is wound on an iron core which moved so quickly that a series of adjacent
may be moved along the neck of the tube to spots can be made to appear as a line, if the
focus the electron beam. For final adjustment, beam is swept over the path fast enough. As
HANDBOOK Gas Tubes 87
long as the electron beam strikes in a given Mercury Vapor Mercury -vapor tubes, although
place at least sixteen times a second, the Tubes very widely used, have the
spot will appear to the human eye as a source disadvantage that they must be
of continuous light with very little flicker. operated within a specific temperature range
(25° to 70° C.) in order that the mercury vapor
Screen Materials
"Phosphors"
- At least five types of lumi-
nescent screen materials
pressure within the tube shall be within the
proper range. If the temperature is too low,
are commonly available on the drop across the tube becomes too high
the various types of CR tubes commercially causing immediate overheating and possible
available. These screen materials are called damage to the elements. If the temperature is
phosphors; each of the five phosphors is best too high, the vapor pressure is too high, and
suited to a particular type of application. The the voltage at which the tube will "flash back"
P -1 phosphor, which has a green flourescence is lowered to the point where destruction of
with medium persistence, is almost invariably the tube may take place. Since the ambient
used for oscilloscope tubes for visual observa- temperature range specified above is within
tion. The P -4 phosphor, with white fluores- the normal room temperature range, no trouble
cence and medium persistence, is used on will be encountered under normal operating
television viewing tubes ( "Kinescopes "). The conditions. However, by the substitution of
P -5 and P -11 phosphors, with blue fluores- xenon gas for mercury it is possible to pro-
cence and very short persistence, are used duce a rectifier with characteristics comparable
primarily in oscilloscopes where photographic to those of the mercury-vapor tube except that
recording of the trace is to be obtained. The the tube is capable of operating over the range
P -7 phosphor, which has a blue flash and a from approximately 70° to 90° C. The 3B25
long -persistence greenish -yellow persistence, rectifier is an example of this type of tube.
is used primarily for radar displays where
retention of the image for several seconds Thyrotron If a grid is inserted between the ca-
after the initial signal display is required. Tubes thode and plate of a mercury -vapor
gaseous- conduction rectifier, a neg-
ative potential placed upon the added element
Gas Tubes
will increase the plate -to- cathode voltage drop
4 -9
required before the tube will ionize or "fire."
The potential upon the control grid will have
no effect on the plate -to- cathode drop after the
The space charge of electrons in the vicinity tube has ionized. However, the grid voltage
of the cathode in a diode causes the plate -to- may be adjusted to such a value that conduc-
cathode voltage drop to be a function of the tion will take place only over the desired
current being carried between the cathode and portion of the cycle of the a -c voltage being
the plate. This voltage drop can be rather high impressed upon the plate of the rectifier.
when large currents are being passed, causing
a considerable amount of energy loss which Voltage Regulator In a glow-discharge
shows up as plate dissipation. gas tube
Tubes the voltage drop across the
electrodes remains constant
Action of The negative space charge can over a wide range of current passing through
Positive Ions be neutralized by the presence the tube. This property exists because the
of the proper density of positive degree of ionization of the gas in the tube
ions in the space between the cathode and varies with the amount of current passing
anode. The positive ions may be obtained by through the tube. When a large current is
the introduction of the proper amount of gas or passed, the gas is highly ionized and the
a small amount of mercury into the envelope of internal impedance of the tube is low. When a
the tube. When the voltage drop across the small current is passed, the gas is lightly
tube reaches the ionization potential of the ionized and the internal impedance of the tube
gas or mercury vapor, the gas molecules will is high. Over the operating range of the tube,
become ionized to form positive ions. The the product (IR) of the current through the tube
positive ions then tend to neutralize the space and the internal impedance of the tube is very
charge in the vicinity of the cathode. The volt- nearly constant. Examples of this type of tube
age drop across the tube then remains constant are VR -150, VR -105 and the old 874.
at the ionization potential of the gas up to a
current drain equal to the maximum emission Vacuum Tube Vacuum tubes are grouped into
capability of the cathode. The voltage drop Classification three major classifications:
varies between 10 and 20 volts, depending commercial, ruggedized, and
upon the particular gas employed, up to the premium (or reliable). Any one of these three
maximum current rating of the tube. groups may also be further classified for
military duty (JAN classification). To qualify loo

for JAN classification, sample lots of the IA= 2.5 MA
particular tube must have passed special e0

qualification tests at the factory. It should not
be construed that a JAN-type tube is better 60
than a commercial tube, since some commercial
tests and specifications are more rigid than 1) 40
the corresponding JAN specifications. The
JAN-stamped tube has merely been accepted 20
under a certain set of conditions for military
service. 0o
10 20 30 40 50 GO
EP (VOLTS)
Ruggedized or Radio tubes are being used in Figure 32

Premium Tubes increasing numbers for indus- AMPLIFICATION FACTOR OF TYPICAL MODE
trial applications, such as TUBE DROPS RAPIDLY AS PLATE VOLTAGE
computing and control machinery, and in avia- IS DECREASED BELOW 20 VOLTS
tion and marine equipment. When a tube fails
in a home radio receiver, it is merely incon- operate under conditions of vibration for many
venient, but a tube failure in industrial appli- hours. The tubes may be identified in many
cations may bring about stoppage of some vital cases by the fact that their nomenclature in-
process, resulting in financial loss, or even cludes a "W" in the type number, as in 807W,
danger to life. 5U4W, etc. Some ruggedized tubes are included
To meet the demands of these industrial in the "5000" series nomenclature. The 5654
applications, a series of tubes was evolved is a ruggedized version of the 6AK5, the 5692
incorporating many special features designed is a ruggedized version of the 6SN7, etc.
to ensure a long and pre -determined operating
life, and uniform characteristics among similar
tubes. Such tubes are known as ruggedized or 4 -10 Miscellaneous Tube Types
premium tubes. Early attempts to select re-
TRIODE PLATE r- FLUORESCENT ANODE Electron The electron -ray tube or magic eye
TRIODE GRID RAY CONTROL
Roy Tubes contains two sets of elements, one
ELECTRODE of which is a triode amplifier and
CATHODES the other a cathode -ray indicator. The plate of
the triode section is internally connected to
Figure 31
the ray -control electrode (figure 31), so that
OF "MAGIC EYE" TUBE
as the plate voltage varies in accordance with
the applied signal the voltage on the ray -control
liable specimens of tubes from ordinary stock electrode also varies. The ray -control electrode
tubes proved that in the long run the selected is a metal cylinder so placed relative to the
tubes were no better than tubes picked at cathode that it deflects some of the electrons
random. Long life and ruggedness had to be emitted from the cathode. The electrons which
built into the tubes by means of proper choice strike the anode cause it to fluoresce, or give
and 100% inspection of all materials used in off light, so that the deflection caused by the
the tube, by critical processing inspection and ray -control electrode, which prevents electrons
assembling, and by conservative ratings of the from striking part of the anode, produces a
tube. wedge- shaped electrical shadow on the fluores-
Pure tungsten wire is used for heaters in cent anode. The size of this shadow is deter-
preference to alloys of lower tensile strength. mined by the voltage on the ray -electrode. When
Nickel tubing is employed around the heater this electrode is at the same potential as the
wires at the junction to the stem wires to fluorescent anode, the shadow disappears; if
reduce breakage at this point. Element struc- the ray -electrode is less positive than the
tures are given extra supports and bracing. anode, a shadow appears the width of which
Finally, all tubes are given a 50 hour test run is proportional to the voltage on the ray -elec-
under full operating conditions to eliminate
early failures. When operated within their trode. Magic eye tubes may be used as tuning
ratings, ruggedized or premium tubes should indicators, and as balance indicators in electri-
provide a life well in excess of 10,000 hours. cal bridge circuits. If the angle of shadow is
Ruggedized tubes will withstand severe calibrated, the eye tube may be used as a volt-
impact shocks for short periods, and will meter where rough measurements suffice.
HANDBOOK ie,is,Cell.neOUs 89
50 50
1
12.5 V.
4 40
30 30
Iv
(M4.)
20 MErtrii Iv
(MA.)
23
FAR , 10
FAGE. tz -io -s -e -4 -z o
EOi-12.0V. EG2 (VOLTS)
Figure 33
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF 12AK5
SFACE- CHARGE TRIODE
Controlled Series heater strings are employed and by altering the electrode geometry a series
Worm -up in ac -dc radio receivers and tele- of low voltage tubes has been developed by
Tubes vision sets to reduce the cost, Tung -Sol that effectively perform with all elec-
size, and weight of the equipment. trodes energized by a 12 -volt system. With a
Voltage surges of great magnitude occur in suitable power output transistor, this makes
series operated filaments because of variations possible an automobile radio without a vibrator
in the rate of warm -up of the various tubes. power supply. A special space-charge tube
As the tubes warm up, the heater resistance (12K5) has been developed that delivers 40
changes. This change is not the same between milliwatts of audio power with a 12 volt plate
tubes of various types, or even between tubes supply (figure 33).
of the same type made by different manu-
facturers. Some 6 -volt tubes show an initial Foreign The increased number of imported
surge as high as 9-volts during warm -up, while Tubes radios and high -fidelity equipment
slow -heating tubes such as the 25BQ6 are have brought many foreign vacuum
underheated during the voltage surge on the tubes into the United States. Many of these
6 -volt tubes. tubes are comparable to, or interchangeable
with standard American tubes. A complete
Standardization of heater characteristics in listing of the electrical characteristics and
a new group of tubes designed for series heater
base connection diagrams of all general -pur-
strings has eliminated this trouble. The new pose tubes made in all tube- producing coun-
tubes have either 600 ma. or 400 ma. heaters,
with a controlled warm -up time of approximately
tries outside the "Iron Curtain" is contained
in the Radio Tube Vade Mecum ({lorld's Radio
11 seconds. The 5U8, 6CG7, and 12BH7 -A are
pubes) available at most larger radio parts
examples of controlled warm -up tubes. jobbers for $5.00, or by mail from the publish-
Low Introduction of the 12 -volt ignition ers of this Handbook at $5.50. postpaid. The
Equivalent Tubes Vade Mecum (Ilorld's Equiv-
Plate system in American automobiles
Potential has brought about the design of a alent Tubes) available at the same prices
Tubes series of tubes capable of operation gives all replacement tubes for a given type,
with a plate potential of 12 -14 both exact and near -equivalents (with points
volts. Standard tubes perform poorly at low of difference detailed). (Data on TV and spe-
plate potentials, as the amplification factor cial- purpose tubes if needed is contained in
of the tube drops rapidly as the plate voltage a companion volume Television Tubes Vade
Mecum).
is decreased (figure 32). Contact potential
effects, and change of characteristics with
variations of filament voltage combine to make
operation at low plate potentials even more
erratic.
By employing special processing techniques
CHAPTER FIVE
Transistors and
Semi -Conductors
One of the earliest detection devices used 5 -1 Atomic Structure of

in radio was the galena crystal, a crude ex- Germanium and Silicon
ample of a semiconductor. More modern ex-
amples of semiconductors are the copper - It has been previously stated that the elec-
oxide rectifier, the selenium rectifier and the trons in an element having a large atomic
germanium diode. All of these devices offer number are grouped into rings, each ring hav-
the interesting property of greater resistance ing a definite number of electrons. Atoms in
to the flow of electrical current in one direc- which these rings are completely filled are
tion than in the opposite direction. Typical called inert gases, of which helium and argon
conduction curves for these semiconductors are examples. All other elements have one or
are shown in Figure 1. The copper oxide recti- more incomplete rings of electrons. If the in-
fier action results from the function of a thin complete ring is loosely bound, the electrons
film of cuprous oxide formed upon a pure cop- may be easily removed, the element is called
per disc. This film offers low resistance for metallic, and is a conductor of electric current.
positive voltages, and high resistance for If the incomplete ring is tightly bound, with
negative voltages. The same action is ob- only a few missing electrons, the element is
served in selenium rectifiers, where a film of called non -metallic and is an insulator of elec-
selenium is deposited on an iron surface. tric current. Germanium and silicon fall be-
tween these two sharply defined groups, and
exhibit both metallic and non -metallic char-
acteristics. Pure germanium or silicon may be
50 considered to be a good insulator. The addition
J
1
I N34 of certain impurities in carefully controlled
CDV$/A4 DIODE
so
amounts to the pure germanium will alter the
conductivity of the material. In addition, the
TYPICAL STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
choice of the impurity can change the direction
w
of conductivity through the crystal, some im-
purities increasing conductivity to positive volt-
»o
ages, and others increasing conductivity to neg-
ative voltages.
w
5 -2 Mechanism of
o
D.I
Conduction
D.7
As indicated by their name, semiconductors
-50 -30 -20 -10 3
-40 0
are substances which have a conductivity
VOLTS
intermediate between the high values observed
for metals and the low values observed for in-
Figure 1 A
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTIC CURVE sulating materials. The mechanism of conduc-
OF SEMI -CONDUCTOR DIODE tion in semiconductors is different from that
90
Transistors 91
observed in metallic conductors. There exist

in semiconductors both negatively charged
electrons and positively charged particles,
called holes, which behave as though they
had a positive electrical charge equal in mag-
nitude to the negative electrical charge on
the electron. These holes and electrons drift
in an electrical field with a velocity which is
proportional to the field itself:
Van = µnE
where VIII = drift velocity of hole

E = magnitude of electric field
= mobility of hole
ANODES { CATHODES
In an electric field the holes will drift in a
direction opposite to that of the electron and
Color Spot with about one -half the velocity, since the
hole mobility is about one -half the electron
w. mobility. A sample of a semiconductor, such as
germanium or silicon, which is both chemically
pure and mechanically perfect will contain in it
approximately equal numbers of holes and elec-
Color Boob
trons and is called an intrinsic semiconductor.
The intrinsic resistivity of the semiconductor
0 depends strongly upon the temperature, being
about 50 ohm /cm. for germanium at room
WrbA temperature. The intrinsic resistivity of silicon
is about 65,000 ohm /cm. at the same temper-
ature.
TUBE. GERMANIUM. SILICON If, in the growing of the semiconductor crys-
AND SELENIUM DIODES
tal, a small amount of an impurity, such as
phosphorous, arsenic or antimony is included
in the crystal, each atom of the impurity con-
Figure 1 -B tributes one free electron. This electron is
COMMON DIODE COLOR CODES
AND MARKINGS ARE SHOWN available for conduction. The crystal is said
IN ABOVE CHART to be doped and has become electron -conduct-
Pa- N b JUNCTION Nb-PC JUNCTION

PLASTIC CASE
P-TYPE GERMANIUM
N -TYPE CRYSTAL LATIN
GERMANIUM ECTOR
COLLECTOR
CRYSTAL LAYER
EMITTER
SMALLS -PIN NIGH Z

BASE
.IOS -.{
Figure 2A Figure 2B
CUT -AWAY VIEW OF JUNCTION PICTORIAL EQUIVALENT OF
TRANSISTOR, SHOWING PHYSICAL P -N -P JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
ARRANGEMENT
92 Transistors and Semi- Conductors THE RADIO
EMITTER COLLECTOR EMITTER COLLECTOR to

BASE CONNECT
N TYPE
GERMANIUM
CRYSTAL BASE BASE
BASE CONNECTI
SUPPORT P -N-P TRANSISTOR OR N -P -N TRANSIS'`_'-
POINT CONTACT TRANSISTOR
Figure 4
BASE ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
EMITTER COLLECTOR
FOR TRANSISTORS
Figure 3
CONSTRUCTION DETAIL OF A Types of Transistors There are two basic
POINT CONTACT TRANSISTOR types of transistors, the
point -contact type and the junction type (fig-
ure 2) . Typical construction detail of a point-
ing in nature and is called N (negative) type contact transistor is shown in Figure 3, and
germanium. The impurities which contribute the electrical symbol is shown in Figure 4. The
electrons are called donors. N-type germanium emitter and collector electrodes make contact
has better conductivity than pure germanium in with a small block of germanium, called the
one direction, and a continuous stream of elec- base. The base may be either N -type or P -type
trons will flow through the crystal in this direc- germanium, and is approximately .05" long
tion as long as an external potential of the and .03" thick. The emitter and collector elec-
correct polarity is applied across the crystal. trodes are fine wires, and are spaced about
Other impurities, such as aluminum, gal- .005" apart on the germanium base. The com-
hum or indium add one hole to the semicon- plete assembly is usually encapsulated in a
ducting crystal by accepting one electron for small, plastic case to provide ruggedness and
each atom of impurity, thus creating additional to avoid contaminating effects of the atmos-
holes in the semiconducting crystal. The ma- phere. The polarity of emitter and collector
terial is now said to be hole -conducting, or P voltages depends upon the type of germanium
(positive) type germanium. The impurities employed in the base, as illustrated in figure 4.
which create holes are called acceptors. P-type The junction transistor consists of a piece
germanium has better conductivity than pure of either N -type or P -type germanium between
germanium in one direction. This direction is two wafers of germanium of the opposite type.
opposite to that of the N -type material. Either Either N -P -N or P -N -P transistors may be
the N -type or the P-type germanium is called made. In one construction called the grown
extrinsic conducting type. The doped materials crystal process, the original crystal, grown
have lower resistivities than the pure materials, from molten germanium or silicon, is created
and doped semiconductors in the resistivity in such a way as to have the two closely spaced
range of .01 to 10 ohm /cm. are normally used junctions imbedded in it. In the other con-
in the production of transistors. struction called the fusion process, the crystals
are grown so as to make them a single con-
5-3 The Transistor ductivity type. The junctions are then pro-
duced by fusing small pellets of special metal
In the past few years an entire new tech- alloys into minute plates cut from the original
nology has been developed for the application crystal. Typical construction detail of a junction
of certain semiconducting materials in produc- transistor is shown in figure 2A.
tion of devices having gain properties. These The electrical schematic for the P -N -P junc-
gain properties were previously found only in tion transistor is the same as for the point -
vacuum tubes. The elements germanium and contact type, as is shown in figure 4.
silicon are the principal materials which ex-
hibit the proper semiconducting properties per- Transistor Action Presently available types of
mitting their application in the new ampli- transistors have three es-
fying devices called transistors. However, sential actions which collectively are called
other semiconducting materials, including the transistor action. These are: minority carrier
compounds indium antimonide and lead sulfide injection, transport, and collection. Figure 2B
have been used experimentally in the produc- shows a simplified drawing of a P -N-P junc-
tion of transistors. tion -type transistor, which can illustrate this
HANDBOOK Transistors 93
collective action. The P -N -P transistor con- Alpha Cutoff The alpha cutoff frequency of
sists of a piece of N -type germanium on op- Frequency a transistor is that frequency
posite sides of which a layer of P -type mate- at which the grounded base
rial has been grown by the fusion process. current gain has decreased to 0.7 of the gain
Terminals are connected to the two P- sections obtained at 1 kc. For audio transistors, the
and to the N-type base. The transistor may be alpha cutoff frequency is in the region of 0.7
considered as two P -N junction rectifiers Mc. to 1.5 Mc. For r -f and switching transis-
p!aced in close juxaposition with a semi - tors, the alpha cutoff frequency may be 5 Mc.
conduction crystal coupling the two rectifiers or higher. The upper frequency limit of oper-
together. The left-hand terminal is biased in ation of the transistor is determined by the
the forward (or conducting) direction and is small but finite time it takes the majority car-
called the emitter. The right -hand terminal is rier to move from one electrode to another.
biased in the back (or reverse) direction and
is called the collector The operating potentials
Drift Transistors As previously noted, the
are chosen with respect to the base terminal, signal current in a con-
which may or may not be grounded. If an ventional transistor is transmitted across the
N -P -N transistor is used in place of the P -N -P, base region by a diffusion process. The transit
The P. -
the operating potentials are reversed.
Nb junction on the left is biased
in the forward direction and holes from the
time of the carriers across this region is, there-
fore relatively long. RCA has developed a
technique for the manufacture of transistors
P region are injected into the Nb region, pro-
which does not depend upon diffusion for
ducing therein a concentration of holes sub- transmission of the signal across the base re-
stantially greater than normally present in the gion. Transistors featuring this new process are
material. These holes travel across the base known as drift transistors. Diffusion of charge
region towards the collector, attracting neigh- carriers across the base region is eliminated and
boring electrons, finally increasing the avail- the carriers are propelled across the region by
a "built in" electric field. The resulting reduc-
able supply of conducting electrons in the
collector loop. As a result, the collector loop tion of transit time of the carrier permits drift
possesses lower resistance whenever the emit-
transistors to be used at much higher fre-
ter circuit is in operation. In junction tran- quencies than transistors of conventional de-
sistors this charge transport is by means of sign.
diffusion wherein the charges move from a The "built in" electric field is in the base
region of high concentration to a region of region of the drift transistor. This field is
lower concentration at the collector. The col- achieved by utilizing an impurity density
lector, biased in the opposite direction, acts which varies from one side of the base to the
as a sink for these holes, and is said to col- other. The impurity density is high next to
lect them. the emitter and low next to the collector. Thus,
It is known that any rectifier biased in the there are more mobile electrons in the region
forward direction has a very low internal im- near the emitter than in the region near the
pedance, whereas one biased in the back direc- collector, and they will try to diffuse evenly
tion has a very high internal impedance. Thus, throughout the base. However, any displace-
current flows into the transistor in a low im- ment of the negative charge leaves a positive
pedance circuit, and appears at the output as charge in the region from which the electrons
current flowing in a high impedance circuit. came, because every atom of the base material
The ratio of a change in collector current to was originally electrically neutral. The dis-
a change in emitter current is called the current placement of the charge creates an electric
amplification, or alpha: field that tends to prevent further electron dif-
fusion so that a condition of equilibrium is
a=- ie
le
reached. The direction of this field is such as
to prevent electron diffusion from the high
density area near the emitter to the low density
where a = current amplification area near the collector. Therefore, holes enter-
ie = change in collector current ing the base will be accelerated from the emit-
i. = change in emitter current ter to the collector by the electric field. Thus
Values of alpha up to 3 or so may be ob- the diffusion of charge carriers across the base
tained in commercially available point- contact region is augmented by the built -in electric
transistors, and values of alpha up to about field. A potential energy diagram for a drift
0.95 are obtainable in junction transistors. transistor is shown in figure 5.
/,?!
94 Transistors and Semi -Conductors THE RADIO
DECREASING
:.11:/E!
POTENTIAL ENERGY
OP MAJORITY CARRIER
EïWE :OMME
DRIFT
REGION 4
"/.ii.i/
r/.WMEEwEMMEM
P/.mliimme=omim
IÍOMMMMEMO:M
T-
EMITTER BASE
REGION
DEPLETION
REGION
1 COLLECTOR
'/_E!=ENI\
IO 20 10
COLLECTOR VOLTS
40 SO
DISTANCE
s.,.
Figure 5
POTENTIAL ENERGY DIAGRAM oc
.,..
FOR DRIFT TRANSISTOR (2N247)
5 -4 Transistor
Characteristics
40
, "minim
The transistor produces results that may be
comparable to a vacuum tube, but there is a
basic difference between the two devices. The
vacuum tube is a voltage controlled device
whereas the transistor is a current controlled
device. A vacuum tube normally operates with
its grid biased in the negative or high resist-
20
,o
/JCJ
25 50 7S 100
PLATE VOLTS
12S
1,1110
,S0 ,7S 200
ance direction, and its plate biased in the

Figure 6
positive or low resistance direction. The tube COMPARISON OF POINT -CONTACT
conducts only by means of electrons, and has TRANSISTOR AND VACUUM TUBE
its conducting counterpart in the form of the CHARACTERISTICS
N -P -N transistor, whose majority carriers are
also electrons. There is no vacuum tube equiv-
alent of the P -N -P transistor, whose majority order of 3 X 60 = 180. A junction transistor
carriers are holes. which has a value of alpha less than unity
The biasing conditions stated above provide nevertheless has a resistance gain of the order
the high input impedance and low output im- of 2000 because of its extremely high output
pedance of the vacuum tube. The transistor is resistance, and the resulting voltage gain is
biased in the positive or low resistance direc- about 1800 or so. For both types of transistors
tion in the emitter circuit, and in the negative, the power gain is the product of alpha squared
or high resistance direction in the collector times the resistance gain and is of the order
circuit resulting in a low input impedance of 400 to 500.
and a high output impedance, contrary to and The output characteristics of the junction
opposite from the vacuum tube. A comparison transistor are of great interest. A typical ex-
of point- contact transistor characteristics and ample is shown in figure 7. It is seen that the
vacuum tube characteristics is made in figure 6. junction transistor has the characteristics of
The resistance gain of a transistor is ex- an ideal pentode vacuum tube. The collector
pressed as the ratio of output resistance to current is practically independent of the col-
input resistance. The input resistance of a lector voltage. The range of linear operation
typical transistor is low, in the neighborhood extends from a minimum voltage of about 0.2
of 300 ohms, while the output resistance is volts up to the maximum rated collector volt-
relatively high, usually over 20,000 ohms. For age. A typical load line is shown, which il-
a point -contact transistor, the resistance gain lustrates the very high load impedance that
is usually over 60. would be required for maximum power trans-
The voltage gain of a transistor is the fer. A grounded emitter circuit is usually used,
product of alpha times the resistance gain, since the output impedance is not as high as
and for a point- contact transistor is of the when a grounded base circuit is used.
HANDBOOK
rIr
Iir.!
iir.
a-lso
unini
I 0 +5
Figure 7
0
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF
N
IS
COLLECTOR VOLTS
TYPICAL JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

+20
The output characteristics of a typical point -

contact transistor are shown in figure 6. The
pentode characteristics are less evident, -1nd the
output impedance is much lower, with the
range of linear operation extending down to
a collector voltage of 2 or 3. Of greater prac-
tical interest, however, is the input character-
istic curve with short -circuited, or nearly short -
circuited input, as shown in figure 8. It is
this point- contact transistor characteristic of
+25
Transistor Characteristics
EMITTER
VALUES
(TER
5131sTA CCIR
Cb -eASI
RESISTANCE
C-COLLCÉOR
RESISTAN
---7 CURRENT
AMPLIFICATION
RASE
(At
TRANSISTOR
Figure 9
3004
20000 a
2.0
LOW FREQUENCY EQUIVALENT

d le
OF THE EQUIVALENT
POINT- CONTACT
I Mk, VC. ISO.)
100
(Common Base) CIRCUIT FOR POINT

CONTACT AND JUNCTION
TRANSISTOR
CIRCUIT
(it.
convenient equivalent circuit for the low fre-

quency small signal performance of both point -
contact and junction transistors is shown in
JUNCTION
TRANSISTOR
figure 9. r., rh, and rc, are dynamic resistances

I
100A
, uEGONu
0.07
95
COLLECTOR
MA.,VC' 3v.;
3011
which can be associated with the emitter, base

having a region of negative impedance that and collector regions of the transistor. The
lends the unit to use in switching circuits. The
transistor circuit may be made to have two, current generator ah, represents the transport
of charge from emitter to collector. Typical
one or zero stable operating points, depending
values of the equivalent circuit are shown in
upon the bias voltages and the load impedance
figure 9.
used.
Transistor There are three basic transis -
Equivalent Circuit As is known from net -
Configurations tor configurations: grounded
of a Transistor work theory, the small
base connection, grounded
signal performance of
emitter connection, and grounded collector
any device in any network can be represented
connection. These correspond roughly to
by means of an equivalent circuit. The most
grounded grid, grounded cathode, and ground-
ed plate circuits in vacuum tube terminology
W
(figure 10) .
VI The grounded base circuit has a low input
F impedance and high output impedance, and no
phase reversal of signal from input to output
circuit. The grounded emitter circuit has a
i
W
higher input impedance and a lower output
impedance than the grounded base circuit, and
o EMITTER MILLIAMPERES (le) a reversal of phase between the input and out-
REGION I REGION N REGION N put signal occurs. This circuit usually provides
maximum voltage gain from a transistor. The
grounded collector circuit has relatively high
input impedance, low output impedance, and
no phase reversal of signal from input to out-
put circuit. Power and voltage gain are both
Figure 8
low.
EMITTER CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
FOR TYPICAL POINT CONTACT Figure 11 illustrates some practical vacuum
TRANSISTOR tube circuits, as applied to transistors.
96 Transistors and Semi-Conductors THE RADIO
GROUNDED BASE GROUNDED EMITTER GROUNDED COLLECTOR

CONNECTION CONNECTION CONNECTION
Figure 10
COMPARISON OF BASIC VACUUM TUBE AND TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
5 -5 Transistor Circuitry overcome these difficulties. The simple self-bias

system is shown in figure 12A. The base is
To establish the correct operating parameters simply connected to the power supply through
of the transistor, a bias voltage must be estab- a large resistance which supplies a fixed value
lished between the emitter and the base. Since of base current to the transistor. This bias
transistors are temperature sensitive devices, system is extremely sensitive to the current
and since some variation in characteristics usu- transfer ratio of the transistor, and must be ad-
ally exists between transistors of a given type, justed for optimum results with each transistor.
attention must be given to the bias system to When the supply voltage is fairly high and
FLIP -FLOP COUNTER R.F. OSCILLATOR ONE -STAGE RECEIVER
FC
BLOCKING OSCILLATOR AUDIO AMPLIFIER

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
DIRECT -COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Figure 11
TYPICAL TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
HANDBOOK Transistor Circuitry 97
_E
E
BIAS LOAD BIAS LOAD LOAD
RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR RESISTOR
RZ=+oRe
Re = soo-I00011.
R2
t 50 AO
(REVERSE POLARITY
FOR NPN TRANSISTOR)
O O
Figure 12
O
BIAS CONFIGURATIONS FOR TRANSISTORS.
The voltage divider system of C is recommended for general transistor use. Ratio of RI /R:
establishes base bias, and emitter bias is provided by voltage drop across Re.
Battery Polarity is r ed for N -P -N transistors.
wide variations in ambient temperature do not amplifier are given in the drawing. In this case,
occur, the bias system of figure 12B may be the input impedance of the amplifier is quite
used, with the bias resistor connected from low. When used with a high impedance driv-
base to collector. When the collector voltage ing source such as a crystal microphone a step
is high, the base current is increased, moving down input transformer should be employed
the operating point of the transistor down the as shown in figure 13B. The grounded collec-
load line. If the collector voltage is low, the tor circuit of figure 13C provides a high input
operating point moves upwards along the load impedance and a low output impedance, much
line, thus providing automatic control of the as in the manner of a vacuum tube cathode
base bias voltage. This circuit is sensitive to follower.
changes in ambient temperature, and may per- The circuit of a two stage resistance coupled
mit transistor failure when the transistor is amplifier is shown in figure 14A. The input
operated near maximum dissipation ratings. impedance is approximately 1100 ohms. Feed-
A better bias system is shown in figure 12C, back may be placed around this amplifier from
where the base bias is obtained from a voltage the emitter of the second stage to the base of
divider, (R1, R2), and the emitter is forward the first stage, as shown in figure 14B. A
biased. To prevent signal degeneration, the direct coupled version of the r -c amplifier is
emitter bias resistor is bypassed with a large shown in figure 14C. The input impedance is
capacitance. A high degree of circuit stability of the order of 15,000 ohms, and an overall
is provided by this form of bias, providing the voltage gain of 80 may be obtained with a
emitter capacitance is of the order of 50 nfd. supply potential of 12 volts.
for audio frequency applications.
It is possible to employ N -P -N and P -N -P
Audio Circuitry A simple voltage amplifier transistors in complementary symmetry circuits
is shown in figure 13. Di- which have no equivalent in vacuum tube de-
rect current stabilization is employed in the sign. Figure 15A illustrates such a circuit. A
enitter circuit. Operating parameters for the symmetrical push -pull circuit is shown in
-12G -9r
VOLTAGE GAIN = 80 VOLTAGE GAIN. 0.97

INPUT IMPEDANCE , 120011 INPUT IMPEDANCE 300 ti K R
C
Figure 13
-N -P TRANSISTOR VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS
P
A resistance coupled amplifier employing an inexpensive CK -722 transistor is shown in A. For use with
a high impedance crystal microphone, a step -down transformer matches the low input impedance of the
transistor, as shown in B. The grounded collector configuration of C provides an input impedance of
about 300,000 ohms.
ur
O Figure 14
O O
TWO STAGE TRANSISTOR AUDIO AMPLIFIERS
The feedback loop of B may be added to the r -c amplifier to reduce distortion, or to control the
audio response. A direct coupled amplifier is shown in C.
figure 15B. This circuit may be used to di- power output obtainable is limited to 0.5 the
rectly drive a high impedance loudspeaker, allowable dissipation of the transistor. The
eliminating the output transformer. A direct product ICE.. determines the maximum collector
coupled three stage amplifier having a gain dissipation, and a plot of these values is shown
figure of 80 db is shown in figure 15C. in figure 16B. The load line should always lie
The transistor may also be used as a class under the dissipation curve, and should encom-
A power amplifier, as shown in figure 16A. pass the maximum possible area between the
Commercial transistors are available that will axes of the graph for maximum output condi-
provide five or six watts of audio power when tion. In general, the load line is tangent to the
operating from a 12 volt supply. The smaller dissipation curve and passes through the supply
units provide power levels of a few milli - voltage point at zero collector current. The d -c
watts. The correct operating point is chosen so operating point is thus approximately one -half
that the output signal can swing equally in the the supply voltage.
positive and negative directions, as shown in The circuit of a typical push -pull class B
the collector curves of figure 16B. transistor amplifier is shown in figure 17A.
The proper primary impedance of the out- Push -pull operation is desirable for transistor
put transformer depends upon the amount of operation, since the even -order harmonics are
power to be delivered to the load: largely eliminated. This permits transistors to
be driven into high collector current regions
without distortion normally caused by non -
RD 2P. linearity of the collector. Cross -over distortion
is reduced to a minimum by providing a slight
The collector current bias is: forward base bias in addition to the normal
2P. emitter bias. The base bias is usually less than
le = E 0.5 volt in most cases. Excessive base bias will
boost the quiescent collector current and there-
In a class A output stage, the maximum a -c by lower the overall efficiency of the stage.
2N79 2N78 2N77

NPN PNP NPN NPN PNP
1-E
soon
SPEAKER
Figure 15
COMPLEMENTARY SYMMETRY AMPLIFIERS.
N -P -N and P-N -P transistors may be combined in circuits which have no equivalent in vacuum tube
design. Direct coupling between cascaded stages using a single power supply source may be employed, as
in C. Impedance of power supply should be extremely low.
2N187A
I MAX
MAXIMUM COLLECTOR
Figure 16 DISSIPATION (IC X EC)
TYPICAL CLASS-A
AUDIO POWER OPERATING POINT
TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT.
The correct operating point is
chosen so that output signal can
swing equally in a positive or
negative direction, without ex- Ec 2Ec
ceeding maximum collector dis- COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
sipation.
The operating point of the class B ampli- configuration ( figure 17C) to obtain high
=O axis at the point where
fier is set on the I, power output at very low distortions compar-
the collector voltage equals the supply voltage. able with those found in quality vacuum tube
The collector to collector impedance of the circuits having heavy overall feedback. In ad-
output transformer is: dition, the transistor may be directly bolted to
the chassis, assuming a negative grounded
2Ee2 power supply Power output is of the order of
P. 10 watts, with about 0.5% total distortion.
In the class B circuit, the maximum a -c R -F CircuitryTransistors may be used for
power input is approximately equal to five radio frequency work provided
times the allowable collector dissipation of the alpha cutoff frequency of the units is
each transistor. Power transistors, such as the sufficiently higher than the operating fre-
2N301 have collector dissipation ratings of quency. Shown in figure 18A is a typical i-f
5.5 watts and operate with class B efficiency amplifier employing an N -P -N transistor. The
of about 67 %. To achieve this level of opera- collector current is determined by a voltage
tion the heavy duty transistor relies upon ef- divider on the base circuit and by a bias re-
ficient heat transfer from the transistor case sistor in the emitter leg. Input and output are
to the chassis, using the large thermal capacity coupled by means of tuned i -f transformers.
of the chassis as a heat sink. An infinite heat Bypass capacitors are placed across the bias
sink may be approximated by mounting the resistors to prevent signal frequency degener-
transistor in the center of a 6" x 6" copper or ation. The base is connected to a low im-
aluminum sheet. This area may be part of a pedance untuned winding of the input trans-
larger chassis. former, and the collector is connected to a tap
The collector of most power transistors is on the output transformer to provide proper
electrically connected to the case. For appli- matching, and also to make the performance of
cations where the collector is not grounded a the stage relatively independent of variations
thin sheet of mica may be used between the between transistors of the same type. With a
case of the transistor and the chassis. rate -grown N -P -N transistor such as the G.E.
Power transistors such as the Philco T-1041 2N293, it is unnecessary to use neutralization
may be used in the common collector class B to obtain circuit stability. When P -N -P alloy
2N225 r-1041
12V.
ZP- SOORC.T.
200 MW
NO SIGNAL
OPERATING
POINT
2N109
+13V.
ADJUST R FOR N ICC 0.3 AMP.
0.
1
V. BASE BIAS ICC (MAY.)'1.39 A.

PO 10 WATTS
Figure 17
CLASS -B AUDIO AMPLIFIER CIRCUITRY.
The common collector circuit of C permits the transistor to be bolted directly to the chassis for efficient
heat transfer from the transistor case to the chassis.
100 Transistors and Semi- Conductors THE RADIO
2N135 s
TO
TO
MIXER MIXER
OR OR
CONVERTER CONVERTER
4.7 M
-9V
+9V
A 9
Figure 18
TRANSISTORIZED I -F AMPLIFIERS.
Typical P -N -Ptransistor must be neutralized because of high collector capacitance. Rate
grown N -P -N transistor does not usually require external neutralizing circuit.
1 N64
AUDIO OUT
Figure 19
TO AUTOMATIC VOLUME
MIXER
OR CONTROL CIRCUIT
CONVERTER
FOR TRANSISTORIZED
I -F AMPLIFIER.
transistors are used, it is necessary to neutra- signal from the collector to the emitter caus-
lize the circuit to obtain stability (figure 18B). ing oscillation. Capacitor C, tunes the oscillator
The gain of a transistor i -f amplifier will circuit to a frequency 455 kc. higher than that
decrease as the emitter current is decreased. of the incoming signal. The local oscillator
This transistor property can be used to control signal is inductively coupled into the emitter
the gain of an i -f amplifier so that weak and circuit of the transistor. The incoming signal
strong signals will produce the same audio is resonated in T_ and coupled via a low im-
output. A typical i -f strip incorporating this pedance winding to the base circuit. Notice
automatic volume control action is shown in that the base is biased by a voltage divider
figure 19. circuit much the same as is used in audio fre-
R -f transistors may be used as mixers or quency operation. The two signals are mixed
autodyne converters much in the same manner in this stage and the desired beat frequency of
as vacuum tubes The autodyne circuit is shown 455 kc. is selected by i -f transformer T3 and
in figure 20. Transformer T, feeds back a passed to the next stage. Collector currents of
0.6 ma. to 0.8 ma. are common, and the local
oscillator injection voltage at the emitter is in
the range of 0.15 to 0.25 volts, r.m.s.
A complete receiver "front end" capable of
operation up to 23 Mc. is shown in figure 21.
The RCA 2N247 drift transistor is used for
the r -f amplifier (TRI), mixer (TR2), and
high frequency oscillator (TR3) . The 2N247
incorporates an interlead shield, cutting the
TO I.F.
AMPLIFIER
interlead capacitance to .003 µµtd. If proper
shielding is employed between the tuned cir-
cuits of the r -f stage, no neutralization of the
stage is required. The complete assembly ob-
tains power from a 9 -volt transistor battery.
Figure 20
Note that input and output circuits of the tran-
THE AUTODYNE CONVERTER CIRCUIT sistors are tapped at low impedance points on
USING A 2N168A AS A MIXER. the r -f coils to achieve proper impedance match.
Figure 21
TO I.F.
RF AMPLIFIER, MIXER, AMPLIFIER
AND OSCILLATOR
STAGES FOR
TRANSISTORIZED i
=
HIGH FREQUENCY
RECEIVER. THE RCA i
2N247 DRIFT
TRANSISTOR IS
CAPABLE OF
EFFICIENT OPERATION
UP TO 23 Mc.
Transistor Suffièient coupling of the proper coupled to the base of the N -P -N transistor,
Oscillators phase between input and output and the emitter of the N -P -N transistor furn-
circuits of the transistor will per- ishes the correct phase reversal to sustain os-
mit oscillation up to and slightly above the cillation. Heavy feedback is maintained be-
alpha cutoff frequency. Various forms of tran- tween the emitter of the P -N -P transistor and
sistor oscillators are shown in figure 22. A the collector of N -P -N transistor. The degree
simple grounded emitter Hartley oscillator hav- of feedback is controlled by R. The emitter
ing positive feedback between the base and the resistor of the second transistor is placed at the
collector (22A) is compared to a grounded 49v.
base Hartley oscillator (22B). In each case
the resonant tank circuit is common to the in-
put and output circuits of the transistor. Self -
bias of the transistor is employed in both these
circuits A more sophisticated oscillator em-
ploying a 2N247 transistor and utilizing a 0.114
PNP
voltage divider -type bias system (figure 22C) _ 2N247 10tt NPN
1N81 N81 2N78
is capable of operation up to 50 Mc. or so.
The tuned circuit is placed in the collector, Figure 23
with a small emitter -collector capacitor provid- COMPLEMENTARY HARTLEY
ing feedback to the emitter electrode. OSCILLATOR
A P -N -P and an N -P -N transistor may be P -N -P and N -P-N transistors form high sta-
bility oscillator. Feedback between P -N -P
combined to form a complementary Hartley emitter and N -P -N collector is controlled by
oscillator of high stability ( figure 23). The R,. 1N81 diodes are used as amplitude lim-
iters. Frequency of oscillation is determined
collector of the P -N -P transistor is directly by L, C, -C:.
RFC
1-3 N
RFC
Figure 22
TYPICAL TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS
A- Grounded EmitterHartley
Hartley
B---Grounded Base
C -2N247 Oscillator Suitable for 50 Mc. operation.
2N33 POINT- CONTACT
POINT -CONTACT TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR
LE CI CHARGING
PERIOD
RFC
2
-IE
Figure 25
Figure 24 RELAXATION OSCILLATOR USING
NEGATIVE RESISTANCE OF POINT -CONTACT OR SURFACE
POINT- CONTACT TRANSISTOR BARRIER TRANSISTORS.
PERMITS HIGH FREQUENCY
OSCILLATION (50 Mc) WITHOUT Relaxation Transistors have almost unlimit-
WITHOUT NECESSITY OF Oscillators ed use in relaxation and R -C os-
EXTERNAL FEEDBACK PATH.
cillator service. The negative re-
sistance characteristic of the point contact tran-
center of the oscillator coil to eliminate load- sistor make it well suited to such application.
ing of the tuned circuit. Surface barrier transistors are also widely used
Two germanium diodes are employed as in this service, as they have the highest alpha
amplitude limiters, further stabilizing ampli- cutoff frequency among the group of "alpha -
fier operation. Because of the low circuit im- less- than-unity" transistors. Relaxation oscilla-
pedances, it is permissible to use extremely tors used for high speed counting require tran-
high -C in the oscillator tank circuit, effectively sistors capable of operation at repetition rates
limiting oscillator temperature stability to var- of 5 Mc. to 10 Mc.
iations in the tank inductance. A simple emitter controlled relaxation os-
The point- contact transistor exhibits nega- cillator is shown in figure 25, together with
tive input and output resistances over part of its operating characteristic. The emitter of the
its operaing range, due to its unique ability transistor is biased to cutoff at the start of the
to multiply the input current. This character- cycle (point 1) The charge on the emitter ca-
.
istic affords the use of oscillator circuitry hav- pacitor slowly leaks to ground through the
ing no external feedback paths (figure 24) . emitter resistor, RI. Discharge time is deter-
A high impedance resonant circuit in the base mined by the time constant of R,C,. When the
lead produces circuit instability and oscillation emitter voltage drops sufficiently low to permit
at the resonant frequency of the L -C circuit. the transistor to reach the negative resistance
Positive emitter bias is used to insure thermal region (point 2) the emitter and collector re-
circuit stability. sistances drop to a low value, and the collector
+E
03)
Figure 26
TRANSISTORIZED BLOCKING OSCILLATOR (A) AND ECCLES- JORDAN
BI- STABLE MULTIVIBRATOR (B).
High -alpha transistors must be employed in counting circuits to reduce effects of
storage time caused by transit lag in transistor base.
2N138 Ti 2N135 T2 1N64 2N 135 2N107

ZDF
2.10 L_
1
an
PHONES
Cl- 12311LF, J.W. MILLER 41 2110

Ca- 7917LF, PART OF C 1
Li -LOOPSTICK' COIL, J.W MILLER *2003

L2- OSCILLATOR COIL, J. W. MILLER 2002
T1 -455 NC. I.F. TRANSFORMER, J.W MILLER #2037
T2 -455 K C. I.F. TRANSFORMER, J.W. MILLER 2032
Figure 28
SCHEMATIC, TRANSISTORIZED BROADCAST BAND (500 - 1600 KC.) SUPERHETERO-
DYNE RECEIVER.
state, since a time lapse occurs before the out-

CK-722 put waveform starts to decrease. This storage
-L OOPST IC6
time is caused by the transit lag of the minority
1
365 2 K
(-OIL tet carriers in the base of the transistor. Proper cir-
ia
PHONES
W cuit design and the use of high -alpha transis-
IN34A t=1.5-3v.
tors can reduce the effects of storage time to a
minimum. Driving pulses may be coupled to
Figure 27 the multivibrator through steering diodes as
"WRIST RADIO" CAN BE MADE shown in the illustration.
WITH LOOPSTICK, DIODE, AND
INEXPENSIVE CK -722 TRANSISTOR.
A TWENTY FOOT ANTENNA WIRE 5 -6 Transistor Circuits
WILL PROVIDE GOOD RECEPTION
IN STRONG SIGNAL AREAS. With the introduction of the dollar tran-
sistor, many interesting and unusual experi-
ments and circuits may be built up by the be-
current is limited only by the collector resistor, ginner in the transistor field. One of the most
R1. The collector current is abruptly reduced interesting is the "wrist watch" receiver, illus-
by the charging action of the emitter capacitor trated in figure 27. A diode and a transistor
CI (point 3), bringing the circuit back to the amplifier form a miniature broadcast receiver,
original operating point. The "spike" of col- which may be built in a small box and carried
lector current is produced during the charging on the person. A single 1.5 -volt penlite cell
period of G. The duration of the pulse and the provides power for the transistor, and a short
pulse repetition frequency (p.r.f.) are con- length of antenna wire will suffice in the vi-
trolled by the values of CI, RI, R1, and R3. cinity of a local broadcasting station.
Transistors may also be used as blocking
A transistorized superhetrodyne for broad-
oscillators (figure 26A) The oscillator may
.
cast reception is shown in figure 28. No an-
be synchronized by coupling the locking signal
tenna is required, as a ferrite "loopstick" is
to the base circuit of the transistor. An oscil-
used for the r -f input circuit of the 2N136
lator of this type may be used to drive a flip -
mixer transistor. A miniature magnetic "hear-
flop circuit as a counter. An Eccles -Jordan
ing aid" type earphone may be employed with
bistable flip -flop circuit employing surface -
this receiver.
barrier transistors may be driven between "off"
and "on" positions by an exciting pulse as A simple phonograph amplifier designed
shown in figure 26B. The first pulse drives for use with a high impedance crystal pickup
the "on" transistor into saturation. This tran- is shown in figure 29. Two stages of amplifi-
sistor remains in a highly conductive state until cation using 2N109 transistors are used to
the second exciting pulse arrives. The transis- drive two 2N109 transistors in a class B con-
tor does not immediately return to the cut -off figuration. Approximately 200 milliwatts of
104 Transistors and Semi- Conductors
2N109
220K
l
CRYSTAL
PICMUP
Figure 29
HIGH GAIN, LOW DISTORTION AUDIO AMPLIFIER, SUITABLE FOR USE
WITH A CRYSTAL PICKUP. POWER OUTPUT IS 250 MILLIWATTS.
power may be obtained with a battery supply esting transistor projects will be shown in later
of 12 volts. Peak current drain under maxi- chapters of this Handbook.
mum signal conditions is 40 ma. Other inter-
E 8, E TECHNI -SHEET
TABLE OF WROUGHT STEEL STANDARD PIPE
(BLACK OR GAL VAN /ZED) RANDOM LENGTHS, 20 -21 FEET
NOMINAL SIZE O.D. I.D. POUNDS
/NCHES INCHES INCHES PER FOOT
1/8" .405 .269 .244
1/4" .540 .364 .424
3/8" .675 .493 .567
1/2" .840 .622 .850
3/4" 1.050 .824 1.130
1" 1 .31 5 1.049 1 .678
1 1/4" 1.660 1.380 2.272
1 1/2" 1.900 1.610 2.717
2" 2.375 2.067 3.652
2 1/2" 2.875 2.469 5.793
3" 3.500 3.068 7.575
3 1/2" 4.000 3.548 9.109
4" 4.500 4.026 10.790
TABLE OF ELECTRICAL METALLIC TUBING (EMT)
GALVANIZED, 10 FOOT LENGTHS
NOMINAL SIZE O.D. I.D. POUNDS
INCHES /NCHES /NCHES PER FOOT
3/8" .577 .493 .250
1/2" .706 .622 .321
3/4" .922 .824 .488
1" 1.163 1.049 .711
1 1/4" 1.508 1.308 1.000
1 1/2" 1.738 1.610 1.1 80
2" 2.195 2.067 1.500
TABLE OF ALUMINUM ROD, 12 FOOT LENGTHS
DIAMETER WT. 3t /FT.
1/8" .015
3/16" .033
1/4" .059
CHAPTER SIX
Vacuum Tube Amplifiers
6 -1 Vacuum Tube Parameters Electrode Potentials
The ability of the control grid of a vacuum

Ebb -d -c plate supply voltage (a positive
quantity)
tube to control large amounts of plate power Eoo -d -c grid supply voltage (a negative
with a small amount of grid energy allows the
vacuum tube to be used as an amplifier. It is
this ability of vacuum tubes to amplify an
En- quantity)
peak grid excitation voltage (IA total
extremely small amount of energy up to almost
any level without change in anything except
Epm -
peak -to -peak grid swing)
peak plate voltage (% total peak -to -peak
amplitude which makes the vacuum tube such
an extremely valuable adjunct to modern elec-
ep -- instantaneous
plate swing)
instantaneous
plate potential
tronics and communication.
eg
epm;a
egmp
-- minimum
maximum
potential
grid
instantaneous plate voltage
positive instantaneous grid
Symbols for
Vacuum -Tube
As an assistance in simplify -
ing and shortening expressions Ep - static plate voltage
voltage
E,- static voltage
Paromsters involving vacuum -tube param-
eters, the following symbols
will be used throughout this book:
eco - cutoff bias
grid
Electrode Currents
µ--
Tube Constants
amplification factor
lb
I
-- average
average
plate current
current
grid
-peak
Rp
Gm
plate resistance
-transconductance
µgg-
Ipm
ipma: -- fundamental
maximum
plate current
instantaneous plate current
Gc- conversion
screen
grid- mufactor
transconductance(mixer tube) -- static
igmat
Ip
Ig static
maximum instantaneous
plate current
grid current
grid current
Interelectrode Capacitances
CBS--grid -plate
cathode capacitance
grid-
- plate output
Other Symbols
Cgp
Ci -
Cpk - capacitance
plate- cathode capacitance
Pi
Po-plate
power input
-- plate dissipation plus bias losses)

power
Coot - capacitance
input
output
(tetrode pentode)
or
capacitance (tetrode pentode)
or
Pp
Pd grid driving power (grid
106
Classes of Amplifiers 107
r--1
Ccv:Tr.
CcK -.
L_
.:E-1-
--J
'
!_
Cv0.
r--
1
CiN:T.:
L_
-- Cour
Cap is the grid -to -plate capacitance, and A is
the stage gain. This expression assumes that
the vacuum tube is operating into a resistive
load such as would be the case with an audio
stage working into a resistance plate load in
the middle audio range.
The more complete expression for the input
t
TRIODE PENTODE OR TETRODE
admittance (vector sum of capacitance and
Figure 1
resistance) of an amplifier operating into any
type of plate load is as follows:
STATIC INTERELECTRODE CAPACI-
TANCES WITHIN A TRIODE, PENTODE, Input capacitance = Co + (1 + A cos 0) Co
OR TETRODE
Input resistance
Pa -- platedissipation
grid
sin
Np
0p
0a
-- efficiency(expressed
one -half angle ofplate
as a decimal)
current flow
one -half angle of grid current flow
A
Where: Cak = grid -to- cathode capacitance

O
Cap = grid-to-plate capacitance

-load resistance
RL
ZL - load impedance
A = voltage amplification of the tube
alone
0 phase angle of the plate load im-
=
pedance, positive for inductive
Vacuum -Tube The relationships between cer- loads, negative for capacitive
Constants tain of the electrode potentials
and currents within a vacuum It can be seen from the above that if the
tube are reasonably constant under specified plate load impedance of the stage is capaci-
conditions of operation. These relationships tive or inductive, there will be a resistive com-
are called vacuum -tube constants and are ponent in the input admittance of the stage.
listed in the data published by the manufac- The resistive component of the input admit-
turers of vacuum tubes. The defining equations tance will be positive (tending to load the
for the basic vacuum -tube constants are given circuit feeding the grid) if the load impedance
in Chapter Four. of the plate is capacitive, or it will be negative
(tending to make the stage oscillate) if the
load impedance of the plate is inductive.
Interelectrode The values of interelectrode
Capacitances and capacitance published in Neutralization Neutralization of the effects
Miller Effect vacuum -tube tables are the of Interelectrode of interelectrode capacitance
static values measured, in Capacitance is employed most frequently
the case of triodes for example, as shown in in the case of radio fre-
figure 1. The static capacitances are simply quency power amplifiers. Before the introduc-
as shown in the drawing, but when a tube is tion of the tetrode and pentode tube, triodes
operating as amplifier there is another con- were employed as neutralized Class A ampli-
sideration known as Miller Effect which causes fiers in receivers. This practice has been
the dynamic input capacitance to be different largely superseded in the present state of the
from the static value. The output capacitance art through the use of tetrode and pentode
of an amplifier is essentially the same as the tubes in which the Cae or feedback capaci-
static value given in the published tube tables. tance has been reduced to such a low value
The grid-to -plate capacitance is also the same that neutralization of its effects is not neces-
as the published static value, but since the sary to prevent oscillation and instability.
Cap acts as a small capacitance coupling en-
ergy back from the plate circuit to the grid
circuit, the dynamic input capacitance is equal
to the static value plus an amount (frequently 6 -2 Classes and Types of
much greater in the case of a triode) deter- Vacuum -Tube Amplifiers
mined by the gain of the stage, the plate load
impedance, and the Cap feedback capacitance. Vacuum -tube amplifiers are grouped into
The total value for an audio amplifier stage various classes and sub-classes according to
can be expressed in the following equation: the type of work they are intended to perform.
cak(oyeemic)= (sttic) + (A + 1) Cap
The difference between the various classes is
determined primarily by the value of average
where Co is the grid -to- cathode capacitance, grid bias employed and the maximum value of
108 Vacuum Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO
the exciting signal to be impressed upon the

grid.
Class A A Class A amplifier is an amplifier

Amplifier biased and supplied with excitation
of such amplitude that plate cur-
rent flows continuously (360° of the exciting
voltage waveshape) and grid current does not
flow at any time. Such an amplifier is normally Figure 2
operated in the center of the grid-voltage TYPES OF BIAS SYSTEMS

plate- current transfer characteristic and gives A - Grid bias
an output waveshape which is a substantial
B - Cathode bias
replica of the input waveshape. C - Grid leak bias
Class A1 This is another term applied to the

Amplifier Class A amplifier in which grid
current does not flow over any less than one -half the time. Actually, the con-
portion of the input wave cycle. ventional operating conditions for a Class C
amplifier are such that plate current flows for
Class A2 This is a Class A amplifier oper- 120° to 150° of the exciting voltage wave -
Amplifier aced under such conditions that the shape.
grid is driven positive over a por-
tion of the input voltage cycle, but plate cur- Types of There are three general types of
rent still flows over the entire cycle. Amplifiers amplifier circuits in use. These
types are classified on the basis
Class AB1 This is an amplifier operated under of the return for the input and output circuits.
Amplifier such conditions of grid bias and Conventional amplifiers are called cathode re-
exciting voltage that plate current turn amplifiers since the cathode is effectively
flows for more than one -half the input voltage grounded and acts as the common return for
cycle but for less than the complete cycle. In both the input and output circuits. The second
other words the operating angle of plate cur- type is known as a plate return amplifier or
rent flow is appreciably greater than 180° but cathode follower since the plate circuit is ef-
less than 360 °. The suffix 1 indicates that grid fectively at ground for the input and output
current does not flow over any portion of the signal voltages and the output voltage or
input cycle. power is taken between cathode and plate. The
third type is called a grid-return or grounded-
Class AB2 Class AB2 amplifier is operated
A
grid amplifier since the grid is effectively at
Amplifier under essentially the same condi- ground potential for input and output signals
tions of grid bias as the Class and output is taken between grid and plate.
AB' amplifier mentioned above, but the excit-
ing voltage is of such amplitude that grid cur-
rent flows over an appreciable portion of the
input wave cycle. 6 -3 Biasing Methods
Class B A Class B amplifier is biased sub - The difference of potential between grid and
Amplifier stantially to cutoff of plate current cathode is called the grid bias of a vacuum
(without exciting voltage) so that tube. There are three general methods of
plate current flows essentially over one -half providing this bias voltage. In each of these
the input voltage cycle. The operating angle methods the purpose is to establish the grid
of plate current flow is essentially 180 °. The at a potential with respect to the cathode
Class B amplifier is almost always excited which will place the tube in the desired opera-
to such an extent that grid current flows. ting condition as determined by its charac-
teristics.
Class C A Class C amplifier is biased to a Grid bias may be obtained from a source of
Amplifier value greater than the value re- voltage especially provided for this purpose,
quired for plate current cutoff and as a battery or other d -c power supply. This
is excited with a signal of such amplitude method is illustrated in figure 2A, and is
that grid current flows over an appreciable known as fixed bias.
period of the input voltage waveshape. The A second biasing method is illustrated in
angle of plate current flow in a Class C am- figure 2B which utilizes a cathode resistor
plifier is appreciably less than 180 °, or in across which an IR drop is developed as a
other words, plate current flows appreciably result of plate current flowing through it. The
HANDBOOK Amplifier Distortion 109
cathode of the tube is held at a positive po-

tential with respect to ground by the amount of INPUT
the IR drop because the grid is at ground po- SIGNAL
tential. Since the biasing voltage depends

upon the flow of plate current the tube cannot
be held in a cutoff condition by means of the
cathode bias voltage developed across the
cathode resistor. The value of this resistor is
determined by the bias required and the plate
current which flows at this value of bias, as OUTPUT
SIGNAL
found from the tube characteristic curves.
A capacitor is shunted across the bias resistor
to provide a low impedance path to ground for
the a -c component of the plate current which Figure 3
results from an a -c input signal on the grid.
Illustration of the effect of phase distortion
The third method of providing a biasing on input wave containing a third harmonic
voltage is shown in figure 2C, and is called signal
grid-leak bias. During the portion of the input
cycle which causes the grid to be positive
with respect to the cathode, grid current flows a two stage amplifier. Although the amplitudes
from cathode to grid, charging capacitor Cg. of both components are amplified by identical
When the grid draws current, the grid -to- cathode
ratios, the output waveshape is considerably
resistance of the tube drops from an infinite different from the input signal because the
value to a very low value, on the order of
phase of the third harmonic signal has been
1,000 ohms or so, making the charging time shifted with respect to the fundamental signal.
constant of the capacitor very short. This en- This phase shift is known as phase distortion,
ables Cg to charge up to essentially the full and is caused principally by the coupling cir-
value of the positive input voltage and results cuits between the stages of the amplifier.
in the grid (which is connected to the low po- Most coupling circuits shift the phase of a
tential plate of the capacitor) being held es- sine wave, but this has no effect on the shape
sentially at ground potential. During the nega- of the output wave. However, when a complex
tive swing of the input signal no grid current wave is passed through the same coupling
flows and the discharge path of C5 is through circuit, each component frequency of the wave -
the grid resistance which has a value of shape may be shifted in phase by a different
500,000 ohms or so. The discharge time con- amount so that the output wave is not a faith-
stant for Cg is, therefore, very long in com- ful reproduction of the input waveshape.
parison to the period of the input signal and
only a small part of the charge on Cg is lost. Amplitude If a signal is passed through a vac -
Thus, the bias voltage developed by the dis- Distortion uum tube that is operating on any
charge of Cg is substantially constant and the
non -linear part of its characteristic,
grid is not permitted to follow the positive amplitude distortion will occur. In such a re-
portions of the input signal. gion, a change in grid voltage does not result
in a change in plate current which is directly
6 -4 Distortion in Amplifiers proportional to the change in grid voltage. For
example, if an amplifier is excited with a sig-
nal that overdrives the tubes, the resultant
There are three main types of distortion that signal is distorted in amplitude, since the
may occur in amplifiers: frequency distortion, tubes operate over a non -linear portion of their
phase distortion and amplitude distortion. characteristic.
Frequency Frequency distortion may occur
Distortion when some frequency components
of a signal are amplified more than 6 -5 Resistance -
others. Frequency distortion occurs at low
Capacitance Coupled
frequencies if coupling capacitors between
stages are too small, or may occur at high fre- Audio -Frequency Amplifiers
quencies as a result of the shunting effects of
the distributed capacities in the circuit.
Present practice in the design of audio -fre-
Phase In figure 3 an input signal con- quency voltage amplifiers is almost exclusively
Distortioh sisting of a fundamental and a to use resistance -capacitance coupling be-
third harmonic is passed through tween the low -level stages. Both triodes and
levels (from 0.01 to 5 volts peak on the grid

of the tube) and use medium -p triodes such
as the 6J5 or high -p triodes such as the 6SF5
or 6SL7 -GT. Normal voltage gain for a single
stage of this type is from 10 to 70, depending
upon the tube chosen and its operating con-
ditions. Triode tubes are normally used in the
last voltage amplifier stage of an R -C ampli-
fier since their harmonic distortion with large
Figure 4 output voltage (25 to 75 volts) is less than
STANDARD CIRCUIT FOR RESISTANCE - with a pentode tube.
CAPACITANCE COUPLED TRIODE AM-
PLIFIER STAGE Voltage Gain The voltage gain per stage of
per Stage a resistance- capacitance cou-
pled triode amplifier can be cal-
pentodes are used; triode amplifier stages culated with the aid of the equivalent circuits
will be discussed first. and expressions for the mid- frequency, high -
frequency, and low- frequency range given in
R -C Coupled Figure 4 illustrates the stand - figure 5.
Triode Stages and circuit for a resistance - A triode R -C coupled amplifie; stage is
capacitance coupled amplifier normally operated with values of cathode re-
stage utilizing a triode tube with cathode bias. sistor and plate load resistor such that the
In conventional audio -frequency amplifier de- actual voltage on the tube is approximately
sign such stages are used at medium voltage one -half the d -c plate supply voltage. To
L RL RG
G
Rp (RL+RG)+RL RG
E 11EG
MID FREQUENCY RANGE
A HIGH FREQ.
CGN
(DYNAMIC. A MID FREQ. (REQ /XS)2
11 LEG NEAT STAGE) J1+
RL
REO=
RL RL
HIGH FREQUENCY RANGE
1t RG + Rv
s
X. 277F (CPN+CGN (DYNAMIC)
A LOW FREQ
G
A MID FREQ.
E=-11EG
I tt(XC /R)2
XC = 2TTFCc
LOW FREQUENCY RANGE
RL Rp
R = RG+ RL+ RP
Figure 5
Equivalent circuits and gain equations for a triode R -C coupled amplifier stage. In using these
equations, be sun to select the values of mu and R,, which are proper for the static current and
voltages with which the tube will operate. These values may be obtained from curves published
in the RCA Tube Handbook RC -16.
HANDBOOK R -C Coupled Amplifiers 111
such as the 6SJ7. Normal voltage gain for a

stage of this type is from 60 to 250, depend-
ing upon the tube chosen and its operating
conditions. Pentode tubes are ordinarily used
the first stage of an R -C amplifier where the
high gain which they afford is of greatest ad-
vantage and where only a small voltage output
is required from the stage.
The voltage gain per stage of a resistance -
Figure 6 capacitance coupled pentode amplifier can be
CIRCUIT FOR RESISTANCE -
calculated with the aid of the equivalent cir-
STANDARD
cuits and expressions for the mid-frequency,
CAPACITANCE COUPLED PENTODE AM-
high- frequency, and low- frequency range given
PLIFIER STAGE
in figure 7.
To assist the designer of such stages, data
on operating conditions for commonly used
assist the designer of such stages, data on types of tubes is published in the RCA Tube
operating conditions for commonly used tubes Handbook RC-16. It is assumed, in the case of
is published in the RCA Tube Handbook RC -16. the gain equations of figure 7, that the cathode
It is assumed, in the case of the gain equations by -pass capacitor, Ck, has a reactance that is
of figure 5, that the cathode by -pass capacitor, low with respect to the cathode resistor at the
Ck, has a reactance that is low with respect lowest frequency to be passed by the stage. It
to the cathode resistor at the lowest frequency is additionally assumed that the reactance of
to be passed by the amplifier stage. the screen by -pass capacitor Cd, is low with
respect to the screen dropping resistor, Rd, at
R -C Coupled Figure 6 illustrates the stand - the lowest frequency to be passed by the am-
Pentode Stages and circuit for a resistance - plifier stage.
capacitance coupled pentode
amplifier stage. Cathode bias is used and the
screen voltage is supplied through a dropping Cascade Voltage When voltage amplifier stages
resistor from the plate voltage supply. In con- Amplifier Stages are operated in such a manner
ventional audio -frequency amplifier design that the output voltage of the
such stages are normally used at low voltage first is fed to the grid of the second, and so
levels (from 0.00001 to 0.1 volts peak on the forth, such stages are said to be cascaded.
grid of the tube) and use moderate -Gm pentodes The total voltage gain of cascaded amplifier
I= -GMEG
G A = GM REQ
Rea - RL
Figure 7 Rap
14-B.1.4-116-
MID FREQUENCY RANGE
Equivalent circuits and
gain equations for a pen-
I= -GMEG
tode R -C coupled amplifier
stage. In using these equa-
A HIGH FREQ
tions be sure to select the A MID FREQ. .1 t+(REa/Xs)Z
values of Cm and Rp which
REO '
are proper for the static R
currents and voltages with HIGH FREQUENCY RANGE t+ Ra+RpL
which the tube will oper-
ate. These values may be Xs=
2/TF (CPA +CGA (DYNAMIC)
obtained from curves pub-
lished in the RCA Tube
Handbook RC -16. A LOW FREQ.
A MID FREE). -
Vt+(XC/R)Z
-
LOW FREQUENCY RANGE Xc 21Tr Cc
R = Ra t RL
RL +
RP
RP
1O0 I. RL. 500000 OHMS

2 -RL. 100000 OHMS
3. RL= so 000 OHMS
4. RL 20000 OHMS
MID - FREQUENCY GAIN a GMV, RL
NIGH -FREQUENCY GAIN a GN V, ECOUPLING NETWORK

100 1000 10000 100000 000
C s COU. V, CIN V2 +C DISTRIBUTED
FREQUENCY (CAS )
FOR COMPROMISE HIGH FREQUENCY EQUALIZATION
%LL oaAc AT fc
Figure 8
RL Sc AT fc
The variation of stage gain with frequency
in an r-c coupled pentode amplifier for vari-
+HERE f a CUTOFF FREQUENCY OF AMPLIFIER
ous values of plate load resistance LL' PEAKING INDUCTOR
FOR COMPROMISE LOW FREQUENCY EQUALIZATION
R. RN (GMVI RL)
stages is obtained by taking the product of the 55 Cs' R. C.

voltage gains of each of the successive stages. CK 25 TO 50 uFD IN PARALLEL WITH 001 MICA
Sometimes the voltage gain of an amplifier Cs a CAPACITANCE FROM ABOVE WITH 001 MICA IN
stage is rated in decibels. Voltage gain is

converted into decibels gain through the use Figure 9
of the following expression: db = 20 logto A, SIMPLE COMPENSATED VIDEO
where A is the voltage gain of the stage. The AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
total gain of cascaded voltage amplifier stages Resistor RL in conjunction with coil LC
can be obtained by adding the number of
serves to flatten the high- frequency response
decibels gain in each of the cascaded stages. of the stage, while CQ and RD serve to equal-
ize the low -frequency response of this sim-
R -C Amplifier typical frequency response
A
Response ple video amplifier stage.
curve for an R -C coupled audio
amplifier is shown in figure 8.
It is seen that the amplification is poor for the
extreme high and low frequencies. The reduced ohms connected directly between grid and
gain at the low frequencies is caused by the cathode of the tube. The cathode is grounded.
loss of voltage across the coupling capacitor. Grid current flows at all times, and the effec-
In some cases, a low value of coupling capacitive input resistance is about one -half the
tor is deliberately chosen to reduce the re- resistance value of the grid leak. This circuit
sponse of the stage to hum, or to attenuate is particularly well suited as a high gain
the lower voice frequencies for communication amplifier following low output devices, such
purposes. For high fidelity work the product of as cry s t al microphones, or dynamic micro-
the grid resistor in ohms times the coupling phones.
capacitor in microfarads should equal 25,000.
(ie.: 500,000 ohms x 0.05 ;Ad = 25,000). R-C Amplifier resistance-capacity A
The amplification of high frequencies falls General Characteristics coupled amplifier can
off because of the Miller effect of the sub- be designed to provide
sequent stage, and the shunting effect of resi- a good frequency response for almost any
dual circuit capacities. Both of these effects desired range. For instance, such an amplifier
may be minimized by the use of a low value of can be built to provide a fairly uniform ampli-
plate load resistor. fication for frequencies in the audio range of
about 100 to 20,000 cycles. Changes in the
values of coupling capacitors and load re-
Grid Leak Bias The correct operating bias sistors can extend this frequency range to
for High Mu Triodes for a high -mu triode such cover the very wide range required for video
as the 6SL7, is fairly crit- service. However, extension of the range can
ical, and will be found to be highly variable only be obtained at the cost of reduced over-
from tube to tube because of minute variations all amplification. Thus the R -C method of
in contact potential within the tube itself. A coupling allows good frequency response with
satisfactory bias method is to use grid leak minimum distortion, but low amplification.
bias, with a grid resistor of one to ten meg- Phase distortion is less with R -C coupling
HANDBOOK Video Frequency Amplifiers 113
than with other types, except direct coupling. resistance -capacitance coùpling is most com-
The R -C amplifier may exhibit tendencies to monly used, there are certain circuit condi-
"motorboat" or oscillate if it is used with a tions wherein coupling methods other than
high impedance plate supply. resistance capacitance are more effective.
Transformer Transformer coupling, as illus-
Coupling crated in figure 10B, is seldom
6 -6 Video -Frequency used at the present time between
Amplifiers two successive single -ended stages of an
audio amplifier. There are several reasons why
resistance coupling is favored over transformer
A video -frequency amplifier is one which coupling between two successive single -ended
has been designed to pass frequencies from stages. These are: (1) a transformer having
the lower audio range (lower limit perhaps 50 frequency characteristics comparable with a
cycles) to the middle r -f range (upper limit properly designed R -C stage is very expensive;
perhaps 4 to 6 megacycles). Such amplifiers, (2) transformers, unless they are very well
in addition to passing such an extremely wide shielded, will pick up inductive hum from
frequency range, must be capable of amplify- nearby power and filament transformers; (3)
ing this range with a minimum of amplitude, the phase characteristics of step-up interstage
phase, and frequency distortion. Video ampli- transformers are poor, making very difficult
fiers are commonly used in television, pulse the inclusion of a transformer of this type
communication, and radar work. within a feedback loop; and (4) transformers
Tubes used in video amplifiers must have are heavy.
a high ratio of Gm to capacitance if a usable However, there is one circuit application
gain per stage is to be obtained. Commonly where a step-up interstage transformer is of
available tubes which have been designed for considerable assistance to the designer; this
or are suitable for use in video amplifiers are: is the case where it is desired to obtain a
6AU6, 6ÁG5, 6AK5, 6CB6, 6AC7, 6AG7, and large amount of voltage to excite the grid of a
6K6 -GT. Since, at the upper frequency limits cathode follower or of a high -power Class A
of a video amplifier the input and output amplifier from a tube operating at a moderate
shunting capacitances of the amplifier tubes plate voltage. Under these conditions it is pos-
have rather low values of reactance, low sible to obtain apeak voltage on the secondary
values of coupling resistance along with of the transformer of a value somewhat greater
peaking coils or other special interstage cou- than the d -c plate supply voltage of the tube
pling impedances are usually used to flatten supplying the primary of the transformer.
out the gain /frequency and hence the phase/
frequency characteristic of the amplifier. Push -Pull Transformer Push-pull transformer
Recommended operating conditions along with Interstage Coupling coupling between two
expressions for calculation of gain and circuit stages is illustrated in
values are given in figure 9. Only a simple figure IOC. This interstage coupling arrange-
two-terminal interstage coupling network is ment is fairly commonly used. The system is
shown in this figure. particularly effective when it is desired, as in
The performance and gain -per-stage of a the system just described, to obtain a fairly
video amplifier can be improved by the use high voltage to excite the grids of a high -
of increasingly complex two -terminal inter- power audio stage. The arrangement is also
stage coupling networks or through the use very good when it is desired to apply feed-
of four-terminal coupling networks or filters back to the grids of the push -pull stage by
between successive stages. The reader is re- applying the feedback voltage to the low -
ferred to Terman's "Radio Engineer's Hand- potential sides of the two push -pull second-
book" for design data on such interstage aries.
coupling networks.
Impedance Impedance coupling between two
Coupling stages is shown in figure IOD.
This circuit arrangement is seldom
6 -7 Other Interstage used, but it offers one strong advantage over
Coupling Methods R -C interstage coupling. This advantage is
the fact that, since the operating voltage on
Figure 10 illustrates, in addition to resist- the tube with the impedance in the plate cir-
ance- capacitance interstage coupling, seven cuit is the plate supply voltage, it is possible
additional methods in which coupling between to obtain approximately twice the peak volt-
two successive stages of an audio- frequency age output that it is possible to obtain with
amplifier may be accomplished. Although R -C coupling. This is because, as has been
O
+e
RESISTANCE -CAPACITANCE COUPLING

-fTf
pB TRANSFORMER COUPLING
-0
© PUSH -PULL TRANSFORMER COUPLING
r +5
II
pD IMPEDANCE COUPLING
+5
OE IMPEDANCE -TRANSFORMER COUPLING O RESISTANCE- TRANSFORMER COUPLING
.= +e +5
pG CATHODE COUPLING QH DIRECT COUPLING
Figure 10
INTERSTAGE COUPLING METHODS FOR AUDIO FREQUENCY VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS
mentioned before, the d -c plate voltage on an stage be isolated from the primary of the cou-
R-C stage is approximately one -half the plate pling transformer. With most types of high -
supply voltage. permeability wide -response transformers it is
necessary that there be no direct -current flow
Impedance- TransformerThese two circuit ar- through the windings of the transformer. The
rangements, illustrated
and Resistance- Trans. impedance-transformer arrangement of figure
former Coupling in figures 10E and 10F, 10E will give a higher voltage output from
are employed when it is the stage but is not often used since the plate
desired to use transformer coupling for the coupling impedance (choke) must have very
reasons cited above, but where it is desired high inductance and very low distributed ca-
that the d -c plate current of the amplifier pacitance in order not to restrict the range of
HANDBOOK Phase Inverters 115
same type tubes with the values of plate volt-

age and load resistance to be used for the
cathode -coupled stage.
Inspection of the equations in figure 11
shows that as the cathode resistor is made
smaller, to approach zero, the Gm approaches
zero, the plate resistance approaches the Rp
of one tube, and the mu approaches zero. As
Gm = -GM +1
2- G= Rn GM (1+ ú ) the cathode resistor is made very large the Gm
approaches one half that of a single tube of
RN = CATHODE RESISTOR
RPM ' RP GM =GM OF EACH TUBE
the same type, the plate resistance approaches
2G4-1
G+1
twice that of one tube, and the mu approaches
L = L OF EACH TUBE
L _ -L +1 R P R P OF C A CH T UB C
the same value as one tube. But since the Gm
of each tube decreases as the cathode resistor
EQUIVALENT FACTORS INDICATED ABOVE SY I'1 ARE is made larger (since the plate current will
THOSE OBTAINED BY USING AN AMPLIFIER WITH A PAIR
OF SIMILAR TUBE TYPES IN CIRCUIT SHOWN ABOVE. decrease on each tube) the optimum value of
cathode resistor will be found to be in the
Figure 11 vicinity of the value mentioned in the previous
Equivalent factors for a pair of similar tri- paragraph.
odes operating as a cathode- coupled audio-
frequency voltage amplifier. Direct Coupling Direct coupling between suc-
cessive amplifier stages (plate
of first stage connected directly to the grid of
the succeeding stage) is complicated by the
the transformer which it and its associated fact that the grid of an amplifier stage must
tube feed. The resistance -transformer arrange-
be operated at an average negative poten-
ment of figure 10F is ordinarily quite satis-
factory where it is desired to feed a trans-
tial with respect to the cathode of that stage.
However, if the cathode of the second ampli-
former from a voltage amplifier stage with no
d.c.in the transformer primary. fier stage can be operated at a potential more
positive than the plate of the preceding stage
by the amount of the grid bias on the second
Cathode The cathode coupling arrangement amplifier stage, this direct connection between
Coupling of figure 10G has been widely used the plate of one stage and the grid of the suc-
only comparatively recently. One ceeding stage can be used. Figure 10H il-
outstanding characteristic of such a circuit is lustrates an application of this principle in
that there is no phase reversal between the the coupling of a pentode amplifier stage to
grid and the plate circuit. All other common the grid of a "hot- cathode" phase inverter. In
types of interstage coupling are accompanied this arrangement the values of cathode, screen,
by a 180° phase reversal between the grid and plate resistor in the pentode stage are
circuit and the plate circuit of the tube. chosen such that the plate of the pentode is at
Figure 11 gives the expressions for deter- approximately 0.3 times the plate supply po-
mining the appropriate factors for an equiva- tential. The succeeding phase- inverter stage
lent triode obtained through the use of a pair then operates with conventional values of
of similar triodes connected in the cathode - cathode and plate resistor (same value of re-
coupled circuit shown. With these equivalent sistance) in its normal manner. This type of
triode factors it is possible to use the ex- phase inverter is described in more detail in
pressions shown in figure 5 to determine the the section to follow.
gain of the stage at different frequencies. The
input capacitance of such a stage is less than
that of one of the triodes, the effective grid -
to -plate capacitance is very much less (it is 6 -8 Phase Inverters
so much less that such a stage may be used
as an r-f amplifier without neutralization), and
the output capacitance is approximately equal It is necessary in order to excite the grids
to the grid-to -plate capacitance of one of the of a push -pull stage that voltages equal in
triode sections. This circuit is particularly amplitude and opposite in polarity be applied
effective with tubes such as the 6J6, 6N7, and to the two grids. These voltages may be ob-
6SN7 -GT which have two similar triodes in tained through the use of a push -pull input
one envelope. An appropriate value of cathode transformer such as is shown in figure IOC.
resistor to use for such a stage is the value It is possible also, without the attendant bulk
which would be used for the cathode resistor and expense of a push -pull input transformer,
of a conventional amplifier using one of the to obtain voltages of the proper polarity and
phase through the use of a so- called phase - 6J S

inverter stage. There are a large number of
Cc .02 RG
phase inversion circuits which have been de- 220 K
RL
veloped and applied but the three shown in as
= RG
220K
figure 12 have been found over a period of
time to be the most satisfactory from the point RKi
1200
of view of the number of components required
and from the standpoint of the accuracy with RK2 +8 300V.
27 K
which the two out -of-phase voltages are held
to the same amplitude with changes in supply pA "HOT CATHODE" PHASE INVERTER
voltage and changes in tubes.
All of these vacuum tube phase inverters
are based upon the fact that a 180° phase
shift occurs within a vacuum tube between the
grid input voltage and the plateoutput voltage.
In certain circuits, the fact that the grid input
voltage and the voltage appearing across the
cathode bias resistor are in phase is used for
phase inversion purposes. +e 300 V.
® "FLOATING PARAPHA5 "PHASE INVERTER
"Hot- Cathode" Figure 12A illustrates the hot -
Phase Inverter cathode type of phase in-
verter. This type of phase in- 6SN7
verter is the simplest of the three types since
RL
it requires only one tube and a minimum of 47 Yt
CC .02 RG
220 K
circuit components. It is particularly simple

when directly coupled from the plate of a CC 82 220K
pentode amplifier stage as shown in figure
10H. The circuit does, however, possess the
following two disadvantages: (1) the cathode euro
+e200v.
of the tube must run at a potential of approxi-
mately 0.3 times the plate supply voltage © CATHODE COUPLED PHASE INVERTER
above the heater when a grounded common
heater winding is used for this tube as well Figure 12
as the other heater -cathode tubes in a receiver
THREE POPULAR PHASE -INVERTER CIR-
or amplifier: (2) the circuit actually has a
CUITS WITH RECOMMENDED VALUES FOR
loss in voltage from its input to either of the
output grids -about 0.9 times the input volt- CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
age will be applied to each of these grids.
This does represent a voltage gain of about
1.8 in total voltage output with respect to in-
put (grid -to -grid output voltage) but it is still tube, and appropriate values for the 6N7 tube
small with respect to the other two phase in this application are shown. The circuit
inverter circuits shown. shown with the values given will give a volt-
Recommended component values for use age gain of approximately 21 from the input
with a 6J5 tube in this circuit are shown in grid to each of the grids of the succeeding
figure 12A. If it is desired to use another tube stage. It is capable of approximately 70 volts
in this circuit, appropriate values for the oper- peak output to each grid.
ation of that tube as a conventional amplifier The circuit inherently has a small unbalance
can be obtained from manufacturer's tube data. in output voltage. This unbalance can be elim-
The value of RL obtained should be divided by inated, if it is required for some special appli-
two, and this new value of resistance placed cation, by making the resistor Rg1 a few per
in the circuit as RL. The value of Rk from cent lower in resistance value than Rs3.
tube manual tables should then be used as
Rkl in this circuit, and then the total of Rkl Cathode -Coupled The circuit shown in figure
and Rk2 should be equal to RL. Phase Inverter 12C gives approximately one -
half the voltage gain from the
"Floating Paraphase" alternate type of
An input grid to either of the grids of the suc-
Phase Inverter phase inverter some- ceeding stage that would be obtained from a
times called the "float- single tube of the same type operating as a
ing Paraphase" is illustrated in figure 12B. conventional R -C amplifier stage. Thus, with
This circuit is quite often used with a 6N7 a 6SN7 -GT tube as shown (two 6J5's in one
HANDBOOK Vacuum Tube Voltmeter 117
o+ Rs R6
+
Rvi
Figure 14
DIRECT COUPLED
D -C AMPLIFIER
Figure 13
VOLTAGE DIVIDER PHASE
INVERTER
same amplitude as the output of V but of
opposite phase.
envelope) the voltage gain from the input

grid to either of the output grids will be ap-
proximately 7 - the gain is, of course, 14 from
the input to both output grids. The phase
6 -9 D -C Amplifiers
characteristics are such that the circuit is Direct current amplifiers are special types
commonly used in deriving push -pull deflec- used where amplification of very slow varia-
tion voltage for a cathode -ray tube from a tions in voltage, or of d -c voltages is desired.
signal ended input signal. A simple d -c amplifier consists of a single
The first half of the 6SN7 is used as an tube with a grid resistor across the input
amplifier to increase the amplitude of the ap- terminals, and the load in the plate circuit.
plied signal to the desired level. The second
half of the 6SN7 is used as an inverter and
amplifier to produce a signal of the same
amplitude but of opposite polarity. Since the Basic D -C A simple d -c amplifier
common cathode resistor, Rk, is not bypassed Amplifier Circuit circuit is
the voltage across it is the algebraic sum of shown in
figure 14, wherein the
the two plate currents and has the same shape
and polarity as the voltage applied to the in- the grid of one tube is connected directly to
put grid of the first half of the 6SN7. When a the plate of the preceding tube in such a
signal, e, is applied to the input circuit, the manner that voltage changes on the grid of
effective grid- cathode voltage of the first the first tube will be amplified by the system.
section is Ae /2, when A is the gain of the The voltage drop across the plate coupling
first section. Since the grid of the second resistor is impressed directly upon the grid
section of the 6SN7 is grounded, the effect of of the second tube, which is provided with
the signal voltage across Rk (equal to e/2 if enough negative grid bias to balance out the
Rk is the proper value) is the same as though excessive voltage drop across the coupling
a signal of the same amplitude but of opposite resistor. The grid of the second tube is thus
polarity were applied to the grid. The output maintained in a slightly negative position.
of the second section is equal to Ae'2 if the The d -c amplifier will provide good low fre-
plate load resistors are the same for both tube quency response, with negligible phase dis-
sections. tortion. high frequency response is limited
by the shunting effect of the tube capacitances,
as in the normal resistance coupled amplifier.
A common fault with d -c amplifiers of all
Voltage Divider A commonly used phase in- types is static instability. Small changes in
Phase Inverter verter is shown in figure 13.
the filament, plate, or grid voltages cannot
The input section (V,) is con-
nected as a conventional amplifier. The out- be distinguished from the exciting voltage.
put voltage from V, is impressed on the volt- Regulated power supplies and special balanc-
age divider R, -R6. The values of R, and R6 ing circuits have been devised to reduce the
are in such a ratio that the voltage impressed effects of supply variations on these ampli-
upon the grid of V2 is 1/A times the output fiers. A successful system is to apply the
voltage of V where A is the amplification plate potential in phase to two tubes, and to
factor of V,. The output of V3 is then of the apply the exciting signal to a push -pull grid
BALANCE
CONTROL
Figure 15
LOFTIN -WHITE Figure 16
D -C AMPLIFIER
PUSH -PULL D -C AMPLIFIER
WITH EITHER SINGLE -ENDED
OR PUSH -PULL INPUT
circuit configuration. If the two tubes are is characterized by increased plate -circuit
identical, any change in electrode voltage is efficiency over straight Class A amplification
balanced out. The use of negative feedback without grid current. The normal Class Al
can also greatly reduce drift problems. amplifier power stage will operate with a plate
circuit efficiency of from 20 per cent to perhaps
35 per cent. Through the use of Class A2
The "Loftin- White" Two d -c amplifier operation it is possible to increase this plate
Circuit stages may be arranged,
so that their plate
circuit efficiency to approximately 38 to 45
per cent. However, such operation requires
supplies are effectively in series, as illus- careful choice of the value of plate load im-
trated in figure 15. This is known as a Loftin. pedance, a grid bias supply with good regula-
White amplifier. All plate and grid voltages tion (since the tube draws grid current on
may be obtained from one master power supply peaks although the plate current does not
instead of separate grid and plate supplies. change with signal), and a driver tube with
A push -pull version of this amplifier (figure 16) moderate power capability to excite the grid
can be used to balance out the effects of slow of the Class A2 tube.
variations in the supply voltage. Figures 17D and 17E illustrate two methods
of connection for such stages. Tubes such as
the 845, 849, and 304TL are suitable for such
a stage. In each case the grid bias is approxi-
6-10 Single -ended Triode mately the same as would be used for a Class
Al amplifier using the same tube, and as
Amplifiers mentioned before, fixed bias must be used
along with an audio driver of good regulation -
Figure 17 illustrates five circuits for the preferably a triode stage with a 1:1 or step -
operation of Class A triode amplifier stages. down driver transformer. In each case it will
Since the cathode current of a triode Class A l be found that the correct value of plate load
(no grid current) amplifier stage is constant impedance will be increased about 40 per cent
with and without excitation, it is common over the value recommended by the tube manu-
practice to operate the tube with cathode facturer for Class A1 operation of the tube.
bias. Recommended operating conditions in
regard to plate voltage, grid bias, and load Operation Character- A Class A power amplifier
impedance for conventional triode amplifier istics of o Triode operates in such a way as
stages are given in the RCA Tube Manual, Power Amplifier to amplify as faithfully as
RC -16. possible the waveform ap-
plied to the grid of the tube. Large power out-
put is of more importance than high voltage
amplification, consequently gain character-
Extended Class A It is possible, under certain istics may be sacrificed in power tube design
Operation conditions to operate single - to obtain more important power handling capa-
ended triode amplifier stages bilities. Class A power tubes, such as the 45,
(and pentode and tetrode stages as well) with 2A3 and 6AS7 are characterized by a low
grid excitation of sufficient amplitude that amplification factor, high plate dissipation
grid current is taken by the tube on peaks. and relatively high filament emission.
This type of operation is called Class A2 and The operating characteristics of a Class A
HANDBOOK Triode Amplifier Characteristics 119
-(0. 68 x Ebb)
Eg
µ
Where Ebb is the actual plate voltage of
the Class A stage, and is the amplifi-
cation factor of the tube.
pA IMPEDANCE COUPLING 3- Locate the Eg bias point on the Ip vs.
Ep graph where the Eg bias line crosses
the plate voltage line, as shown in figure
18. Call this point P.
4- Locate on the plate family of curves the
value of zero -signal plate current,
corresponding to the operating point, P. v
1
5- Locate 2 x I, (twice the value of Ip) on

the plate current axis (Y- axis). This
® TRANSFORMER COUPLING point corresponds to the value of maxi-
mum signal plate current,
6- Locate point z on the d -c bias curve at
zero volts (Eg = 0) , corresponding to the
value of
7- Draw a straight line(x - y) through points
and P. This line is the load resistance
x
+5 line. Its slope corresponds to the value
of the load resistance.
© IMPEDANCE -TRANSFORMER COUPLING
8- Load Resistance, (in ohms)
emu - emin
RL -
- tmin
.
tmaz
where e is in volts, i is in amperes, and
RL is in ohms.
-BIAS = +D 9- Check: Multiply the zero -signal plate
© TRANSFORMER COUPLING FOR A2 OPERATION current, Ip, by the operating plate volt-
age, Ep. If the plate dissipation rating
of the tube is exceeded, it is necessary
AUTO -
TRANSFORMER
to increase the bias (Eg) on the tube so
that the plate dissipation falls within
the maximum rating of the tube. If this
To CLASS C
step is taken, operations 2 through 8
-DIAS +D LOAD must be repeated with the new value of
© CLASS AZ MODULATOR WITH AUTO- TRANS- Eg.
FORMER COUPLING
10- For maximum power output, the peak a -c
grid voltage on the tube should swing to
Figure 17 2E, on the negative cycle, and to zero -
Output coupling arrangements for single -ended bias on the positive cycle. At the peak
Class A triode audio- frequency power ampliflors. of the negative swing, the plate volt-
age reaches emaz and the plate current
drops to imia. On the positive swing of
the grid signal, the plate voltage drops
triode amplifier employing an output trans- to ernia and the plate current reaches
former- coupled load may be calculated from irnH1. The power output of the tube is:
the plate family of curves for the particular Power Output (watts)
tube in question by employing the following
steps: Po
(tma= - =mio) x (eme= - ernia)
1- The load resistance should be approxi- 8
mately twice the plate resistance of the where i is in amperes and e is in volts.
tube for maximum undistorted power out-
put. Remember this fact for a quick check 11- The second harmonic distortion generated
on calculations. in a single -ended Class A triode ampli-
2- Calculate the zero-signal bias voltage fier, expressed as a percentage of the
(E5). fundamental output signal is:
120
wp0
K
w
a
á
MEM
MENE
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Tube Amplifiers
Figure
THE
19
RADIO
Normal single -ended pentode or beam tetrode

audio-frequency power output stag..
Iv. S7 NAVIN
so 114114 Al
, d1 plifier stage. Tubes of this type have largely
MIN.-,
o
4
100
EMIN.
200
a
300 400
/ replaced triodes in the output stage of re-
ceivers and amplifiers due to the higher plate
efficiency (30 % -40 %) with which they operate.
EMA2.
PLATE VOLTS
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS - 2A3
Tetrode and pentode tubes do, however, intro-
duce a considerably greater amount of harmonic
)1 =4.2 Rv= 800OHMS
PLATE DISSIPATION =15 WATTS
distortion in their output circuit, particularly
odd harmonics. In addition, their plate circuit
impedance (which acts in an amplifier to damp
LOAD RESISTANCE loudspeaker overshoot and ringing, and acts
EMAx - EMIN. in a driver stage to provide good regulation) is
RL OHMS
I MAX. -I MIN. many times higher than that of an equivalent
triode. The application of negative feedback
POWER OUTPUT acts both to reduce distortion and to reduce
the effective plate circuit impedance of these
(IMAx. -IMIN) IEMAx -EMIN) WATTS tubes.
e
SECOND HARMONIC DISTORTION

Operating Character- The operating character-
istics of a Pentode istics of pentode power
(!MAX.+ IMIN.) -Ip Power Amplifier amplifiers may be obtained
2
X 100 PERCENT from the plate family of
IMAX. - IMIN
curves, much as in the manner applied to
Figure
triode tubes. A typical family of pentode plate
18
Formulas for determining the operating con-
curves is shown in figure 20. It can be seen
ditions for a Class A triode single -ended audio - from these curves that the plate current of the
frequency power output stage. A typical load tube is relatively independent of the applied
line has been drawn on the ge plate char- plate voltage, but is sensitive to screen volt-
'sties of a type 2A3 tub. to illustrate age. In general, the correct pentode load re-
the procedure. sistance is about
0.9Ep
% 2d harmonic =
Ip
(imax - imin) and the power output is somewhat less than
2 p Ep x Ip
(x 100)
imax - ¡min 2
Figure 18 illustrates the above steps as These formulae may be used for a quick check
applied to a single Class A 2A3 ampli- on more precise calculations. To obtain the
fier stage. operating parameters for Class A pentode am-
plifiers, the following steps are taken:
1- The imax point is chosen so as to fall on
6 -11 Single -ended Pentode the zero -bias curve, just above the
Amplifiers "knee" of the curve (point A, figure 20) .
2- A preliminary operating point, P, is deter-
Figure 19 illustrates the conventional cir- mined by the intersection of the plate
cuit for a single -ended tetrode or pentode am' voltage line, Ep, and the line of imax /2.
HANDBOOK Push -Pull Amplifiers 121
i°
6- The power output is:
_.NM Power Output (watts)
i'iií ía
IihlY7m ü
Y
-4)2
// Y
- ¡min) + 1.41 (Ix X RL
ir/
(¡max
!Gt!:i
_' . P0
111:YY
Y3P
ommiY
TRIAL LOAD LINE. CNOOS
LOADLINE SOTNAT AP-P-
::::::: here Ix
32
is the plate current at the point
A!YY
on the load line where the grid voltage,
-
eg, is equal to: Eg 0. 7 Eg; and where
/iIfMíENC!Y
t
(M"I\i1Y
lm A.
íiEeAI
_..Ç
- r ly is the plate current at the point where
/ NV
m I
' C223aFïw
M.MENM
lÍJ
MEO= Et:- v.
eg is equal to: Eg + 0. 7 Eg.
7- The
%
percentage harmonic distortion is:
2d harmonic distortion
e MIN P(STATIC VALUE) CMAX ¡max - ¡min -2 1p

X 100
PLATE VOLTS
¡max - ¡min + 1.41 (Ix - Iy)
Figure 20
Where I is the static plate current of
of the tube.
GRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF OPERAT-
ING CHARACTERISTICS OF A PENTODE % 3d harmonic distortion
POWER AMPLIFIER
"V" is the negative control grid voltage at
¡max - imin - 1.41 (Is -1y)
x 100
the operating point P rmax- ¡min +1.41(Ix -ly)
The grid voltage curve that this point

falls upon should be one that is about 1/2 6 -12 Push -Pull Audio
the value of Eg required to cut the plate Amplifiers
current to a very low value (Point B).
Point B represents imin on the plate cur-
rent axis (y-axis). The line imax/2 should A number of advantages are obtained through
be located half -way between max and the use of the push -pull connection of two or
¡mit) four tubes in an audio -frequency power am-
3- A trial load line is constructed about plifier. Two conventional circuits for the use
point P and point A in such a way that of triode and tetrode tubes in the push -pull
the lengths A -P and P -B are approxi- connection are shown in figure 21. The two
mately equal. mairi advantages of the push -pull circuit ar-
4- When the most satisfactory load line has rangement are: (1) the magnetizing effect
been determined, the load resistance may of the plate currents of the output tubes is
calculated: cancelled in the windings of the output trans-
former; (2) even harmonics of the input signal
RL
Coax - emit) (second and fourth harmonics primarily) gen-
erated in the push -pull stage are cancelled
'max - ¡min
when the tubes are balanced.
5- The operating bias (Eg) is the bias at The cancellation of even harmonics gener-
point P. ated in the stage allows the tubes to be oper-
PUSH -PULL TRIODE AND TETRODE
FIGURE 21
122
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Amplifiers
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PLATE VOLTS (Er) GRID VOLTS (EG)
Figure 22
DETERMINATION OF OPERATING PARAMETERS
FOR PUSH-PULL CLASS A
TRIODE TUBES
ated Class AB -in

other words the tubes may a particular triode tube by the following steps:
be operated with bias and input signals of 1- Erect a vertical line from the plate volt-
such amplitude that the plate current of alter- age axis (x-axis) at 0.6 Ep (figure 22),
nate tubes may be cut off during a portion of which intersects the EI = 0 curve. This
the input voltage cycle. If a tube were operated point of intersection (P), interpolated to
in such a manner in a single -ended amplifier the plate current axis (y -axis) may be
the second harmonic amplitude generated would taken as immt. It is assumed for simplifi-
be prohibitively high. cation that imss occurs at the point of
Push -pull Class AB operation allows a plate the zero -bias curve corresponding to
circuit efficiency of from 45 to 60 per cent to 0.6 Ep.
be obtained in an amplifier stage depending 2- The power output obtainable from the two
upon whether or not the exciting voltage is tubes is:
of such amplitude that grid current is drawn
by the tubes. If grid current is taken on input x Ep
voltage peaks the amplifier is said to be oper- Power output (Po) -
5
ating Class AB2 and the plate circuit effi-
ciency can be as high as the upper value just where Po is expressed in watts, =mss in
mentioned. If grid current is not taken by the amperes, and Ep is the applied plate
stage it is said to be operating Class AB and voltage.
the plate circuit efficiency will be toward the
3- Draw a preliminary load line through
lower end of the range just quoted. In all Class
AB amplifiers the plate current will increase point P to the Ep point located on the
x -axis (the zero plate current line).This
from 40 to 150 per cent over the no- signal
value when full signal is applied. load line represents % of the actual plate -
to -plate load of the Class A tubes. There-
fore:
Operating CharacteristicsThe operating char- RL (plate -to- plate) = 4 x

Ep - 0.6 Ep
of Push -Pull Class A acteristics of push - t mss
Triode Power Amplifier pull Class A ampli- 1.6 E
fiers may also be P
determined from the plate family of curves for tmsx
HANDBOOK Class B Audio Amplifiers 123
where RL is expressed in ohms, Ep in

volts, and ima, in amperes.
Figure 22 illustrates the above steps ap-
plied to a push -pull Class A amplifier using
two 2A3 tubes.
4- The average plate current is 0.636 imax,
and, multiplied by the plate voltage, Ep,
will give the average watts input to the 8+ DRIVER - BIAS 8+ MOD.
(GROUND FOR
plates of the two tubes. The power out- ZERO BIAS
OPERATING
put should be subtracted from this value CONDITION)
to obtain the total operating plate dis-
sipation of the two tubes. If the plate Figure 23
dissipation is excessive, a slightly CLASS B AUDIO FREQUENCY
higher value of RL should be chosen to
POWER AMPLIFIER
limit the plate dissipation.
5- The correct value of operating bias, and
the static plate current for the push -pull
tubes may be determined from the Eg vs.
70 per cent are readily obtainable with the
Ip curves, which are a derivation of the
tube types at present available for this type
Ep vs. Ip curves for various values of
of work. Since the plate circuit efficiency is
Eg.
higher, smaller tubes of lower plate dissipa-
6- The Eg vs. Ip curve may be constructed
in this manner: Values of grid bias are tion may be used in a Class B power amplifier
read from the intersection of each grid
of a given power output than can be used in
any other conventional type of audio amplifier.
bias curve with the load line. These An additional factor in favor of the Class B
points are transferred to the Eg vs. Ip audio amplifier is the fact that the power in-
graph to produce a curved line, A -B. If put to the stage is relatively low under no-
the grid bias curves of the Ep vs. 1p signal conditions. It is for these reasons that
graph were straight lines, the lines of this type of amplifier has largely superseded
the Eg vs. I, graph would also be straight other types in the generation of audio -frequency
This is usually not the case. A tangent levels from perhaps 100 watts on up to levels
to this curve is therefore drawn, starting
of approximately 150,000 watts as required for
at point A', and intersecting the grid large short -wave broadcast stations.
voltage abscissa (x- axis). This inter-
section (C) is the operating bias point
for fixed bias operation. Disadvantages of There are attendant dis -
7- This operating bias point may now be
Class B Amplifier advantageous features to the
plotted on the original Eg vs. Ip family Operation operation of a power ampli-
of curves (C'), and the zero -signal cur- fier of this type; but all
rent produced by this bias is determined. these disadvantages can be overcome by proper
This operating bias point (C') does not fall design of the circuits associated with the
on the operating load line, as in the case of a power amplifier stage. These disadvantages
single -ended amplifier. are: (1) The Class B audio amplifier requires
8- Under conditions of maximum power out- driving power in its grid circuit; this dis-
put, the exciting signal voltage swings advantage can be overcome by the use of an
from zero -bias voltage to zero -bias volt- oversize power stage preceding the Class B
age for each of the tubes on each half stage with a step -down transformer between
of the signal cycle. Second harmonic the driver stage and the Class -B grids. De-
distortion is largely cancelled out. generative feedback is sometimes employed
to reduce the plate impedance of the driver
stage and thus to improve the voltage regula-
tion under the varying load presented by the
6 -13 Class B Audio Frequency Class B grids. (2) The Class B stage requires
Power Amplifiers a constant value of average grid bias to be
supplied in spite of the fact that the grid cur-
rent on the stage is zero over most of the
The Class B audio -frequency power ampli- cycle but rises to values as high as one -third
fier (figure 23) operates at a higher plate - of the peak plate current on the peak of the
circuit efficiency than any of the previously exciting voltage cycle. Special regulated bias
described types of audio power amplifiers. supplies have been used for this application,
Full- signal plate- circuit efficiencies of 60 to or B batteries can be used. However, a number
of tubes especially designed for Class B audio a point at about the same amount of plate
amplifiers have been developed which require current mentioned above, just to the
zero average grid bias for their operation. The right of the region where the Ib line
811A, 838, 805, 809, HY -5514, and TZ -40 are takes a sharp curve downward. This will
examples of this type of tube. All these so- be the first trial point, and the plate
called "zero- bias" tubes have rated operating voltage at the point chosen should be
conditions up to moderate plate voltages not more than about 20 per cent of the
wherein they can be operated without grid d -c voltage applied to the tubes if good
bias. As the plate voltage is increased to plate- circuit efficiency is desired.
to their maximum ratings, however, a small 2- Note down the value of ipo and ep,,;, at
amount of grid bias, such as could be obtained this point.
from several 4 1/2-volt C batteries, is required. 3- Subtract the value of epos from the d -c
(3), A Class B audio- frequency power ampli- plate voltage on the tubes.
fier or modulator requires a source of plate 4- Substitute the values obtained in the
supply voltage having reasonably good regula- following equations:
tion. This requirement led to the development
of the swinging choke. The swinging choke is tpmu ems)
essentially a conventional filter choke in Po
Po (Eby Power output
2 from 2 tubes
which the core air gap has been reduced. This
reduction in the air gap allows the choke to epun)
have a much greater value of inductance with 1Z L _4 (Ebb
low current values such as are encountered t pmaz
with no signal or small signal being applied = Plate -to -plate load for 2 tubes
to the Class B stage. With a higher value of
current such as would be taken by a Class B Full signal efficiency (Np) =
stage with full signal applied the inductance
of the choke drops to a much lower value.
Qith a swinging choke of this type, having
adequate current rating, as the input inductor 78.5
e\
in the filter system for a rectifier power sup- C1
Ebb
ply, the regulation will be improved to a point
which is normally adequate for a power supply
for a Class B amplifier or modulator stage.
Effects of All the above equations are
Speech
Clipping true for sine -wave operating
Calculation of Operating The following proce- conditions of the tubes con-
Conditions of Class B dure can be used for cerned. However, if a speech clipper is being
Power Amplifiers the calculation of the used in the speech amplifier, or if it is desired
operating conditions to calculate the operating conditions on the
of Class B power amplifiers when they are to basis of the fact that the ratio of peak power
operate into a resistive load such as the type to average power in a speech wave is approxi-
of load presented by a Class C power ampli- mately 4 -to-1 as contrasted to the ratio of
fier. This procedure will be found quite satis- 2 -to -1 in a sine wave-in other words, when
factory for the application of vacuum tubes as nonsinusoidal waves such as plain speech or
Class B modulators when it is desired to speech that has passed through a clipper are
operate the tubes under conditions which are concerned, we are no longer concerned with
not specified in the tube operating character- average power output of the modulator as far
istics published by the tube manufacturer. The as its capability of modulating a Class -C ampli-
same procedure can be used with equal effec- fier is concerned; we are concerned with its
tiveness for the calculation of the operating peak -power- output capability.
conditions of beam tetrodes as Class AB2 Under these conditions we call upon other,
amplifiers or modulators when the resting more general relationships. The first of these
plate current on the tubes (no signal condi- is: It requires a peak power output equal to
tion) is less than 25 or 30 per cent of the the Class -C stage input to modulate that input
maximum- signal plate current. fully.
1- With the average plate characteristics The second one is: The average power out-
of the tube as published by the manu- put required of the modulator is equal to the
facturer before you, select a point on shape factor of the modulating wave multi-
the Ep = E& (diode bend) line at about plied by the input to the Class -C stage. The
twice the plate current you expect the shape factor of unclipped speech is approxi-
tubes to kick to under modulation. If mately 0. 25. The shape factor of a sine wave
beam tetrode tubes are concerned, select is 0. 5. The shape factor of a speech wave that
HANDBOOK Class B Parameters 125
..,'A..
Figure 24
Typical Class B a -f amplifier
load line. The load line has
been drown on the average
a
J
0.
800
200
i
ISEMEEMM
AM IMMUMMEM
ENMEMMEMMEMEMMEMMEMEMEM
MORAOMMI
MMMIPE9MMMMEM
I/CiM
!MAMEM_.iMINIU
dwma mmommommilmmimm
::\\__oiii
rim`nommommommul/emmom
E
I:r Er= 6.3 VOLTS D.C.
Sa;_n
characteristics of a type 811 Li \\EMEMMEMMINIMMEMEM
tube. o IiSLMEMWMOMMNIMPRIMME5
tnE=EZ...=GERaMMiiM
>..._
400 600 1200 1600 2000 2400
PLATE VOLTS (Ebb)
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS TYPE 811 AND 811 -A
has been passed through a clipper -filter ar- tion shown in figure 25, or by reference to the
rangement is somewhere between 0. 25 and 0. 9 published characteristics on the tubes to be
depending upon the amount of clipping that used. (2) Determine the load impedance which
has taken place. With 15 or 20 db of clipping will be presented by the Class C amplifier
the shape factor may be as high as the figure stage to be modulated by dividing the operating
of 0.9 mentioned above. This means that the plate voltage on that stage by the operating
audio power output of the modulator will be value of plate current in amperes. (3) Divide
90% of the input to the Class -C stage. Thus the Class C load impedance determined in (2)
with a kilowatt input we would be putting
900 watts of audio into the Class -C stage for
100 per cent modulation as contrasted to per- SAMPLE CALCULATION
haps 250 watts for unclipped speech modula-
CONDITION; 2 TYPE e11 TUBES. Ebb. = 1000
tion of 100 per cent. INPUT TO FINAL STAGE, 350 W.
PEAK POWER OUTPUT NEEDED' 350 + 6%* 370 w.
Figure 24 shows a set of FINAL AMPLIFIER Ebb = 2000 V.

Sample Calculation FINAL AMPLIFIER I b = .175 A.
for 811A Tubes plate characteristics for FINAL AMPLIFIER 2L = 2000 = 11400 A
.175
a type 811A tube with a
load line for Class B operation. Figure 25 EXAMPLE: CHOSE POINT ON 611 CHARACTERISTICS JUST
TO RIGHT OF Ebb= ECC <Po/At X, P 2-4 ) r /6.
lists a sample calculation for determining the IP MAX. =.410 A.
.
EP MIN. _ +100
proper operating conditions for obtaining ap- IG MAX. _ .100 A. EG MAX. _ + 60
proximately 185 watts output from a pair of
PEAK Po .410 (1000 -100) .410 900 369 W.
the tubes with 1000 volts d -c plate potential.
= X _ X =
Also shown in figure 25 is the method of de-

RL = 4 X A ° 6800 0.
termining the proper ratio for the modulation NP =78.5 (I -1l ) =76.5(.9) =70.5%
transformer to couple between the 811's or WO (AVERAGE WITH SINE WAVE) =
POIPEAKI-154.5W
811A's and the anticipated final amplifier WIN - zeo w.
which is to operate at 2000 plate volts and
=
'lUa
lb (MAXIMUM WITH SINE WAVE) = 260 MA
175 ma. plate current. WG PEAK = .100 X e0 = 6 W.
DRIVING POWER =
Wi PK - W.
TRANSFORMER:
Modulation Transformer The method illustrated _ - 1.29
Calculation in figure 25 can be used '61eóó
TURNS RATIO 1.29 1.14 STEP UP
in general for the deter- =
P
= =
mination of the proper transformer ratio to

couple between the modulator tube and the Figure 25
amplifier to be modulated. The procedure can Typical calculation of operating conditions for
be stated as follows: (1) Determine the proper a Class B e -f power amplifier using a pair of
plate -to -plate load impedance for the modulator type 811 or 811A tubes. Plate characteristics
tubes either by the use of the type of calcula- and load line shown in figure 24.
above by the plate -to -plate load impedance for called upon to deliver power to a varying load.
the modulator tubes determined in (1) above. For best operation of the Class B stage, the
The ratio determined in this way is the sec- grid excitation voltage should not drop as the
ondary- to-primary impedance ratio. (4) Take power taken by the grid circuit increases.
the square root of this ratio to determine the These opposing conditions call for a high or-
secondary -to-primary turns ratio. If the turns der of voltage regulation in the driver stage
ratio is greater than one the use of a step -up plate circuit. In order to enhance the voltage
transformer is required. If the turns ratio as regulation of this circuit, the driver tubes must
determined in this way is less than one a step - have low plate resistance, the driver trans-
down transformer is called for. former must have as large a step -down ratio
If the procedure shown in figure '25 has as possible, and the d -c resistance of both
been used to calculate the operating conditions primary and secondary windings of the driver
for the modulator tubes, the transformer ratio transformer should be low.
calculation can be checked in the following The driver transformer should reflect into
manner: Divide the plate voltage on the mod- the plate circuit of the driver tubes a load of
ulated amplifier by the total voltage swing on such value that the required driving power is
the modulator tubes: 2 (Ebb - em;.). This ratio just developed with full excitation applied to
should be quite close numerically to the trans- the driver grid circuit. If this is done, the
former turns ratio as previously determined. driver transformer will have as high a step -
The reason for this condition is that the ratio down ratio as is consistent with the maximum
between the total primary voltage and the d -c drive requirements of the Class B stage. If
plate supply voltage on the modulated stage the step-down ratio of the driver transformer is
is equal to the turns ratio of the transformer, too large, the driver plate load will be so
since a peak secondary voltage equal to the high that the power required to drive the Class
plate voltage on the modulated stage is re- B stage to full output cannot be developed.
quired to modulate this stage 100 per cent. If the step -down ratio is too small the regula-
tion of the driver stage will be impaired.
Use of Clipper Speech Whena clipper speech
Amplifier with Tetrads amplifier is used in Driver Stage The parameters for the driver
Modulator Tubes conjunction with a Class Calculations stage may be calculated from
B modulator stage, the the plate characteristic curve, a
plate current on that stage will kick to a sample of which is shown in figure 24. The
higher value with modulation(due to the greater required positive grid voltage (eg myx) for the
average power output and input) but the plate 811A tubes used in the sample calculation is
dissipation on the tubes will ordinarily be found at point X, the intersection of the load
less than with sine -wave modulation. However, line and the peak plate current as found on the
when tetrode tubes are used as modulators, y -axis. This is + 80 volts. If a vertical line
the screen dissipation will be much greater is dropped from point X to intersect the dotted
than with sine -wave modulation. Care must grid current curves, it will be found that the
be taken to insure that the screen dissipa- grid current for a single 811A at this value of
tion rating on the modulator tubes is not ex- grid voltage is 100 milliamperes (point Y).
ceeded under full modulation conditions with The peak grid driving power is therefore
a clipper speech amplifier. The screen dissipa- 80 x 0.100 = 8 watts. The approximate average
tion is equal to screen voltage times screen driving power is 4 watts. This is an approxi-
current. mate figure because the grid impedance is not
constant over the entire audio cycle.
Practical Aspects of Asstated previously, a A pair of 2A3 tubes will be used as drivers,
Class B Modulators Class B audio amplifier operating Class A, with the maximum excita-
requires the driving stage
to supply well -regulated audio power to the tion to the drivers occuring just below the
grid circuit of the Class B stage. Since the point of grid current flow in the 2A3 tubes.
performance of a Class B modulator may easily The driver plate voltage is 300 volts, and the
be impaired by an improperly designed driver
grid bias is -62 volts. The peak power devel-
stage, it is well to study the problems in- oped in the primary winding of the driver
transformer is:
curred in the design of the driver stage.
The grid circuit of a Class B modulator may µ Ea
be compared to a variable resistance which Peak Power (Pr) = 2RL
(watts) Rp + RL /Z
decreases in value as the exciting grid volt-
age is increased. This variable resistance ap- where µ is the amplification factor of the
pears across the secondary terminals of the driver tubes (4.2 for 2A3). Eg is the peak grid
driver transformer so that the driver stage is swing of the driver stage (62 volts). Rp is the
HANDBOOK Cathode Follower Amplifier 127
plate resistance of one driver tube (800 ohms). former may result if the plate load impedance
RL is % the plate -to -plate load of the driver of the modulator stage is too low.
stage, and Pp is 8 watts. When the modulator load impedance is too
Solving the above equation for RL, we high, the maximum power capability of the
obtain a value of 14,500 ohms load, plate -to- stage is reduced. An attempt to increase the
plate for the 2A3 driver tubes. output by increasing grid excitation to the
The peak primary voltage is: stage will result in peak -clipping of the audio
wave. In addition, high peak voltages may be
E
epti = 2RL x 493 volts built up in the plate circuit that may damage
Rµ
p +R L
= the modulation transformer.
and the turns ratio of the driver transformer

(primary to h secondary) is: 6 -14 Cathode -Follower
Power Amplifiers
epe; 493
= 6.15:1
e6( max) 80 The cathodefollower is essentially a power
output stage in which the exciting signal is
Plate Circuit One of the commonest causes of applied between grid and ground. The plate is
Impedance distortion in a Class B modu- maintained at ground potential with respect to
Matchinp lator is incorrect load impedance input and output signals, and the output signal
in the plate circuit. The purpose
of the Class B modulation transformer is to
is taken between cathode and ground.
take the power developed by the modulator
Types of Cathode- Figure 26 illustrates four
(which has a certain operating impedance) and Follower Amplifiers types of cathode - follower
transform it to the operating impedance im-
power amplifiers in com-
posed by the modulated amplifier stage. mon usage and figure 27 shows the output
If the transformer in question has the same impedance (Ro), and stage gain (A) of both
number of turns on the primary winding as it triode and pentode (or tetrode) cathodefollower
has on the secondary winding, the turns ratio stages. It will be seen by inspection of the
is 1:1, and the impedance ratio is also 1:1. If equations that the stage voltage gain is always
a 10, 000 ohm resistor is placed across the less than one, that the output impedance of
secondary terminals of the transformer, a re- the stage is much less than the same stage
flected load of 10, 000 ohms would appear operated as a conventional cathode -return
across the primary terminals. If the resistor amplifier. The output impedance for con-
is changed to one of 2376 ohms, the reflected ventional tubes will be somewhere between
primary impedance would also be 2376 ohms. 100 and 1000 ohms, depending primarily on
If the transformer has twice as many turns the transconductance of the tube.
on the secondary as on the primary, the turns This reduction in gain and output imped-
ratio is 2:1. The impedance ratio is the square ance for the cathodefollower comes about
of the turns ratio, or 4:1. If a 10,000 ohm since the stage operates as though it has 100
resistor is now placed across the secondary per cent degenerative feedback applied between
winding, a reflected load of 2,500 ohms will its output and input circuit. Even though the
ippear across the primary winding. voltage gain of the stage is reduced to a value
less than one by the action of the degenerative
Effects of Plate It can be seen from the
feedback, the power gain of the stage (if it is
Circuit Mis -match above paragraphs that the operating Class A) is not reduced. Although
Class B modulator plate more voltage is required to excite a cathode -
load is entirely dependent upon the load follower amplifier than appears across the load
placed upon the secondary terminals of the circuit, since the cathode "follows" along
Class B modulation transformer. If the second- with the grid, the relative grid -to- cathode volt-
ary load is incorrect, certain changes will age is essentially the same as in a con-
take place in the operation of the Class B ventional amplifier.
modulator stage.
When the modulator load impedance is too Use of Cathode- Although the cathode -fol-
low, the efficiency of the Class B stage Follower Amplifiers lower gives no voltage
is reduced and the plate dissipation of the gain, it is an effective
tubes is increased. Peak plate current of power amplifier where it is desired to feed a
the modulator stage is increased, and satura- low- impedance load, or where it is desired to
tion of the modulation transformer core may feed a load of varying impedance with a signal
result. "Talk- back" of the modulation trans- having good regulation. This latter capability
TRIODE:
Lcr L J.1 RL
11+1 RL(11+1) +Ro
RD(CAT NODE) = + RL (Am +Rez) RC

RK, +RKa+ RL'
PENTODE:
Ro(cArHOOE)= Rep RL
G1M 1+RL GL
A . G,A Rep
Figure 27
Equivalent factors for pentode (or tetrode)
cathodefollower power amplifiers.
plifier tube, the components Rk and Ck need

not be used. Figure 26B shows an arrangement
which may be used to feed directly a value of
load impedance which is equal to or higher
than the cathode impedance of the amplifier
tube. The value of Cc must be quite high,
somewhat higher than would be used in a con-
ventional circuit, if the frequency response of
the circuit when operating into a low- imped-
ance load is to be preserved.
Figures 26C and 26D show cathode -follower
circuits for use with tetrode or pentode tubes.
Figure 26C is a circuit similar to that shown
in 26A and essentially the same comments
apply in regard to the components Rk and Ck
and the primary resistance of the transformer
T2. Notice also that the screen of the tube is
maintained at the same signal potential as the
cathode by means of coupling capacitor Cd.
This capacitance should be large enough so
that at the lowest frequency it is desired to
pass through the stage its reactance will be
low with respect to the dynamic screen -to-
cathode resistance in parallel with Rd T2 in
this stage as well as in the circuit of figure
Figure 26 26A should have the proper turns (or imped-
CATHODE -FOLLOWER OUTPUT ance) ratio to give the desired step -down or
CIRCUITS FOR AUDIO OR step -up from the cathode circuit to the load.
VIDEO AMPLIFIERS Figure 26D is an arrangement frequently used
in video systems for feeding a coaxial cable of
relatively low impedance from a vacuum -tube
amplifier. A pentode or tetrode tube with a
makes the cathode follower particularly effec- cathode impedence as a cathode follower
tive as a driver for the grids of a Class B (1 /Gm) approximately the same as the cable
modulator stage. impedance should be chosen. The 6AG7 and
The circuit of figure 26A is the type of am- 6ÁC7 have cathode impedances of the same
plifier, either single -ended or push -pull, which order as the surge impedances of certain types
may be used as a driver for a Class B modu- of low- capacitance coaxial cable. An arrange-
lator or which may be used for other applica- ment such as 261) is also usable for feeding
tions such as feeding a loudspeaker where un- coaxial cable with audio or r -f energy where
usually good damping of the speaker is de- it is desired to transmit the output signal
sired. If the d -c resistance of the primary of over moderate distances. The resistor Rk is
the transformer T2 is approximately the correct added to the circuit as shown if the cathode
value for the cathode bias resistor for the am- impedance of the tube used is lower than the
HANDBOOK Feedback Amplifiers 129
characteristic impedance of the cable. If the INPUT SIGNAL ES AMPLIFIER

output impedance of the stage is higher ;han GAIN =A
the cable impedance a resistance of appro-
priate value is sometimes placed in parallel
with the input end of the cable. The values FEEDBACK OR a PATH
of Cd and Rd should be chosen with the same

considerations in mind as mentioned in the VOLTAGE AMPLIFICATION WITH FEEOBACK - A
discussion of the circuit of figure 26C above. -AB
A = GAIN IN ABSENCE OF FEEDBACK
The Cathode -Follower The cathode follower B = FRACTION OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE FED BACK
in R -F Stages may conveniently be
used as a method of cou- 8 IS NEGATIVE FOR NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
pling r -f or i -f energy between two units sepa- FEEDBACK IN DECIBELS = 20 LOG (1 -A B )

rated a considerable distance. In such an ZO
MIO FRED. GAIN WITHOUT FEEDBACK
MID FRED. GAIN WITH FELDBACK
application a coaxial cable should be used to
carry the r -f or i -f energy. One such applica- DISTORTION W.TH FEEDBACK - DISTORTION WITHOUT FEEDBACK
tion would be for carrying the output of a v -f -o (, -A B)

to a transmitter located a considerable dis- RN
RD 1 -Aa (1+ N-)
tance from the operating position. Another WHERE
RL
application would be where it is desired to RO = OUTPUT IMPEDANCE OF AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK

feed a single - sideband demodulator, an FM
RN +OUTPUT IMPEDANCE OF AMPLIFIER WITHOUT FEEDBACK
adaptor, or another accessory with inter-
RL= LOAD IMPEDANCE INTO WHICH AMPLIFIER OPERATES
mediate frequency signal from a communica-
tions receiver. A tube such as a 6CB6 con-
nected in a manner such as is shown in figure Figure 28
26D would be adequate for the i -f amplifier FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER RELATIONSHIPS
coupler, while a 6L6 or a 6AG7 could be used
in the output stage of a v -f -o as a cathode
follower to feed the coaxial line which carries
the v -f -o signal from the control unit to the at the frequency where the feedback voltage
transmitter proper. is in phase with the input voltage of the am-
plifier. If the gain is equal to or more than
one at the frequency where the feedback volt-
6 -15 Feedback Amplifiers age is in phase with the input the amplifier
will oscillate. This fact imposes a limitation
It is possible to modify the characteristics upon the amount of feedback which may be
of an amplifier by feeding back a portion of employed in an amplifier which is to remain
the output to the input. All components, cir- stable. If the reader is desirous of designing
cuits and tubes included between the point amplifiers in which a large amount of feed-
where the feedback is taken off and the point back is to be employed he is referred to a
where the feedback energy is inserted are book on the subject by H. W. Bode.
said to be included within the feedback loop.
An amplifier containing a feedback loop is Types of Feedback may be either negative
said to be a feedback amplifier. One stage or Feedback or positive, and the feedback volt-
any number of stages may be included within age may be proportional either to
the feedback loop. However, the difficulty of output voltage or output current. The most
obtaining proper operation of a feedback am- commonly used type of feedback with a -f or
plifier increases with the bandwidth of the video amplifiers is negative feedback pro-
amplifier, and with the number of stages and portional to output voltage. Figure 28 gives
circuit elements included within the feedback the general operating conditions for feedback
loop. amplifiers. Note that the reduction in distor-
tion is proportional to the reduction in gain of
Gain and Phase -shift The gain and phase the amplifier, also that the reduction in the
in Feedback Amplifiers shift of any amplifier output impedance of the amplifier is somewhat
are functions of fre- greater than the reduction in the gain by an
quency. For any amplifier containing a feed- amount which is a function of the ratio of the
back loop to be completely stable the gain of
such an amplifier, as measured from the input H. W. Bode, "Network Analysis and Feedback Ampli-
back to the point where the feedback circuit fier Design," D. Van Nostrand Co., 250 Fourth Ave.,
connects to the input, must be less than one New York 3, N. Y.
Figure 29 illustrates a very simple and ef-

V, fective application of negative voltage feed-
back to an output pentode or tetrode amplifier
stage. The reduction in hum and distortion
may amount to 15 to 20 db. The reduction in
the effective plate impedance of the stage will
be by a factor of 20 to 100 dependent upon the
operating conditions. The circuit is commonly
used in commercial equipment with tubes such
as the 6SJ7 for V1 and the 6V6 or 6L6 for V2.
DB I[[DBACK . B0 I
Ri + RA (Guvs RD)
R=
2oLeo
(l
R2+RA(vOLTAGE GM. OFVjaI
R= 11
6-16 Vacuum -Tube Voltmeters
GAIN OF Pots STAGES I GNV, ( ; I (Guvz Ro) The vacuum -tube voltmeter may be considered
111
RB+RA
a A J
.NERE.
R, %RD
to be a vacuum -tube detector in which the
T- rectified d -c current is used as an indication
R2
. GNVa RD
of the magnitude of the applied alternating
Ro RCFLCCTED LOAD i4REDANCC ON VZ
voltage. The vacuum tube voltmeter (v.t.v.m.)
R2 FEEDBACK RESISTOR (USUALLY ABOUT SUDo)
consumes little or no power and it may be
calibrated at 60 cycles and used at audio or
R2
OUTPUT INREOANCE too + Ra(Gwv=
Ro
RN
) 1 X (,
radio frequencies with little change in the
l o calibration.
RN .LATE IrrcDANCE Of Vi
Basic D -C Vacuum- A si mple v.t.v.m. is

Figure 29 Tuba Voltmeter shown in figure 30.
SHUNT FEEDBACK CIRCUIT The plate load may be
FOR PENTODES OR TETRODES a mechanical device, such as a relay or a
This circuit requires only the addition of meter, or the output voltage may be developed
one resistor, R2r to the normal circuit for across a resistor and used for various con-
such an application. The plate impedance trol purposes. The tube is biased by Ec and
and distortion Introduced by the output a fixed value of plate current flows, causing
stage are materially reduced. a fixed voltage drop across the plate load
resistor, Rp. When a positive d -c voltage is
applied to the input terminals it cancels part
of the negative grid bias, making the grid
output impedance of the amplifier without more positive with respect to the cathode.
feedback to the load impedance. The reduction
in noise and hum in those stages included
This grid voltage change permits a greater
within the feedback loop is proportional to the amount of plate current to flow, and develops
reduction in gain. However, due to the reduc- a greater voltage drop across the plate load
tion in gain of the output section of the ampli- resistor. A negative input voltage would de-
fier somewhat increased gain is required of crease the plate current and decrease the
the stages preceding the stages included with- voltage drop across Rp. The varying voltage
in the feedback loop. Therefore the noise and drop across Rp may be employed as a control
hum output of the entire amplifier may or may voltage for relays or other devices. When it is
not be reduced dependent upon the relative desired to measure various voltages, a voltage
contributions of the first part and the latter
part of the amplifier to hum and noise. If most
of the noise and hum is coming from the stages
included within the feedback loop the un-
desired signals will be reduced in the output
from the complete amplifier. It is most fre-
quently true in conventional amplifiers that
the hum and distortion come from the latter
stages, hence these will be reduced by feed-
back, but thermal agitation and microphonic
noise come from the first stage and will not
Figure 30
be reduced but may be increased by feedback
unless the feedback loop includes the first SIMPLE VACUUM TUBE
stage of the amplifier. VOLTMETER
HANDBOOK Vacuum Tube Voltmeters 131
ZERO -ADJUST
Figure 31
D -C VACUUM TUBE VOLTMETER
Figure 32
BRIDGE -TYPE VACUUM TUBE
VOLTMETER
range switch (figure 31) may precede the v.t.
v.m. The voltage to be measured is applied to
voltage divider, RE, R2, R3, by means of the
microammeter is placed in the cathode circuit
"voltage range" switch. Resistor R4 is used
of a 12AU7 twin triode. The zero adjust control
to protect the meter from excessive input
voltage to the v.t.v.m. In the plate circuit of
sets up a balance between the tw o sections of
the tube an additional battery and a variable the triode such that with zero input voltage
resistor ( "zero adjustment ") are used to applied to the first grid, the voltage drop across
balance out the meter reading of the normal each portion of the zero adjust control is the
plate current of the tube. The zero adjustment same. Under this condition of balance the
potentiometer can be so adjusted that the meter will read zero. When a voltage is applied
meter M reads zero current with no input volt- to the first grid, the balance in the cathode
age to the v.t.v.m. When a d -c input voltage circuits is upset and the meter indicates the
is applied to the circuit, current flows through degree of unbalance. The relationship between
the applied voltage on the first grid and the
the meter, and the meter reading is proportion-
meter current is linear and therefore the meter
al to the applied d -c voltage.
can be calibrated with a linear scale. Since
the tube is limited in the amount of current
The Bridge -type Another important use it can draw, the meter movement is elec-
V.T.V.M. of a d -c amplifier is to tronically protected.
show the exact point of The maximum test voltage applied to the
balance between two d -c voltages. This is 12AU7 tube is about 3 volts. Higher applied
done by means of a bridge circuit with two voltages are reduced by a voltage divider
d -c amplifiers serving as two legs of the which has a total resistance of about 10
bridge (figure 32). With no input signal, and megohms. An additional resistance of 1- megohm
with matched triodes, no current will be read is located in the d -c test prod, thereby per-
on meter M, since the IR drops across R1 and mitting measurements to be made in high im-
R2 are identical. When a signal is applied to pedance circuits with minimum disturbance.
one tube, the IR drops in the plate circuits The rectifier portion of the v.t.v.m. is shown
become unbalanced, and meter M indicates in figure 34. When a -c measurements are de-
the unbalance. In the same way, two d -c volt- sired, a 6AL5 double diode is used as a full
ages may be compared if they are applied to wave rectifier to provide a d -c voltage pro-
the two input circuits. When the voltages are portionalto the applied a -c voltage. This d -c
equal, the bridge is balanced and no current voltage is applied through the voltage divider
flows through the meter. If one voltage changes, string to the 12AU7 tube causing the meter to
the bridge becomes unbalanced and indication indicate in the manner previously described.
of this will be noted by a reading of the meter. The a -c voltage scales of the meter are cali-
brated in both RMS and peak -to -peak values.
A Modern VTVM For the purpose of analysis, In the 1.5, 5, 15, 50, and 150 volt positions
the operation of a modern of the range switch, the full a -c voltage being
v.t.v.m. will be described. The Heatbkit V -7A measured is applied to the input of the 6AL5
is a fit instrument for such a description, since full wave rectifier. On the 500 and 1500 volt
it is able to measure positive or negative d -c positions of the range switch, a divider net-
potentials, a -c r -m-s values, peak -to-peak work reduces the applied voltage in order to
values, and resistance. The circuit of this limit the voltage input to the 6AL5 to a safe
unit is shown in figure 33. A sensitive 200 d -c recommended level.
132 THE RADIO
HEATHKIT PEAK-TO PEAK VTVM

MODEL V 7A
Figure 33
HANDBOOK Vacuum Tube Voltmeters 133
.02 6P_5 SHIELDED PROSE CASE

A -C INPUT o--I TO VTVM
150v RMS DC INPUT
MAX. JACK TO PROSE TIP
VTVM
Figure 34
Figure 35
FULL -WAVE RECTIFIER
FOR V.T.V.M. R -F PROBE SUITABLE
FOR USE IN IKC -l00 MC
RANGE
The a -c calibrate control (figure 33) is used
to obtain the proper meter deflection for the triode. The meter scale is calibrated in re-
applied a-c voltage. Vacuum tubes develop a sistance (ohms) for this function.
contact potential between tube elements. Such
contact potential developed in the diode would Test Probes Auxiliary test probes may
cause a slight voltage to be present at all be used with the v.t.v.m.
times. This voltage is cancelled out by proper to extend the operating range, or to measure
application of a bucking voltage. The amount radio frequencies with high accuracy. Shown
of bucking voltage is controlled by the a -c in figure 35 is a radio frequency probe which
balance control. This eliminates zero shift provides linear response to over 100 mega-
of the meter when switching from a -c to d-c cycles. A crystal diode is used as a rectifier,
readings. and d-c isolation is provided by a .005 uufd
For resistance measurements, a 1.5 volt capacitor. The components of the detector are
battery is connected through a string of multi- mounted within a shield at the end of a length
pliers and the external resistance to be meas- of coaxial line, which terminates in the d -c
ured, thus forming a voltage divider across input jack of the v.t.v.m. The readings ob-
the battery, and a resultant portion of the tained are RMS, and should be multiplied by
battery voltage is applied to the 12AU7 twin 1.414 to convert to peak readings.
CHAPTER SEVEN
High Fidelity Techniques
The art and science of the reproduction of As shown in figure 1, the sound wave of
sound has steadily advanced, following the the fork has frequency, period, and pitch. The
major audio developments of the last decade. frequency is a measure of the number of vi-
Public acceptance of home music reproduction brations per second of the sound. A fork tuned
on a "high fidelity" basis probably dates from to produce 261 vibrations per second is tuned
the summer of 1948 when the Columbia L -P to the musical note of middle -C. It is of in-
microgroove recording techniques were intro- terest to note that any object vibrating, moving,
duced. or alternating 261 times per second will pro-
The term high fidelity refers to the reproduce a sound having the pitch of middle -C.
duction of sound in which the different dis- The pitch of a sound is that property which is
tortions of the electronic system are held below determined by the frequency of vibration of
limits which are audible to the majority of the source, and not by the source itself. Thus
listeners. The actual determination, therefore, an electric dynamo producing 261 c.p.s. will
of the degree of fidelity of a music system is have a hum -pitch of middle -C, as will a siren,
largely psychological as it is dependent upon a gasoline engine, or other object having the
the ear and temperament of the listener. By and same period of oscillation.
large, a rough area of agreement exists as to
what boundaries establish a "hi -fi" system. To
enumerate these boundaries it is first necessary
to examine sound itself.
ud
7 -1 The Nature of Sound
I
Ì'Ì,I
Experiments with a simple tuning fork in TUNING FORK
the seventeenth century led to the discovery
that sound consists of a series of condensations
and rarefactions of the air brought about by
movement of air molecules. The vibrations of Figure 1
the prongs of the fork are communicated to VIBRATION OF TUNING FORK PRO-
the surrounding air, which in turn transmits DUCES A SERIES OF CONDENSATIONS
the agitation to the ear drums, with the result AND RAREFACTIONS OF AIR MOLE-
that we hear a sound. The vibrating fork pro- CULES. THE DISPLACEMENT OF AIR
MOLECULES CHANGES CONTINUALLY
duces a sound of extreme regularity, and this WITH RESPECT TO TIME, CREATING
regularity is the essence of music, as opposed to A SINE WAVE OF MOTION OF THE
noise which has no such regularity. DENSITY VARIATIONS.
134
Nature of Sound 135
FREQUENCY (CYCLES PER SECOND)
NOTE C D E F G A B C'
EQUAL - -gT/ME
TEMPERED 261.6 293.7 329.6 349.2 392.0 440.0 493.9 523.2
SCALE
Figure 2
THE EQUAL- TEMPERED SCALE CON- Figure 3
TAINS TWELVE INTERVALS, EACH OF THE COMPLEX SOUND OF A MUSICAL
WHICH IS 1.06 TIMES THE FREQUEN- INSTRUMENT IS A COMBINATION OF
CY OF THE NEXT LOWEST. THE HALF- SIMPLE SINE -WAVE SOUNDS, CALLED
TONE INTERVALS INCLUDE THE HARMONICS. THE SOUND OF LOWEST
ABOVE NOTES PLUS FIVE ADDITION- FREQUENCY IS TERMED THE FUNDA-
AL NOTES: 277.2, 311.1, 370, 415.3, MENTAL. THE COMPLEX VIBRATION
466.2 REPRESENTED BY THE BLACK OF A CLARINET REED PRODUCES A
KEYS OF THE PIANO. SOUND SUCH AS SHOWN ABOVE.
The Musical
Scale
The musical scale is composed
of notes or sounds of various
no matter how complex - can be analyzed
into pure tones, and can be reproduced by a
frequencies that bear a pleasing group of sources of pure tones. The number
aural relationship to one another. Certain com- and degree of the various harmonics of a tone
binations of notes are harmonious to the ear and their phase relationship determine the
if their frequencies can be expressed by the quality of the tone.
simple ratios of 1:2, 2:3, 3:4, and 4:5. Notes For reproduction of the highest quality, these
differing by a ratio of 1:2 are said to be sep- overtones must be faithfully reproduced. A mu-
arated by an octave. sical note of 523 cycles may be rich in twen-
The frequency interval represented by an tieth order overtones. To reproduce the origi-
octave is divided into smaller intervals, form- nal quality of the note, the audio system must
ing the musical scales. Many types of scales be capable of passing overtone frequencies of
have been proposed and used, but the scale of the order of 11,000 cycles. Notes of higher
the piano has dominated western music for the fundamental frequency demand that the audio
last hundred or so years. Adapted by J. S. system be capable of good reproduction up to
Bach, the equal- tempered scale (figure 2) has the maximum response limit of the human
twelve notes, each differing from the next by ear, in the region of 15,000 cycles.
the ratio 1:1.06. The reference frequency, or
Reproduction Many factors enter into the
American Standard Pitch is A, or 440.0 cycles.
Limitations problem of high quality audio
Harmonics and The complex sounds pro - reproduction. Most important
Overtones duced by a violin or a wind of these factors influence the overall design of
instrument bear little resem- the music system. These are:
blance to the simple sound wave of the tuning 1- Restricted frequency range.
fork. A note of a clarinet, for example (when 2- Nonlinear distortions.
viewed on an oscilloscope) resembles figure 3. 3- Transient distortion.
Vocal sounds are even more complex than this. 4- Nonlinear frequency response.
In 1805 Joseph Fourier advanced his monu- 5 -Phase distortion.
mental theorem that made possible a mathe- 6- Noise, "wow ", and "flutter ".
matical analysis of all musical sounds by show- A restricted frequency range of reproduction
ing that even the most complex sounds are will tend to make the music sound "tinny"
made up of fundamental vibrations plus har- and unrealistic. The fundamental frequency
monics, or overtones. The tonal qualities of range covered by the various musical instru-
any musical note may be expressed in terms of ments and the human voice lies between 15
the amplitude and phase relationship between cycles and 9,000 cycles. Overtones of the in-
the overtones of the note. struments and the voice extend the upper
To produce overtones, the sound source must audible limit of the music range to 15,000
be vibrating in a complex manner, such as is cycles or so. In order to fully reproduce the
shown in figure 3. The resulting vibration is musical tones falling within this range of fre-
a combination of simple vibrations, producing quencies the music system must be capable of
a rich tone having fundamental, the octave
tone, and the higher overtones. Any sound - flawlessly reproducing all frequencies within
the range without discrimination.
136 High Fidelity Techniques THE RADIO
wave envelope therefore is different from the
BASIC LIMITS FOR HIGH FIDELITY AND
"000D QUALITY. REPRODUCTION envelope of the input wave. In general, phase
LIMIT distortion is difficult to hear in sounds having
TYPE OF
DISTORTION HIGH FIDELITY GOOD REPRODUCTION
complex waveforms and may be considered to
be sufficiently low in value if the IM figure of
RESTRICTED
FREQUENCY 20- 15000 CPS 50-10000 CPS
the amplifier is acceptable.
RANGE Noise and distortions introduced into the
IN TE R MODULAT ION program material by the music system must
DISTORTION AT 2 % 10% be kept to a minimum as they are particularly
FULL OUTPUT
noticeable. Record scratch, turntable "rumble",
HARMONIC and "flutter" can mar an otherwise high qual-
DISTORTION AT 2 % 5 %
FULL OUTPUT ity system. Inexpensive phonograph motors do
not run at constant speed, and the slight varia-
WOW 0.1% 1%
tions in speed impart a variation in pitch
HUM AND NOISE -70 DO BELOW -50 DO BELOW (wow) to the music which can easily be heard.
FULL OUTPUT FULL OUTPUT
Vibration of the motor may be detected by the
Figure 4 pickup arm, superimposing a low frequency
rumble on the music.
The various distortions that appear in a
Nonlinear qualities such as harmonic and
music system are summarized in figure 4, to-
intermodulation (IM) distortion are extremely
objectionable and are created when the output
gether with suggested limits within which the
system may truly be termed "high fidelity."
of the music system is not exactly proportional
to the input signal. Nonlinearity of any part 7 -2 The Phonograph
of the system produces spurious harmonic fre- The modern phonograph record is a thin
quencies, which in turn lead to unwanted beats disc made of vinylite or shellac material. Disc
and resonances. The combination of harmonic rotation speeds of 78.3, 33 1/3, and 45 r.p.m.
frequencies and intermodulation products pro- are in use, with the older 78.3 r.p.m. speed
duce discordant tones which are disagreeable gradually being replaced by the lower speeds.
to the ears. A speed of 16 2/3 r.p.m. is used for special
The degree of intermodulation may be meas- "talking book" recordings. A continuous groove
ured by applying two tones ft and f: of known is cut in the record by the stylus of the record-
amplitude to the input of the amplifier under ing machine, spiralling inward towards the
test. The relative amplitude of the difference center of the record. Amplitude variations in
tone (f7-f1) is considered a measure of the this groove proportional to the sound being
intermodulation distortion. Values of the order recorded constitute the means of placing the
of 4% IM or less define a high fidelity music intelligence upon the surface of the record.
amplifier. The old 78.3 r.p.m. recordings were cut ap-
Response of the music system to rapid tran- proximately 100 grooves per inch, while the
sient changes is extremely important. Tran- newer "microgroove" recordings are cut ap-
sient peaks cause overloading and shock- excita- proximately 250 grooves per inch. Care must
tion of resonant circuits, leaving a "hangover" be taken to see that the amplitude excursions
effect that masks the clarity of the sound. A of one groove do not fall into the adjoining
system having poor transient response will not groove. The groove excursions may be con-
sound natural to the ear, even though the dis- trolled by the system of recording, and by
tortion factors are acceptably low. equalization of the recording equipment.
Linear frequency response and good power
handling capability over the complete audio Recording The early commercial phono-
range go hand in hand. The response should Techniques graph records were cut with a
be smooth, with no humps or dips in the curve mechanical- acoustic system that
over the entire frequency range. This require- produced a constant velocity characteristic with
ment is particularly important in the electro- the amplitude of cut increasing as the recorded
mechanical components of the music system, frequency decreased ( figure 5A) . When the
such as the phonograph pickup and the loud- recording technique became advanced enough
speaker. to reproduce low audio frequencies, it was
Phase distortion is the change of phase an- necessary to reduce the amplitude of the lower
gle between the fundamental and harmonic frequencies to prevent overcutting the record.
frequencies of a complex tone. The output A crossover point near 500 cycles was chosen,
HANDBOOK High Fidelity Amplifier 137
CONSTANT AMPLITUDE-, CROSSOVER

FREQUENCY
CONSTANT
VELOCITY
SURFACE NOISE %
;2'1" 4
1000 2000 5000
50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 50 100 200 SOO
FREQUENCY (ces) FREQUENCY (ces)
CONSTANT VELOCITY RECORDING CONSTANT AMPLITUDE BELOW CROSSOVER

FREQUENCY, CONSTANT VELOCITY ABOVE
CROSSOVER FREQUENCY
CROSSOVER
FREQUENCY
1 `
SURFACE NO/SL
RFACE NO/SE
500 1000 2000 5000 SO 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
50 100 200
FREQUENCY (LP - ) FREQUENCY (cps)
CONSTANT AMPLITUDE BELOW CROSSOVER RESPONSE OF RECORD OF 5C PLAYED ON

FREQUENCY, NIGH FREQUENCY PRE -EMPHASIS PROPERLY COMPENSATED EQUIPMENT
ABOVE CROSSOVER FREQUENCY
IIIII.
4
IS .E9IIIII11111111111111II.
INIllSlNI11111
ó'i5.IIIIIII`11111IIIAA"
\
11111D
EQUALIZER
.1111111.1:...
Figure 5
IIIIIIIIIIIIII\5111111. MODERN PHONOGRAPH RECORD EM-
o IIIIIII.11III 1Ii111. PLOYS CONSTANT AMPLITUDE CUT
' ' 111111.IIIIII 1111ii

BELOW CROSSOVER POINT AND HIGH
FREQUENCY PRE -EMPHASIS (BOOST)
W ':11111 o III mum RIAA" PLAYBACK CURVE
111111.\
ABOVE CROSSOVER FREQUENCY.
25C111111
,
10 20
NIIII111111
40 70100 300 SOO 1000
1111111.
3000 0000 30000
FREQUENCY, CPS
The Phonograph The most popular types
Pickup of pickup cartridges in
and a constant amplitude groove was cut below use today are the high
this frequency ( figure 5B). This system does impedance crystal unit, and the low im-
not reproduce the higher audio notes, since the pedance variable reluctance cartridge. The
recording level rapidly drops into the surface crystal pickup consists of a Rochelle salt
noise level of the record as the cutting fre- element which is warped by the action of
quency is raised. The modern record employs the phonograph needle, producing an elec-
pre-emphasis of the higher frequencies to boost trical impulse whose frequency and ampli-
them out of the noise level of the record tude are proportional to the modulation of
(figure 5C) . When such a record is played the record groove. One of the new "transducer"
back on properly compensated equipment, the crystal cartridges is shown in figure 6. When
audio level will remain well above the back- working into a high impedance load, the out-
ground noise level, as shown in figure 5D. put of a high quality crystal pickup is of the
Figure 8
Figure 6 "RELUCTANCE" CARTRIDGE IS
NEW CRYSTAL "TRANSDUCER" STANDARD PICK -UP FOR
CARTRIDGE PROVIDES HIGH - MUSIC SYSTEM.
FIDELITY OUTPUT AT RELATIVELY Low stylus pressure of tour grams insures
HIGH LEVEL minimum record wear. Dual stylus is used
having two needle tip diameters for long
playing and 78 R.P.M. recordings.
order of one -half volt or so. Inexpensive crystal
units used in 78 r.p.m. record changers and therefore, are designed to have interchangeable
ac -dc phonographs may have as much as two cartridges or needles to accomodate the dif-
or three volts peak output. The frequency re- ferent groove widths.
sponse of a typical high quality crystal pickup
is shown in figure 7. 7 -3 The High Fidelity Amplifier
The variable reluctance pickup is shown in
figure 8. The reluctance of the air gap in a A block diagram of a typical high fidelity
magnetic circuit is changed by the movement system is shown in figure 10. A preamplifier
of the phonograph needle, creating a variable is used to boost the output level of the phono-
voltage in a small coil coupled to the magnetic graph pickup, and to permit adjustment of in-
lines of force of the circuit. The output im- put selection, volume, record compensation,
pedance of the reluctance cartridge is of the and tone control. The preamplifier may be
order of a few hundred ohms, and the output mounted directly at the phonograph turntable
is approximately 10 millivolts. position, permitting the larger power amplifier
For optimum performance, an equalized pre- to be placed in an out of the way position.
amplifier stage is usually employed with the The power amplifier is designed to operate
reluctance pickup. The circuit of a suitable unit from an input signal of a volt or so derived
is shown in figure 9. Equalization is provided from the preamplifier, and to build this signal
by R5, R., and G, with a low frequency cross- to the desired power level with a minimum
over at about 500 cycles. Total equalization is amount of distortion. Maximum power output
15 db. High frequency response may be limited
by reducing the value of R. to 5,000
ohms.
15,000 - levels of ten to twenty watts are common for
home music systems.
The power supply provides the smoothed,
The standard pickup stylus for 78 r.p.m. d -c voltages necessary for operation of the pre-
records has a tip radius of .0025 inch, whereas amplifier and power amplifier, and also the
the microgroove (33 1/3 and 45 r.p.m.) stylus
has a tip radius of .001 inch. Many pickups,
6SC7
SNORT
LEADS TO OUTPUT
e RELUCTANCE
CARTRIDGE
Rio Ce
.0
0+10 eeK
w +5
R2 R3 RT
fL o 33M _ eeK 33K
o -5 CACS¡
a TC3
-10 .01 sT+s
C Re - Rs
20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 66 Pt 33K
FREQUENCY (ces)
Figure 7 64.100 v
FREQUENCY HIGH -
RESPONSE OF
QUALITY CRYSTAL PHONOGRAPH Figure 9
CARTRIDGE. (ELECTROVOICE 56 -DS PREAMPLIFIER SUITABLE FOR USE WITH
POWER POINT TRANSDUCER) LOW LEVEL RELUCTANCE CARTRIDGE.
!'\
20
TREBLE BOOST
'PHONOGRAPH ^TWEETER^
II 1
POWER
PREAMPLIFIER-+ AMPLIFIER
h._,.
n. sAI....
LOUD
SPEAKER
12VER L_ ___J MI N.
SPEAKER MIN.
POWER I TRElL[
SUPPLY ENCLOSURE
10 20 SO 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000

Sv FREQUENCY (CPS)
Figure 10
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HIGH FIDELITY Figure 12
MUSIC SYSTEM. FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVES FOR
THE BASS AND TREBLE BOOST
AND ATTENUATION CIRCUITS
BASS BOOST TREBLE BOOST OF FIGURE 11.
AND ATTENUATION AND ATTENUATION
INPUT
R+ hold its own in the race for true fidelity.
BOOST iCI eoosr Speaker efficiency runs from about 10% for
R2 OUTPUT OUTPUT cone units to nearly 40% for high frequency
ArrENUArr ATTENUATE
C2 tweeters. The frequency response of any speak-
R3 er is a function of the design and construction
of the speaker enclosure or cabinet that mounts
the reproducer.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Tone Equalizer networks are em-
sóosr ATTENUATE
Cornpensoton ployed in high fidelity equip-
ment to 1)- tailor the re-
IN.> 1
OUT. sponse curve of the system to obtain the correct

overall frequency response, 2) compensate-to
O for inherent faults in the program material,
3)-or merely to satisfy the hearing preference
of the listener. The usual compensation net-
works are combinations of RC and RL net-
Figure 11 works that provide a gradual attenuation over
SIMPLE R -C CIRCUITS MAY BE a given frequency range. The basic RC net-
USED FOR BASS AND TREBLE works suitable for equlizer service are shown
BOOST OR ATTENUATION. in figure 11. Shunt capacitance is employed
for high frequency attenuation, and series
filament voltages (usually a -c) for the heaters capacitance is used for low frequency atten-
of the various amplifier tubes. uation. A combination of these simple a -c
The loudspeaker is a device which couples voltage dividers may be used to provide almost
the electrical energy of the high fidelity sys- any response, as shown in figure 12. It is
tem to the human ear and usually limits the common practice to place equalizers between
overall fidelity of the complete system. Great two vacuum tubes in the low level stages of
advances in speaker design have been made in the preamplifier, as shown in figure 13. Bass
the past years, permitting the loudspeaker to and treble boost and attenuation of the order
z 12AX7 .D +12AX7 .04

t IF. OUTPUT
INPUT
Figure 13
BASS AND TREBLE LEVEL
CONTROLS, AS
EMPLOYED IN THE
HEATHKIT WA -P2
PREAMPLIFIER.
B+ ION
BASS CONTROL TREBLE CONTROL
2N190 2N190 -12v 2 N 190
eN II(
VARIABLE OUTPUT
RELUCTANC
PICKUP
gai
Figure 14
TRANSISTORIZED HIGH -FIDELITY PREAMPLIFIER FOR USE WITH
RELUCTANCE PHONOGRAPH CARTRIDGE.
100 PAIN LEVEL

Loudness
Compensaron
The minimum threshold of
hearing and the maximum
o +B0 threshold of pain vary great-
J
W
+BO
ly with the frequency of the sound as shown
> +70
W in the Fletcher -Munson curves of figure 15.
J +B0
To maintain a reasonable constant tonal bal-
> +50
ance as the intensity of the sound is changed
/
7 +40
z
w +30
it is necessary to employ extra bass and treble
I- LOW/ER LIMIT OF boost as the program level is decreased. A
z +20 NEARING
0 +10 simple variable loudness control is shown in
z figure 16 which may be substituted for the
o ordinary volume control used in most audio
to
20 50 100 200 500 1
FREQUENCY (CPS)
0 2000 5000 10000
200 equipment.
Figure 15 The Power The power amplifier stage of
THE "FLETCHER -MUNSON" CURVE Amplifier the music system must supply
ILLUSTRATING THE INTENSITY driving power for the loud-
RESPONSE OF THE HUMAN EAR.
speaker. Commercially available loudspeakers
are low impedance devices which present a
of 15 db may be obtained from such a circuit.
A simple transistorized preamplifier using mo +10
this type of equalizing network is shown in W +5
V1
figure 14. z
o
a.
V7
W
S
cr 10
W
50
LU
O.
//)
N- RESONANT FREQUENCY OF
SPEAKER- BAFFLE COMBINATION
40
30
2
O
W 20
U
RI-R2-RS: THREE SECTION POTENTIOMETER, /RC z
TYPE, BUILT OF THE FOLLOWING.
R1 - /RC 8017 -733
R2 -/PC MUL7 /SECT /ON M73- 737
R3 - /RC MUL T /SECTION M73- 728 20 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000
20000
FREQUENCY (cPs)
Figure 16
VARIABLE LOUDNESS CONTROL FOR Figure 17
USE IN LOW IMPEDANCE PLATE IMPEDANCE AND FREQUENCY
CIRCUITS. MAY BE PURCHASED RESPONSE OF "4-OHM" 12 -INCH
AS IRC TYPE LC -1 LOUDNESS SPEAKER PROPERLY MOUNTED IN
CONTROL. MATCHING BAFFLE.
FEEDBACK RESISTOR
NJI
Figure 18
TYPICAL TRIODE
AMPLIFIER WITH
FEEDBACK LOOP.
* = MATCHED PAIR RESISTORS
varying load of two to nearly one hundred Shown in figure 18 is a basic push -pull
ohms to the output stage ( figure 17) . It is triode amplifier, using inverse feedback around
necessary to employ a high quality output the power output and driver stage. A simple
transformer to match the loudspeaker load to triode inverter is used to provide 180 - degree
the relatively high impedance plate circuit of phase reversal to drive the grid circuit of the
the power amplifier stage. In general, push- power amplifier stage. Maximum undistorted
pull amplifiers are employed for the output power output of this amplifier is about 8 watts.
stage since they have even harmonic cancelling A modification of the basic triode amplifier
properties and permit better low frequency is the popular Williamson circuit (figure 19)
response of the output transformer since there developed in England in 1947. This circuit
is no d -c core saturation effect present. rapidly became the "standard of comparison"
To further reduce the harmonic distortion in a few short years. Pentode power tubes are
and intermodulation inherent in the amplifier connected as triodes for the output stage, and
system a negative feedback loop is placed negative feedback is taken from the secondary
around one or more stages of the unit. Fre- of the output transformer to the cathode of
quency response is thereby improved, and the the input stage. Only the most linear portion
output impedance of the amplifier is sharply of the tube characteristic curve is used. Al-
reduced, providing a very low source im- though that portion has been extended by
pedance for the loudspeaker. higher than normal plate supply voltage, it
FEEDBACK RESISTOR
5K-15K 807
6SN7GT 6SN7GT 0.25
INPUT 05
0
ri OUrPUr
05
470
30K 22K
NV,
1.0 20 20 4 40010.
AT 140 MA.
Figure 19
U. S. VERSION OF BRITISH "WILLIAMSON" AMPLIFIER PROVIDES 10 WATTS POWER
OUTPUT AT LESS THAN 2% INTERMODULATION DISTORTION. 6SN7 STAGE USES
DIRECT COUPLING.
807/5881 TO FEEDBACK
CIRCUIT
0.25
FROM
8SN7GT
PHASE OUTPUT
INVERTER
0.25
807/5881
NOTE. P/N CONNECTIONS APE
FOR 807 TUBES
+ 400
Figure 20
"ULTRA- LINEAR" CONFIGURATION OF WILLIAMSON AMPLIFIER DOUBLES POWER OUT-
PUT, AND REDUCES IM LEVEL. SCREEN TAPS ON OUTPUT TRANSFORMER PERMIT
"SEMI -TETRODE" OPERATION.
is only a fraction of the curve normally used tortion may be obtained with this circuit
in amplifiers. Thus a comparatively low output (figure 20).
power level is obtained with tubes capable of
much more efficient operation under less 7 -4 Amplifier Construction
stringent requirements. With 400 volts ap-
Wiring Assembly and layout of high
plied to the output stage, a power output of 10
Techniques fidelity audio amplifiers fol-
watts may be obained wtih less than 2% inter -
modulation distortion. lows the general technique des-
A recent variation of the Williamson cir- cribed for other forms of electronic equipment.
cuit involves the use of a tapped output trans- Extra care, however, must be taken to insure
former. The screen grids of the push -pull am- that the hum level of the amplifier is extreme-
plifier stage are connected to the primary taps, ly low. A good hi -fi system has excellent re-
allowing operating efficiency to approach that sponse in the 60 cycle region, and even a
of the true pentode. Power output in excess minute quantity of induced a -c voltage will be
of 25 watts at less than 2% intermodulation dis- disagreeably audible in the loudspeaker. Spur-
ious eddy currents produced in the chassis by
the power transformer are usually responsible
for input stage hum.
To insure the lowest hum level, the power
transformer should be of the "upright" type
instead of the "half- shell" type which can
couple minute voltages from the windings to
a steel chassis. In addition, part of the windings
of the half -shell type project below the chassis
where they are exposed to the input wiring of
the amplifier. The core of the power trans-
former should be placed at right angles to the
core of a nearby audio transformer to reduce
spurious coupling between the two units to a
minimum.
It is common practice in amplifier design
to employ a ground bus return system for all
audio tubes. All grounds are returned to a
single heavy bus wire, which in turn is
Figure 21
grounded at one point to the metal chassis.
"BABY HI -FI" AMPLIFIER IS DWARFED This ground point is usually at the input jack
BY 12 -INCH SPEAKER ENCLOSURE of the amplifier. When this system is used,
This miniature music system is capable of ex- a -c chassis currents are not coupled into the
cellent performance in the small home or
apartment. Preamplifier, bass and treble con- amplifying stages. This type of construction is
trols, and volume control are all incorporated illustrated in the amplifiers described later in
In the unit. Amplifier provides 4 watts output
at 4% IM distortion. this chapter.
HANDBOOK Amplifier Construction 143
50 MMF
NOTE, R1=e.2M
FOR 812 SPEAMER
6AQ5 RI 10K
te Il
PNONO INPUT
(HIGH LEVEL)
.05
12AU7
220 OI
12AU7
OS
470
R
K
17 e IT2
ZP=101,
SPKR
39K
1 I
o-Oi
IK K 00 K li ISY. CA
M 3 IM
002
K
e
1.5 e
I50K
TOO K .05 470
Ear
*1.7
.9K 1
K
.002 D0 K w
6AQ5
10K = VOLUME
CONTROL
BASE TREBLE
CONTROL CONTROL +203 V.
12K
4
IW
#220 V
6X5 CHI NOTES
3K 2W 1. ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT
111 UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
2
CIA Cie 2
3 T1Ó 1C UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
4 3,4 1=3 3 1=. 3. RESISTORS MARRED R ARE
(I
9
(I
4 4
} MATCHED PAIRS
9
12AU7 12AU7 DAOS CAOS
Figure 22
SCHEMATIC, "BABY HI -FI" AMPLIFIER
T, -260 -0 -260 volts at 90 ma., 6.3 volts at 4.0 CH, -1.S henry at 200 ma. Chicago Standard C -2327.
amo., upright mounting. Chicago -Standard C,A-B- C-
30 -20 -10 µtd. 350 volt. Mallory Fp -330.7
PC -8420.
TI-10 K, CT. to 8, 16 ohms. Peerless (Altec) NOTE-Feedback loop returns to 8 ohm tap on Tr
S -5 10F. when 8 ohm speaker is used.
Care should be taken to reduce the capaci- one watt in a high efficiency speaker will pro-
tance zo the chassis of high impedance circuits, vide a comfortable listening level for a small
or the high frequency response of the unit will room, and levels in excess of two or three watts
suffer. Shielded "bath -tub" type capacitors are uncomfortably loud to the ear. The "Baby
should not be used for interstage coupling ca- Hi -Fi" amplifier has been designed for use
pacitors. Tubular paper capacitors are satis- in the small home, and will provide excellent
factory. These should be spaced well away from quality at a level high enough to rattle the
the chassis. windows.
It a poor idea to employ the chassis as a
i<_.
Designed around the new Electro -Voice min-
common filament return, especially for low iature ceramic cartridge, the amplifier will pro-
level audio stages. The filament center -tap of vide over 4 watts power, measured at the sec-
the power transformer should be grounded, ondary of the output transformer. At this level,
and twisted filament wires run to each tube the distortion figure is below 1 %, and the IM
socket. High impedance audio components and figure is 4%. At normal listening levels, the IM
wiring should be kept clear of the filament is much lower, as shown in figure 24.
lines, which may even be shielded in the vicin- The Amplifier The schematic of the ampli -
ity of the input stage. In some instances, the Circuit fier is shown in figure 22.
filament center tap may be taken from the arm Bass and treble boost con-
of a low resistance, wirewound potentiometer trols are incorporated in the circuit, as is the
placed across the filament pins of the input volume control. A dual purpose 12AU7 double
tube socket. The arm of this potentiometer is triode serves as a voltage amplifier with cath-
grounded, and the setting of the control is ad- ode degeneration. A simple voltage divider
justed for minimum speaker hum. network is used in the grid circuit to prevent
7 -5 The "Baby Hi Fire amplifier overloading when the ceramic cart-
ridge is used. The required input signal for
A definite need exists for a compact, high maximum output is of the order of 0.3 volts.
fidelity audio amplifier suitable for use in the The output level of the Electro -Voice cartridge
small -ome or apartment. Listening tests have
1 is approximately twice this, as shown in figure
shown that an average power level of less than 7. The use of the high -level cartridge elimin-
__,-. .___i_ _
/
....
Figure 23
UNDER -CHASSIS
VIEW OF
"BABY HI -FI"
Low level audio stages are at
upper left, with components
mounted between socket pins
and potentiometer controls.
6X5 socket is at lower cen-
ter of photo with filter
choke CH, at right. Feed-
back resistor R: is at left
of rectifier socket.
ates the necessity of high gain amplifiers re- output tubes. The feedback loop is run from
quired when low level magnetic pickup heads the secondary of the output transformer to the
are used. Problems of hum and distortion in- cathode of the input section of the phase in-
troduced by these extra stages are thereby verter.
eliminated, greatly simplifying the amplifier. The power supply of the "Baby Hi -Fi" con-
The second section of the 12AU7 is used for sists of a 6X5 -GT rectifier and a capacitor in-
bass and treble boost. Simple R -C networks put filter. A second R -C filter section is used
are placed in the grid circuit permitting gain to smooth the d -c voltage applied to the
boost of over 12 db at the extremities of the 12AU7 tubes. A cathode -type rectifier is used
response range of the amplifier. in preference to the usual filament type to pre-
A second 12AU7 is employed as a direct vent voltage surges during the warm -up period
coupled "hot-cathode" phase inverter, capaci- of the other cathode -type tubes.
tively coupled to two 6AQ5 pentode connected
Amplifier The complete amplifier is
Construction built upon a small "amplifier
foundation" chassis and cover
measuring 5"x7"x6" (Bud CA- 1754). Height
of the amplifier including dust cover is 6 ".
The power transformer (T1) and output trans-
former (T_) are placed in the rear corners of
the chassis, with the'6X5 -GT rectifier socket
placed between them. The small filter choke
(CHI) is mounted to the wall of the chassis
and may be seen in the under -chassis photo-
graph of figure 23. The four audio tubes are
placed in a row across the front of the chassis.
Viewed from the front, the 12AU7 tubes are
o 3 4 S s
to the left, and the 6AQ5 tubes are to the right.
EQUIVALENT SINE WAVE WATTS The three section filter capacitor (C1A, B, C)
is a chassis mounting unit, and is placed be-
Figure 24 tween the rectifier tube and the four audio
INTERMODULATION CURVE FOR
"BABY HI -FI" AS MEASURED ON tubes. Since the chassis is painted, it is im-
HEATHKIT INTERMODULATION portant that good grounding points be made at
ANALYZER. each tube socket. The paint is cleared away
HANDBOOK "Baby Hi -Fi" 145
Figure 25
TYPICAL
INTERMODULATION
TEST OF AUDIO
AMPLIFIER.
Audio tones of two fre-
quencies are applied to in-
put of amplifier under test,
and amplitude of "sum" or
"difference" frequency is
measured, providing relative
inter -modulation figure.
bereath the socket bolt heads, and lock nuts of the 10 µfd., 450 -volt filter capacitor. All
are used beneath the socket retaining nuts to B -plus leads are run to this point. Most of the
insure a good ground connection. All ground components of the bass and treble boost system
leads of the first 12AU7 tube are returned to may be mounted between the tube socket ter-
the socket, whereas all grounds for the rest of minals and the terminals of the two potentio-
the circuit are returned to a ground lug of meters. The feedback resistor RI is mounted
filter capacitor Cl. between the terminal of the coaxial output
Since the input level to the amplifier is of connector and a phenolic tie -point strip placed
the order of one -half volt, the problem of beneath an adjacent socket bolt.
chassis ground currents and hum is not so When the wiring has been completed and
prevalent, as is the case with a high gain input checked, the amplifier should be turned on,
stage. and the various voltages compared with the
Phonograph-type coaxial receptacles are values given on the schematic. It is important
mounted on the rear apron of the chassis, serv- that the polarity of the feedback loop is correct.
ing as the input and output connections. The The easiest way to reverse the feedback polarity
four panel controls (bass boost, treble boost,
volume, and a -c on) are spaced equidistant
across the front of the chassis.
Amplifier The filament wiring should be
Wiring done first. The center -tap of the
filament winding is grounded to
a lug of the 6X5 -GT socket ring, and the 6.3
volt leads from the transformer are attached
to pins 2 and 7 of the same socket. A twisted
pair of wires run from the rectifier socket to
the right -hand 6AQ5 socket (figure 23) . The
filament leads then proceed to the next 6AQ5
socket and then to the two 12AU7 sockets in Figure 26
20 -WATT "WILLIAMSON -TYPE
turn. AMPLIFIER PROVIDES ULTIMATE IN
The 12AU7 preamplifier stage is wired next. LISTENING PLEASURE FOR THE
A two terminal phenolic tie -point strip is "GOLDEN EAR."
mounted to the rear of the chassis, holding the Amplifier chassis (left) employs two low level
stages driving push -pull 807 tubes in so- called
12K decoupling resistor and the positive lead "Ultra-linear" circuit. Power supply is at right.
146 High Fidelity Techniques
INPUT
(0.75 V. AMS MAR.)
Pz
len
en
4a
COM.
r
COMMON GROUND BUS FILS
NOTES:
I- ALL RESISTORS I -WATT UNLESS S- ALL CAPACITOR VALUES GIVEN IN
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED MFD, UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED
1 4 S 2
2- RESISTORS MARKED M ARE e- TRANSFORMER Ti STANCOR A -0072,
MATCHED PAIRS 7000 OHM PRIMARY
S- VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS MADE 7- PUNCHED AND DRILLED CHASSIS,
WITH 1000 OHMS /VOLT VOLTMETER STA NCOR WM0
4- JACKS JI AND J2 ARE INSULATED
FROM CHASSIS
Figure 27
SCHEMATIC OF 20 -WATT MUSIC SYSTEM AMPLIFIER.
is to cross -connect the two plate leads of the

6AQ5 tubes. If the feedback polarization is -
tion of such a system is not noticeable
to the trained ear
- even
over the results obtained
incorrect, the amplifier will oscillate at a super- with this low priced amplifier. A full 20 watts
sonic frequency and the reproduced signal will of audio power are obtained over the frequency
sound fuzzy to the ear. The correct connection range of 20 to 50,000 cycles at less than 0.1%
may be determined with the aid of an oscillo- harmonic distortion. At the average listening
scope, as the oscillation will be easily found. level of 1 watt, the frequency response is plus
The builder might experiment with different or minus 1 decibel at 100,000 cycles, assuring
values of feedback resistor RI, especially if a true high fidelity response over the entire aud-
speaker of different impedance is employed. ible range. Preamplification and tone compen-
Increasing the value of R1 will decrease the sation are not included in this unit, as these
degree of feedback. For an 8 -ohm speaker, R1 functions are accomplished in the auxiliary
should be decreased in value to maintain the driving amplifier. If a variable reluctance cart-
same amount of feedback. ridge is employed, the preamplifiers of figure
This amplifier was used in conjunction with 9 or figure 14 may be used with this unit.
a General Electric S -1201A 12 -inch speaker The Heathkit WA -P2 preamplifier is also
mounted in an Electro -Voice KD6 Aristocrat recommended for general use when several in-
speaker enclosure which was constructed from put circuits are to be employed.
a kit. The reproduction was extremely smooth,
with good balance of bass and treble. The Amplifier The schematic of this ampli-
Circuit fier is shown in figure 27.
7 -6 A High Quality It is a "Williamson -type"
25 Watt Amplifier amplifier using the so-called "Ultra -linear"
screen -tap circuit on the output stage. A dual
This amplifier is recommended for the music triode 6SN7 -GT serves as a voltage amplifier
lover who desires the utmost in high fidelity. and direct coupled phase inverter. Maximum
Capable of delivering 25 watts output at less signal input to this stage is approximately 0.8
than 1.5% intermodulation distortion, the am- volt, r.m.s. for rated output of the amplifier.
plifier will provide flawless reproduction at The feedback loop from the speaker voice coil
higher than normal listening levels. It is true is returned to the cathode circuit of the input
that other designs have been advocated pro- stage, placing all amplifying stages within the
viding greater power at a lower IM distortion loop.
level. However, the improvement in reproduc- A second 6SN7 -GT is used as a push -pull
Figure 28
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW
OF 20 -WATT AMPLIFIER.
807 SOCKETS ARE AT
CENTER, WITH CATHODE
BALANCING
POTENTIOMETER AT
LOWER RIGHT.
Note ground bus, starting at
center, top filter capacitor, and
rurning in loop around under -
side of chassis. Bus is grounded
to chassis at input plug (upper
left). Shielded leads run to vol-
ume control (center).
driver stage for the high level output amplifier. sulated from the chassis by fibre mounting
A plate potential of 430 volts is applied to this boards.
stage to insure ample grid drive to the output A common ground bus is used in this am-
stage. Large value coupling capacitors are used plifier, and all "grounds" are returned to the
between all stages to prevent signal degenera- bus, rather than to the chassis. The bus is
tion at the lower audio frequencies. Two 807 grounded at the input jack of the amplifier
beam -power tubes are employed in the final and runs around the underside of the chassis,
amplifier stage. Cathode bias is applied to these ending at the ground terminals of the high
tubes, and the current of the tubes may be voltage filter capacitors. Tie -point terminal
equalized by potentiometer Iti in the bias strips are used to support the smaller com-
circ.iit. ponents, and direct point -to -point wiring is
Degenerative feedback is taken from the sec- used.
ondary of the output transformer and applied Matched pairs of resistors should be used
to the input of the amplifier. The amount of
feedback is controlled by the value of feed-
back resistor A small capacitor is placed
tors are marked (
in the balanced audio circuits, and these resis-
) on the schematic. If possi-
ble, measure a quantity of resistors in the store
across R3 to reduce any tendency towards high with an ohmmeter, and pick out the pairs of
frequency parasitic oscillation sometimes en- resistors that are most evenly matched. The
countered when long leads are used to connect exact resistance value is not critical within 10%
the amplifier to the loudspeaker. as long as the two resistors are close in value.
An external power supply is used with the Care must be taken when these resistors are
amplifier, delivering 440 volts at a current of soldered in the circuit, as the heat of the sol-
175 milliamperes, and 6.3 volts at 5 amperes. dering iron may cause the resistance value to
vary. It is wise to grasp the resistor lead with
Amplifier The amplifier is built upon a a long -nose pliers, holding the lead between
Construction steel chassis measuring 9 "x the point where the iron is applied and the
7 "x2 ". Punched and drilled body of the resistor. The pliers will act as a
chassis for both the amplifier and power sup- "heat sink ", protecting the resistor from exces-
ply may be obtained as standard parts, as speci- sive heat.
fied in figure 27, eliminating the necessity of The filament leads are made up of a twisted
considerable metal work. Placement of the pair of wires running between the various
majcr components may be seen in the top and sockets. Keep the twisted leads clear of the in-
under -chassis photographs. The two cathode put jack to insure minimum hum pickup. The
current jacks, J. and Jr are mounted in over- plate leads from the 807 caps pass through
size holes and are insulated from the chassis 3/8 -inch rubber grommets mounted in the chas-
with fibre shoulder washers placed on the jack sis to phenolic tie points mounted beneath the
stem. and flat fibre washers beneath the retain- chassis. The plate leads of output transformer
ing nut. The can-type filter capacitors are in- Ti attach to these tie points. Be sure you ob-
148 High Fidelity Techniques
MMMMMM MOMMMMMM MMINIMMOMMOMMEMMr

EMOMMEMfaEMMEMOMMMEMfaIOMOfaMMMEMMI
a supply. Filament and plate voltages for the
111faMOM M EN f7f7faftM MOMME M f7 f7fìOfl MMEMf7MMI l
Heathkit WA -P2 preamplifier may be derived
MOOMMOMMtaMMEMEMMEMEMMOMMfaMOMtaOfui
from receptacle SO-1. If the preamplifier is not
::::::::1:c::::::::a::::1:a::1 used, or if another type of preamplifier is to
faEMMEMMfaMMEMOOMMEMEMMEMOMfaE
IIIMMEMEM MMMMM MMOMMEMEMOMMfaMMEM
N f1 f7 B f7 MO fa B fa f7 B f7 BO\ fa B Bf7 B N be employed, the center -tap of the 6.3 volt
ft ll
faMEMMEMMEMEMMEMMEMOMfaEMEMMUfafaW
M filament winding of power transformer T1
faIIIMMtaMMOfaMOfaMOMMEMMfaMMEfaOfafafai
MUMfaNaEtaOMMEMMEMOMMUMMEMEMfafau (green /yellow lead) should be grounded to
fataEMOMMEMEMMEMOMMEMMfaOMMOMMEWM
//ME the chassis of the power supply.
MME8E BME MMOMMfaMMft IM Mfa MMfafaNAMfa
MMM MMMMM faMMM MMMMM Mfa mmalIOrifaEfa
111fa Wiring of this unit is straightforward, and
mofafaofafafafammomfafammin pGefafas
B/fa omf7 BBm ommf7faH etoAmmfi no unusual precautions need be taken. It is
fam
MEMfaMMOfaMEMINIMMEM.zWOMMfaMMEMEM
s. Wise to attach the amplifier to the supply be-
MEMOtaMEMMOMMOM_:dEMtaOMMfaMMfaMOM
faommomomm__:omofamfammummofa fore it is turned to limit warm -up voltage
imomm_.mommommommiltaomfaommow
I e 12 IC 20 24 26 3
excursions.
EQUIVALENT SINE WAVE WATTS
Amplifier The amplifier is attached to the
Figure 29
INTERMODULATION CURVE Operation power supply by a short length
OF 20 -WATT AMPLIFIER. of 4 -wire cable. Make sure taht
the filament leads (pins 1 and 4, P/) are
serve the color code for these leads, as given made of sufficiently heavy wire to insure that
in figure 27, as the proper polarization of the the filaments of the amplifier receive a full
leads is required for proper feedback operation. 6.3 volts. The amplifier should be turned on
When the amplifier wiring is completed, all and all voltages checked against figure 27. A
connections should be checked for accidental speaker or suitable resistive load should be at-
grounds or transpositions. Make sure the meter tached to output terminal strip P2, and a 0 -100
jacks are insulated from the chassis. d -c milliammeter plugged into jacks J1 and J2.
Balance potentiometer R2 is now adjusted until
The Power companion power supply for
A the two readings are the same. Each measure-
Supply the high fidelity amplifier is ment will be very close to 60 milliamperes
shown in figure 30. A cathode- when the currents are balanced. The amplifier
type 5V4 -G rectifier is used to limit the warm - is now ready for operation, and has a fidelity
up surge voltages usually encountered in such curve similar to that shown in figure 29.
Ti 5 V4- G
(_ YEL
PYEL CHI PI
50,10 4-440
2 AMP
óRED
W
oo, Y.
2
&VII'
OrRED
1
.L.,
soK +30
TT5
V.
+30 +30
1475 TT5
V. ÌV.
3
GRN
GRN-YEL
(SEENOTE)
< 4
GRN
115 V.
60ti r IO MA,
6K,10W`-
4-300
50 K, IOW
V.
SOI
NOTE: IF NEATNRIT PREAMPLIFIER SOCKET FOR TI - 400 -0 -400 VOLTS, 200 MA.. S VOLTS,
is NOT USED, CENTER -TAP W /RE HEATH WA -P2 3 AMP., 6.3 VOLTS. 5 AMP.
(GREEN- YELLOW) OF 8.3 FILAMENT PREAMPLIFIER CH /CALO- STANDARD PC -8412
WIND /NG OF r, MUST BE GROUNDED. CHI -4.5 HENRY AT 200 MA.
CN /CA GO- STANDARD C -1411
Figure 30
POWER SUPPLY FOR 20-WATT AMPLIFIER.
CHAPTER EIGHT
Radio Frequency
Vacuum Tube Amplifiers
TUNED RF VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS
Taped r -f voltage amplifiers are used in re- first tuned circuit due to its equivalent cou-
ceivers for the amplification of the incoming pled resistance at resonance. The noise volt-
r -f signal and for the amplification of inter- age generated due to antenna radiation resist-
mediate frequency signals after the incoming ance and to equivalent tuned circuit resistance
frequency has been converted to the intermed- is similar to that generated in a resistor due
iate frequency by the mixer stage. Signal fre- to thermal agitation and is expressed by the
quency stages are normally called tuned r-f following equation:
ampli fiers and intermediate- frequency stages
are called i -f amplifiers. Both tuned r -f and Eó = 4kTRAf
i -f amplifiers are operated Class A and nor-
mally operate at signal levels from a fraction Where: E= r -m -s value of noise voltage over
of a microvolt to amplitudes as high as 10 to the interval Af
50 volts at the plate of the last i -f stage in a k = Boltzman's constant = 1.374
receiver. X 10." joule per °K.
T = Absolute temperature °K.
8 -1 Grid Circuit R = Resistive component of imped-
ance across which thermal noise
Considerations is developed.
Af = Frequency band across which
Since the full amplification of a receiver fol- voltage is measured.
lows the first tuned circuit, the operating con-
ditions existing in that circuit and in its cou- In the above equation .1f is essentially the
pling to the antenna on one side and to the frequency band passed by the intermediate fre-
grid of the first amplifier stage on the other quency amplifier of the receiver under consid-
are of greatest importance in determining the eration. This equation can be greatly simpli-
signal -to -noise ratio of the receiver on weak fied for the conditions normally encountered
signal s. in communications work. If we assume the fol-
lowing conditions: T = 300° K or 27° C or
First Tuned It is obvious that the highest 80.5° F, room temperature; ¿f = 8000 cycles
Circuit ratio of signal -to-noise be im- (the average pass band of a communications
pressed on the grid of the first receiver or speech amplifier) the equation re-
r -f amplifier tube. Attaining the optimum ratio duces to: Er s = 0.0115 N/Rmicrovolts. Ac-
is a complex problem since noise will be gen- cordingly, the thermal -agitation voltage ap-
erated in the antenna due to its equivalent pearing in the center of half -wave antenna (as-
radiation resistance (this noise is in addition suming effective temperature to be 300° K)
to any noise of atmospheric origin) and in the having a radiation resistance of 73 ohms is
149
150 R -F Vacuum Tube Amplifiers THE RADIO
approximately 0.096 microvolts. Also, the ther- lower will be the noise output under a fixed
mal agitation voltage appearing across a 500,- set of conditions.
000 -ohm grid resistor in the first stage of a The equivalent noise resistance of a tube
speech amplifier is approximately 8 microvolts must not be confused with the actual input
under the conditions cited above. Further, the loading resistance of a tube. For highest sig-
voltage due to thermal agitation being im- nal -to -noise ratio in an amplifier the input
pressed on the grid of the first r -f stage in a loading resistance should be as high as possi-
receiver by a first tuned circuit whose reson- ble so that the amount of voltage that can be
ant resistance is 50,000 ohms is approximately developed from grid to ground by the antenna
2.5 microvolts. Suffice to say, however, that energy will be as high as possible. The equi-
the value of thermal agitation voltage appear- valent noise resistance should be as low as
ing across the first tuned circuit when the an- possible so that the noise generated by this
tenna is properly coupled to this circuit will resistance will be lower than that attributable
be very much less than this value. to the antenna and first tuned circuit, and the
It is common practice to match the imped- losses in the first tuned circuit should be as
ance of the antenna transmission line to the low as possible.
input impedance of the grid of the first r -f am- The absolute sensitivity of receivers has
plifier stage in a receiver. This is the condi- been designated in recent years in government
tion of antenna coupling which gives maximum and commercial work by an arbitrary dimension-
gain in the receiver. However, when u -h -f tubes less number known as "noise factor" or N.
such as acorns and miniatures are used at fre- The noise factor is the ratio of noise output
quencies somewhat less than their maximum of a "perfect" receiver having a given amount
capabilities, a significant improvement in sig- of gain with a dummy antenna matched to its
nal -to -noise ratio can be attained by increas- input, to the noise output of the receiver under
ing the coupling between the antenna and first measurement having the same amount of gain
tuned circuit to a value greater than that which with the dummy antenna matched to its input.
gives greatest signal amplitude out of the re- Although a perfect receiver is not a physically
ceiver. In other words, in the 10, 6, and 2 me- realizable thing, the noise factor of a receiver
ter bands it is possible to attain somewhat im- under measurement can be determined by cal-
proved signal -to -noise ratio by increasing an- culation from the amount of additional noise
tenna coupling to the point where the gain of (from a temperature -limited diode or other cali-
the receiver is slightly reduced. brated noise generator) required to increase
It is always possible, in addition, to obtain the noise power output of a receiver by a pre-
improved signal -to -noise ratio in a v -h -f re- determined amount.
ceiver through the use of tubes which have
improved input impedance characteristics at
the frequency in question over conventional Tube Input As has been mentioned in a pre-
types. Leading vious paragraph, greatest gain
in a receiver is obtained when
the antenna is matched, through the r -f cou-
Noise Factor The limiting condition for sen- pling transformer, to the input resistance of
sitivity in any receiver is the the r-f tube. However, the higher the ratio of
thermal noise generated in the antenna and in tube input resistance to equivalent noise re-
the first tuned circuit. However, with proper sistance of the tube the higher will be the sig-
coupling between the antenna and the grid of nal-to-noise ratio of the stage -and of course,
the tube, through the first tuned circuit, the the better will be the noise factor of the over-
noise contribution of the first tuned circuit all receiver. The input resistance of a tube
can be made quite small. Unfortunately, though, is very high at frequencies in the broadcast
the major noise contribution in a properly de- band and gradually decreases as the frequency
signed receiver is that of the first tube. The increases. Tube input resistance on conven-
noise contribution due to electron flow and tional tube types begins to become an import-
due to losses in the tube can be lumped into ant factor at frequencies of about 25 Mc. and
an equivalent value of resistance which, if above. At frequencies above about 100 Mc. the
placed in the grid circuit of a perfect tube hav- use of conventional tube types becomes im-
ing the same gain but no noise would give the practicable since the input resistance of the
same noise voltage output in the plate load. tube has become so much lower than the equi-
The equivalent noise resistance of tubes such valent noise resistance that it is impossible
as the 6SK7, 6SG7, etc., runs from 5000 to to attain reasonable signal -to -noise ratio on
10,000 ohms. Very high Gm tubes such as the any but very strong signals. Hence, special
6AC7 and 6AK5 have equivalent noise resist- v -h -f tube types such as the 6AK5, 6AG5, and
ances as low as 700 to 1500 ohms. The lower 6CB6 must be used.
the value of equivalent noise resistance, the The lowering of the effective input resist-
HANDBOOK R -F Amplifiers 151
ance of a vacuum tube at higher frequencies

is brought about by a number of factors. The
first, and most obvious, is the fact that the
dielectric loss in the internal insulators, and
in the base and press of the tube increases
with frequency. The second factor is due to
the fact that a finite time is required for an
electron to move from the space charge in the
vicinity of the cathode, pass between the grid
wires, and travel on to the plate. The fact that
the electrostatic effect of the grid on the mov- OA AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE (APPROX.) =GMWLQ
ing electron acts over an appreciable portion
of a cycle at these high frequencies causes a
current flow in the grid circuit which appears
to the input circuit feeding the grid as a re-
sistance. The decrease in input resistance of
a tube due to electron transit time varies as
the square of the frequency. The undesirable
effects of transit time can be reduced in cer-
tain cases by the use of higher plate voltages.
Transit time varies inversely as the square
root of the applied plate voltage.
Cathode lead inductance is an additional
® AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE (APPROX.) =GMWMQ
cause of reduced input resistance at high fre-

quencies. This effect has been reduced in cer-
tain tubes such as the 6SH7 and the 6AK5 by
providing two cathode leads on the tube base.
One cathode lead should be connected to the
inpLt circuit of the tube and the other lead
should be connected to the by -pass capacitor
for the plate return of the tube.
The reader is referred to the Radiation Labo-
ratory Series, Volume 23: "Microwave Receiv- WLr;F_s
ers" (McGraw-Hill, publishers) for additional © AMPLIFICATION AT RESONANCE(APPROtkGMK
K2t
Q74:g
information on noise factor and input loading
PRI. AND SEC. RESONANT AT SAME FREQUENCY
of vacuum tubes. WHERE. 1.
2 K IS COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
IF PRI. AND SEC. Q ARE APPROXIMATELY THE SAME.

TOTAL BANDWIDTH _ ,
.2 K
CENTER FREQUENCY
8 -2 Plate- Circuit MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE OCCURS AT CRITICAL COUPLING -
Considerations WHEN K
Q
Noise is generated in a vacuum tube by the

fact that the current flow within the tube is not Figure 1
a strooth flow but rather is made up of the con- Gain equations for pentode r -f amplifier
tinuous arrival of particles (electrons) at a stages operating into a tuned load
very high rate. This shot e //ect is a source of
noise in the tube, but its effect is referred
back to the grid circuit of the tube since it is the amplifier tube, and L and Q are the induct-
included in the equivalent noise resistance ance and Q of the inductor L. In figure 1B the
discussed in the preceding paragraphs. notation is the same and M is the mutual in-
ductance between the primary coil and the sec-
Plate Circuit For the purpose of this section, ondary coil. In figure IC the notation is again
Coupling it will be considered that the the same and k is the coefficient of coupling
function of the plate load cir- between the two tuned circuits. As the co-
cuit of a tuned vacuum -tube amplifier is to de- efficient of coupling between the circuits is
liver energy to the next stage with the greatest increased the bandwidth becomes greater but
efficiency over the required band of frequen- the response over the band becomes progres-
cies. Figure 1 shows three methods of inter - sively more double -humped. The response over
stage coupling for tuned r -f voltage amplifiers. the band is the most flat when the Q's of pri-
In figure lA omega (w) is 2rr times the reso- mary and secondary are approximately the same
nant frequency of the circuit in the plate of and the value of each Q is equal to 1.75/k.
Variable -Mu Tubes It is common practice to cases these signals will carry the modulation
in R -F Stages control the gain of a suc- of both the carriers which have been cross
cession of r -f or i -f am- modulated to produce the spurious signal.
plifier stages by varying the average bias on The undesirable effect of cross modulation
their control grids. However, as the bias is can be eliminated in most cases and greatly
raised above the operating value on a conven- reduced in the balance through the use of a
tional sharp-cutoff tube the tube becomes in- variable -mu tube in all stages which have a -v-c
creasingly non -linear in operation as cutoff of voltage or other large negative bias applied to
plate current is approached. The effect of such their grids. The variable -mu tube has a char-
non -linearity is to cause cross modulation be- acteristic which causes the cutoff of plate cur-
tween strong signals which appear on the grid rent to be gradual with an increase in grid
of the tube. When a tube operating in such a bias, and the reduction in plate current is ac-
manner is in one of the first stages of a re- companied by a decrease in the effective am-
ceiver a number of signals are appearing on its plification factor of the tube. Variable -mu tubes
grid simultaneously and cross modulation be- ordinarily have somewhat reduced Gm as com-
tween them will take place. The result of this pared to a sharp- cutoff tube of the same group.
effect is to produce a large number of spurious Hence the sharp- cutoff tube will perform best
signals in the output of the receiver -in most in stages to which a -v -c voltage is not applied.
RADIO- FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS
All modern transmitters in the medium -fre- that no plate current will flow except when
quency range and an increasing percentage of plate voltage is very low. This, in fact, is the
those in the v -h -f and u -h-f ranges consist of fundamental reason why the plate circuit effi-
a comparatively low-level source of radio -fre- ciency of a Class C amplifier stage can be
quency energy which is multiplied in frequency made high -plate current is cut off at all times
and successively amplified to the desired power except when the plate -to- cathode voltage drop
level. Microwave transmitters are still predom- across the tube is at its lowest value. Class
inately of the self -excited oscillator type, but C amplifiers almost invariably operate into a
when it is possible to use r -f amplifiers in tuned tank circuit as a load, and as a result
s -h -f transmitters the flexibility of their ap- are used as amplifiers of a single frequency
plication will be increased. The following por- or of a comparatively narrow band of frequen-
tion of this chapter will be devoted, however, cies.
to the method of operation and calculation of
operating characteristics of r-f power ampli- Relationships in Figure 2 shows the relation -
fiers for operation in the range of approximate- Class C Stage ships between the various
ly 3.5 to 500 Mc. voltages and currents over
one cycle of the exciting grid voltage for a
8 -3 Class C R -F Class C amplifier stage. The notation given in
Power Amplifiers figure 2 and in the discussion to follow is the
same as given at the first of Chapter Six un-
der "Symbols for Vacuum -Tube Parameters."
The majority of r -f power amplifiers fall into The various manufacturers of vacuum tubes
the Class C category since such stages can publish booklets listing in adequate detail al-
be made to give the best plate circuit efficien- ternative Class C operating conditions for the
cy of any present type of vacuum-tube ampli- tubes which they manufacture. In addition,
fier. Hence, the cost of tubes for such a stage operating condition sheets for any particular
and the cost of the power to supply that stage type of vacuum tube are available for the ask-
is least for any given power output. Neverthe- ing from the different vacuum -tube manufac-
less, the Class C amplifier gives less power turers. It is, nevertheless, often desirable to
gain than either a Class A or Class B ampli- determine optimum operating conditions for a
fier under similar conditions since the grid of tube under a particular set of circumstances.
a Class C stage must be driven highly posi- To assist in such calculations the following
tive over the portion of the cycle of the excit- paragraphs are devoted to a method of calcu-
ing wave when the plate voltage on the ampli- lating Class C operating conditions which is
fier is low, and must be at a large negative moderately simple and yet sufficiently accu-
potential over a large portion of the cycle so rate for all practical purposes.
HANDBOOK Class C R -F Amplifiers 153
tional grid voltage -plate current operating

curves, the calculation is considerably sim-
plified if the alternative "constant- current
curve" of the tube in question is used. This is
true since the operating line of a Class C am-
plifier is a straight line on a set of constant -
current curves. A set of constant -current curves
on the 250TH tube with a sample load line
drawn thereon is shown in figure 5.
In calculating and predicting the operation
of a vacuum tube as a Class C radio -frequency
amplifier, the considerations which determine
the operating conditions are plate efficiency,
power output required, maximum allowable
plate and grid dissipation, maximum allowable
plate voltage and maximum allowable plate
current. The values chosen for these factors
will depend both upon the demands of a par-
ticular application and upon the tube chosen.
The plate and grid currents of a Class C
amplifier tube are periodic pulses, the dura-
PEAK tions of which are always less than 180 de-
PLATE grees. For this reason the average grid cur-
CURRENT
rent, average plate current, power output, driv-
-ç - --t--
I
-I
I I
I ing power, etc., cannot be directly calculated

but must be determined by a Fourier analysis
g_i_ L- --I--
I
It-
I
fi
I
from points selected at proper intervals along

1
reP+i-eP1 I I
I
the line of operation as plotted upon the con-
II
I
I
II I I
stant- current characteristics. This may be done
either analytically or graphically. While the
1 I I
I
tPM
I I I
I I
Fourier analysis has the advantage of accu-

I
-7 -
I
I
1
I
I
- -
.FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT
OF PLATE CURRENT
racy, it also has the disadvantage of being
tedious and involved.
I II I
The approximate analysis which follows
I 11 I
has proved to be sufficiently accurate for most
I I
applications. This type of analysis also has

t . I
the advantage of giving the desired informa-

GRID
--
IGMAX. II II
yt -I- _ FI-CURRENT tion at the first trial. The system is direct in
-t
-
-
- -I
I I
giving the desired information since the im-
portant factors, power output, plate efficiency,
I11
II I11 and plate voltage are arbitrarily selected at
111 I
the beginning.
ec}MP I I I GRID
0- a first step in the method to
II
II II VOLTAGE Method of The
EON 1t- Calculation is to determine the
be described
Ecc ec
L power which must be delivered
I
by the Class C amplifier. In making this deter-

mination it is well to remember that ordinarily
from 5 to 10 per cent of the power delivered
by the amplifier tube or tubes will be lost in
Figure 2
well- designed tank and coupling circuits at
frequencies below 20 Mc. Above 20 Mc. the
Instantaneous electrode and tank circuit
voltages and currents for a Class C r -f power tank and circuit losses are ordinarily some-
amplifier what above 10 per cent.
The plate power input necessary to produce
the desired output is determined by the plate
efficiency: Pin = Pout /Np
Calcu ation of Class Although Class C op- For most applications it is desirable to oper-
C Amplifier Operating orating conditions can ate at the highest practicable efficiency. High -
Characteristics be determined with the efficiency operation usually requires less ex-
aid of the more conven- pensive tubes and power supplies, and the
154
CC
.o
a
o
i
%
MI/
II
d11
11
IR
.%
M.
IP
R
E
0
11
111
111
111
-F Vacuum
RATIO
Ie
Figure 3
Tube
%
Amplifiers
Relationship between the peak value of the

fundamental component of the tube plate cur-
rent, and average plate current; as compared
to the ratio of the instantaneous peak value
of tube plate current, and average plate
current
amount of artificial cooling required is fre-

quently less than for low- efficiency operation.
On the other hand, high- efficiency operation
usually requires more driving power and in-
volves the use of higher plate voltages and
higher peak tube voltages. The better types
of triodes will ordinarily operate at a plate
efficiency of 75 to 85 per cent at the highest
rated plate voltage, and at a plate efficiency
of 65 to 75 per cent at intermediate values of
plate voltage.
The first determining factor in selecting a
tube or tubes for a particular application is
cc
.o
a0
11111
111M
11111M1
=111
ua.mim
mmnicam
2. Determine
Pout /Np.
3. Determine
Pp= Pin
RATIO
Figure 4
-x
Ecè`
THE
Relationship between the ratio of the peak

value of the fundamental component of the
grid excitation voltage, and the average grid
bias; as compared to the ratio between in-
stantaneous peak grid current and average
grid current
plate input from: Pin
plate dissipation from:

-
Pout. Pp must not exceed
maximum rated plate dissipation for tube
or tubes selected.
4. Determine average
5.
lb = Pin /Ebb
Determine approximate
RADIO
plate current from:
ipmax from:
ipmax = 4.9 lb for Np = 0.85
the amount of plate dissipation which will be tpmaz = 45 lb for Np = 0.80
required of the stage. The total plate dissipa- 1pmaz = 4.0 lb for Np = 0.75
tion rating for the tube or tubes to be used in ipmax = 3.5 Ib for Np = 0.70
the stage must be equal to or greater than that
6. Locate the point on constant -current
calculated from: Pp = Pin - Poat characteristics where the constant plate
After selecting a tube or tubes to meet the current line corresponding to the ap-
power output and plate dissipation require- proximate ipmax determined in step 5
ments it becomes necessary to determine from crosses the line of equal plate and grid
the tube characteristics whether the tube se- voltages (diode line). Read epmin at this
lected is capable of the desired operation and, point. In a few cases the lines of con-
if so, to determine the driving power, grid stant plate current will inflect sharply
bias, and grid dissipation. upward before reaching the diode line.
The complete procedure necessary to deter- In these cases epmin should not be read
mine a set of Class C amplifier operating con- at the diode line but at the point where
ditions is given in the following steps: the plate current line intersects a line
1. Select the plate voltage, power output, drawn from the origin through these
and efficiency. points of inflection.
HANDBOOK
7.
8.
i!'r
..
,,.
r.«« i i
,_._-..
1,
P~.,e,_
bir{.
}1ww,-.'=
..:
,«
Ei;c =
+
:
......._$1.....
,.
g
i-`,, R
' ---~n
'nr/%-i
'
:
..
M;f
- 240
Calculate Epm from: Epm

e,
eWaka...t:.,,-
ftOi..a.-!iipW....
1
..:;...s4rn:°:::msi
F RST TR
........................i
.............«.......
td
illaa.
Calculate the ratio Ipm /Ib from:

Ipm
lb
9. From the ratio of Ipm /lb calculated in
10.
12.
step 8 determine the ratio ipmax /lb from
figure 3.
Calculate a new value for ipmax from

the ratio found in step 9.
tpmas = (ratio from step 9) lb
11. Read egmp and ipmax from the
Y.
IV'
LOAD LINE
2 Np
Epm
constant -
current characteristics for the values of
epmin and ipmax determined in steps 6
and 10.
Calculate the cosine of one -half the

angle of plate current flow from:
cos 6p = 2.32 (
Ipm
lb
Ebb
-
AL POINT
«-«i....««...«..-«.,...«
!ti
-...
-...i«-,,q
1.57)
=
r
Ebb
`°"i
;
_'«
«.«...
««.«..
m.
...
»iv_
:.iiiiiiiiii:T:SiïMi
,_,...
........
...«.... :
......iW.-.. .
«:i:iiiii::"..BY.:.
,...
PLATE VOLTAGE -VOLTS
FIGURE
Active portion of the operating load line for on Eimac 250TH Class C rf power amplifier,
showing first trial point and the final operating point
- epmin
ECC
o.
13.
14.
15.
.
Ìl:nsa....""--.
..
Lòs
Constant Current Calculations
FINAL POINT
:' :
....«.4::::n.........« ....... :ii::°
:::»:r ......««::.::
Ir_
6p
for triodes.
for
si
IIiRZ:::::«:8::
m.
1- cos
1
.«:
-.......
....
EIMAC 250TH
CONSTANT CURRENT M
CHARACTERISTICS
*esas
.
Ebb = +3500
OpX
,...
Calculate the grid bias voltage from:
Eec -
1
1
- COS
Epm
'--- egmpJ
tetrodes, where µ,= is the grid- screen

amplification factor, and Et2 is the d -c
screen voltage.
Calculate the peak fundamental grid ex-

citation voltage from:
Calculate the ratio

Egm = egmp
X
»
\\
-
--Trssi ..
,...
es. cos -
- Ecc
Egm /Ecc for
......»
r....:
::1::.::
s',m::F«...
.®
Ebb
Jfi
B
;;;
-
,
:::::
» .».
._:_
°°:_ µ
::
µz.
the val-
..
155
;.
1 56 R - F V acu um T u b e A m p l i f i e r s T H E R A D I O
ues of Ecc and Egm found in steps 13 12. cos ©p= 2.32(1.73- 1.57) =0.37
and 14. (9p = 68.3 °)
16. Read igmax /Ic from figure 4 for the ratio 1

Egm /Ecc found in step 15.
-
13. Ecc - X
1 - 0.37
17. Calculate the average grid current from
3240 3500
the ratio found in step 16, and the value
of igmax found in step 11:
[0.37 ( - 240)
37 37
igmax =- 240 volts
Ic -
Ratio from step 16 14. Egm = 240 - ( -240) = 480 volts grid
swing
18. Calculate approximate grid driving pow- 15. Egm /Ecc= 480/ - 240 = -2
er from:
16. igmax /Ic = 5.75 (from figure 4)
Pd = 0.9 Egmlc
17. In = 0.430/5.75 = 0.075 amp. (75 ma.
19. Calculate grid dissipation from: grid current)
Pg = Pd + Eccic 18. Pd = 0.9X480X0.075 = 32.5 watts
Pg must not exceed the maximum rated
grid dissipation for the tube selected.
driving power
19. Pg = 32.5 -
(- 240X0.75) = 14.5 watts
grid dissipation
Sample A typical example of a Class C Max. Pg for 250TH is 40 watts
Calculation amplifier calculation is shown
in the example below. Reference The power output of any type of r-f ampli-
is made to figures 3, 4 and 5 in the calcula- fier is equal to:
tion. IpmEpm /2 = Po
1. Desired power output -800 watts. Ipm can be determined, of course, from the
ratio determined in step 8 above (in this type
2. Desired plate voltage -3500 volts. of calculation) by multiplying this ratio times
Desired plate efficiency -80 per cent lb.
(Np = 0.80) It is frequently of importance to know the
Pia = 800 /0.80 = 1000 watts value of load impedance into which a Class
C amplifier operating under a certain set of
3. Pp = 1000 -
800 = 200 watts conditions should operate. This is simply R L_
Use 250TH; max. Pp = 250w;µ = 37. Epm /Ipm. In the case of the operating condi-
tions just determined for a 250TH amplifier
4. lb = 1000/3500 = 0.285 ampere (285 ma.) stage the value of load impedance is:
5.
Max. lb for 250TH is 350 ma.
Approximate ipmax = 0.285 X 4.5

= 1.28 ampere
RL _ -- --
Epm
Ipm
3240
.495
6600 ohms
6. epmia = 260 volts (see figure

trial point)
5 first lpm =- lpm
lb
X lb
7. Epm = 3500 - 260 = 3240 volts Q of Amplifier In order to obtain good plate
8. Ipm /Ib = 2X0.80X3500/3240 =
Tank Circuit tank circuit tuning and low
5600/3240 = 1.73 radiation of harmonics from
an amplifier it is necessary that the plate tank
9. ipmax /Ib = 4.1 (from figure 3) circuit have the correct Q. Charts giving com-
promise values of Q for Class C amplifiers
10. ipmax = 0.285X4.1 = 1.17 are given in the chapter, Generation of R -F
Energy. However, the amount of inductance
11. Camp = 240 volts required for a specified tank circuit Q under
igmax = 0.430 amperes specified operating conditions can be calcu-
(Both above from final point on figure 5) lated from the following expression:
HANDBOOK
A
L =-
for all normal

L
RL
Q
Plate Efficiency
two factors,
RL
Q
= 2 e X operating frequency
= Tank inductance
= Required tube load impedance
= Effective tank circuit Q
tank circuit Q of 12 to 20 is recommended
conditions. However, if a bal-
anced push -pull amplifier is employed the tank
receives two impulses per cycle and the cir-
cuit Q may be lowered somewhat from the
above values.
Quick Method of
Calculating Amplifier
The plate circuit effi-
ciency of a Class B or
Class C r -f amplifier
can be determined from
the following facts. The plate circuit efficiency
of such an amplifier is equal to the product of
F
which is equal to the ratio of
Epm to Ebb (F1 = Epm /Ebb) and F2i which is
proportional to the one -half angle of plate cur-
rent flow, 9p. A graph of F2 against both Bp
and cos Op is given in figure 6. Either 6p or
cos Op may be used to determine F2. Cos B
may be determined either from the procedure
previously given for making Class C amplifier
computations or it may be determined from the
following expression:
cos Op = -p Ecc
µ Egm
+ Ebb
- Epm
Class
F z
0.9e
0.96
0.
0.92
0.90
o.es
wee
o
082
080
0.7e
0.79
0.74
0.72
0.70
(,
,
,,
11111
OM
0
B
1111iiM
10 20
R -F
30
Figure 6
40
Amplifiers
SO
PPiNELECTRICAL DEGREESI
.. .«. .« .«..».
cos
Relationship between Factor F2 and the

e0
AP
half -angle of plate current flow in an ampli-

fier with sine-wove input and output voltage,
operating at a grid -bias voltage greater than
5.
cut -off
Np = F, X F2 = 0.91 X
(72 per cent efficiency)
F1 could be called the plate- voltage -swing
efficiency factor, and F2 can be called the
operating-angle efficiency factor or the maxi-
mum possible efficiency of any stage running
with that value of half -angle of plate current
70 e0
0.79
90 f00 110
«:.;,. .«<.,. ...:-..«.
= 0.72
157
120
flow.
Example of It is desired to know the one -half Np is, of course, only the ratio between
Method angle of plate current flow and power output and power input. If it is desired
the plate circuit efficiency for to determine the power input, exciting power,
an 812 tube operating under the following con - and grid current of the stage, these can be ob-
ditiors which have been assumed from inspec- tained through the use of steps 7, 8, 9, and 10
tion of the data and curves given in the RCA of the previously given method for power in-
Transmitting Tube Handbook HB -3: put and output; and knowing that iemax is
0.095 ampere the grid circuit conditions can
1. Ebb = 1100 volts be determined through the use of steps 15, 16,
Ecc = -40 volts 17, 18 and 19.
p = 29
Egm = 120 volts 8 -4 Class B Radio
Epm = 1000 volts Frequency Power Amplifiers
2. F1 = Epm/Ebb = 0.91 Radio frequency power amplifiers operating

under Class B conditions of grid bias and ex-
citation voltage are used in two general types
- 29 X 40 + 1100 of applications in transmitters. The first gen-
cos
-
3. Bp =
eral application is as a buffer amplifier stage
29 X 120 - 1000
where it is desired to obtain a high value of
60 power amplification in a particular stage. A
- 0.025 particular tube type operated with a given
2480 plate voltage will be capable of somewhat
greater output for a certain amount of excita-
4. F2 = 0.79 (by reference to figure 6) tion power when operated as a Class B ampli-
Ec2= +400 V.
N Eca= o v.
u
vr Fu= so
LIII
w
-
w
.
î .
Ec i = reo
1 g
Z
w
K
s 41 111111
:Iri1:
'c-
...
Ecu = +20
¢
lini,
á
<
w
<
ii /NW-=;;1-
MO 200
=+ioo
Ec+ao
300 400
i
I
--,---y
aoo 00 700 oo
PLATE VOLTS
- oo moo "ea I=ee me
Ec i
oeC..1
Eci=-4o
urn
=
1
)
W
_2e
mee o,,,
Figure 7
AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS OF 813 TUBE
fier than when operated as a Class C ampli- calculated. Then, with the exciting voltage
fier. reduced to one -half for the no- modulation con-
dition of the exciting wave, and with the same
Calculation of Calculation of the operating value of load resistance reflected on the tube,
Operating conditions for this type of the plate input and plate efficiency will drop
Characteristics Class B r -f amplifier can be to approximately one -half the values at the
carried out in a manner simi- 100 per cent positive modulation peak and the
lar to that described in the previous para- power output of the stage will drop to one -
graphs, except that the grid bias voltage is set fourth the peak- modulation value. On the nega-
on the tube before calculation at the value: tive modulation peak the input, efficiency, and
Ecc = Ebb /it. Since the grid bias is set at output all drop to zero.
cutoff the one -half angle of plate current flow In general, the proper plate voltage, bias
is 900; hence cos Bp is fixed at 0.00. The voltage, load resistance and power output
plate circuit efficiency for a Class B r -f am- listed in the tube tables for Class B audio
plifier operated in this manner can be deter- work will also apply to Class B linear r-f ap-
mined in the following manner: plication.
Np =78.5 ( -)
Epm
Ebb
Calculation of Oper-
sting Parameters for o
Class B Linear Amplifier
Figure
the
7 illustrates
characteristic
curves for an 81 3
The "Class B The second type of Class B tube. Assume the
Linear r-f amplifier is the so- called plate supply to be 2000 volts, and the screen
Class II linear amplifier which supply to be 400 volts. To determine the oper-
is often used in transmitters for the amplifica- ating parameters of this tube as a Class B lin-
tion of a single- sideband signal or a conven- ear r -f amplifier, the following steps should
tional amplitude-modulated wave. Calculation be taken:
of operating conditions may be carried out in 1. The grid bias is chosen so that the rest-
a manner similar to that previously described ing plate current will produce approxi-
with the following exceptions: The first trial mately 1/3 of the maximum plate dissi-
operating point is chosen on the basis of the pation of the tube. The maximum dissi-
100 per cent positive modulation peak of the pation of the 813 is 125 watts, so the
modulated exciting wave. The plate circuit bias is set to allow one -third of this
and grid peak voltages and currents can then value, or 42 watts of resting dissipation.
be determined and the power input and output At a plate potential of 2000 volts, a
HANDBOOK Linear Amplifier Parameters 159
plate current of 21 milliamperes will

produce this figure. Referring to figure
7, a grid bias of -45 volts is approxi- so
mately correct.
2. A practical Class B linear r -f amplifier Ec2=+400 V.
Eck=ov.
runs at an efficiency of about 66% at full GO
output, the efficiency dropping to about

Eci=+ioov.
33% with an unmodulated exciting sig- 4o
cr--+eov.
nal. In the case of single -sideband sup- Eci -+aov.
pressed carrier excitation, a no- excita- 20
Eci=+40v
tion condition is substituted for the un- ........_
modulated excitation case, and the lin- Ecr+2ó0!---
ear amplifier runs at the resting or qui- o 100 200 300 400
escent input of 42 watts with no exciting PLATE VOLTS Er
signal. The peak allowable power input
to the 813 is: Figure 8
Input Peak Power (Wp) = Eg, VS. Ep CHARACTERISTICS OF 813

(watts) TUBE
Plate Dissipation X 100
(100 -% plate efficiency)

-
125
33
x 100 = 379 watts
8. The plate load
RL
Ep -
resistance is:
epmin 1580
0.5ipmax 0.5 x .189

3. The maximum signal plate current is:
= 6000 ohms
¡polo: = -
Wp
Ep
=
379
2000
0.189 ampere
9. If a loaded plate tank circuit Q of 12 is
desired, the reactance of the plate tank
4. The plate current flow of the linear am- capacitor at the resonant frequency
plifier is 1800, and the plate current should be:
- -=
pulses have a peak of 3.14 times the
maximum signal current: RL 6000
Reactance (ohms) = _ 500 ohms
3.14 x 0A89 = 0.595 ampere
Q 12
5. Referring to figure 7, a current of 0.605

ampere (Point A) will flow at a positive
grid potential of 60 volts and a minimum 10. For an operating frequency of 4.0 Mc.,
plate potential of 420 volts. The grid is the effective resonant capacity is:
biased at -45 volts, so a peak r-f grid 106
voltage of 60 +45 volts = 105 volts is re-
quired. C - = 80 ppfd.
6.28 x 4.0 X 500
6. The grid driving power required for the

Class B linear stage may be found by the 11. The inductance required to resonate at
aid of figure 8. It is one -quarter the pro- 4.0 Mc. with this value of capacity is:
dact of the peak grid current times the
peak grid voltage: 500
0.02 X 105
L - = 19.9 microhenries
6.28 4.0
Pa -
X
- 0.53 watt
4
Grid Circuit The maximum positive grid
1.
7. The single tone power output of the 813 Considerations potential is 60 volts, and
stage is: the peak r -f grid voltage is
Pp = 78.5 (Ep - epmin) x Ip 105 volts. Required driving power is 0.53 watt.
Pp = 78.5 (2000 - 420) x .189 = 235 watts The equivalent grid resistance of this stage is:
(e5)2 1052 8 -5 Special R -F Power

Itg Amplifier Circuits
2XPs 2X0.53
10,400 ohms The r -f power amplifier discussions of Sec-
tions 8 -4 and 8 -5 have been based on the as-
2. As in the case of the Class B audio am- sumption that a conventional grounded- cathode
plifier the grid resistance of the linear or cathode -return type of amplifier was in ques-
amplifier varies from infinity to a low tion. It is possible, however, as in the case of
value when maximum grid current is a -f and low-level r -f amplifiers to use circuits
drawn. To decrease the effect of this in which electrodes other than the cathode are
resistance excursion, a swamping resis- returned to ground insofar as the signal poten-
tor should be placed across the grid tank tial is concerned. Both the plate- return or
circuit. The value of the resistor should cathodefollower amplifier and the grid -return
be dropped until a shortage of driving or grounded-grid amplifier are effective in cer-
power begins to be noticed. For this ex- tain circuit applications as tuned r -f power
ample, a resistor of 3,000 ohms is used. amplifiers.
The grid circuit load for no grid current
is now 3,000 ohms instead of infinity, Disadvantages of An undesirable aspect of
and drops to 2400 ohms when maximum Grounded- Cathode the operation of cathode -
grid current is drawn. Amplifiers return r -f power amplifiers
using triode tubes is that
3. A circuit Q of 15
is chosen for the grid such amplifiers must be neutralized. Princi-
tank. The capacitive reactance required ples and methods of neutralizing r -f power am-
is: plifiers are discussed in the chapter Genera-
lion of R -E Energy. As the frequency of opera-
2400 tion of an amplifier is increased the stage be-
Xc = -= 15
160 ohms comes more and more difficult to neutralize
due to inductance in the grid and plate leads
of the tubes and in the leads to the neutraliz-
ing capacitors. In other words the bandwidth
4. At 4.0 Mc. the effective capacity is: of neutralization decreases as the frequency
is increased. In addition the very presence of
106 the neutralizing capacitors adds additional
C= = 248 µµtd.
undesirable capacitive loading to the grid and
6.28 x 4 x 154 plate tank circuits of the tube or tubes. To
look at the problem in another way, an ampli-
5. The inductive reactance required lo reso- fier that may be perfectly neutralized at a fre-
nate the grid circuit at 4.0 Mc. is: quency of 30 Mc. may be completely out of
neutralization at a frequency of 120 Mc. There-
160 fore, if there are circuits in both the grid and
L= - 6.4 microhenries plate circuits which offer appreciable imped-
6.28 x 4.0 ance at this high frequency it is quite possi-
ble that the stage may develop a "parasitic
6. By substituting the loaded grid resist- oscillation" in the vicinity of 120 Mc.
ance figure in the formula in the first
paragraph, the grid driving power is now
found to be approximately 2.3 watts. Grounded-Grid This condition of restricted -
R-F Amplifiers range neutralization of r -f
power amplifiers can be great-
Screen Circuit By reference to the plate ly alleviated through the use of a cathode -
Considerations characteristic curve of the return or grounded -grid r -f stage. The grounded -
813 tube, it can be seen that grid amplifier has the following advantages:
at a minimum plate potential of 500 volts, and
a maximum plate current of 0.6 ampere, the 1. The output capacitance of a stage is re-
screen current will be approximately 30 milli- duced to approximately one -half the value
amperes, dropping to one or two milliamperes which would be obtained if the same tube
in the quiescent state. It is necessary to use or tubes were operated as a conventional
a well -regulated screen supply to hold the neutralized amplifier.
screen voltage at the correct potential over
this range of current excursion. The use of an 2. The tendency toward parasitic oscillations
electronic regulated screen supply is recom- in such a stage is greatly reduced since
mended. the shielding effect of the control grid be-
HANDBOOK Grounded Grid Amplifier 161
tween the filament and the plate is effec-

tive over a broad range of frequencies.
3. The feedback capacitance within the stage
is the plate -to- cathode capacitance which F-7,`"°
ll
o
is ordinarily very much less than the grid-
to -plate capacitance. Hence neutralization e
DRIVER
is ordinarily not required. If neutralization

is required the neutralizing capacitors are
very small in value and are cross con-
nected between plates and cathodes in a POWER OUTPUT TO LOAD
(ECrrE=M) IPM oR
EPM?AL EcMrIvM
push-pull stage, or between the opposite Ev =1PM

POWER DELIVERED ST OUTPUT TuRE
end of a split plate tank and the cathode
in a single-ended stage. POWER PROU DRWvER TO LORD
EcM Iw
The disadvantages of a grounded -grid am- EGM (Iw+ 1c.)
TOTAL POWER DEII+EREDlT DRIVER -
plifier are: :
=1w
E .OVECMtc
A large amount of excitation energy is re-
oR
1.
quired. However, only the normal amount PGwER MfORlro r OUTPUT TYRE cRID AND IRS xUPPLT
of energy is lost in the grid circuit of the EcM IDM

OR o.E EOM IC
amplifier tube; all additional energy over
this amount is delivered to the load cir- 2, (RPPRORiM
)
Iw Ic
cuit as useful output.
2. The cathode of a grounded -grid amplifier Figure 9
stage is "hot" to r.f. This means that the
cathode must be fed through a suitable im- GROUNDED -GRID CLASS B OR CLASS C
pedance from the filament supply, or the AMPLIFIER
secondary of the filament transformer must The equations in the above figure give the
be of the low- capacitance type and ade- relationships between the fundamental com-
ponents of grid and plate potential and cur-
quately insulated for the r -f voltage which rent, and the power input and power output
will be present. of the stage. An expression for the approxi-
mate cathode impedance is given
3. A grounded -grid r -f amplifier cannot be
plate modulated 100 per cent unless the
output of the exciting stage is modulated
also. Approximately 70 per cent modula- output stage, the higher will be the require-
tion of the exciter stage as the final stage ment from the driver.
is being modulated 100 per cent is recom-
mended. However, the grounded-grid r -f Calculation of Operating It is most convenient
amplifier is quite satisfactory as a Class Conditions of Grounded to determine the op-
B linear r -f amplifier for single sideband Grid R -F Amplifiers erating conditions for
or conventional amplitude modulated waves a Class B or Class C
or as an amplifier for a straight c -w or grounded -grid r -f power amplifier in a two -step
FM signal. process. The first step is to determine the
plate- circuit and grid- circuit operating condi-
Figure 9 shows a simplified representation tions of the tube as though it were to operate
of a grounded-grid triode r -f power amplifier as a conventional cathode -return amplifier
stage. The relationships between input and stage. The second step is then to add in the
out put power and the peak fundamental com- additional conditions imposed upon the oper-
ponents of electrode voltages and currents are ating conditions by the fact that the stage is
given below the drawing. The calculation of to operate as a grounded -grid amplifier.
the complete operating conditions for a For the first step in the calculation the pro-
grounded-grid amplifier stage is somewhat more cedure given in Section 8 -3 is quite satisfac-
complex than that for a conventional amplifier tory and will be used in the example to follow.
because the input circuit of the tube is in Suppose we take for our example the case of a
series with the output circuit as far as the type 304TL tube operating at 2700 plate volts
load is concerned. The primary result of this at a kilowatt input. Following through the pro-
effect is, as stated before, that considerably cedure previously given:
more power is required from the driver stage. 1. Desired power output -850 watts
The normal power gain for a g -g stage is from Desired Plate voltage -2700 volts
3 to 15 depending upon the grid circuit con-
ditions chosen for the output stage. The higher Desired plate efficiency -85 per cent
the grid bias and grid swing required on the (Np = 0.85)
2. Ph, = 850/0.85 = 1000 watts F, = Epm /Ebb = 2560/2700 = 0.95

F, for Op of 59° (from figure 6) = 0.90
3. Pp = 1000 -
850 = 150 watts Np = F, X F2 = 0.95 X 0.90 = Approx.
Type 30411 chosen; max. Pp = 300 0.85 (85 per cent plate efficiency)
watts, fi= 12.
Now, to determine the operating conditions
as a grounded -grid amplifier we must also know
4. lb = 1000/2700 = 0.370 ampere the peak value of the fundamental components
(370 ma.) of plate current. This is simply equal to
(Ipm /Ib) lb, or:
5. Approximate ipmax = 4.9 X 0.370 = 1.81
Ipm = 1.79 X 0.370 = 0.660 amperes (from 4
ampere
and 8 above)
6. epmi°= 140 volts (from 304TL con- The total average power r e quire d of the
stant- current curves) driver (from figure 9) is equal to Egmlpm /2
(since the grid is grounded and the grid swing
7. Epm = 2700 - 140 = 2560 volts appears also as cathode swing) plus Pd which
is 27.5 watts from 18 above. The total is:
8. fpm /Ib = 2 X 0.85 X 2700/2560 = 1.79 525 X 0.660
Total drive = - 172.5 watts
9. ipmax /Ib = 4.65 (from figure 3) 2
plus 27.5 watts or 200 watts
10. ipmax = 4.65 X 0.370 = 1.72 amperes
Therefore the total power output of the stage
is equal to 850 watts (contributed by the
11. egmp = 140 volts 304TL) plus 172.5 watts (contributed by the
igmax = 0.480 amperes driver) or 1022.5 watts. The cathode driving
impedance of the 30411 (again referring to
12. Cos Op = 2.32 (1.79 -1.57) = 0.51 figure 7) is approximately:
Bp = 59°
Zk = 525/(0.660 + 0.116) = approximately 675
ohms.
1
E«=
-
13. X
1-0.51
2560
Plate- Return or Circuit diagram, elec-
[0.51
L
(
` 12
- 140) - 2700
12 J
Cathode- Follower R -F
Power Amplifier
trode potentials and cur -
rents, and operating
conditions for a cath-
= -385 volts ode- follower r -f power amplifier are given in
figure 10. This circuit can be used, in addi-
14. Egm = 140 -( -385) = 525 volts tion to the grounded -grid circuit just dis-
cussed, as an r -f amplifier with a triode tube
15. Egm/Ecc = -1.36 and no additional neutralization circuit. How-
ever, the circuit will oscillate if the imped-
ance from cathode to ground is allowed to be-
16. igmax/lc = approx. 8.25 (extrapolated
come capacitive rather than inductive or re-
from figure 4) sistive with respect to the operating frequen-
cy. The circuit is not recommended except for
17. lc = 0.480/8.25 = 0.058 (58 ma. d -c v-h -f or u -h -f work with coaxial lines as tuned
grid current) circuits since the peak grid swing required
on the r -f amplifier stage is approximately
equal to the plate voltage on the amplifier
18. Pd= 0.9 X 525 X 0.058 = 27.5 watts
tube if high- efficiency operation is desired.
This means, of course, that the grid tank must
19. Ps = 27.5 -(
-385 X 0.058) = 5.2 watts be able to withstand slightly more peak volt-
Max. Pg for 304TL is 50 watts age than the plate tank. Such a stage may not
be plate modulated unless the driver stage is
modulated the same percentage as the final
We can check the operating plate efficiency amplifier. However, such a stage may be used
of the stage by the method described in Sec- as an amplifier or modulated waves (Class B
tion 8 -4 as follows: linear) or as a c -w or FM amplifier.
HANDBOOK 304Tí. G -G Amplifier 163
circuit. If a conventional filament transformer

is to be used the cathode tank coil may con-
sist of two parallel heavy conductors (to carry
the high filament current) bypassed at both
the ground end and at the tube socket. The
tuning capacitor is then placed between fila-
ment and ground. It is possible in certain cases
to use two r -f chokes of special design to feed
the filament current to the tubes, with a con-
ventional tank circuit between filament and
ground. Coaxial lines also may be used to
-
EPM ( PM. IGM) serve both as cathode tank and filament feed
POWER OUTPUT TO LOAO
to the tubes for v -h -f and u -h -f work.
POWER DELIVERED eY OUTPUT TuBE EPM IPM
2
EPM IGM
POWER FROM DRIVER TO LOAD -
2
EGM LGM (EPM + eGMP) LGM

TOTAL POWER FROM DRIVER e
2 2
(EPM + eGMP) te IC 8 -6 A Grounded -Grid

e APPROA
2
304TL Amplifier
ASSUMnIG 1GM2' LB IC
POWER ABSORBED BY OUTPUT TUBE GRID AND BIAS SUPPLY The 304TL tube is capable of operating as
APPROS 0.0 (Ecc + eGMP) le an r -f amplifier of the conventional type with
the full kilowatt input permitted amateur sta-
j EGM -APPROA (EPM+eGMP)
tions. The tube is characterized by an enor-
G IGM B lc
mous reserve of filament emission, resulting
from the fact that about 130 watts is required
Figure 10
merely to light the four filaments. Where the
CATHODE -FOLLOWER R -F POWER heavy filament drain, plus the low amplifica-
AMPLIFIER tion factor of about 12, does not impose hard-
Shoving the relationships between the tube ship in the design of the transmitter, the 304TL
potentials and currents and the input and is quite satisfactory for amateur service.
output power of the stage. The approximate
grid impedance also is given. The 304TL offers an additional feature in
that its plate -to- cathode capacitance is very
low (about 0.6 µpfd.) for a tube of its size
and power handling capabilities. This feature
permits the tube to be operated, without neu-
The design of such an amplifier stage is tralization, as a grounded-grid r -f power am-
essentally the same as the design of a plifier.
grounded -grid amplifier stage as far as the
first step is concerned. Then, for the second Characteristics of t hough the excitation
A 1
step the operating conditions given in figure Grounded -Grid power of the tube is only
10 are applied to the data obtained in the first Operation 27.5 watts (which would be
step. As an example, take the 304TL stage the actual driving power
previously described. The total power required required if the tube were operating as a neu-
of the driver will be (from figure 10) approxi- tralized amplifier) the driving power required
mately (2700X0.58);1.8) /2 or 141 watts. Of into the cathode circuit from the exciter is
this 141 watts 27.5 watts (as before) will be about 200 watts. The extra 170 watts or so is
lost as grid dissipation and bias loss and the not lost, however, since it appears directly in
balance of 113.5 watts will appear as output. the output of the amplifier as additional ener-
The total output of the stage will then be ap- gy. Thus while the 304TL itself will deliver
proximately 963 watts. about 850 watts to the load circuit, the extra
170 watts supplied by the driver over and above
Cathode Tank for The cathode tank circuit the 27.5 watts required to excite the 304TL
G -Gor C -F for either a grounded-grid appears added to the 850 -watt output of the
Power Amplifier cathode-follower r -f
or 304TL. Thus the total output of the stage
power amplifier may be a would be about 1020 watts, even though the
conventional tank circuit if the filament trans- d -c input to the 304TL was only one kilowatt.
former for the stage is of the low- capacitance Nevertheless, the tube itself operates only at
high- voltage type. Conventional filament trans- its normal plate- circuit efficiency, the extra
formers, however, will not operate with the power output coming directly from the added
high values of r -f voltage present in such a excitation power taken from the driver.
1 64 R- F Vacuum Tube A mp l i fi e r s T H E R A D I O
Since 15 to 20 per cent of the output from a

grounded -grid r -f stage passes directly through
it from the driver, it is obvious that conven-
tional plate modulation of the output stage
only will give incomplete modulation. In fact,
if the plate voltage is completely removed from
the g -g (grounded-grid) stage and the plate re-
turn is grounded, the energy from the driver
will pass directly through the tube and appear
in the output circuit. So it becomes necessary
to apply modulation to the driver tube simul-
taneously to that which is applied to the plate
of the g -g stage. It is normal practice in com-
mercial application to modulate the driver
stage about 60 per cent as much as the g -g
stage.
For straight c -w operation no special con-
E%CIT- ` CT. / -BIAS -M.V.+3000V. siderations are involved in the use of a g -g
ATION
10SV.,13A.
power amplifier except that it obviously is
necessary that the driver stage be keyed simul-
Figure 11 taneously with the final amplifier, if the in-
stallation is such that the final amplifier is to
SCHEMATIC OF THE be keyed. With excitation, keying the combina-
304TL G -G AMPLIFIER tion of the driver and output stage will oper-
L1 -None required for 3.5 Mc., sine cathode coil L2 ate quite normally.
tunes to 3.5 Mc.
7 Mc. -20 turn no. 14 imam., F4" dia. by 3" long.
14 Mc. -10 turns no. 8 bore, 11/" dio. by 3" long. The Grounded -Grid The g -g power amplifier
L2 -Two parallel lengths of no. 12 enam. close -wound Class B Linear is particularly well suited
to fill National type XR -10A coil form.
to use as a class B lin-
25 turns of the two wires in parallel.
ear amplifier to build up the output of a lower
L3-5 -turn link of no. 16 rubber and cotton covered wire. powered SSB transmitter. Two advantages ob-
L4 -3.5 Mc.: 18 turns no. 12 enam.; Nat. XR -10A form
tained through the use of the g -g stage as a
wound full, 4 t. link
class B linear amplifier are (1) no swamping
7 Mc.: 10 turns no. 12 nom.; Nat. XR -10A form, 3 t.
link is required in the input circuit of the g-g stage,
14 Mc.: 4 turns no. bare; Not. XR -10A form,
and (2) nearly the full output of the exciter
8 2 t.
link transmitter appears in the output of the g -g
RFC -800 -mo. if choke (National R -175) stage, being added to the output of the g -g
amplifier.
Since operating impedances are lowered
when a stage is operated as a Class B linear,
rather high values of tank capacitance are re-
quired for a satisfactory operating circuit Q.
The load impedance presented to one 30411
with the operating conditions specified above
is about 2500 ohms; hence the plate tank cir-
cuit capacitance for an operating Q of 15
should be about 180 ohms. This represents an
operating plate tank capacitance of about 240
µpfd. for 4 Mc., and proportionately smaller
capacitances for the higher frequency bands.
The cathode impedance for one 304TL under
the operating conditions specified is about
700 ohms. Thus, for an operating cathode -cir-
cuit Q of 10 the cathode tank capacitance
Figure 12
REAR OF THE GROUNDEDGRID
r
AMPLIFIER
HANDBOOK 304 IL G -G Amplifier 165
should have a reactance of 70 ohms. This

8 -7 Class ABI Radio Frequency
value of reactance is represented by about 550
µµfd. at 4 Mc., and proportionately smaller ca- Power Amplifiers
pacitances for higher frequencies. Since the
peak cathode voltage is only about 400, quite Class ABI r -f amplifiers operate under
small spacing in the cathode tank capacitor such conditions of bias and excitation that
can be used. grid current does not flow over any portion of
Figure 11 illustrates a practical grounded - the input cycle. This is desirable, since
grid amplifier, using a single 304TL tube. A distortion caused by grid current loading is
bifilar wound coil is used to feed the filament absent, and also because the stage is capable
voltage to the tube. Shunting inductors are of high power gain. Stage efficiency is about
used to tune the filament circuit to higher fre-
58% when a plate current operating angle of
quencies. when tuning the g -g stage, it must
2100 is chosen, as compared to 62% for Class
be remembered that the input tuned circuit is
13 operation.
effectively in series with the output circuit as
far as the output energy is concerned. Thus, The level of static (quiescent) plate current
it is not possible to apply full excitation power for lowest distortion is quite critical for
to the stage unless plate current is also flow- Class ABI tetrode operation. This value is
ing. If full excitation is applied in the absence determined by the tube characteristics, and is
of plate voltage, the grid of the output tube not greatly affected by the circuit parameters
would be damaged from excessive excitation. or operating voltages. The maximum d -c plate
Constriction of the amplifier is illustrated in potential is therefore limited by the static
figures 12 and 13. dissipation of the tube, since the resting plate
A 3000 -volt plate supply is used which current figure is fixed. The static plate current
should have good regulation. An output filter of a tetrode tube varies as the 3/2 power of
condenser of at least 10 microfarads should be the screen voltage. For example, raising the
employed for Class B operation. Class B oper- screen voltage from 300 to 500 volts will
ating bias is -260 volts, obtained from a well double the plate current. The optimum static
regulated bias supply. plate current for minimum distortion is also
For operation in TV areas, additional lead doubled, since the shape of the Eg -Ip curve
filtering is required, as well as complete does not change.
screening of the amplifier. In actual practice, somewhat lower static
plate current than optimum may be employed
without raising the distortion appreciably,
and values of static plate current of 0.6 to
0.8 of optimum may be safely used, depending
upon the amount of nonlinearity that can be
tolerated.
As with the class B linear stage, the mini-
mum plate voltage swing of the class ABI
amplifier must be kept above the d -c screen
potential to prevent operation in the nonlinear
portion of the characteristic curve. A low value
of screen voltage allows greater r -f plate
voltage swing, resulting in improvement in
plate efficiency of the tube. A balance be-
tween plate dissipation, plate efficiency, and
plate voltage swing must be achieved for best
linearity of the amplifier.
The S -Curve The perfect linear ampli-
fier delivers a signal
that is a replica of the input signal. Inspection
of the plate characteristic curve of a typical
tube will disclose the tube linearity under
class A operating conditions (figure 14). The
curve is usually of exponential shape, and
the signal distortion is held to a small value
Figure 13 by operating the tube well below its maximum
UNDERSIDE OF THE GROUNDED -GRID output, and centering operation over the most
AMPLIFIER linear portion of the characteristic curve.
M
;s ,
.`
N r,eez::ee:uee
Y'/aMINN
/LN
R!RRiMJ
f>LIJON!
N
MOS7 LINfA11
Me710NOF
..;C.i»C====
eiulilllM 1134n MM
::C:CMI!ll3Q:1111:Ci=»C11
Figure 14
Eg -Ip CURVE
Amplifier operation is confined to

IMO
R.F.
E OUT
R.F. EIN
Figure 15
LINEARITY CURVE OF
TYPICAL TETRODE AMPLIFIER
most linear portion of characteristic At point "A" the instantaneous plate

curve. voltage is swinging down to the value
of screen voltage. At point "B" it is
swinging well below the screen and is
approaching the point where saturation,
or plate current limiting takes place.
The relationship between exciting voltage
in a Class AB1 amplifier and the r -f plate
circuit voltage is shown in figure 15. With a
small value of static plate current the lower
portion of the line is curved. Maximum un- the screen voltage. In this case, the screen
distorted output is limited by the point on the voltage is 500, so the minimum plate voltage
line (A) where the instantaneous plate voltage excursion should be limited to 600 volts.
down to the screen voltage. This "hook" in Class ABI operation implies no grid current,
the line is caused by current diverted from therefore the load line cannot cross the Eg =0
the plate to the grid and screen elements of line. At the point Ep 600, Eg =0, the maximum
the tube. The characteristic plot of the usual plate current is 580 ma (Point "B ").
linear amplifier takes the shape of an S- curve.
The lower portion of the curve is straightened Each point the load line crosses a grid volt-
out by using the proper value of static plate age axis may be taken as a point for construc-
current, and the upper portion of the curve is tion of the Eg -Ip curve, just as was done in
avoided by limiting minimum plate voltage figure 22, chapter 6. A constructed curve
swing to a point substantially above the value shows that the approximate static bias voltage
of the screen voltage. is -74 volts, which checks closely with point A
of figure 16. In actual practice, the bias volt-
Operating Parameters The approximate oper- age is set to hold the actual dissipation slightly
for the Class AB1 ating parameters may be below the maximum figure of the tube.
Linear Amplifier obtained from the Con-
stant Current curves The single tone power output is:
(Eg -Ep) or the Eg -Ip curves of the tube in
question. An operating load line is firs t Emax -Eminx Ipmax, or 3000-600 X .58 =348 watts
approximated. One end of the load line is 4 4
determined by the d -c operating voltage of the The plate current -angle efficiency factor for
tube, and the required static plate current. this class of operation is 0.73, and the actual
As a starting point, let the product of the plate plate circuit efficiency is:
voltage and current equal the plate dissipation
of the tube. Assuming we have a 4 -400A Np=Ema:-Eminx0.73, or 3000-600 x0.73=58.4%
tetrode, this end of the load line will fall on Emsx 3000
point A (figure 16). Plate power dissipation
is 360 watts (3000V @ 120 ma). The opposite The power input to the stage is therefore
end of the load line will fall on a point deter-
mined by the minimum instantaneous plate volt- Pox 100 or, 348 = 595 watts
age, and by the maximum instantaneous plate Np 58.4
current. The minimum plate voltage, for best
linearity should be considerably higher than The plate dissipation is: 595- 348 =247 watts.
HANDBOOK AB, R.F. Power Amplifiers 167
4 -400A Tuer
E SCR = 500 VOLTS
75
S01
+
23POINT B
V SC 1000 2000 3000 40
w EP
.0
23
.4
_(OINT
SOI
.2
,
73 A
1
001
o
I
u'
VALVE OF VALUE OP
Er MIN. 600V.. MAA. PLATE
50 IP -0.SIA DISSIPATION
(3000 V A 0.72 A .310 w4rrs)
75'
21001
Figure 16
OPERATING PARAMETERS FOR TETRODE LINEAR
AMPLIFIER ARE OBTAINED FROM CONSTANT -CURRENT
CURVES.
It can be seen that the limiting factor for fore required. Screen dissipation is highly
this class of operation is the static plate dissi- responsive to plate loading conditions, and the
pation, which is quite a bit higher than the plate circuit should always be adjusted so as
operating dissipation level. It is possible, at to keep the screen current below the maximum
the expense of a higher level of distortion, to dissipation level as established by the applied
drop the static plate dissipation and to increase voltage.
the screen voltage to obtain greater power out-
G -G Closs B Linear Certain tetrode and pentode
put. If the screen voltage is set at 800, and
the bias increased sufficiently to drop the Tetrodo Amplifier tubes, such as the 6AG7,
static 'late current to 90 ma, the single tone 837, and 803 perform well
d -c plate current may rise to 300 ma, for a as grounded grid class B linear amplifiers. In
power input of 900 watts. The plate circuit this configuration both grids and the suppressor
efficiency is 55.6 %, and the power output is are grounded, and excitation is applied to the
500 watts. Static plate dissipation is 270 watts. cathode circuit of the tube. So connected, the
At a screen potential of 500 volts, the maxi- tubes take on characteristics of high -mu triodes.
mum screen current is less than 1 ma, and under No bias or screen supplies are required for
certain loading conditions may be negative. this type of operation, and reasonably linear
When the screen potential is raised to 800 volts
maximum screen current is 18 ma. The per- 6AG7
formance of the tube depends upon the voltage
fields set up within the tube by the cathode,
control grid, screen grid, and plate. The quantity
of current flowing in the screen circuit is only
incidental to the fact that the screen is main-
tained at a positive potential with respect to
the electron stream surrounding it.
The tube will perform as expected so long as
8+300-700 V.
the screen current, in either direction, does
not create undesirable changes in the screen Figure 17
voltage, or cause excessive screen dissipation. SIMPLE GROUNDED -GRID
Good regulation of the screen supply is there- LINEAR AMPLIFIER
VI V2 V V4
803
Vs
837 500 837 837 soo 803 500
INPUT
2 WATTS
001
211V
- EACH
001
5 K
PEAK .001
Ti
n,.E0A, CH
115V 1. +2500
Figure 18
An open frame filament transformer may
3 -STAGE KILOWATT LINEAR
be used for Tl. Cathode taps are ad-
AMPLIFIER FOR 80 OR 40 justed for proper excitation of following
METER OPERATION
stage.
operation can be had with a very minimum of using a 4 -400A tube for the h.f. region. The
circuit components (figure 17). The input im- operating characteristics of the amplifier are
pedance of the g -g stage falls between 100 summarized in figure 19. It can be noted that
and 250 ohms, eliminating the necessity of unusually low screen voltage is used on the
swamping resistors, even though considerable tube. The use of lower screen voltage has the
power is drawn by the cathode circuit of the adverse effect of increasing the driving power,
g -g stage. but at the same time the static plate current
Power gain of a g -g stage varies from ap- of the stage is decreased and linearity is im-
proximately 20 when tubes of the 6ÁG7 type improved. For grounded grid operation of the
are used, down to five or six for the 837 and 4 -400A, a screen voltage of 300 volts (filament
803 tubes. One or more g -g stages may be to screen) gives a reasonable compromise be-
cascaded to provide up to a kilowatt of power, tween these factors.
as illustrated in figure 18.
The input and output circuits of cascaded
g -g stages are in series, and a variation in
load impedance of the output stage reflects
OPERATING DATA FOR 4- 400A/4 -250A
back as a proportional change on the input G -G. LINEAR AB, AMPLIFIER
circuit. If the first g -g stage is driven by a high (SINGLE TONE)
impedance source, such as a tetrode amplifier, 0 -C SCREEN VOLTAGE +300 +300
any change in gain will automatically be com- D -C PLATE VOLTAGE +3000 +3500
pensated for. If the gain of V4 -V5 drops, the
input impedance to that stage will rise. This STATIC PLATE CURRENT 60 MA. 60 MA.
change will reflect through V2 -V3 so that the D -C GRID BIAS -60 V. -S91/.
load impedance of V1 rises. Since VI has a PEAK CATHODE SWING 67 V. 113 V.
high internal impedance the output voltage
will rise when the load impedance rises. The MINIMUM PLATE VOLTAGE 660 V. 500 V.
increased output voltage will raise the output MAXIMUM SIGNAL GRID CURRENT 3.6 MA. 10 MA.
voltage of each g -g stage so that the overall MAXIMUM SIGNAL SCREEN CURRENT 4.1 MA. 20 MA.
output is nearly up to the initial value before
MAXIMUM SIGNAL PLATE CURRENT 195 MA. 267 MA.
the drop in gain of V4 -V5.
The tank circuits, therefore, of all g -g stages MAXIMUM SIGNAL PLATE DISSIPATION 235 W. 235 W.
must be resonated with low plate voltage and STATIC PLATE DISSIPATION 160 W. 210 W.
excitation applied to the tubes. Tuning of one
GRID DRIVING POWER 0.63 3.4 W.
stage will affect the other stages, and the in- W.
put and coupling of each stage must be ad- FEEDTHRU POWER 6.55w. ,S.6 W.
justed in turn until the proper power limit is POWER OUTPUT (MAXIMUM) 350 W. 700 W.
reached.
POWER INPUT (MAXIMUM) 365 W. 933 W.
Operating Data for Experiments have been

4 -400A Grounded conducted by Collins Ra-
Grid Linear dio Co. on a grounded grid
Amplifier linear amplifier stage Figure 19
HANDBOOK 169
TOP VIEW OF A 4 -250A AMPLIFIER

Pi- network tetrode amplifier may be operated Class ABA, Class B, or Class C by varying
various potentials
applied to tube. Same general physical and mechanical design applies in each case.
CHAPTER NINE
The Oscilloscope
The cathode -ray oscilloscope (also called the recipient of signals from two sources: the
oscillograph) is an instrument which permits vertical and horizontal amplifiers. The opera-
visual examination of various electrical phe- tion of the cathode -ray tube itself has been
nomena of interest to the electronic engineer. covered in Chapter 4; the auxiliary circuits
Instantaneous changes in voltage, current and pertaining to the cathode -ray tube will be
phase are observable if they take place slow- covered here.
ly enough for the eye to follow, or if they are
periodic for a long enough time so that the eye
can obtain an impression from the screen of The Vertical The incoming signal which is
the cathode -ray tube. In addition, the cathode - Amplifier to be examined is applied to
ray oscilloscope may be used to study any the terminals marked Vertical
variable (within the limits of its frequency Input and Ground. The Vertical Input terminal
response characteristic) which can be con- is connected through capacitor C, (figure 2) so
verted into electrical potentials. This conver- that the a -c component of the input signal ap-
sion is made possible by the use of some type pears across the vertical amplifier gain con-
of transducer, such as a vibration pickup unit, trol potentiometer, R,. Thus the magnitude of
pressure pickup unit, photoelectric cell, mi- the incoming signal may be controlled to pro-
crophone, or a variable impedance. The use vide the desired deflection on the screen of
of such a transducer makes the oscilloscope
a valuable tool in fields other than electronics.
9 -1 A Typical Cathode -Ray

Oscilloscope
For the purpose of analysis, the operation

of a simple oscilloscope will be described.
The Du Mont type 274-A unit is a fit instru-
ment for such a description. The block diagram
of the 274 -A is shown in figure 1. The elec-
tron beam of the cathode -ray tube can be moved
vertically or horizontally, or the vertical and
horizontal movements may be combined to pro- Figure 1
duce composite patterns on the tube screen. BLOCK DIAGRAM, TYPE 274 -A
As shown in figure 1, the cathode -ray tube is CATHODE -RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
170
Time Base Generator 171
CI
025 OF 6AC7
INPUT o- .j
R7150N
VERT. AMP. R+
CONTROL IM
R30
666
- C2
5i00
R2
4.0
Figure 2
TYPICAL AMPLIFIER SCHEMATIC
Figure 3
SCHEMATIC OF CATHODE -RAY TUBE

the cathode-ray tube. Also, as shown in figure CIRCUITS
1, S, has been incorporated to by -pass the
A 5BPIA cathode -ray tube is used in this
vertical amplifier and capacitively couple the instrument. As shown, the necessary poten-
input signal directly to the vertical deflection
tials for operating this tube are obtained
plate if so desired.
from a voltage divider made up of resistors
In figure 2, V, is a 6AC7 pentode tube which
is used as the vertical amplifier. As the sig- R21 through R26 inclusive. The intensity of
nal variations appear on the grid of varia- V the beam is adjusted by moving the contact
on R21. This adjusts the potential on the
tions in the plate current of V, will take place.
cathode more or less negative with respect
Thus signal variations will appear in opposite
to the grid which is operated at the full neg-
phase and greatly amplified across the plate
ative voltage -1200 volts. Focusing to the
resistor, R,. Capacitor C2 has been added a-
desired sharpness is accomplished by ad-
cross R2 in the cathode circuit of V, to flatten
justing the contact on R23 to provide the
the frequency response of the amplifier at the
correct potential for anode no. I. Interde-
high frequencies. This capacitor because of
pendency between the focus and the, inten-
its low value has very little effect at low in-
sity controls is inherent in all electrostati-
put frequencies, but operates more effectively
cally focused cathode-ray tubes. In short,
as the frequency of the signal increases. The
there is an optimum setting of the focus con-
amplified signal delivered by V, is now ap-
trol for every setting of the intensity con-
plied through the second half of switch S2 and
trol. The second anode of the 58P 1A is oper-
capacitor C, to the free vertical deflection
ated at ground potential in this instrument.
plate of the cathode -ray tube (figure 3). Also one of each pair of deflection plates is
operated at ground potential.
The cathode is operated at a high negative
The Horizontal The circuit of the horizontal potential (approximately 1200 volts) so that
Amplifier amplifier and the circuit of the total overall accelerating voltage of this
the vertical amplifier, de- tube is regarded as 1200 volts since the sec-
scribed in the above paragraph, are similar. A ond anode is operated at ground potential.
switch in the input circuit makes provision for The vertical and horizontal positioning con-
the input from the Horizontal Input terminals trols which are connected to their respective
to be capacitively coupled to the grid of the deflection plates are capable of supplying
horizontal amplifier or to the free horizontal either a positive or negative d-c potential
deflection plate thus bypassing the amplifier, to the deflection plates. This permits the
or for the output of the sweep generator to be spot to be positioned at any desired place
capacitively coupled to the amplifier, as shown on the entire screen.
in figure 1.
The Time Base Investigation of electrical

e l e c tr i c
Generator wave forms by the use of a
frequently
cathode -ray tube time. Such an arrangement is made possible
requires that some means be readily available by the inclusion in the oscilloscope of a Time
to determine the variation in these wave forms Base -Generator. The function of this genera-
with respect to time. When such a time base tor is to move the spot across the screen at a
is required, the patterns presented on the cath- constant rate from left to right between two
ode -ray tube screen show the variation in am- selected points, to return the spot almost in-
plitude of the input signal with respect to stantaneously to its original position, and to
172 The Oscilloscope THE RADIO
884 tube, the tube will ionize (or fire) at a

specific plate voltage.
Capacitors C10-C,,, are selectively connected
in parallel with the 884 tube. Resistor R
limits the peak current drain of the gas triode.
The plate voltage on this tube is obtained
Figure 4
through resistors R2E, R17 and R1,. The voltage
SAWTOOTH WAVE FORM applied to the plate of the 884 tube cannot reach
the power supply voltage because of the charg-
ing effect this voltage has upon the capacitor
which is connected across the tube. This ca-
repeat this procedure at a specified rate. This pacitor charges until the plate voltage becomes
action is accomplished by the voltage output high enough to ionize the gas in the tube. At
from the time base (sweep) generator. The this time, the 884 tube starts to conduct and
rate at which this voltage repeats the cycle the capacitor discharges through the tube until
of sweeping the spot across the screen is re- its voltage falls to the extinction potential of
ferred to as the sweep frequency. The sweep the tube. When the tube stops conducting, the
voltage necessary to produce the motion de- capacitor voltage builds up until the tube fires
scribed above must be of a sawtooth wave- again. As this action continues, it results in
form, such as that shown in figure 4.
the sawtooth wave form of figure 4 appearing
The sweep occurs as the voltage varies
from A to B, and the return trace as the volt-
at the junction of and R27. R
age varies from B to C. If A-B is a straight
line, the sweep generated by this voltage will Synchronization Provision has been made so
be linear. It should be realized that the saw - the sweep generator may be
tooth sweep signal is only used to plot varia- synchronized from the vertical amplifier or
tions in the vertical axis signal with respect from an external source. The switch S, shown
to time. Specialized studies have made neces- in figure 5 is mounted on the front panel to be
sary the use of sweep signals of various easily accessible to the operator.
shapes which are introduced from an external If no synchronizing voltage is applied, the
source through the Horizontal Input terminals. discharge tube will begin to conduct when the
plate potential reaches the value of Et (Firing
The Sawtooth The sawtooth voltage neces- Potential). When this breakdown takes place
Generator sary to obtain the linear time and the tube begins to conduct, the capacitor
base is generated by the cir- is discharged rapidly through the tube, and the
cuit of figure 5, which operates as follows: plate voltage decreases until it reaches the
A type 884 gas triode (V3) is used for the extinction potential Ex. At this point conduc-
sweep generator tube. This tube contains an tion ceases, and the plate potential rises slow-
inert gas which ionizes when the voltage be- ly as the capacitor begins to charge through
tween the cathode and the plate reaches a cer- R27 and R2E. The plate potential will again
tain value. The ionizing voltage depends upon reach a point of conduction and the circuit
the bias voltage of the tube, which is deter- will start a new cycle. The rapidity of the
mined by the voltage divider resistors R12 -R17. plate voltage rise is dependent upon the circuit
With a specific negative bias applied to the constants R2,, R2E, and the capacitor selected,
C10,O.Sur. GENERATOR
C11,0.1 UF. OUTPUT
C12,02LI
3, 2700 OUF
T SIGNAL TO C,4, 2201.117T
DEFLECTION PLATE
R, R,,
150 0 10 4100
6AC7
Ree
o SN
NNAL
E ATE
SYNC FINE FREQ.
CONTROL
R 0,000
TO e
Figure 5
SCHEMATIC OF SWEEP GENERATOR
HANDBOOK The Oscilloscope 173
Eb +
Et. vs Eg EP+
STATIC CONTROL
CHARACTERISTIC
Ep
FIRING POTENTIAL
(D.C. BIAS)
Eex
I
W--AI FIRING
FREE RUN POTENTIA SVNPERION EXTINCTION
NING PERIOD WITH SYNC. PERIOD POTENTIAL
Y-
D.C. GRIDI SIGNAL
SYNC. SIGNAL
APPLIED TO GRID
Figure 6
ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONIZATION OF TIME -BASE GENERATOR
C10 -C14, as well as the supply voltage Eb. time the plate potential rises to a sufficient
The exact relationship is given by: value, so that the sweep recurs at the same
or an integral sub -multiple of the synchroniz-
ing signal rate. This is illustrated in figure 6.
ED=Eb(1_ere t )
Power Supply Figure 7 shows the power sup-
Where EC=---Capacitor voltage at time t ply to be made up of two defi-
Eb=
Supply voltage (B+ supply - cathode nite sections: a low voltage positive supply
bias) which provides power for operating the ampli-
ErFiring potential or potential at which fiers, the sweep generator, and the positioning
time -base gas triode fires circuits of the cathode -ray tube; and the high
Ex =Extinction potential or potential at voltage negative supply which provides the
which time -base gas triode ceases potentials necessary for operating the various
to conduct
e= Base of natural logarithms
t= Time in seconds
r=Resistance in ohms (R2, + R25)
c=Capacity in farads (C,o, ,,, 12, ,,, or ,4)
The frequency of oscillation will be approx-

imately:
Eb 1
f=-
rc Et-Ex
Under this condition (no synchronizing sig-
nal applied) the oscillator is said to be free
running.
When a positive synchronizing voltage is
applied to the grid, the firing potential of the
tube is reduced. The tube therefore ionizes at
a lower plate potential than when no grid sig-
nal is applied. Thus the applied snychroniz- Figure 7
ing voltage fires the gas -filled triode each SCHEMATIC OF POWER SUPPLY
,990
ó HII
>m 1; IC <Irs
N <
h
Z
N
IN
' I
Z
OI z
O 1 I
oai
I I
Er
1_>--J
In
Z
úá
1Y
ÑQ ?
tivll,
Z
>ú
>
o
HANDBOOK Display of Waveforms 175
TINE -
r
SEC
ìl0
Figure 9
PROJECTION DRAWING OF A SINEWAVE
APPLIED TO THE VERTICAL AXIS AND A
SAWTOOTH WAVE OF THE SAME FRE- Figure 10
QUENCY APPLIED SIMULTANEOUSLY ON PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING THE RE-
THE HORIZONTAL AXIS SULTANT PATTERN WHEN THE FRE-
QUENCY OF THE SAWTOOTH IS ONE -HALF
OF THAT EMPLOYED IN FIGURE 9
electrodes of the cathode -ray tube, and for

certain positioning controls.
The positive low voltage supply consists wave is amplified by the vertical amplifier
of full -wave rectifier (Vs), the output of which and impressed on the vertical (Y-axis) deflec-
is filtered by a capacitor input filter (20 -20 pfd. tion plates of the cathode -ray tube. Simultane-
and 8 II). It furnishes approximately 400 volts. ously the sawtooth wave from the time base
The high voltage power supply employs a half generator is amplified and impressed on the
wave rectifier tube, V,. The output of this rec- horizontal (X -axis) deflection plates.
tifier is filtered by a resistance -capacitor fil- The electron beam moves in accordance
ter colsisting of 0.5 -0.5 µfd. and .18 NI. A with the resultant of the sine and sawtooth
voltage divider network attached from the out- signals. The effect is shown in figure 9 where
put of this filter obtains the proper operating the sine and sawtooth waves are graphically
potentials for the various electrodes of the represented on time and voltage axes. Points
cathode -ray tube. The complete schematic of on the two waves that occur simultaneously
the Du Mont 274 -A Oscilloscope is shown in are numbered similarly. For example, point 2
figure 8. on the sine wave and point 2 on the sawtooth
wave occur at the same instant. Therefore the
position of the beam at instant 2 is the result-
Display of Waveforms ant of the voltages on the horizontal and ver-
9 -2
tical deflection plates at instant 2. Referring
to figure 9, by projecting lines from the two
Together with a working knowledge of the point 2 positions, the position of the electron
controls of the oscilloscope, an understanding beam at instant 2 can be located. If projec-
of how the patterns are traced on the screen tions were drawn from every other instantane-
must be obtained for a thorough knowledge of ous position of each wave to intersect on the
oscilloscope operation. With this in mind a Circle representing the tube screen, the inter-
careful analysis of two fundamental waveform sections of similarly timed projections would
patterns is discussed under the f o l lowing trace out a sine wave.
headings: In summation, figure 9 illustrates the prin-
a. Patterns plotted against time (using the ciples involved in producing a sine wave trace
sweep generator for horizontal deflection). on the screen of a cathode -ray tube. Each in-
b. Lissajous Figures (using a sine wave for tersection of similarly timed projections rep-
horizontal deflection). resents the position of the electron beam act-
ing under the influence of the varying voltage
Patterns Plotted A sine wave is typical of waveforms on each pair of deflection plates.
Against Time such a pattern and is con- Figure 10 shows the effect on the pattern of
venient for this study. This decreasing the frequency of the sawtooth
Figure 12
METHOD OF CALCULATING FREQUENCY
RATIO OF LISSAJOUS FIGUR ES
Figure 11 Obtaining a Lissajous 1. The horizontal am-

PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING THE RE- Pattern on the screen plifier shouldbe discon-
SULTANT LISSAJOUS PATTERN WHEN A Oscilloscope Settings nected from the sweep
SINE WAVE APPLIED TO THE HORIZON- oscillator. The signal
TAL AXIS IS THREE TIMES THAT AP- to be examined should be connected to the
PLIED TO THE VERTICAL AXIS horizontal amplifier of the oscilloscope.
2. An audio oscillator signal should be con-
nected to the vertical amplifier of the oscillo-
scope.
3. By adjusting the frequency of the audio
wave. Any recurrent waveform plotted against
time can be displayed and analyzed by the oscillator a stationary pattern should be ob-
same procedure as used in these examples.
tained on the screen of the oscilloscope. It is
The sine wave problem just illustrated is not necessary to stop the pattern, but merely
typical of the method by which any waveform to slow it up enough to count the loops at the
can be displayed on the screen of the cathode - side of the pattern.
4. Count the number of loops which intersect
ray tube. Such waveforms as square wave,
an imaginary vertical line AB and the number
sawtooth wave, and many more irregular recur-
rent waveforms can be observed by the same of loops which intersect the imaginary hori-
method explained in the preceding paragraphs. zontal line BC as in figure 12. The ratio of
the number of loops which intersect AB is to
9 -3 Lissajous Figures
Another fundamental pattern is the Lissajous

figure, named after the 19th century French
scientist. This type of pattern is of particular
use in determining the frequency ratio between O RATIO I:I O RATIO 2 +I
two sine wave signals. If one of these signals
is known, the other can be easily calculated
from the pattern made by the two signals upon
the screen of the cathode -ray tube. Common
practice is to connect the known signal to the
horizontal channel and the unknown signal to
the vertical channel.
The presentation of Lissajous figures can
be analyzed by the same method as previously
used for sine wave presentation. A simple ex-
ample is shown in figure 11. The frequency
ratio of the signal on the horizontal axis to the O RATIO 5 3
signal on the vertical axis is 3 to 1. If the
known signal on the horizontal axis is 60 cy-
cles per second, the signal on the vertical Figure 13
axis is 20 cycles. OTHER LISSAJOUS PATTERNS
HANDBOOK Lissajous Figures 177
,si .90. 133

PHASE CHEF EPENCE =0' PHASE DIFFERENCE' 45' PHASE DIFFERENCE PHASE DIFFERENCE'
PHASE DIFFERENCE 160' PHASE [REFERENCE .225. PHASE DIFFERENCE 270 PHASE DIFFERENCE 315
Figure 14
LISSAJOUS PATTERNS OBTAINED FROM THE MAJOR PHASE DIFFERENCE ANGLES
the number of loops which intersect BC as the plifier control is adjusted (3 inches). Re-
frequency of the horizontal signal is to the connect the signal to the vertical ampli-
frequency of the vertical signal. fier.
Figure 13 shows other examples of Lissa- The resulting pattern will give an accurate
jous figures. In each case the frequency ratio picture of the exact phase difference between
shown is the frequency ratio of the signal on the two waves. If these two patterns are ex-
the horizontal axis to that on the vert i c al actly the same frequency but different in phase
axis. and maintain that difference, the pattern on
the screen will remain stationary. If, 'however,
Phase Differ- Coming under the heading of one of these frequencies is drifting slightly,
ence Patterns Lissajous figures is the method the pattern will drift slowly through 360 °. The
used to determine the phase phase angles of 0 °, 45 °, 90 °, 135 °, 180 °,
difference between signals of the same fre- 225°, 270°, 315° are shown in figure 14.
quency. The patterns i n vol v e d take on the Each of the eight patterns in figure 14 can
form of ellipses with different degrees of ec- be analyzed separately by the previously used
centricity.
The following steps should be taken to ob-
tain a phase -difference pattern:
1. With no signal input to the oscilloscope,
the spot should be centered on the screen
of the tube.
2. Connect one signal to the vertical ampli-
fier of the oscilloscope, and the other
signal to the horizontal amplifier.
3. Connect a common ground between the
two frequencies under investigation and
the oscilloscope.
TIME -
4. Adjust the vertical amplifier gain so as
to give about 3 inches of deflection on a
5 inch tube, and adjust the calibrate d
scale of the oscilloscope so that the ver-
tical axis of the scale coincides precise-
ly with the vertical deflection of the spot.
5. Remove the signal from the vertical am-
plifier, being careful not to change the
Figure 15
setting of the vertical gain control.
6. Increase the gain of the horizontal am- PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING THE RE-
plifier to give a deflection exactly the SULTANT PHASE DIFFERENCE PATTERN
same as that to which the vertical am- OF TWO SINE WAVES 45° OUT OF PHASE
Y MAXIMUM. I Y MA%IMUMI
V' INTERCEPT Y INTERCEPT =.5
r
SINE
' =-9
o
SINE _-
15
YMA%IMUM=I Y MAX IMU

Y INTERCEP,
SINE =
OF.
SINE ,
5.110
Figure 16
EXAMPLES SHOWING THE USE OF THE
FORMULA FOR DETERMINATION OF PHASE
DIF FERENCE
projectiln method. Figure 15 shows two sine switch to direct and the outputs of the two
waves which differ in phase being projected signals must be adjusted to result in exactly
on to the screen of the cathode -ray tube. These the same vertical deflection as horizontal de-
signals represent a phase difference of 45 °. flection. Once this deflection has been set by
It is extremely important: (1) that the spot either the oscillator output controls or the am-
has been centered on the screen of the cathode - plifier gain controls in the oscillograph, it
ray tube, (2) that both the horizontal and ver- should not be changed for the duration of the
tical amplifiers have been adjusted to give measurement.
exactly the same gain, and (3) that the cali-
brated scale be originally set to coincide with
the displacement of the signal along the ver- Determination of The relation commonly used
tical axis. If the amplifiers of the oscilloscope the Phase Angle in determining the phase
are not used for conveying the signal to the angle between signals is:
deflection plates of the cathode -ray tube, the
coarse frequency switch should be set to hori- Y intercept
zontal input direct and the vertical input Sine 8
Y maximum
Figure 17
TRAPEZOIDAL MODULATION PATTERN
Figure 19
Figure 18 PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING TRAPE-
MODULATED CARRIER WAVE PATTERN ZOIDAL PATTERN
HANDBOOK Trapezoidal Pattern 179
MODULATED R.F. POWER AMPLIFIER

CARRIER
TO ANTENNA
TIME --
MODULATOR 500 LUF
STAGE ioo00 v.
.
I-
SAW TOOTH
SWEEP
`TV- CAPACITOR
CRO
LC TUNES TO OP-
ERATING
Figure 20
PROJECTION DRAWING SHOWING MODU-
LATED CARRIER WAVE PATTERN C L
e* NOTE IF PICKUP IS INSUFFICIENT,
R F.
A TUNED CIRCUIT MAY of USED
AT THE OSCILLOSCOPEAS SHOWN.
where 9 = phase angle between signals

Y intercept = point where ellipse crosses ver- Figure 21
tical axis measured in tenths of MONITORING CIRCUIT FOR TRAPEZOI-
inches. (Calibrations on the DAL MODULATION PATTERN
calibrated screen)
Y maximum = highest vertical point on ellipse
in tenths of inches
Several examples of the use of the formula are
given in figure 16. In each case the Y inter- laced wave pattern (figure 18). The trapezoidal
cept and Y maximum are indicated together pattern is presented on the screen by impress-
with the sine of the angle and the angle itself. ing a modulated carrier wave signal on the ver-
For the operator to observe these various pat- tical deflection plates and the sign al that
terns with a single signal source such as the modulates the carrier wave signal (the modu-
test signal, there are many types of phase lating signal) on the horizontal deflection
shifters which can be used. Circuits can be plates. The trapezoidal pattern can be ana-
obtained from a number of radio text books. lyzed by the method used previously in analy-
The procedure is to connect the original sig- zing waveforms. Figure 19 shows how the sig-
nal to the horizontal channel of the oscillo- nals cause the electron beam to trace out the
scope and the signal which has passed through pattern.
the phase shifter to the vertical channel of The modulated wave pattern is accomplished
the oscilloscope, and follow the procedure set by presenting a modulated carrier wave on the
forth in this discussion to observe the various vertical deflection plates and by using the
phase shift patterns. time -base generator for horizontal deflection.
The modulated wave pattern also can be used
for analyzing waveforms. Figure 20 shows how
the two signals cause the electron beam to
trace out the pattern.
9 -4 Monitoring Transmitter
The Trapezoidal The oscilloscope connec-
Performance with the Oscilloscope Pattern tions for obtaining a trape-
zoidal pattern are shown in
The oscilloscope may be used as an aid for figure 21. A portion of the audio output of the
the proper operation of a radiotelephone trans- transmitter modulator is applied to the hori-
mitter, and may be used as an indicator of the zontal input of the oscilloscope. The vertical
overall performance of the transmitter output amplifier of the oscilloscope is disconnected,
signal, and as a modulation monitor. and a small amount of modulated r -f energy is
coupled directly to the vertical deflection
Waveforms There are two types of patterns plates of the oscilloscope. A small pickup
that can serve as indicators, the loop, loosely coupled to the final amplifier
trapezoidal pattern (figure 17) and the modu- tank circuit and connected to the vertical de-
E MIN
Figure 22
E
1 IMAM
a a
TRAPEZOIDAL WAVE P4TTERN
Figure 23 Figure 24
(LESS THAN 100% MODULATION) (100% MODULATION) (OVER MODULATION)
flection plates by a short length of coaxial figure 25. The internal sweep circuit of the
line will suffice. The amount of excitation to oscilloscope is applied to the horizontal
the plates of the oscilloscope may be adjusted plates, and the modulated r-f signal is applied
to provide a pattern of convenient size. Upon to the vertical plates, as described before. If
modulation of the transmitter, the trapezoidal desired, the internal sweep circuit may be sny-
pattern will appear. By changing the degree of chronized with the modulating signal of the
modulation of the carrier wave the shape of
transmitter by applying a small portion of the
the pattern will change. Figures 22 and 23
modulator output signal to the external sync
show the trapezoidal pattern for various de-
post of the oscilloscope. The percentage of
grees of modulation. The percentage of modu-
lation may be determined by the following for- modulation may be determined in the same
mula:
fashion as with a trapezoidal pattern. Figures
26, 27 and 28 show the modulated wave pat-
Modulation percentage tern for various degrees of modulation.
Emaz
- Emin x 100
Emax + Emin
where Emax and Emia are defined as in
figure 22. 9 -5 Receiver I -F Alignment
An overmodulated signal is shown in figure with an Oscilloscope
24.
The alignment of the i -f amplifiers of a re-
The Modulated The oscilloscope connections ceiver consists of adjusting all the tuned cir-
Wave Pattern for obtaining a m o d u l ate d cuits to resonance at the intermediate frequen-
wave pattern are shown in cy and at the same time to permit passage of
a predetermined number of side bands. The
best indication of this adjustment is a reso-
nance curve representing the response of the
R.F. POWER AMPLIFIER CRO
i -f circuit to its particular range of frequencies.
As a rule medium and low -priced receivers
TO ANTENNA use i -f transformers whose bandwidth is about
USE INTERNAL 5 kc. on each side of the fundamental frequen-
SWEE
cy. The response curve of these i -f transform-
ers is shown in figure 29. High fidelity re-
ceivers usually contain i -f transformers which
RU FROM have a broader bandwidth which is usually 10
MODULATOR
kc. on each side of the fundamental. The re-
LC TUNES TO OP- sponse curve for this type transformer is shown
ERATING FREQUENCY
in figure 30.
Resonance curves such as these can be dis-
Figure 25
played on the screen of an oscilloscope. For
a complete understanding of the procedure it
MONITORING CIRCUIT FOR is important to know how the resonance curve
MODULATED WAVE PATTERN is traced.
HANDBOOK Receiver Alignment 181
Ñ.
-t-
E EMAx.
IV\
CARRIER WAVE PATTERN
Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28
(LESS THAN 100% MODULATION) (100% MODULATION) (OVER MODULATION)
The Resonance To present a resonance curve bulator, or its electronic equivalent, a react-
Curve on the on the screen, a frequency - ance tube.
Screen modulated signal source must The method of presenting a resonance curve
be avail a b l e. This signal on the screen is to connect the vertical chan-
source is a signal generator whose output is nel of the oscilloscope across the detector
the fundamental i -f frequency which is fre- load of the receiver as shown in the detectors
quency-modulated 5 to 10 kc. each side of the of figure 31 (between point A and ground) and
fundamental frequency. A signal generator of the time -base generator output to the horizon-
this type generally takes the form of an ordi- tal channel. In this way the d-c voltage across
nary signal generator with a rotating motor the detector load varies with the frequencies
driven tuned circuit capacitor, called a wob- which are passed by the i -f system. Thus, if
the time -base generator is set at the frequency
of rotation of the motor driven capacitor, or
the reactance tube, a pattern resembling fig-
ure 32, a double resonance curve, appears on
the screen.
Figure 32 is explained by considering fig-
ure 33. In half a rotation of the motor driven
capacitor the frequency increases from 445
kc. to 465 kc., more than covering the range
of frequencies passed by the i -f system.
Therefore, a full resonance curve is presented
on the screen during this half cycle of rota-
Figure 29 tion since only hall a cycle of the voltage pro-
ducing horizontal deflection has transpired.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVE OF THE In the second half of the rotation the motor
I -F OF A LOW PRICED RECEIVER
ef
AMPUDIO
6KC ONc TRIODE DETECTOR DIODE DETECTOR
Figure 30 Figure 31
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CONNECTION OF THE OSCILLOSCOPE

HIGH -FIDELITY I -F SYSTEM ACROSS THE DETECTOR LOAD
curve is observed as it sweeps the spot across

the screen from left to right; and it is observed
again as the sine wave sweeps the spot back
again from right to left. Under these condi-
tions the two response curves are superim-
posed on each other and the high frequency
responses of both curves are at one end and
the low frequency response of both curves is
Figure 32 at the other end. The i -f trimmer capacitors
DOUBLE RESONANCE CURVE are adjusted to produce a response curve
which is symmetrical on each side of the fun-
damental frequency.
When using sawtooth sweep, the two re-
sponse curves can also be superimposed. If
the sawtooth signal is generated at exactly
twice the frequency of rotation of the motor
driven capacitor, the two resonance curves
will be superimposed (figure 34) if the i -f
transformers are properly tuned. If the two
445 KC 4e KC 455KC 445 KC curves do not coincide the i -f trimmer capaci-
tors should be adjusted. At the point of co-
incidence the tuning is correct. It should be
Figure 33
pointed out that rarely do the two curves agree
DOUBLE RESONANCE ACHIEVED BY perfectly. As a result, optimum adjustment is
COMPLETE ROTATION OF THE MOTOR made by making the peaks coincide. This lat-
DRIVEN CAPACITOR ter procedure is the one generally used in i -f
adjustment. When the two curves coincide, it
is evident that the i -f system responds equal-
ly to signals higher and lower than the funda-
mental i -f frequency.
9-6 Single Sideband Applications
Measurement of power output and distortion

are of SSB transmitter
particular importance in
adjustment. These measurements are related to
Figure 34 the extent that distortion rises rapidly when
SUPER -POSITION OF RESONANCE CURVES the power amplifier is overloaded. The useable
power output of a SSB transmitter is often de-
fined as the maximum peak envelope power
driven capacitor takes the frequency of the

signal in the reverse order through the range
of frequencies passed by the i -f system. In
i
IIIhIII1IIlllilllllllpl'
this interval the time -base generator sawtooth
unimuullhullll
waveform completes its cycle, drawing the 11
II IIIIIIII
electron beam further across the screen and

then returning it to the starting point. Subse-
quent cycles of the motor driven capacitor and
the sawtooth voltage merely retrace the same CA)
pattern. Since the signal being viewed is ap-
Figure 35
plied through the vertical amplifier, the sweep
can be synchronized internally. SINGLE TONE PRESENTATION
Some signal generators, particularly those
employing a reactance tube, provide a sweep Oscilloscope trace of SSB signal
modulated by single tone (A).
output in the form of a sine wave which is
Incomplete carrier supression or
synchronized to the frequency with which the
spurious products will show
reactance tube is swinging the fundamental
modulated envelope of (B). The
frequency through its limits, usually 60 cycles
ratio of supression is:
per second. If such a signal is used for hori-
zontal deflection, it is already synchronized. S= 20 log A±B
Since this signal is a sine wave, the response A -B
HANDBOOK S.S.B. <.pplications 183
GERMANIUM 2 5 MM
R -F INPUT - I POWER AMPLIFIER
TO LOAD R-F SSB INPUT DIODE RFC
UNDER TEST F. OM VOLTAGE AUDIO OUTPUT
DIVIDER OR TO OSCILLOSCOPE
PICKUP COIL
INPUT OUTPUT
(ENVELOPE ENVELOPE
DETECTOR DETECTOR
Figure 37
SCHEMATIC OF
OSCILLOSCOPE ENVELOPE DETECTOR
Figure 36
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
LINEARITY TRACER that the distortion of each individual stage
can be observed. This is helpful in trouble-
shooting. By connecting the input envelope
obtainable with a specif ied signal -to- distortion detector to the output of the SSB generator,
ratio. The oscilloscope is a useful instrument the overall distortion of the entire r -f circuit
for measuring and studying distortion of all beyond this point is observed. The unit can
types that may be generated in single sideband also serve as a voltage indicator which is
equipment. useful in making tuning adjustments.
The circuit of a typical envelope detector
Single Tone When a SSB transmitter is modu- is shown in figure 37. Two matched germainum
Observations laced with a single audio tone, diodes are used as detectors. The detectors
the r -f output should be a single are not linear at low signal levels, but if the
radio frequency. If the vertical plates of the nonlinearity of the two detectors is matched,
oscilloscope are coupled to the output of the the effect of their nonlinearity on the oscillo-
transmitter, and the horizontal amplifier sweep scope trace is cancelled. The effect of diode
is set to a slow rate, the scope presentation differences is minimized by using a diode load
will be as shown in figure 35. If unwanted dis- of 5,000 to 10,000 ohms, as shown. It is im-
tortion products or carrier are present, the top portant that both detectors operate at approxi-
and bottom of the pattern will develop a "rip- mately the same signal level so that their
ple" proportional to the degree of spurious differences will cancel more exactly. The
products. operating level should be 1 -volt or higher.
It is convenient to build the detector in a
small shielded enclosure such as an i -f trans-
The Linearity The linearity tracer is an aux- former can fitted with coaxial input and output
Tracer iliary detector to be used with connectors. Voltage dividers can be similarly
an oscilloscope for quick ob- constructed so that it is easy to insert the de-
servation of amplifier adjustments and para- sired amount of voltage attenuation from the
meter variations. This instrument consists of various sources. In some cases it is convenient
two SSB envelope detectors the outputs of to use a pickup loop on the end of a short
which connect to the horizontal and vertical length of coaxial cable.
inputs of an oscilloscope. Figure 36 shows a The phase shift of the amplifiers in the os-
blockdiagram of atypical linearity test set -up. cilloscope should be the same and their fre-
A two -tone test signal is normally employed quency response should be flat out to at least
to supply a SSB modulation envelope, but any twenty times the frequency difference of the
modulating signal that provides an envelope two test tones. Excellent high frequency charac-
that varies from zero to full amplitude may be teristics are necessary because the rectified
used. Speech modulation gives a satisfactory SSB envelope contains harmonics extending
trace, so that this instrument may be used as to the limit of the envelope detector's response.
a visual monitor of transmitter linearity. It is Inadequate frequency response of the vertical
particularly useful for monitoring the signal amplifier may cause a little "foot" to appear
level and clearly shows when the amplifier on the lower end of the trace, as shown in
under observation is overloaded. The linearity figure 38. If it is small, it may be safely neg-
trace will be a straight line regardless of the lected.
envelope shape if the amplifier has no dis- Another spurious effect often encountered
tortion. Overloading causes a sharp break in is a double trace, as shown in figure 39. This
the linearity curve. Distortion due to too much can usually be corrected with an R -C network
bias is also easily observed and the adjustment placed between one detector and the oscillo-
for low distortion can easily be made. scope. The best method of testing the detectors
Ano:her feature of the linearity detector is and the amplifiers is to connect the input of
184 The Oscilloscope
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
LEVEL
Figure 38
EFFECT OF INADEQUATE
RESPONSE OF VERTICAL
AMPLIFIER
INPUT SIGNAL LEVEL
Figure 41
ORDINATES ON LINEARITY
CURVE FOR 3RD ORDER
DISTORTION EQUATION
Figure 39 linear plate characteristics of the amplifier

DOUBLE TRACE tube at large plate swings. More grid swamping
CAUSED BY PHASE should be used, or the exciting signal should
SHIFT be reduced. A combination of the effects of A
and B are shown in Trace C. Trace D illustrates
amplifier overloading. The exciting signal
the envelope detectors in parallel. A perfectly should be reduced.
straight line trace will result when everything A means of estimating the distortion level
is working properly. One detector is then con- observed is quite useful. The first and third
nected to the other r -f source through a voltage order distortion components may be derived by
divider adjusted so that no appreciable change an equation that will give the approximate
in the setting of the oscilloscope amplifier signal -to-distortion level ratio of a Iwo tone
controls is required. Figure 40 illustrates some test signal, operating on a given linearity curve.
typical linearity traces. Trace A is caused by Figure 41 shows a linearity curve with two
inadequate static plate current in class A or ordinates erected at half and full peak input
class B amplifiers or a mixer stage. To regain signal level. The length of the ordinates ei
linearity, the grid bias of the stage should be and e2 may be scaled and used in the following
reduced, the screen voltage should be raised, equation:
or the signal level should be decreased. Trace
B is a result of poor grid circuit regulation Signal-to-distortion ratio in db=20 log 8 et-e2
when grid current is drawn, or a result of non- 2 ei-e2
0
TYPICAL LINEARITY TRACES
Figure 40
TYPICAL LINEARITY
TRACES
CHAPTER TEN
Special Vacuum Tube Circuits
A whole new concept of vacuum tube appli- Diode Limiters The characteristics of a
cations has been developed in recent years. diode tube are such that the
No longer are vacuum tubes chained to the tube conducts only when the plate is at a posi-
field of communication. This chapter is de- tive potential with respect to the cathode. A
voted to some of the more common circuits en- positive potential may be placed on the cath-
countered in industrial and military applica- ode, but the tube will not conduct until the
tions of the vacuum tube. voltage on the plate rises above an equally
positive value. As the plate becomes more
positive with respect to the cathode, the diode
conducts and passes that portion of the wave
10 -1 Limiting Circuits that is more positive than the cathode voltage.
Diodes may be used as either series or paral-
The term limiting refers to the removal or lel limiters, as shown in figure 1. A diode may
suppression by electronic means of the ex- be so biased that only a certain portion of the
trem:ties of an electronic signal. Circuits positive or negative cycle is removed.
which perform this function are referred to as
limiters or clippers. Limiters are useful in Audio Peak An audio peak clipper consisting
wave -shaping circuits where it is desirable to Limiting of two diode limiters may be used
square off the extremities of the applied sig- to limit the amplitude of an au-
nal. A sine wave may be applied to a limiter dio signal to a predetermined value to provide
circuit to produce a rectaan g u a r wave. A
1 a high average level of modulation without
peaked wave may be applied to a limiter cir- danger of overmodulation. An effective limiter
cuit to eliminate either the positive or nega- for this service is the series -diode gate clip-
tive peaks from the output. Limiter circuits per. A circuit of this clipper is shown in fig-
are employed in FM receivers where it is nec- ure 2. The audio signal to be clipped is cou-
essary to limit the amplitude of the signal ap- pled to the clipper through C,. R, and R2 are
plied to the detector. Limiters may be used to the clipper input and output load resistors.
reduce automobile ignition noise in short -wave The clipper plates are tied together and are
receivers, or to maintain a high average level connected to the clipping level control, R4,
of modulation in a transmitter. They may also through the series resistor, R,. R4 acts as a
be used as protective devices to limit input voltage divider between the high voltage sup-
signals to special circuits. ply and ground. The exact point at which clip-
185
186 Special Vacuum Tube Circuits THE RADIO
e OUT em
eIN
i
E =
e our
--
VORTAGE DROP
ACROSS DIODE
E
Vt
E =
_e OUT
VOLTAGE DROP
ACROSS DIODE
E
eIN e our eIN e OUT

E
E1
--L-V-k-,7 n n
0 O
eIN e OUT PIN gour
1
_.
-t -Vi
Figure 1
VARIOUS DIODE LIMITING CIRCUITS

Series diodes limiting positive and negative peaks are shown
ing positive and negative peaks are shown in C and D. Parallelin A and B. Parallel diodes limit-
ground are shown in E and F. Parallel diode limiters which diodes limiting above and below
pass negative and positive peaks
are shown in G and H.
ping will occur is set by R which controls the

positive potential applied to the diode plates.
Assume that R4 has been set to a point that
will give 4 volts at the plates of the 6AL5.
Under static conditions, a d-c voltage is ob- When the peak audio input voltage is less than
tained from R. and applied through R, to both 4 volts, both halves of the tube conduct at all
plates of the 6AL5 tube. Current flows through times. As long as the tube conducts, its re-
R., R,, and divides through the two diode sistance is very low compared with the plate
sections of the 6AL5 and the two toad resis- resistor R,. Whenever a voltage change occurs
tors, R, and R,. All parts of the clipper circuit
are maintained at a positive potential above
across input resistor R the voltage at all of
the tube elements increases or decreases by
ground. The voltage drop between the plate the same amount as the input voltage change,
and cathode of each diode is very small com- and the voltage drop across R, changes by an
pared to the drop across the 300,000 -ohm re- equal amount. As long as the peak input volt-
sistor (R3) in series with the diode plates. age is less than 4 volts, the 6AL5 acts merely
The plate and cathode of each diode are there- as a conductor, and the output cathode is per-
fore maintained at approximately equal poten- mitted to follow all voltage changes at the in-
tials as long as there is plate current flow. put cathode.
Clipping does not occur until the peak audio If, under static conditions, 4 volts appear at
input voltage reaches a value greater than the the diode plates, then twice this voltage (8
static voltages at the plates of the diode. volts) will appear if one of the diode circuits
HANDBOOK Clamping Circuits 187
Ri
Zoo n
6AL5
R2
200n
C2
0.1
R3
Soon
e OUT
_
-
Rs
oo
CLIPPING
LEVEL
CONTROL
Bi-
eiN
E DGR
WHEN D
4
RESISTANCE
E
NAPOSmVE
Figure 2 Figure 3
THE SERIES-DIODE GATE CLIPPER FOR
GRID LIMITING CIRCUIT
AUDIO PEAK LIMITING
is opened, removing its d -c load from the cir- the plates will follow. However, the output
cuit. As long as only one of the diodes con- cathode, grounded through R2, will stop at zero
tinues to conduct, the voltage at the diode potential as the plate becomes negative. Con-
plates cannot rise above twice the voltage se- duction through the second diode is impossible
lected by R4. In this example, the voltage can- under these conditions. The output cathode
not rise above 8 volts. Now, if the input audio remains at zero potential until the voltage at
voltage applied through C, is increased to any the input cathode swings back to zero.
peak value between zero and plus 4 volts, the The voltage developed across output resis-
first cathode of the 6AL5 will increase in volt- tor 11, follows the input voltage variations as
age by the same amount to the proper value belong as the input voltage does not swing to a
tween 4 and 8 volts. The other tube elements peak value greater than the static voltage at
will assume the same potential as the first the diode plates, determined by R4. Effective
cathode. However, the 6AL5 plates cannot in- clipping may thus be obtained at any desired
crease more than 4 volts above their original level.
4 -volt static level. When the input voltage to The square- topped audio waves generated
the first cathode of the 6AL5 increases to by this clipper are high in harmonic content,
more than plus 4 volts, the cathode potential but these higher order harmonics may be great-
increases to more than 8 volts. Since the plate ly reduced by a low -level speech filter.
circuit potential remains at 8 volts, the first
diode section ceases to conduct until the in- Grid Limiters A triode grid limiter is shown
put voltage across R, drops below 4 volts. in figure 3. On positive peaks
When the input voltage swings in a negative of the input signal, the triode grid attempts to
direction, it will subtract from the 4 -volt drop swing positive, and the grid- cathode resist-
across R, and decrease the voltage on the in- ance drops to a value on the order of 1000
put cathode by an amount equal to the input ohms or so. The voltage drop across R (usu-
voltage. The plates and the output cathode will ally of the order of 1 megohm) is large com-
follow the voltage level at the input cathode pared to the grid -cathode drop, and the result-
as long as the input voltage does not swing ing limiting action removes the top part of the
below minus 4 volts. if the input voltage does positive input wave.
not change more than 4 volts in a negative
direction, the plates of the 6AL5 will also be-
come negative. The potential at the output
cathode will follow the input cathode voltage 10 -2 Clamping Circuits
and decrease from its normal value of 4 volts
until it reaches zero potential. As the input A circuit which holds either amplitude ex-
cathcde voltage decreases to less than zero, treme of a waveform to a given reference level
eiN eoUT
AO POSITIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT 0 NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT
Figure 4
SIMPLE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUITS
6+
e,N i
I
:DEFLECTION
COIL
L -;
-100Y
CI CHARGE PATH C2 DISCHARGE PATH
Figure 5
Figure 7
NEGATIVE CLAMPING CIRCUIT EM- THE CHARGE AND DISCHARGE PATHS
PLOYED IN ELECTROMAGNETIC SWEEP
IN FREE -RUNNING MULTIVIBRATOR OF
SYSTEM
FIGURE 6
B+ is repeated and therefore is "jittery." If a

clamping circuit is placed between the sweep
amplifier and the deflection element, the start
of the sweep can be regulated by adjusting the
d -c voltage applied to the clamping tube (fig-
ure 5).
10-3 Multivibrators
Figure 6
BASIC MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUIT The multivibrator, or relaxation oscillator,
is used for the generation of nonsinusoidal
waveforms. The output is rich in harmonics,
but the inherent frequency stability is poor.
The multivibrator may be stabilized by the
of potential is called a clamping circuit or a introduction of synchronizing voltages of har-
d-c restorer. Clamping circuits are used after monic or subharmonic frequency.
RC cpupling circuits where the waveform In its simplest form, the multivibrator is a
swing is required to be either above or below simple two -stage resistance -capacitance cou-
the reference voltage, instead of alternating pled amplifier with the output of the second
on both sides of it (figure 4). Clamping cir- stage coupled through a capacitor to the grid
cuits are usually encountered in oscilloscope of the first tube, as shown in figure 6. Since
sweep circuits. If the sweep voltage does not the output of the second stage is of the proper
always start from the same reference point, polarity to reinforce the input signal applied
the trace on the screen does not begin at the to the first tube, oscillations can readily take
same point on the screen each time the sweep place, started by thermal agitation noise and
6+ 6+ B+
///
SYNC1igON12:N6
SIGNAL
DIRECT -COUPLED CATHODE ELECTRON - COUPLED

MULTIVIBRATOR MULTI VIBRATOR WITH SINE -WAVE
MULTIVIBRATOR SYNCHRONIZING SIGNAL APPLIED
TO ONE TUBE
Figure 8
VARIOUS FORMS OF MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
HANDBOOK Multivibrators 189
e+ e+
PULSE
OUTPUT
BASIC ECCLES- JORDAN TRIGGER ONE -SHOT MULTI VIBRATOR

CIRCUIT
Figure 9
ECCLES -JORDAN MULTI VIBRATOR CIRCUITS
miscellaneous tube noise. Oscillation is main- Figure 9B illustrates a modified Eccles -

tained by the process of building up and dis- Jordan circuit which accomplishes a complete
charging the store of energy in the grid cou- cycle when triggered with a positive pulse.
pling capacitors of the two tubes. The charg- Such a circuit is called a one -shot multivibra-
ing and discharging paths are shown in figure tor. For initial action, V, is cutoff and V, is
7. Various forms of multivibrators are shown conducting. A large positive pulse applied to
in figure 8. the grid of V, causes this tube to conduct, and
The output of a multivibrator may be used the voltage at its plate decreases by virtue of
as a source of square waves, as an electronic the IR drop through R,. Capacitor C, is charged
switch, or as a means of obtaining frequency rapidly by this abrupt change in V, plate volt-
division. Submultiple frequencies as low as age, and V, becomes cutoff while V, conducts.
one -tenth of the injected synchronizing fre- This condition exists until C, discharges, al-
quency may easily be obtained. lowing V, to conduct, raising the cathode bias
of V, until it is once again cutoff.
The Eccles- Jordan The Eccles- Jordan trigger A direct, cathode -coupled multivibrator is
Circuit circuit is shown in figure shown in figure 8A. RK is a common cathode
9A. This is not a true mul-
resistor for the two tubes, and coupling takes
tivibrator, but rather a circuit that possesses place across this resistor. It is impossible for
two conditions of stable equilibrium. One con-
a tube in this circuit to completely cutoff the
dition is when V, is conducting and V, is cut-
other tube, and a circuit of this type is called
off; the other when V, is conducting and V, is
a free- running multivibrator in which the con-
cutoff. The circuit remains in one or the other
dition of one tube temporarily cuts off the
of these two stable conditions with no change
other.
in operating potentials until some external
action occurs which causes the nonconducting
tube to conduct. The tubes then reverse their
functions and remain in the new condition as
long as no plate current flows in the cutoff RF RF RF
tube. This type of circuit is known as a /lip - J* PULSE PULSE PULSE
flop circuit.
CI
He OUT
h---1
CUTOFF
Imo-- -1
CUTOFF
RI TIME TIME
J 1_ eOY
NaUCTING
ep"T
VI 1\1
CUTOFF
TIME Figure 11
Figure 10 HARTLEY OSCILLATOR USED AS BLOCKING

SINGLE -SWING BLOCKING OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR BY PROPER CHOICE OF R, -C,
eIN eouT eIN eou. ---{ --

T T
POSITIVE COUNTING CIRCUIT

0
NEGATIVE COUNTING CIRCUIT POSITIVE COUNTING CIRCUIT WITH
METER INDICATION
Figure 12
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE COUNTING CIRCUITS
10 -4 The Blocking Oscillator ing units to be counted, and produces a volt-

age that is proportional to the frequency of
A blocking oscillator is any oscillator which the pulses. A counting circuit may be used in
cuts itself off after one or more cycles caused conjunction with a blocking oscillator to pro-
by the accumulation of a negative charge on duce a trigger pulse which is a submultiple of
the grid capacitor. This negative charge may of the frequency of the applied pulse. Either
gradually be drained off through the grid re- positive or negative pulses may be counted.
sistor of the tube, allowing the circuit to os- A positive counting circuit is shown in figure
cillate once again. The process is repeated 12A, and a negative counting circuit is shown
and the tube becomes an intermittent oscilla- in figure 12B. The positive counter allows a
tor. The rate of such an occurance is deter- certain amount of current to flow through R,
mined by the R -C time constant of the grid cir- each time a pulse is applied to C1.
cuit. A single -swing blocking oscillator is The positive pulse charges C1f and makes
shown in figure 10, wherein the tube is cutoff the plate of V, positive with respect to its
before the completion of one cycle. The tube cathode. V, conducts until the exciting pulse
produces single pulses of energy, the time passes. C1 is then discharged by V1i and the
between the pulses being regulated by the circuit is ready to accept another pulse. The
discharge time of the grid R -C network. The average current flowing through R, increases
sel/- pulsing blocking oscillator is shown in as the pulse- repetition frequency increases,
figure 11, and is used to produce pulse s and decreases as the p.r.f. decreases.
of r -f energy, the number of pulses being de- By reversing the diode connections, as
termined by the timing network in the grid cir- shown in figure 12B, the circuit is made to
cuit of the oscillator. The rate at which these respond to negative pulses. In this circuit, an
pulses occur is known as the pulse- repetition increase in the p.r.f. causes a decrease in the
frequency, or p.r./. average current flowing through R
which is
opposite to the effect in the positive counter.
10 -5 Counting Circuits
eIN
A counting circuit, or frequency divider is
one which receives uniform pulses, represent-
Figure 14
The step -by -step counter used to trigger a

Figure 13 blocking oscillator. The blocking oscillator
STEP -BY -STEP COUNTING CIRCUIT serves as a frequency divider.
HANDBOOK R -C Oscillators 191
LP =R4= 4 WATT, 110 V. LAMP BULB

R1 XCI =R2 X Cz
Figure 15 Figure 16
THE WIEN -BRIDGE AUDIO OSCILLATOR THE PHASE -SHIFT OSCILLATOR
A step -counter is similar to the circuits circuit. The frequency at which oscillation
discussed, except that a capacitor which is occurs is:
large compared to C, replaces the diode load
resistor. The charge of this condenser is in-
1
creased during the time of each pulse, pro-
ducing a step voltage across the output (figure
f , when R,xC,=R,xC,
2n R, C,
13). A blocking oscillator may be connected
to a step -counter, as shown in figure 14. The
oscillator is triggered into operation when the
voltage across C, reaches a point sufficiently A lamp LP is used as the cathode resistor
positive to raise the grid of V, above cutoff. of V, as a thermal stabilizer of the oscillator
Circuit parameters may be chosen so that a amplitude. The variation of the resistance
count division up to 1/20 may be obtained with respect to current of the lamp bulb holds
with reliability. the oscillator output voltage at a nearly con-
stant amplitude.
The phase -shift oscillator shown in figure
16 is a single tube oscillator using a three
section phase shift network. Each section of
the network produces a phase shift in propor-
10 -6 Resistance -Capacity tion to the frequency of the signal that passes
Oscillators through it. For oscillations to be produced,
the signal from the plate of the tube must be
shifted 180 °. Three successive phase shifts
In an R -C oscillator, the frequency is de- of 60° accomplish this, and the frequency of
termired by a resistance capacity network that oscillation is determined by this phase shift..
provices regenerative coupling between the A high -mu triode or a pentode must be used in
output and input of a feedback amplifier. No this circuit. In order to increase the frequency
use is made of a tank circuit consisting of in- of oscillation, either the resistance or the
ductance and capacitance to control the fre- capacitance must be decreased.
quency of oscillation.
The Wien- Bridge oscillator employs a Wien
network in the R -C feedback circuit and is
shown in figure 15. Tube V, is the oscillator
tube, and tube V, is an amplifier and phase -
inverter tube. Since the feedback voltage
through C. produced by V, is in phase with the
input circuit of V, at all frequencies, oscilla-
tion is maintained by voltages of any frequen-
cy that exist in the circuit. The bridge circuit
is used, then, to eliminate feedback voltages
of all frequencies except the single frequency
desired at the output of the oscillator. The
bridge allows a voltage of only one frequency Figure 17
to be effective in the circuit because of the THE BRIDGE -TYPE PHASE -SHIFT
degeneration and phase shift provided by this OSCILLATOR
(rFREQ. OF OSCILLATION
ATI ISO R
NEC F /B'POS Fie
6AÚ6 6CL6 6
NOTCH-FREQUENCY1
F- 1 : NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK
3.6 2n'RC
T1eLF *WERE (LOOP 2)
C = VC, C2 POSITIVE
FEEDBACK
LOOP 1
(LOOP 11
330
-
f-.
R3
600
LP,
3W
+
20LF
C3
K
I.FRED OF OSCILLATION
R,
ar RI ti
\ i
Our
R2 R 'NOTCH- NETWORK
` C2 /
LOOP 2
Figure 19
BRIDGE -T FEEDBACK
Figure 18 LOOP CIRCUITS
THE NBS BRIDGE -T
Oscillation will occur at the null
OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT AS USED
frequency of the bridge, at which
IN THE HEATH AG -9 AUDIO
frequency the bridge allows
GENERATOR
minimum degeneration in loop 2.
A bridge -type phase shift is oscillator and effect system. The furnace (F) raises the
shown in figure 17. The bridge is so propor- room temperature (T) to a predetermined value
tioned that at only one frequency is the phase at which point the sensing thermostat (Tll)
shift through the bridge 180 °. Voltages of other reduces the fuel flow to the furnace. When the
frequencies are fed back to the grid of the tube room temperature drops below the predeter-
out of phase with the existing grid signal, and mined value the fuel flow is increased by the
are cancelled by being amplified out of phase. thermostat control. An interdependent control
The NBS Bridge -T oscillator developed by system is created by this arrangement: the
the National Bureau of Standards consists of room temperature depends upon the thermostat
a two stage amplifier having two feedback action, and the thermostat action depends upon
loops, as shown in figure 18. Loop 1 consists the room temperature. This sequence of events
of a regenerative cathode -to- cathode loop, con- may be termed a closed loop feedback system.
sisting of Li), and C3. The bulb regulates the
positive feedback, and tends to stabilize the
output of the oscillator, much as in the man-
ner of the Wien circuit. Loop 2 consists of a
grid- cathode degenerative circuit, containing
the bridge -T. Oscillation will occur at the
null frequency of the bridge, at which frequen-
cy the bridge allows minimum degeneration
in loop 2 (figure 19).
10 -7 Feedback
Feedback amplifiers have been d i s c u s s e d

in Chapter 6, section 15 of this llandbook. A Figure 20
more general use of feedback is in automatic SIMPLE CLOSED LOOP
control and regulating systems. Mechanical FEEDBACK SYSTEM
feedback has been used for many years in such
forms as engine speed governors and steering Room temperature (T) controls
servo engines on ships. fuel supply to furnace (F) by feed -
A simple feedback system for temperature bock loop through Thermostat
control is shown in figure 20. This is a cause (TH) control.
HANDBOOK Feedback 193
is passed through the feedback loop to cause

PHASE SHIFT INPUT SIGNAL
OF SYSTEM ,-OUTPUT SIGNAL an adjustment to reduce the value of the error
signal. Care must be taken in the design of
the feedback loop to reduce over -control ten-
dencies wherein the correction signal would
carry the sytem past the point of correct oper-
TIME -4. ation. Under certain circumstances the new
FEEDBACK SIGNAL OUTPUT SIGNAL
error signal would cause the feedback control
NO PHASE SHIFT to overcorrect in the opposite direction, result-
ing in hunting or oscillation of the closed
1 iv-4 it A FEEDBACK
loop system about the correct operating point.
%'I_ - SIGNAL Negative feedback control would tend to
WITH 160.
PHASE dampout spurious system oscillation if it were
SHIFT
s
4 not for the time lag or phase shift in the sys-
TIME tem. If the overall phase shift is equal to one -
half cycle of the operating frequency of the
Figure 21 system the feedback will maintain a steady
PHASE SHIFT OF ERROR state of oscillation when the circuit gain is
SIGNAL MAY CAUSE OSCILLA- sufficiently high, as shown in figure 21. In
TION INCLOSED LOOP SYSTEM order to prevent oscillation, the gain figure of
the feedback loop must be less than unity when
To prevent oscillation, the gain the phase shift of the system reaches 180 de-
of the feedback loop must be grees. In an ideal control system the gain of
less than unity when the phase the loop would be constant throughout the
shift of the system reaches 180 operating range of the device, and would drop
degrees. rapidly outside the range to reduce the band-
width of the control system to a minimum.
The time lag in a closed loop system may
Error Cancellation feedback control system
A be reduced by using electronic circuits in place
is dependent upon a degree of mechanical devices, or by the use of special
of error in the output signal, since this error circuit elements having a phase -lead charac-
component is used to bring about the correc- teristic. Such devices make use of the proper-
tion. This component is called the error signal. ties of a capacitor, wherein the current leads
The error, or deviation from the desired signal the voltage applied to it.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Electronic Computers
Mechanical computing machines were first technology requires that machines assume many
produced in the seventeenth century in Eu- of the information processing systems former-
rope although the simple Chinese abacus ( a ly done by the human mind. Computing ma-
digital computer) had been in use for cen- chines can perform routine operations more
turies. Until the last decade only simple me- quickly and more accurately than a human be-
chanical computers (such as adding and book- ing, processing mathematical and logistical
keeping machines) were in general use. data on a production line basis. The computer,
The transformation and transmission of the however, cannot create, but can only follow
volume of information required by modern instructions. If the instructions are in error,
1T --..- 1 '
GIIP
sar `l Ì
The
THE IBM
COMPUTER
AND
"MEMORY"
"704" Com-
puter is used with
32,000 "word"
memory storage
unit for research
programs. Heart
of this auxiliary
unit are small,
doughnut -shaped
iron ferrites which
store information
by means of mag-
netism. The unit
is the first of Pts
kind to be instal-
led with 1B M's
704 computer.
Components of the
system seen in the
foreground are
(left) card punch
and (right) card
reader. In the
center of the pic-
ture is the 704's
processing unit.
Digital Computers 195
NORTH SNORE I 2 3 4 S 8 7 8 9
7 f =11
BUZZER -1 BATTERY
NOTE ALL BUTTONS NAVE ONE NORMALL Y OPEN CONTACT AND

ONE NORMALLY CLOSED CONTACT.
Figure 2
A SEQUENCE COMPUTER.
SourH SNORE Three correct buttons will sound the buzzer.
Figure 1 proper push buttons that will sound the buzzer.

SIMPLE PUZZLES IN LOGIC MAY BE
SOLVED BY ELECTRIC COMPUTER. The nine buttons are mounted on a board so
THE "FARMER AND RIVER" that the wiring cannot be seen.
COMPUTER IS SHOWN HERE. Each switch of these simple computers ex-
ecutes an "on -off" action. When applied to a
the computer will produce a wrong answer. logical problem "yes-no" may be substituted
Computers may be divided into two classes: for this term. The computer thus can act out
the digital and the analog. The digital com- a logical concept concerned with a simple
puter counts, and its accuracy is limited only by choice. An electronic switch (tube) may be
the number of significant figures provided for substituted for the mechanical switch to in-
in the instrument. The analog computer crease the speed of the computer. The early
measures, and its accuracy is limited by the computers, such as the ENIAC (Electronic Nu-
percentage errors of the devices used, multi- merical Integrator and Calculator) employed
plied by the range of the variables they repre- over 18,000 tubes for memory and registering
sent. circuits capable of "remembering" a 10 -digit
number.
11 -1 Digital Computers
1 1 -2 Binary Notation
The digital computer operates in discrete
steps. In general, the mathematical operations To simply and reduce the cost of the digital
are performed by combinations of additions. computer it was necessary to modify the system
Thus multiplication is performed by repeated of operation so that fewer tubes were used per
additions, and integration is performed by bit of information. The ENIAC -type computer
summation. The digital computer may be requires 50 tubes to register a 5 -digit number.
thought of as an "on -off" device operating
from signals that either exist or do not exist.
The common adding machine is a simple com- O O O O O
puter of this type. The "on -off" or "yes -no"
type of situation is well suited to switches, elec-
G G G G 0
G
trical relays, or to electronic tubes. O X7- O G
A simple electrical digital computer may be
O O G O O
used to solve the old "farmer and river" prob-
lem. The farmer must transport a hen, a bushel O O G G G
of corn, and a fox across a river in a small
boat capable of carrying the farmer plus one G G O G O
other article. If the farmer takes the fox in
the boat with him, the hen will eat the corn. 0 O O O O
On the other hand, if he takes the corn, the G G G G G
fox will eat the hen. The circuit for a simple
competer to solve this problem is shown in
G G O * O
figure 1. When the switches are moved from O 0 :;o- G G
"south shore" to "north shore" in the proper
sequence the warning buzzer will not sound.
Figure 3
An error of choice will sound the buzzer.
BINARY NOTATION MAY BE USED
A second simple "digital computer" is shown FOR DIGITAL DISPLAY. BINARY
is figure 2. The problem is to find the three BOARD ABOVE INDICATES "73092."
196 Electronic Computers THE RADIO
DECIMAL NOTATION BINARY NOTATION

O O o o
DIGIT TUBE(S) 1 1
1 1
2 1, 0
3 1,1
a a
3 2+1
{ 1,0,0
I, 0,1
4 4
5 4+1 e 1.1. 0
e 4+2 1.1,1
7 4+2+1 e 1,0,0.0
e e
e 1,0,0,1
9 e+1 10 1,0.1.0
10 e+2
Figure 5
11 e+2+1
BINARY NOTATION SYSTEM
12 6+4 REQUIRES ONLY TWO NUMBERS,
3 e+4+1 "0" AND "1."
14 e+4+2
15 6+4+2+1
bols for all numbers. Computer service usual-
Figure 4 ly employs "zero" and "one" as . these symbols.
BINARY DECIMAL NOTATION. ONLY Decimal notation and binary notation for com-
FOUR TUBES ARE REQUIRED TO mon numbers are shown in figure 5. The
REPRESENT DIGITS FROM 1 TO 15.
THE DIGIT "12" IS INDICATED binary notation represents 4 -digit numbers
ABOVE. (thousands) with ten bits, and 7 -digit num-
bers (millions) with 20 bits. Only one elec-
tron tube is required to display an information
The tubes (or their indicator lamps) can be bit. The savings in components and primary
arranged in five columns of 10 tubes each. power drain of a binary-type computer over
From right to left the columns represent units, the older ENIAC -type computer is obvious.
tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. The bottom tube Figure 6 illustrates a computer board show-
in each column represents "zero," the second ing the binary indications from one to ten.
tube represents "one," the third tube "two,"
and so on. Only one tube in each column is Digital The digital computer is em-
excited at any given instant. If the number Computer Uses ployed in a "yes -no" situa-
73092 is to be displayed, tube number seven tion. It may be used for
in the fifth column is excited, tube number routine calculations that would ordinarily re-
three in the fourth column, tube number zero quire enormous man -hours of time, such as
in the third column, etc. as shown in figure 3. checking stress estimates in aircraft design, or
A simpler system employs the binary deci- military logistics, and problems involving the
mal notation, wherein any number from one manipulation of large masses of figures.
to fifteen can be represented by four tubes.
Each of the four tubes has a numerical value
that is associated with its position in the tube DECIMAL NOTATION COMPUTER NOTATION
group. More than one tube of the group may o
be excited at once, as illustrated in figure 4. o

a O
The values assigned to the tubes in this par-
ticular group are 1, 2, 4, and 8. Additional
3 0 0
4 O
tubes may be added to the group, doubling the s O o
notation of the tube thus: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, e O O
64, 128, 356, etc. Any numerical value lower 7 0 0 0
than the highest group number can be dis- e o
played by the correct tube combination. / O O
A third system employs the binary notation 10 0 O
which makes use of a bit (binary digit) repre- =orF O=oN
senting a single morsel of information. The
Figure 6
binary system has been known for over forty BINARY NOTATION AS REPRESENTED
centuries, and was considered a mystical revel- ON COMPUTER BOARD FOR NUMBERS
ation for ages since it employed only two sym- FROM 1 TO 10.
HANDBOOK Analog Computers 197
e our= eli-ea
ei
Sour- R, +Rz +
ea Ra \
Riz/
[Rs
la
R3
+Ra] +Ra
Figure 7
SUMMATION OF TWO VOLTAGES
BY ELECTRICAL MEANS.
11 -3 Analog Computers
The analog computer represents the use of Figuro 8
one physical system as a model for a second SUMMATION OF TWO VOLTAGES
system that is usually more difficult to con- BY ELECTRONIC MEANS.
struct or to measure, and that obeys the equa-
tions of the same form. The term analog im- Thus complicated problems can be solved by
plies similarity of relations or properties be- d -c amplifiers and potentiometer controls in
tween the two systems. The common slide -rule electronic circuits performing mathematical
is a mechanical analog computer. The speedo- functions.
meter in an automobile is a differential analog
computer, displaying information proportional Addition and If a linear network is ener-
to the rate of change of speed of the vehicle. Subtraction gized by two voltage sources
The electronic analog computer employs cir- the voltages may be summed
cuits containing resistance, capacitance, and in- as shown in figure 7. Subtraction of quantities
ductance arranged to behave in accordance with may be accomplished by using negative and
analogous equations. Variables are represented positive voltages. A -c voltages may be em-
by d -c voltages which may vary with time. ployed for certain additive circuits, and more
THE
HEATHKIT
ELECTRONIC
ANALOG
DIGITAL
COMPUTER
This "electronic
slide rule" simu-
tates equations or
,physical problems
electronically, sub-
stituting one phys-
ical system as a
model for a sec -
3nd system that
s usually more
lit ficult or costly
to construct or
measure, and that
obeys equations of
the same form.
C
eour = R? x e eour
Figure 9
ELECTRONIC MULTIPLICATION
MAY BE ACCOMPLISHED BY
CALIBRATED POTENTIOMETERS, Figure 11
WHEN OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS
ELECTRONIC DIFFERENTIATION
PROPORTIONAL TO THE INPUT
VOLTAGE MULTIPLIED BY A The time derivative of a voltage can be
expressed as a charge on a capacitor (A).
CONSTANT (R, RI). Operational amplifier (B) employs feed
back principle for short differentiation
time.
complex circuits employ vacuum tubes, as in
figure 8. Synchronous transformers may be
used to add expressions of angular rotation, eo = RC-
and circuits have been developed for adding dc (2)
time delays, or pulse counting. For highest accuracy, a small RC product
should be used, permitting the maximum pos-
Multiplication Electronic multiplication and sible differentiation time. The output of the
and Division division may be accomplished differentiator may be amplified to any suitable
with the use of potentiome- level.
ters where the output voltage is proportional to A more accurate differentiating device
the input voltage multiplied by a constant makes use of an operational amplifier. This
which may be altered by changing the physical unit is a high gain, negative feedback d -c
arrangement of the potentiometer (figure 9). amplifier (discussed in section 11 -4) with the
Variable autotransformers may also be used to resistance portion of the RC product appearing
perform multiplication. in the feedback loop of the amplifier (figure
A simple bridge may be used to obtain an 1113). A shorter differentiation time may be
output that is the product of two inputs divided employed if the junction point between R and
by a third input, as shown in figure 10. C could be held at a constant potential. The
Differentiation The time derivative of a feedback amplifier shown inverts the output
voltage can be expressed as signal and applies it to the RC network, hold-
a charge on a capacitor by: ing the junction potential constant.
Integration Integration is a process of ac-
i=C dt cumulation, or summation, and
requires a device capable of storing physical
and is shown in figure 11A. The charging cur- quantities. A capacitor will store an electrical
rent is converted into a voltage by the use charge and will give the time integral of a
of a resistor, R. If the input to the RC circuit current in respect to a voltage:
is charging at a uniform rate so that the cur-
rent through C and R is constant, the output eo= 1c idt (3)
voltage ea is:
In most computers, the input signal is in
the form of a voltage, and the input charging
current of the capacitor must be taken through
a series resistance as in figure 12. If the inte-
grating time is short the charging current is
OUTPUT 1. R, 7t Rn
Rz approximately proportional to the input vol-
tage. The charging current may be made a
true measure of the input voltage by the use
Figure 12
Figure 10 SIMPLE
ELECTRONIC MULTIPLICATION BY INTEGRATION e C e our
BRIDGE CIRCUIT PROVIDES CIRCUIT T o.
OUTPUT THAT IS PRODUCT OF Making use of
TWO INPUTS DIVIDED BY A charging current
THIRD INPUT. of capacitor.
HANDBOOK Operational Amplifier 199
11 -4 The Operational
Amplifier
e eour
Mathematical operations are performed by
using a high gain d -c amplifier, termed an
Figure 13
"MILLER FEEDBACK" INTEGRATOR operational amplifier. The symbol of this unit
SUITABLE FOR COMPUTER USE. is a triangle, with the apex pointing in the di-
rection of operation ( figure 15). The gain of
such an amplifier is -A, so:
eour
eo=- Ae.,orer= - A en
Figure 14
R -LNETWORK USED FOR If -A approaches infinity, er will be ap-
INTEGRATION PURPOSES. proximately zero. In practice this condition is
realized by using amplifiers having open loop
gains of 30,000 to 60,000. If eo is set at 100
volts, eB will be of the order of a few milli-
o
volts. Thus, considering es equal to zero:
Figure 15
e,
R - Rr
, or eo - -Rr RI
e) (5)
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER ( -A)
Mathematical operations may be performed which may be written:
by any operational amplifier, usually a
stable, high -gain d -c amplifier, such as
shown in Figure 16. eo = - Kel, where K = Rr (6)
of an operational amplifier wherein the ca- This amounts to multiplication by a constant
pacitance portion of the RC product appears coefficient, since RI and Rr may be fixed in
in the feedback loop of the amplifier, holding value. The circuit of a typical operational am-
the junction point between R and C at a con- plifier is shown in figure 16.
stant potential. A simple integrator is shown
in figure 13 employing the Miller feedback Amplifier Two voltages may be added by
principle. Integration is also possible with an Operation the amplifier, as shown in figure
RL network (figure 14) . 17. Keeping in mind that er is
1 (RF)
100N
1 M (RF
.ANA
+450 V.
oeo
NE-51
BIAS -450V - 250 V
GAIN= -A
Figure 16
HIGH GAIN OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER, SUCH AS USED IN HEATH COMPUTER.
eo
Figure 17
TWO VOLTAGES MAY BE
ADDED BY SUMMATION
AMPLIFIER.
Fe (t)
Figure 19
"MASS- SPRING-
essentially at zero (ground) potential:
e. -
= R e: e:
+ R (7)
DAMPER" PROBLEM
MAY BE SOLVED BY
ELECTRICAL ANALOGY
WITH SIMPLE
COMPUTER.
or, e. = - Kett + IC: e: (8) 11 -5 Solving Analog

Problems
where K: = Ri and K: =
R (9) By combining the above operations in var-
ious ways, problems of many kinds may be
As long as e.. does not exceed the input
solved For example, consider the mass- spring-
range of the amplifier, any number of inputs damper assembly shown in figure 19. The mass
may be used: M is connected to the spring which has an
eo= - Rr
Ri
el
RI
-f- R:
e: +---+ Rf
Ido eo
elastic constant K. The viscous damping con-
stant is C. The vertical displacement is y. The
sum of the forces acting on mass M is:
(10)
(t) =M +C
e.
f
d +Ky (16)
or eo = -Rr+ R. where f (t) is the applied force, or forcing
( 11 )
function.
Integration is performed by replacing the The first step is to set up the analog com-
feedback resistor Rr with a capacitor Cr, as puter circuit so as to obtain an output voltage
shown in figure 18. For this circuit (with e proportional to y for a given input voltage
approximately zero) : proportional to f (t) . Equation (16) may be
rewritten in the form:
i=-dtd _ et
RI (12) M -C dt -Ky +f (t)
dt'
but g =Cr e., so
de
dt = Cr dt
deo
and -=
R
et
Cr
deo
di If, in the analog circuit, there is a voltage
(17)
(13) equal to M it can be converted to

dt
dy
- dt
1
by passing it through an integrator circuit hav-
Thus: de. = R) Cr
et dt (14) ing an RC time constant equal to M. This re-
sulting voltage can be passed through a second
integrator stage with unit time constant which
-
-d,
1
and e. e) dt (15) will have an output volage equal to y. The
Ri Cr
voltages representing y, and f (t) can
RI
Figure 18
INTEGRATION then be summed to give -C dt
- Ky + f (t)
o
ei
o
.w
T"I oeo
o
Per formed by
Summation Amplifier
by replacing feed
which is the right hand side of equation (17),
back resistor with a and therefore equal to M . Connecting the
capacitor. de
HANDBOOK Analog Problems 201
SET VOLTAGE TO Y =YO AT

T /YE G.0 (INITIAL
DISPLACEMENT
Md Cdt -Kr+ftt)
TO D SPLAY
OSCILLOSCOPE
f(t)
Cd -P(t)
Figure 20
ANALOG SOLUTION FOR "MASS- SPRING-
DAMPER" PROBLEM OF FIGURE 19.
output of the summing amplifier (A3) to the velocity. That, in turn, will become y, or dis-
input of the first as shown in figure 20 satis- tance, at the output of the second amplifier.
fies the equation. Before the problem can be solved on the
To obtain a solution to the problem, the computer it is necessary to determine the time
initial displacement and velocity must be speci- of solution desirable and the output amplitude
fied. This is done by charging the integrating of the solution. The time of solution is de-
capacitors to the proper voltages. Three oper- termined by the RC constant of the integrating
ational amplifiers and a summing amplifier amplifiers. If RC is set at unity, computer
are required. time is equal to real time. The computer time
A second problem that may be solved by desirable is determined by the method of read-
the analog computer is the example of a freely out. When using an oscilloscope for read -out,
falling body. Disregarding air resistance, the a short solution time is desirable. For a re-
body will fall (due to the action of gravity) corder, longer solution time is better.
with a constant acceleration. The equation
Suppose, for example, in the problem of the
describing this action is:
cry
falling body, the distance of fall in 2.5 seconds
E =mg =m is desired. Using an RC constant of 1 would
dt'` (18) give a solution time of 2.5 seconds. This would
Integration of equation (18) will give the be acceptable for a recorder but is slow for an
velocity, or , and integration a second time
oscilloscope. A convenient time of solution for
do the 'scope would be 25 milliseconds. This is
will give displacement, or y. The block dia- 1/100 of the real time, so an RC constant of
gram of a suitable computer for this problem .01 is needed. This can be obtained with C
is shown in figure 21. equal to 0.1 pfd, and R equal to 100,000
If a voltage proportional to g and hence to ohms.
d' It is now necessary to choose an input volt-
is introduced into the first amplifier, the
d age which will not overdrive the amplifiers.
output of that unit will be - dt , or the The value of g is known to be approximately
32 ft /sec. /sec. A check indicates that if we
set g equal to 32 volts, the voltage represent-
ing the answer will exceed 100 volts. Since
the linear response of the amplifier is only
R, R
100 volts, this is undesirable. An input of 16
d2r dr + volts, however, should permit satisfactory op-
dtt dt eo
e, = dti c eration of the amplifiers. Output voltages near
q zero should also be avoided. In general, output
voltage should be about 50 volts or so, with
Figure 21 amplifier gains of 20 to 60 being preferable.
ANALOG COMPUTER FOR
"FREELY FALLING BODY" Thus, for this particular problem the time -
PROBLEM. scale factor and amplitude -scale factor have
A RELAY A' RELAY
100 K
d?r
df2
ÿ_ dtdr tr
el O
B V. eo=Y
Figure 22
ANALOG SOLUTION FOR
"FALLING BODY PROBLEM"
OF FIGURE 21.
Figure 24
LIMITING CIRCUIT TO SIMULATE
TIME iN SECONDS
NON -LINEAR FUNCTIONS SUCH AS
I 2 (2.3) 3
ENCOUNTERED IN HYSTERESIS,
o o
BACKLASH, AND FRICTION
-e ) PROBLEMS.
eo DISTANCE
-16 32 IN
VOLTS
-24 4e
FEET
11 -6 Non -linear Functions
-32 64 Problems are frequently encountered in
40 60
which non -linear functions must be simulated.
Non -linear potentiometers may be used to sup-
-46
36
- - -- 64(100 ply an unusual voltage source, or diodes may
112
be used as limiters in those problems in which
04 126 a function is defined differently for different
72 144 regions of the independent variable. Such a
function might be defined as follows:
Figure 23
READ -OUT SOLUTION OF "FREELY
FALLING BODY" PROBLEM.
e..
e..
-
= K1 , el
= e1 , -K el
- KI
K2
(19)
(20)
been chosen. The problem now looks like
e.. =K_,el K2 (21)
figure 22. where K1 and K_ are constants.
To solve the problem, relays A and A' are Various limiting circuits can be used, one of
opened. The solution should now appear on which is shown in figure 24. This is a series
the oscilloscope as shown in figure 23. The limiter circuit which is simple and does not
solution of the problem leaves the integrating require special components. Commonly en-
capacitors charged. It is necessary to remove countered problems requiring these or similar
this charge before the problem can be rerun. limiting techniques include hysteresis, back-
This is done by closing relays A and A'. lash, and certain types of friction.
C NOTE, REPLACE C WITH A / MEG RESISTOR
FOR FUNC T /ON SETUP
1MEG
X OUTPUT
RAMP - FUNCTION
GENERATOR
620K _
P
SLOPE CONTROL
I MEG
2 6AL5
BREAK
CONTROL
620K t SIGN CHANGING SUMMING
Y OUTPUT
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
- VOLTAGE
Figure 25
SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM OF FUNCTIONAL GENERATOR TO APPROXIMATE NON -LINEAR
FUNCTIONS.
HANDBOOK Non -Linear Functions 203
+Y
Y2
POSITIVE
Yi
NEGATIVE
0 XI X2 X3 X4 XS X6 +X-.
Figure 26
TYPICAL NON -LINEAR FUNCTION Figure 27
-
WHICH MAY BE SET UP WITH ELECTRONIC PACKAGE IN
FUNCTION GENERATOR. DIGITAL COMPUTER.
Stylized diagram of tube package. Lines car-
rying negative pulses are marked by a small
The Function A function generator may be circle at each end. Gates are indicated by
Generator used to approximate almost a semi -circle with "pins" for each input.
any non -linear function. This

is done by use of straight line segments which the output of the summing amplifier will be
are combined to approximate curves such as zero. If, on the other hand, potentiometer P
are found in trigonometric functions as well is adjusted one way or the other from center,
as in stepped functions. In a typical generator the bridge will be unbalanced and the sum-
ten line segments are used, five in the plus -x ming amplifier output will vary linearly with
direction, and five in the minus -x direction. respect to the input in either a positive or neg-
Five 6ÁL5 double diodes are used. Each line ative y direction, depending upon which side
segment is generated by a modified bridge of center potentiometer P is set.
circuit (figure 25) . A ramp function or volt- The break voltage, or value of x at which a
age is fed into one arm of the bridge while straight line segment will begin is set by
the opposite arm is connected to a biased diode. biasing the diode to the particular voltage level
The other two arms of the bridge combine to or value of x desired. The ramp function gen-
form the output. The voltage appearing across erator has either a positive or negative input
one of these arms is fed through a sign- chang- which because of the 180 degree phase shift
ing amplifier and then summed with the volt- in the amplifier, gives a minus- or plus -x out-
age appearing at the opposite arm. If the arm put respectively. A typical function such as
of potentiometer P (the slope control) is set shown in figure 26 may be set up with the
in the center, the bridge will be balanced and function generator. The initial condition volt-
IBM's new "608," the
first completely tran-
sistorized calculator
for commercial appli-
cations, operates
without the use of a
single vacuum tube.
Transistors- -tiny ger-
manium devices that
perform many of the
functions of conven-
tional vacuum tubes
-make possible 50'-,
reduction in compu-
ter -unit size and a
90' reduction in
power requirements
over a comparable
IBM tube -model ma-
chine. They are
mounted, along with
related circuitry, on
banks of printed wir-
ing panels in the
608.
The machine's inter-
nal storage, or "mem-
ory;" is made up of
magnetic cores -mi-
nute, doughnut -shap-
ed objects that can
"remember" informa-
tion indefinitely, and
recall it for use in
calculations in a few
millionths of a
second.
204 Electronic Computers T H E R A D I O
age is set to the value of X,. The break- voltage can be connected in series to form operational
control is increased until the output of the circuits. The input "and" and "or" gates are
summing amplifier increases abruptly, indi- biased to conduction by external voltages. The
cating the diode is conducting. The input "and" diode gate transmits a pulse only when
voltage from the initial condition power supply all the input terminals are pulsed positively,
is set to the value X2 The slope control (P) and the "or" diode gate transmits a positive
is now set to value Y_. A second function gen- pulse applied to any one of its input terminals.
erator may be used to set points X, and X,, The input pulses pass through the gates and
using the break -voltage control and the initial drive the amplifier stage, which delivers an
condition voltage adjustments. Points XS and amplified pulse to the positive and negative
X. are finally set with a third generator. The output gates, and to accompanying memory
x- output of the function generator system may circuits.
be read on an oscilloscope, using the x- output
of the ramp- function generator amplifier as Memory Circuits A memory circuit consists
the horizontal sweep for the oscilloscope. of some sort of delay line
which is capable of holding an information
11 -7 Digital Circuitry pattern for a period of time. A simple electri-
cal delay line capable of holding a pulse for
Digital circuits dealing with "and," "or," a fraction of a microsecond is shown in figure
and "not" situations may be excited by electri- 29. The amount of delay is proportional to
cal pulses representing these logical operations. the frequency of the input signal as shown in
Sorting and amplifying the pulses can be ac- the graph. A "long" transmission line may
complished by the use of electronic packages, also be used as a delay line, with the signal
such as shown in figure 27. Logical operations being removed from the "far" end of the line
may be accomplished by diode -resistor gates after being delayed an interval equal to the
operating into an amplifier stage. Negative and time of transmission along the line. Lines of
positive output pulses from the amplifier are this type are constructed much in the manner
obtained through diode output gates. The driv- of a standard coaxial cable, except that the
ing pulses may be obtained from a standard inner conductor is a long, thin coil as illustrat-
oscillator, operating at or near 1 mc. ed in figure 30. Other memory circuits make
A circuit of a single digital package is shown use of magnetostrictive or piezoelectric effects
in figure 28. Other configurations, such as a to retard the pulse. Information may also be
"flip- flop" may be used. Many such packages stored in electrostatic storage tubes, upon mag-
AND
t
GATES
INPUT *I
LIMITING
DIODES
CLAMPING
INPUT *3 DIODES 6AN5
POSITIVE PULSE
INPUT *4
IN PUT*5
INPUT* 6
NEGATIVE PULSE
INPUT* 7
Figure 28
TYPICAL DIGITAL PACKAGE SHOWING INPUT AND OUTPUT DIODE GATES AND
PULSE AMPLIFIER.
HANDBOOK Digital Circuitry 205
VINYL JACKET- INNER CONDUCTOR

II WOUND AROUND
POLYETHYLENE
INPUT OUTPUT CORE
COPPER BRAID
0 5
POLYETHYLENE
7
z Figure 30
<
UNIFORM DELAY LINE BEARS
RESEMBLANCE TO COAXIAL CABLE,
ó EXCEPT FOR COILED INNER
0.4 1 I
2 3 < 5 CONDUCTOR.
F (Alc)
Figure 29
SIMPLE DELAY LINE COMPOSED OF
memories capable of retaining over 10,000
LUMPED INDUCTANCE AND separate bits of information. The memory may
CAPACITANCE. GRAPH SHOWS HOW be "read" or "interrogated" by sending pulses
DELAY TIME VARIES WITH through the matrix and observing the resulting
FREQUENCY OF INPUT PULSE. induced voltage in a secondary circuit. The
output from the memory circuit may be used
netic recording tape, and in ferromagnetic to excite a program control system, permitting
cores. Experimental magnetic cores have been the computer to drive another mechanism in
developed that will permit construction of the proper sequence.
E & E TECHNI -SHEET
TABLE OF ALUMINUM TUBING, ROUND DRAWN, 12 FOOT LENGTHS
3S -H14 TUBING 24S -T3 TUBING 61S -T6 TUBING

DIAM. WALL WT..11/FT. DIAM. WALL WT.iNFT DIAM. WALL WT.it/FT.
3/16" .022" .013 1/4" .035" .028 3/16" .035" .018
1/4" .022" .018 3/8" .049" .060 1/4" .035" .028
1/4" .035" .028 1/2" .035" .061 1/4" .058" .041
3/8" .022" .028 5/8" .035" .078 5/16" .035" .036
3/8" .035" .060 3/4" .035" .094 5/16" .058" .055
1/2" .035" .060 3/4" .049" .130 3/8" .035" .044
1/2" .049" .083 7/8" .049" .151 3/8' .058' .068
1/2" .065" .105 1" .035" .128 3/8" .065" .074
5/8" .035" .076 1" .049" .175 7/16' .035" .052
5/8" .049" .104 1" .065" .228 7/16" .065 .089
5/8' .065" .133 1 1/4" .049" .221 1/2" .028" .049
3/4" .035" .092 1 1/2" .035" .193 1/2" .035" .060
3/4" .049" .128 1 1/2" .049" .268 1/2" .058 .095
3/4" .058" .149 1 1/2" .065" .351 1/2" .065' .104
3/4" .065" .166 2" .065" .473 5/8" .035" .076
7/8" .035' .110 5/8" .058" .121
7/8" .049" .150 3/4" .035' .092
7/8" .058" .177 3/4" .058" .148
7/8" .065" .196 3/4" .083" .204
1" .035" .126 7/8" .035" .109
1" .049" .174 7/8" .058" .175
1" .058" .204 1" .035" .125
1" .065 .216 1" .058" .202
1" .083" .281
3S -H14 ALUMINUM TUBING -CAN BE 1/4" 1 .058" .256
BENT OR FLATTENED READILY. 1/4" .083'
24S -T3 ALUMINUM TUBING -HAS H /GH 1 .357
TENS /LE STRENGTH AND CAN BE BENT OR 3/8" 1 .058" .282
FLATTENED ONLY SLIGHTLY WITHOUT 1A/2" .058" .309
CRACK /NG. GOOD FOR ANTENNA MASTS, 1 1/2" .083" .510
BOOMS, ELEMENTS AND OTHER SECTIONS 2" .058' .416
REQUIRING STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.
61S -T6 ALUMINUM TUBING -HAS GREAT 083" 2" 590
TENS /LE STRENGTH BUT CANNOT BE FLATTENED OR BENT.
CHAPTER TWELVE
Radio Receiver Fundamentals
A conventional reproducing device such as 12-1 Detection or

a loudspeaker or a pair of earphones is in-
capable of receiving directly the intelligence
Demodulation
carried by the carrier wave of a radio trans-
mitting station. It is necessary that an addi- A detector or demodulator is a device for
tional device, called a radio receiver, be removing the modulation (demodulating) or
placed between the receiving antenna and the detecting the intelligence carried by an in-
loudspeaker or headphones. coming radio wave.
Radio receivers vary widely in their com-
plexity and basic design, depending upon the Radiotelephony Figure 1 illustrates an ele-
intended application and upon economic fac- Demodulation mentary form of radiotele-
tors. A simple radio receiver for reception of phony receiver employing a
radiotelephone signals can consist of an ear- diode detector. Energy from a passing radio
phone, a silicon or germanium crystal as a wave will induce a voltage in the antenna and
carrier rectifier or demodulator, and a length cause a radio- frequency current to flow from
of wire as an antenna. However, such a re- antenna to ground through coil L,. The alter-
ceiver is highly insensitive, and offers no nating magnetic field set up around L, links
significant discrimination between two sig- with the turns of L, and causes an r -f current
nals in the same portion of the spectrum. to flow through the parallel -tuned circuit,
On the other hand, a dual- diversity receiver L,-C1. When variable capacitor C, is adjusted
designed for single - sideband reception and so that the tuned circuit is resonant at the
employing double or triple detection might frequency of the applied signal, the r -f voltage
occupy several relay racks and would cost is maximum. This r-f voltage is applied to the
many thousands of dollars. However, conven- diode detector where it is rectified into a vary-
tional communications receivers are interme- ing direct current and passed through the ear-
diate in complexity and performance between phones. The variations in this current corres-
the two extremes. This chapter is devoted to pond to the voice modulation placed on the
the principles underlying the operation of signal at the transmitter. As the earphone
such conventional communications receivers. diaphragms vibrate back and forth in accord-
207
208 Radio Receiver Fundamentals THE RADIO
I A
fitnllllljnlillhnflfl
TRIODE
AUDIO OUTPUT
Li L2 - i- e +
GROUND
PLATE- TICKLER REGENERATION WITHTHROTTLE
CONDENSER REGENERATION CONTROL.
Figure 1
PENTODE AUDIO OUTPUT
ELEMENTARY FORM OF RECEIVER
This is the basis of the "crystal set" type of re-
ceiver, although a vacuum diode may be used in
place of the crystal diode. The tank circuit L2-C1
is tuned to the frequency it is desired to receive.
The by-pass capacitor across the phones should
have a low reactance to the carrier frequency be-
ing received, but a high reactance to the modula-
tion on the received signal. -e +e
CATHODE -TAP REGENERATION WITH SCREEN VOLTAGE
REGENERATION CONTROL.
ance with the pulsating current they audibly

reproduce the modulation which was placed
upon the carrier wave. Figure 2
The operation of the detector circuit is REGENERATIVE DETECTOR CIRCUITS
shown graphically above the detector circuit Regenerative detectors are seldom used at the pre-
sent time due to their poor selectivity. However,
in figure L The modulated carrier is shown they do illustrate the simplest type of receiver
at A, as it is applied to the antenna. B repre- which may be used either for radiophone or radio-
sents the same carrier, increased in amplitude, telegraph reception.
as it appears across the tuned circuit. In C
the varying d-c output from the detector is
seen.
Radiotelegraphy Since a c -w telegraphy sig-

Reception nal consists of an unmodu- The Autodyne The local signal which is used
lated carrier which is inter- Detector to beat with the desired c -w
rupted to form dots and dashes, it is apparent signal in the detector may be
that such a signal would not be made audible supplied by a separate low -power oscillator
by detection alone. While the keying is a form in the receiver itself, or the detector may be
of modulation, it is composed of such low fre- made to self-oscillate, and thus serve the
quency components that the keying envelope dual purpose of detector and oscillator. A de-
itself is below the audible range for hand key- tector which self-oscillates to provide a beat
ing speeds. Some means must be provided note is known as an autodyne detector, and
whereby an audible tone is heard while the the process of obtaining feedback between the
unmodulated carrier is being received, the tone detector plate and grid is called regeneration.
stopping immediately when the carrier is in- An autodyne detector is most sensitive when
terrupted. it is barely oscillating, and for this reason
The most simple means of accomplishing a regeneration control is always included in
this is to feed a locally generated carrier of the circuit to adjust the feedback to the proper
a slightly different frequency into the same amount. The regeneration control may be either
detector, so that the incoming signal will mix a variable capacitor or a variable resistor,
with it to form an audible beat note. The dif- as shown in figure 2.
ference frequency, or heterodyne as the beat With the detector regenerative but not os-
note is known, will of course stop and start cillating, it is also quite sensitive. when the
in accordance with the incoming c -w radio- circuit is adjusted to operate in this manner,
telegraph signal, because the audible hetero- modulated signals may be received with con-
dyne can exist only when both the incoming siderably greater strength than with a non-
and the locally generated carriers are present. regenerative detector.
HANDBOOK Superregenerative Detectors 209
12 -2 Superregenerative
Receivers
TO AUDIO
At ultra-high frequencies, when it is de- AMPLIFIER
sired to keep weight and cost at a minimum,

a special form of the regenerative receiver
known as the superregenerator is often used
for radiotelephony reception. The superregen-
erator is essentially a regenerative receiver
with a means provided to throw the detector Figure 3
rapidly in and out of oscillation. The frequency SUPERREGENERATIVE DETECTOR CIRCUIT
at which the detector is made to go in and out A self- quenched superregenerotive detector such
as illustrated above is capable of giving good
of oscillation varies with the frequency to be sensitivity in the vh -f ronge. However, the circuit
received, but is usually between 20,000 and has the disadvantage that its selectivity is rela-
500,000 times a second. This superregenera- tively poor. Also, such a circuit should be pre-
tive action considerably increases the sen- ceded by an r -f stage to suppress the radiation of
O signal by the oscillating detector.
sitivity of the oscillating detector so that the
usual "background hiss" is greatly amplified
when no signal is being received. This hiss
diminishes in proportion to the strength of the
received signal, loud signals eliminating the The optimum quenching frequency is a func-
hiss entirely. tion of the signal frequency. As the operating
Quench There are two systems in common frequency goes up, so does the optimum quench-
Methods use for causing the detector to break ing frequency. When the quench frequency is
in and out of oscillation rapidly. In too low, maximum sensitivity is not obtained.
When it is too high, both sensitivity and selec-
one, a separate interruption -frequency oscilla-
tor is arranged so as to vary the voltage rapid- tivity suffer. In fact, the optimum quench fre-
ly on one of the detector tube elements (usual- quency for an operating frequency below 15 Mc.
ly the plate, sometimes the screen) at the high is in the audible range. This makes the super-
regenerator impracticable for use on the lower
rate necessary. The interruption- frequency
oscillator commonly uses a conventional tick- frequencies.
The high background noise or hiss which
ler- feedback circuit with coils appropriate for
its operating frequency. is heard on a properly designed superregener-
ator when no signal is being received is not
The second, and simplest, type of super -
the quench frequency component; it is tube
regenerative detector circuit is arranged so
and tuned circuit fluctuation noise, indicating
as to produce its own interruption frequency
oscillation, without the aid of a separate tube. that the receiver is extremely sensitive.
A moderately strong signal will cause the
The detector tube damps (or "quenches ") itself
out of signal- frequency oscillation at a high background noise to disappear completely,
because the superregenerator has an inherent
rate by virtue of the use of a high value of
and instantaneous automatic volume control
grid leak and proper size plate -blocking and
grid capacitors, in conjunction with an excess characteristic. This same a -v-c characteristic
makes the receiver comparatively insensitive
of feedback. In this type of "self- quenched"
to impulse noise such as ignition pulses -a
detector, the grid leak is quite often returned
to the positive side of the power supply (through
highly desirable feature. This characteristic
also results in appreciable distortion of a re-
the coil) rather than to the cathode. A repre-
sentative self-quenched superregenerative de- ceived radiotelephone signal, but not enough
to affect the intelligibility.
tector circuit is shown in figure 3.
The selectivity of a superregenerator is
Except where it is impossible to secure
rather poor as compared to a superheterodyne,
sufficient regenerative feedback to permit
superregeneration, the self-quenching circuit but is surprisingly good for so simple a re-
is to be preferred; it is simpler, is self- adjust- ceiver when figured on a percentage basis
rather than absolute kc. bandwidth.
ing as regards quenching amplitude, and can
have good quenching wave form. To obtain
as good results with a separately quenched FM Reception A' superregenerative receiver
superregenerator, very careful design is re- will receive frequency modu-
quired. However, separately quenched circuits lated signals with results comparing favorably
are useful when it is possible to make a cer- with amplitude modulation if the frequency
tain tube oscillate on a very high frequency swing of the FM transmitter is sufficiently
but it is impossible to obtain enough regenera- high. For such reception, the receiver is de-
tion for self-quenching action. tuned slightly to either side of resonance.
i 12AT7 AUDIO
OUTPUT
r - T
RF IINTERMED. I IrI
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER REQUENCY LP.- "SECOND- I
I
DETECTOR
W¡AMPLIFIER,
-- - -
AMPLIFIER I
r -éEAT
'FREQUENCY'
'OSCILLATORI
(FOR CYO!
Figure 5
ESSENTIAL UNITS OF A
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
The basic portions of the receiver are shown
in solid blocks. Practicable receivers em-
ploy the dotted blocks and also usually in-
clude such additional circuits as a noise
limiter, an a-v -c circuit, and a crystal filter
in the i -f amplifier.
Figure 4
THE FREMODYNE SUPERREGENERATIVE theory of operation of the superheterodyne
SUPERHETERODYNE DETECTOR FOR should be familiar to every radio student and
FREQUENCY MODULATED SIGNALS experimenter. The following discussion con-
cerns superheterodynes for amplitude- modula-
tion reception. It is, however, applicable in
part to receivers for frequency modulation.
Superregenerative receivers radiate a strong,
broad, and rough signal. For this reason, it is Principle of In the superheterodyne, the in-
necessary in most applications to employ a Operation coming signal is applied to a
radio frequency amplifier stage ahead of the mixer consisting of a non -linear
detector, with thorough shielding throughout impedance such as a vacuum tube or a diode.
the receiver.
The signal is mixed with a steady signal gen-
erated locally in an oscillator stage, with the
The Fremodyne The H a z e l tin e- Fremodyne result that a signal bearing all the modulation
applied to the original signal but of a fre-
Detector superregenerative circuit is
quency equal to the difference between the
expressly designed for re-
ception of FM signals. This versatile circuit local oscillator and incoming signal frequen-
combines the action of the superregenerative cies appears in the mixer output circuit. The
output from the mixer stage is fed into a fixed-
receiver with the superhetrodyne, converting
tuned intermediate -frequency amplifier, where
FM signals directly into audio signals in one
double triode tube (figure 4). One section of
it is amplified and detected in the usual man-
ner, and passed on to the audio amplifier. Fig-
the triode serves as a superregenerative mixer,
ure 5 shows a block diagram of the fundamen-
producing an i -f of 22 Mc., an i -f amplifier, and
tal superheterodyne arrangement. The basic
a FM detector. The detector action is accom-
components are shown in heavy lines, the
plished by slope detection tuning on the side
of the i -f selectivity curve.
simplest superheterodyne consisting simply
of these three units. However, a good com-
This circuit greatly reduces the radiated
munications receiver will comprise all of the
signal, characteristic of the superregenerative
elements shown, both heavy and dotted blocks.
detector, yet provides many of the desirable
features of the superregenerator. The pass -
Superheterodyne The advantages of super -
band of the Fremodyne detector is about
Advantages heterodyne reception are
400 kc.
directly attributable to the
use of the fixed -tuned intermedial -frequency
12 -3 Superheterodyne
(i -f) amplifier. Since all signals are converted
to the intermediate frequency, this section of
Receivers the receiver may be designed for optimum se-
lectivity and high amplification. High ampli-
Because of its superiority and nearly uni- fication is easily obtained in the intermediate -
versal use in all fields of radio reception, the frequency amplifier, since it operates at a
HANDBOOK The Superhetrodyne 211
iNPyi
VARIAELE-1J
PENTODE
an overwhelming advantage over the tuned
radio frequency (t -r -f) type of receiver because
of what is commonly known as arithmetical
selectivity.
This can best be illustrated by considering
two receivers, one of the t-r -f type and one of
the superheterodyne type, both attempting to
receive a desired signal at 10,000 kc. and
11-PASS CAPACITORS OS TO 0.1 LED.
1 MEG.
eliminate a strong interfering signal at 10,010
TO A v kc. In the t-r -f receiver, separating these two
signals in the tuning circuits is practically
Figure 6 impossible, since they differ in frequency by
TYPICAL I -F AMPLIFIER STAGE only 0.1 per cent. However, in a superhetero-
dyne with an intermediate frequency of, for ex-
ample, 1000 kc., the desired signal will be
converted to a frequency of 1000 kc. and the
relatively low frequency, where conventional interfering signal will be converted to a fre-
pentode-type tubes give adequate voltage gain. quency of 1010 kc., both signals appearing at
A typical i -f amplifier is shown in figure 6. the input of the i -f amplifier. In this case, the
From the diagram it may be seen that both two signals may be separated much more read-
the grid and plate circuits are tuned. The tuned ily, since they differ by 1 per cent, or 10 times
circuits used for coupling between i -f stages as much as in the first case.
are known as i -f trans formers. These will be
more fully discussed later in this chapter. The Converter The converter stage, or mixer,
Stage of a superheterodyne receiver
Choice of Inter- The choice of a frequency can be either one of two types:
mediate Frequency for the i -f amplifier in- (1) it may use a single envelope converter
volves several considera- tube, such as a 6K8, 6SA7, or 68E6, or (2) it
tions. One of these considerations concerns may use two tubes, or two sets of elements in
selectivity; the lower the intermediate fre- the same envelope, in an oscillator-mixer ar-
quency the greater the obtainable selectivity. rangement. Figure 7 shows a group of circuits
On the other hand, a rather high intermediate of both types to illustrate present practice
frequency is desirable from the standpoint of with regard to types of converter stages.
image elimination, and also for the reception Converter tube combinations such as shown
of signals from television and FM transmitters in figures 7A and 7B are relatively simple and
and modulated self -controlled oscillators, all inexpensive, and they do an adequate job for
of which occupy a rather wide band of frequen- most applications. With a converter tube such
cies, making a broad selectivity characteristic as the 6SB7 -Y or the 6BA7 quite satisfactory
desirable. Images are a pecularity common to performance may be obtained for the reception
all superheterodyne receivers, and for this of relatively strong signals (as for example
reason they are given a detailed discussion FM broadcast reception) up to frequencies in
later in this chapter. excess of 100 Mc. However, the equivalent in-
While intermediate frequencies as low as put noise resistance of such tubes is of the
50 kc. are used where extreme selectivity is order of 200,000 ohms, which is a rather high
a requirement, and frequencies of 60 Mc. and value indeed. So such tubes are not suited for
above are used in some specialized forms of operation without an r -f stage in the high -
receivers, most present-day communications frequency range if weak -signal reception is
superheterodynes use intermediate frequencies desired.
around either 455 kc. or 1600 kc. The 6L7 mixer circuit shown in figure 7C,
Home -type broadcast receivers almost al- and the 6BA7 circuit of figure 7D, also are
ways use an i -f in the vicinity of 455 kc., characterized by an equivalent input noise re-
while auto receivers usually use a frequency sistance of several hundred thousand ohms, so
of about 262 kc. The standard frequency for that these also must be preceded by one or
the i -f channel of FM receivers is 10.7 Mc. more r -f stages with a fairly high gain per
Television receivers use an i -f which covers stage if a low noise factor is desired of the
the band between about 21.5 and 27 Mc., al- complete receiver.
though a new band between 41 and 46 Mc. is However, the circuit arrangements shown
coming into more common usage. at figures 7F and 6F are capable of low-noise
operation within themselves, so that these
Arithmetical Aside from allowing the use of circuits may be fed directly from the antenna
Selectivity fixed -tuned band -pass amplifier without an r -f stage and still provide a good
stages, the superheterodyne has noise factor to the complete receiver. Note
65,47, 65B7-Y.
To
68E6, 6BA7 AMP.
I F
+250 V.
2 .UDF
+150 V.
Figure 7
TYPICAL FREQUENCY- CONVERTER (MIXER) STAGES

The relative advantages of the different circuits are discussed in the text
that both these circuits use control -grid in- quency limit for conventional mixer stages,
jection of both the incoming signal and the mixers of the diode type are most commonly
local- oscillator voltage. Hence, paradoxically, employed. The diode may be either a vacuum -
circuits such as these should be preceded by tube heater diode of a special u -h -f design
an r -f stage if local- oscillator radiation is to such as the 9005, or it may be a crystal diode
be held to any reasonable value of field in- of the general type of the 1N21 through 1N28
tensity. series.
Diode Mixers As the frequency of operation of

a superheterodyne receiver is in-
12-4 Mixer Noise
creased above a few hundred megacycles the
signal -to -noise ratio appearing in the plate and Images
circuit of the mixer tube when triodes or pen-
todes are employed drops to a prohibitively The effects of mixer noise and images are
low value. At frequencies above the upper -fre- troubles common to all superheterodynes. Since
HANDBOOK Mixer Characteristics 213
both these effects can largely be obviated by optimum injection voltage is not at all critical
the same remedy, they will be considered to- just so it is adequate. Typical optimum in-
gether. jection voltages will run from 1 to 10 volts for
control grid injection, and 45 volts or so for
Mixer Noise Mixer noise of the shot - effect screen or suppressor grid injection.
type, which is evidenced by a
hiss in the audio output of the receiver, is Images There always are two signal frequen-
caused by small irregularities in the plate cur- cies which will combine with a given
rent in the mixer stage and will mask weak frequency to produce the same difference fre-
signals. Noise of an identical nature is gen- quency. For example: assume a superhetero-
erated in an amplifier stage, but due to the dyne with its oscillator operating on a higher
fact that the conductance in the mixer stage frequency than the signal, which is common
is considerably lower than in an amplifier practice in present superheterodynes, tuned to
stage using the same tube, the proportion of receive a signal at 14,100 kc. Assuming an
inherent noise present in a mixer usually is i -f amplifier frequency of 450 kc., the mixer
considerably greater than in an amplifier stage input circuit will be tuned to 14,100 kc., and
using a comparable tube. the oscillator to 14,100 plus 450, or 14,550 kc.
Although this noise cannot be eliminated, Now, a strong signal at the oscillator frequen-
its effects can be greatly minimized by plac- cy plus the intermediate frequency (14,550
ing sufficient signal- frequency amplification
plus 450, or 15,000 kc.) will also give a dif-
having a high signal -to -noise ratio ahead of ference frequency of 450 kc. in the mixer out-
the mixer. This remedy causes the signal output and will be heard also. Note that the image
put from the mixer to be large in proportion to is always twice the intermediate frequency
the noise generated in the mixer stage. In- away from the desired signal. Images cause
creasing the gain alter the mixer will be of no repeat points on the tuning dial.
advantage in eliminating mixer noise difficul- The only way that the image could be elimi-
ties; greater selectivity after the mixer will nated in this particular case would be to make
help to a certain extent, but cannot be carried the selectivity of the mixer input circuit, and
too far, since this type of selectivity decreases any circuits preceding it, great enough so that
the i -f band -pass and if carried too far will the 15,000 -kc. signal never reaches the mixer
not pass the sidebands that are an essential grid in sufficient amplitude to produce inter-
part of a voice -modulated signal. ference.
For any particular intermediate frequency,
Triode Mixers A triode having a high trans- image interference troubles become increas-
conductance is the quietest ingly greater as the frequency to which the
mixer tube, exhibiting somewhat less gain but signal- frequency portion of the receiver is
a better signal -to -noise ratio than a compar- tuned is increased. This is due to the fact that
able multi -grid mixer tube. However, below 30 the percentage difference between the desired
Mc. it is possible to construct a receiver that frequency and the image frequency decreases
will get down to the atmospheric noise level as the receiver is tuned to a higher frequency.
without resorting to a triode mixer. The addi- The ratio of strength between a signal at the
tional difficulties experienced in avoiding image frequency and a signal at the frequency
pulling, undesirable feedback, etc., when using to which the receiver is tuned producing equal
a triode with control -grid injection tend to make output is known as the image ratio. The higher
multi -grid tubes the popular choice for this this ratio, the better the receiver in regard to
application on the lower frequencies. image- interference troubles.
On very high frequencies, where set noise With but a single tuned circuit between the
rather than atmospheric noise limits the weak mixer grid and the antenna, and with 400 -500
signal response, triode mixers are more widely kc. i-f amplifiers, image ratios of 60 db and
used. A 6J6 miniature twin triode with grids over are easily obtainable up to frequencies
in push -pull and plates in parallel makes an around 2000 kc. Above this frequency, greater
excellent mixer up to about 600 Mc. selectivity in the mixer grid circuit through
the use of additional tuned circuits between
Injection The amplitude of the injection volt - the mixer and the antenna is necessary if a
Voltage age will affect the conversion trans - good image ratio is to be maintained.
conductance of the mixer, and there-
fore should be made optimum if maximum sig-
nal -to -noise ratio is desired. If fixed bias is 12 -5 R -F Stages
employed on the injection grid, the optimum
injection voltage is quite critical. If cathode Since the necessary tuned circuits between
bias is used, the optimum voltage is not so the mixer and the antenna can be combined
critical; and if grid leak bias is employed, the with tubes to form r -f amplifier stages, the
PENTODE 6AB4, 6J6,

6J4, 12AT7
INPUT C p OUTPUT
GROUNDED- GRID
2 10
+120 V.
Figure 8
TYPICAL PENTODE R -F AMPLIFIER STAGE
CATHODE -COUPLED 6J6
reduction of the effects of mixer noise and the

increasing of the image ratio can be accom-
plished in a single section of the receiver.
When incorporated in the receiver, this sec-
tion is known simply as an r -f amplifier; when
it is a separate unit with a separate tuning
control it is often known as a preselector. +120 V.
Either one or two stages are commonly used

in the preselector or r -f amplifier. Some pre - LOW NOISE
selectors use regeneration to obtain still GASCODE
greater amplification and selectivity. An r -f Lo
amplifier or preselector embodying more than
two stages rarely ever is employed since two
stages will ordinarily give adequate gain to
override mixer noise.
R -FStages in Generally speaking, atmos-

the V -H -F Range pheric noise in the frequency
range above 30 Mc. is quite
low -so low, in fact, that the noise generated +120 V.
within the receiver itself is greater than the
noise received on the antenna. Hence it is of
the greatest importance that internally gener- 6BK7,68Q7AOM6BZ7
ated noise be held to a minimum in a receiver.
At frequencies much above 300 Mc. there is
not too much that can be done at the present
state of the art in the direction of reducing
receiver noise below that generated in the con-
verter stage. But in the v -h -f range, between
30 and 300 Mc., the receiver noise factor in a +250V.
well designed unit is determined by the char-
acteristics of the first r -f stage. Figure 9
The usual v -h -f receiver, whether for com- TYPICAL TRIODE V -H -F
munications or for FM or TV reception, uses R -F AMPLIFIER STAGES
a miniature pentode for the first r -f amplifier Triode r -f stages contribute the least amount of
stage. The 6AK5 is the best of presently avail- noise output for a given signal level, hence their
able types, with the 6CB6 and the 6DC6 close- frequent use In the v -h-f range.
ly approaching the 6AK5 in performance. But
when gain in the first r -f stage is not so im-
portant, and the best noise factor must be ob-
tained, the first r-f stage usually uses a triode. impedance coaxial transmission line. Figure
Shown in figure 9 are four commonly used 9 (B) gives somewhat more gain than (A), but
types of triode r -f stages for use in the v -h -f requires an input matching circuit. The effec-
range. The circuit at (A) uses few components tive gain of this circuit is somewhat reduced
and gives a moderate amount of gain with very when it is being used to amplify a broad band
low noise. It is most satisfactory when the of frequencies since the effective Gm of the
first r -f stage is to be fed directly from a low- cathode -coupled dual tube is somewhat less
HANDBOOK The Cascode Amplifier 215
O
t 14 MC
TUNABLE
R.F.
AMPLIFIER
MIXER
MC.
TUNABLE
I.F.
AMPLIFIER
MIXER
435 KC
fl %ED
i.f.
AMPLIFIER
(MODULATOR
AND
AUDIO
CRYSTAL VARIABLE
10 MC. 3543 RC.
OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR
-II- --I
I I 50 RC
I I
iIXED DEMODULATOR
I.F. MIXER ANO
AMPLIFIER I I
AMPLIFIER AUDIO
I© I I
II
VARIABLE FIX
14 455 KC. I I
505 RC.
I I
11 I
CONVENTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS II HIGHLY SELECTIVE ACCESSORY I F.

RECEIVER II AMPLIFIER AND DEMODULATOR (Q5'ER)I
L JL _ _J
Figure 10
TYPICAL DOUBLE -CONVERSION SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS
Illustrated at (A) is the basic circuit of a commercial double -conversion superheterodyne receiver. At (B) is
illustrated the application of an accessory sharp i -f channel for obtaining improved selectivity from a con-
ventional communications receiver through the use of the double- conversion principle.
than half the Gm of either of the two tubes ratio, at the expense of i -f selectivity, by
taken alone. placing the desired signal and the image far-
ther apart. To give both good image ratio at
The Cascode The Cascode r -f amplifier, de- the higher frequencies and good selectivity in
Amplifier veloped at the MIT Radiation the i -f amplifier, a system known as double
Laboratory during World War II, conversion is sometimes employed. In this sys-
is a low noise circuit employing a grounded tem, the incoming signal is first converted to
cathode triode driving a grounded grid triode, a rather high intermediate frequency, and then
as shown in figure 9C. The stage gain of such amplified and again converted, this time to a
a circuit is about equal to that of a pentode much lower frequency. The first intermediate
tube, while the noise figure remains at the low frequency supplies the necessary wide separa-
level of a triode tube. Neutralization of the tion between the image and the desired sig-
first triode tube is usually unnecessary below nal, while the second one supplies the bulk of
50 Mc. Above this frequency, a definite im- the i -f selectivity.
provement in the noise figure may be obtained The double- conversion system, as illus-
Ihrough the use of neutralization. The neutral- trated in figure 10, is receiving two general
izing coil, LN, should resonate at the operat- types of application at the present time. The
ing frequency with the grid -plate capacity of first application is for the purpose of attaining
the first triode tube. extremely good stability in a communications
The 6BQ7A and 6BZ7 tubes are designed for receiver through the use of crystal control of
use in cascode circuits, and may be used to first oscillator. In such an arrangement,
the
good advantage in the 144 Mc. and 220 Mc. am- as used in several types of Collins receivers,
ateur bands (figure 9D). For operation at higher the first oscillator is crystal controlled and is
frequencies, the 6ÁJ4 tube is recommended. followed by a tunable i -f amplifier which then
is followed by a mixer stage and a fixed -tuned
Double Conversion As previously mentioned, i -f amplifier on a much lower frequency.
the use of a higher inter- Through such a circuit arrangement the sta-
mediate frequency will also improve the image bility of the complete receiver is equal to the
stability of the oscillator which feeds the sec-

ond mixer, while the selectivity is determined
by the bandwidth of the second, fixed i -f am-
plifier.
The second common application of the
double -conversion principle is for the purpose R. F. INPUT C
of obtaining a very high degree of selectivity
in the complete communications receiver. In
this type of application, as illustrated in fig- TO N. C. +e
ure 10 (B), a conventional communications re-
ceiver is modified in such a manner that its
Figure 11
normal i -f amplifier (which usually is in the ILLUSTRATING "COMMON POINT"
450 to 915 kc. range) instead of being fed to
BY-PASSING
a demodulator and then to the audio system,
To reduce the detrimental effects of cathode cir-
is alternatively fed to a fixed-tune mixer stage cuit inductance in v-h -f stages, all by -pass ca-
and then into a much lower intermediate fre- pacitors should be returned to the cathode terminal
quency amplifier before the signal is demodu- at the socket. Tubes with two cathode leads can
lated and fed to the audio system. The acces- give improved performance if the grid return is
made to one cathode terminal while the plate and
sory i -f amplifier system (sometimes called a screen by -pass returns ont made to the cathode
Q5'er) normally is operated on a frequency of terminal which is connected to the suppressor
175 kc., 85 kc., or 50 kc. within the tube.
Frequently it is possible to secure an in-

12 -6 Signal- Frequency crease in impedance in a resonant circuit, and
Tuned Circuits consequently an increase in gain from an am-
plifier stage, by increasing the reactance
The signal- frequency tuned circuits in high - through the use of larger coils and smaller
frequency superheterodynes and tuned radio tuning capacitors (higher L/C ratio).
frequency types of receivers consist of coils
of either the solenoid or universal -wound types Input Resistance Another factor which in-
shunted by variable capacitors. It is in these fluences the operation of
tuned circuits that the causes of success or tuned circuits is the input resistance of the
failure of a receiver often lie. The universal - tubes placed across these circuits. At broad -
wound type coils usually are used at frequen- cast frequencies, the input resistance of most
cies below 2000 kc.; above this frequency the conventional r-f amplifier tubes is high enough
single-layer solenoid type of coil is more so that it is not bothersome. But as the fre-
satisfactory. quency is increased, the input resistance be-
comes lower and lower, until it ultimately
Impedance The two factors of greatest signi- reaches a value so low that no amplification
ond Q ficance in determining the gain - can be obtained from the r -f stage.
per -stage and selectivity, respec- The two contributing factors to the decrease
in input resistance with increasing frequency
tively, of a tuned amplifier are tuned-circuit
impedance and tuned -circuit Q. Since the re- are the transit time required by an electron
sistance of modern capacitors is low at ordi- traveling between the cathode and grid, and
the inductance of the cathode lead common
nary frequencies, the resistance usually can
to both the plate and grid circuits. As the
be considered to be concentrated in the coil.
The resistance to be considered in making Q frequency becomes higher, the transit time
determinations is the r -f resistance, not the can become an appreciable portion of the time
d -c resistance of the wire in the coil. The lat- required by an r -f cycle of the signal voltage,
ter ordinarily is low enough that it may be and current will actually flow into the grid.
neglected. The increase in r -f resistance over The result of this effect is similar to that
d -c resistance primarily is due to skin effect which would be obtained by placing a resis-
and is influenced by such factors as wire size tance between the tube's grid and cathode.
and type, and the proximity of metallic objects
or poor insulators, such as coil forms with Superheterodyne Because the oscillator in a
high losses. Higher values of Q lead to better Tracking superheterodyne operates
selectivity and increased r -f voltage across "offset" from the other front
the tuned circuit. The increase in voltage is end circuits, it is necessary to make special
due to an increase in the circuit impedance provisions to allow the oscillator to track
with the higher values of Q. when similar tuning capacitor sections are
HANDBOOK Tuning Circuits 217
MIXER
PADDING CAPACITOR
TUNING CAPACITOR
OSCILLATOR .
SERIES TRACKING CAPACITOR
Figure 13
Figure 12
BANDSPREAD CIRCUITS
SERIES TRACKING EMPLOYED
Parallel bandspread is illustrated at (A) and (B),
IN THE H -F OSCILLATOR OF A series bandspreod at (C), and tapped-coil band-
SUPERHETERODYNE spread at (D),
The series tracking capacitor permits the use of
identical gangs in a ganged capacitor, since the
tracking capacitor slows down the rate of frequen-
cy change in the oscillator so that a constant dif-
ference in frequency between the oscillator and a combination of both methods is usually em-
the r -f stage (equal to the i -f amplifier frequency) ployed, the coils being changed from one band
may be maintained.
to another, and variable capacitors being used
to tune the receiver across each band. In prac-
tical receivers, coils may be changed by one
ganged. The usual method of obtaining good of two methods: a switch, controllable from
tracking is to operate the oscillator on the the panel, may be used to switch coils of dif-
high- frequency side of the mixer and use a ferent sizes into the tuning circuits or, alter-
series tracking capacitor to slow down the natively, coils of different sizes may be
tuning rate of the oscillator. The oscillator plugged manually into the receiver, the con-
tuning rate must be slower because it covers nection into the tuning circuits being made by
a smaller range than does the mixer when both suitable plugs on the coils. Where there are
are expressed as a percentage of frequency. several plug-in coils for each band, they are
At frequencies above 7000 kc. and with ordi- sometimes arranged to a single mounting strip,
nary intermediate frequencies, the difference allowing them all to be plugged in simultan-
in percentage between the two tuning ranges eously.
is so small that it may be disregarded in re-
ceivers designed to cover only a small range, Bandspreod In receivers using large tuning
such as an amateur band. Tuning capacitors to cover the short-
A mixer and oscillator tuning arrangement wave spectrum with a minimum
in which a series tracking capacitor is provid- of coils, tuning is likely to be quite difficult,
ed is shown in figure 12. The value of the owing to the large frequency range covered by
tracking capacitor varies considerably with a small rotation of the variable capacitors.
different intermediate frequencies and tuning To alleviate this condition, some method of
ranges, capacitances as low as .0001 pfd. slowing down the tuning rate, or bandspread-
being used at the lower tuning -range frequen- ing, must be used.
cies, and values up to .01 pfd. being used at Quantitatively, bandspread is usually desig-
the higher frequencies. nated as being inversely proportional to the
Superheterodyne receivers designed to cover range covered. Thus, a large amount of band -
only a single frequency range, such as the spread indicates that a small frequency range
standard broadcast band, sometimes obtain is covered by the bandspread control. Con-
tracking between the oscillator and the r -f cir- versely, a small amount of bandspread is taken
cuits by cutting the variable plates of the os- to mean that a large frequency range is covered
cillator tuning section to a different shape by the bandspread dial.
from those used to tune the r -f stages.
Frequency Ronge The frequency to which a Types of Bandspreading systems are of

Selection receiver responds may be Bandspreod two general types: electrical and
varied by changing the size mechanical. Mechanical systems
of either the coils or the capacitors in the tun- are exemplified by high -ratio dials in which
ing circuits, or both. In short -wave receivers the tuning capacitors rotate much more slowly
218 Radio Receiver Fundamental s THE RADIO
than the dial knob. In this system, there is and the latter representing all -wave sets with
often a separate scale or pointer either con- bandswitching, large tuning capacitors, and
nected or geared to the dial knob to facilitate conventional tubes.
accurate dial readings. However, there is a
practical limit to the amount of mechanical
bandspread which can be obtained in a dial
12 -7 I -F Tuned Circuits
and capacitor before the speed- reduction unit
and capacitor bearings become prohibitively
expensive. Hence, most receivers employ a I -f amplifiers usually employ bandpass
cir-
combination of electrical and mechanical band- cuits of some sort. A bandpass circuit is ex-
spread. In such a system, a moderate reduc- actly what the name implies -a circuit for pass-
tion in the tuning rate is obtained in the dial, ing a band of frequencies. Bandpass arrange-
and the rest of the reduction obtained by elec- ments can be designed for almost any degree
trical bandspreading. of selectivity, the type used in any particular
case depending upon the ultimate application
Stray Circuit In this book and in other radio of the amplifier.
Capacitance literature, mention is sometimes
made of stray or circuit capaci- I- Intermediate frequency trans -
tance. This capacitance is in the usual sense Transformers formers ordinarily consist of
defined as the capacitance remaining across two or more tuned circuits and
a coil when all the tuning, bandspread, and some method of coupling the tuned circuits
padding capacitors across the circuit are at together. Some representative arrangements
their minimum capacitance setting. are shown in figure 14. The circuit shown at
Circuit capacitance can be attributed to two A is the conventional i -f transformer, with the
general sources. One source is that due to the coupling, M, between the tuned circuits being
input and output capacitance of the tube when provided by inductive coupling from one coil
its cathode is heated. The input capacitance to the other. As the coupling is increased, the
varies somewhat from the static value when selectivity curve becomes less peaked, and
the tube is in actual operation. Such factors when a condition known as critical coupling
as plate load impedance, grid bias, and fre- is reached, the top of the curve begins to flat-
quency will cause a change in input capaci- ten out. When the coupling is increased still
tance. However, in all except the extremely more, a dip occurs in the top of the curve.
high -transconductance tubes, the published The windings for this type of i -f transformer,
measured input capacitance is reasonably close as well as most others, nearly always consist
to the effective value when the tube is used of small, flat universal -wound pies mounted
within its recommended frequency range. But either on a piece of dowel to provide an air
in the high-transconductance types the effec- core or on powdered -iron for iron core i -f trans-
tive capacitance will vary considerably from formers. The iron -core transformers generally
the published figures as operating conditions have somewhat more gain and better selectivity
are changed. than equivalent air -core units.
The second source of circuit capacitance, The circuits shown at figure 14 -B and C are
and that which is more easily controllable, is quite similar. Their only difference is the type
that contributed by the minimum capacitance of mutual coupling used, an inductance being
of the variable capacitors across the circuit used at B and a capacitance at C. The opera-
and that due to capacitance between the wir- tion of both circuits is similar. Three reson-
ing and ground. In well -designed high -fre- ant circuits are formed by the components. In
quency receivers, every effort is made to keep B, for example, one resonant circuit is formed
this portion of the circuit capacitance at a by L C C, and L, all in series. The fre-
quency of this resonant circuit is just the same
minimum since a large capacitance reduces
the tuning range available with a given coil as that of a single one of the coils and capaci-
and prevents a good L/C ratio, and conse- tors, since the coils and capacitors are simi-
quently a high- impedance tuned circuit, from lar in both sides of the circuit, and the reson-
being obtained. ant frequency of the two capacitors and the
A good percentage of stray circuit capaci- two coils all in series is the same as that of
tance is due also to distributed capacitance a single coil and capacitor. The second reson-
of the coil and capacitance between wiring ant frequency of the complete circuit is deter-
points and chassis. mined by the characteristics of each half of
Typical values of circuit capacitance may the circuit containing the mutual coupling de-
run from 10 to 75 /LOA. in high- frequency re- vice. In B, this second frequency will be lower
ceivers, the first figure representing concen- than the first, since the resonant frequency of
tric -line receivers with acorn or miniature L1, C, and the inductance, M, or L2, C, and M
tubes and extremely small tuning capacitors, is lower than that of a single coil and capaci-
HANDBOOK I -F Amplifiers 219
tor, due to the inductance of M being added to

the circuit.
The opposite effect takes place at figure
14 -C, where the common coupling impedance
is a capacitor. Thus, at C the second reson-
ant frequency is higher than the first. In either
case, however, the circuit has two resonant fre-
quencies, resulting in a flat -topped selectivity
curve. The width of the top of the curve is
controlled by the reactance of the mutual
coupling component. As this reactance is in-
creased (inductance made greater, capacitance
made smaller), the two resonant frequencies
become further apart and the curve is broad-
ened.
In the circuit of figure 14 -D, there is induc-
tive coupling between the center coil and each
of the outer coils. The result of this arrange-
ment is that the center coil acts as a sharply
tuned coupler between the other two. A signal
somewhat off the resonant frequency of the
transformer will not induce as much current
in the center coil as will a signal of the cor-
rect frequency. When a smaller current is in-
duced in the center coil, it in turn transfers
a still smaller current to the output coil. The
effective coupling between the outer coils in-
creases as the resonant frequency is ap-
proached, and remains nearly constant over a
small range and then decreases again as the
resonant band is passed.
Another very satisfactory bandpass arrange-
ment, which gives a very straight- sided, flat -
topped curve, is the negative- mutual arrange-
ment shown at figure 14-E. Energy is trans-
ferred between the input and output circuits in
this arrangement by both the negative -mutual
coils, M, and the common capacitive reactance,
C. The negative -mutual coils are interwound
on the same form, and connected backward.
Transformers usually are made tunable over
a small range to permit accurate alignment in
the circuit in which they are employed. This Figure 14
is accomplished either by means of a variable I-F AMPLIFIER COUPLING
capacitor across a fixed inductance, or by ARRANGEMENTS
means of a fixed capacitor across a variable The interstage coupling arrangements illustrated
above give a better shape factor (more straight
inductance. The former usually employ either sided selectivity curve) than would the some num-
a mica- compression capacitor (designated ber of tuned circuits coupled by means of tubes.
"mica tuned "), or a small air dielectric vari-
able capacitor (designated "air tuned "). Those
which use a fixed capacitor usually employ a
powdered iron core on a threaded rod to vary width in a good communications receiver, is
the inductance, and are known as "permea- known as the pass band, and is arbitrarily
bility tuned." taken as the width between the two frequen-
cies at which the response is attenuated 6 db,
Shape Factor It is obvious that to pass modu- or is "6 db down." However, it is apparent
lation sidebands and to allow that to discriminate against an interfering sig-
for slight drifting of the transmitter carrier fre- nal which is stronger than the desired signal,
quency and the receiver local oscillator, the much more than 6 db attenuation is required.
i -f amplifier must pass not a single frequency The attenuation arbitrarily taken to indicate
but a band of frequencies. The width of this adequate discrimination against an interfering
pass band, usually 5 to 8 kc. at maximum signal is 60 db.
L C R
Figure 16
ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF
QUARTZ FILTER CRYSTAL
The crystal is equivalent to o very large value of
inductance in series with small values of capaci-
tance and resistance, with a larger though still
small value of capacitance across the whole cir-
cuit (representing holder capacitance plus stray
5 -la -5 455 +5 +10 +15
capacitances).
nc.
Figure 15 good quality normally employ 3 or 4 double

I-F PASS BAND OF TYPICAL tuned transformers with coupling adjusted to
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVER critical or slightly less.
The pass band of a typical communication
receiver having a 455 kc. i -f amplifier is shown
in figure 15.
It is apparent that it is desirable to have "Miller As mentioned previously, the dyne-

the bandwidth at 60 db down as narrow as Effect" mic input capacitance of a tube varies
possible, but it must be done without making slightly with bias. As a -v-c voltage
the pass band (6 db points) too narrow for satis- normally is applied to i -f cubes for radiotele-
factory reception of the desired signal. The phony reception, the effective grid- cathode
figure of merit used to show the ratio of band- capacitance varies as the signal strength
width at 6 db down to that at 60 db down is varies, which produces the same effect as
designated shape factor. The ideal i -f curve, slight detuning of the i -f transformer. This
a rectangle, would have a shape factor of 1.0. effect is known as "Miller effect," and can
The i -f shape factor in typical communications be minimized to the extent that it is not
receivers runs from 3.0 to 5.5. troublesome either by using a fairly low L/C
The most practicable method of obtaining a ratio in the transformers or by incorporating
low shape factor for a given number of tuned a small amount of degenerative feedback, the
circuits is to employ them in pairs, as in fig- latter being most easily accomplished by leav-
ure 14 -A, adjusted to critical coupling (the ing part of the cathode resistor unbypassed
value at which two resonance points just be- for r. f.
gin to become apparent). If this gives too
sharp a "nose" or pass band, then coils of Crystal Filters The pass band of an inter-
lower Q should be employed, with the coupling mediate frequency amplifier
maintained at the critical value. As the Q is may be made very narrow through the use of a
lowered, closer coupling will be required for piezoelectric filter crystal employed as a
critical coupling. series resonant circuit in a bridge arrange-
Conversely if the pass band is too broad, ment known as a crystal filter. The shape fac-
coils of higher Q should be employed, the tor is quite poor, as would be expected when
coupling being maintained at critical. If the the selectivity is obtained from the equivalent
pass band is made more narrow by using looser of a single tuned circuit, but the very narrow
coupling instead of raising the Q and main- pass band obtainable as a result of the ex-
taninig critical coupling, the shape factor will tremely high Q of the crystal makes the crys-
not be as good. tal filter useful for c -w telegraphy reception.
The pass band will not be much narrower The pass band of a 455 kc. crystal filter may
for several pairs of identical, critically coupled be made as narrow as 50 cycles, while the
tuned circuits than for a single pair. However, narrowest pass band that can be obtained with
the shape factor will be greatly improved as a 455 kc. tuned circuit of practicable dimen-
each additional pair is added, up to about 5 sions is about 5 kc.
pairs, beyond which the improvement for each The electrical equivalent of a filter crystal
additional pair is not significant. Commer- is shown in figure 16. For a given frequency,
cially available communications receivers of L is very high, C very low, and R (assuming
HANDBOOK Crystal Filters 221
CRYSTAL
OF-
SELECTIVITY
ICONTROL
1
PHASING
CONTROL
Figure 18
Figure 17 TYPICAL CRYSTAL FILTER CIRCUIT
EQUIVALENT OF CRYSTAL
FILTER CIRCUIT
For a given voltage out of the generator, the volt-
age developed across Z1 depends upon the ratio
of the impedance of X to the sum of the impedances put circuit and passes it to the output side of
of Z and Zt. Because of the high Q of the crystal, the crystal in proper phase to neutralize that
its impedance changes rapidly with changes in passed through the holder capacitance. A rep-
frequency. resentative practical filter arrangement is
shown in figure 18. The balanced input circuit
may be obtained either through the use of a
split -stator capacitor as shown, or by the use
of a center- tapped input coil.
a good crystal of high Q) is very low. Capaci-
tance C, represents the shunt capacitance of Variable- Selec- circuit of figure 18, the
In the
the electrodes, plus the crystal holder and tivity Filters selectivity is minimum with
wiring, and is many times the capacitance of the crystal input circuit tuned
C. This makes the crystal act as a parallel to resonance, since at resonance the imped-
resonant circuit with a frequency only slightly ance of the tuned circuit is maximum. As the
higher than that of its frequency of series input circuit is detuned from resonance, how-
resonance. For crystal filter use it is the ever, the impedance decreases, and the selec-
series resonant characteristic that we are pri- tivity becomes greater. In this circuit, the out-
marily interested in. put from the crystal filter is tapped down on
The electrical equivalent of the basic crys- the i -f stage grid winding to provide a low
tal filter circuit is shown in figure 17. If the value of series impedance in the output cir-
impedance of Z plus Z, is low compared to the cuit. It will be recalled that for maximum selec-
impedance of the crystal X at resonance, then tivity, the total impedance in series with the
the current flowing through Z
and the voltage crystal (both input and output circuits) must
developed across it, will be almost in inverse be low. If one is made low and the other is
proportion to the impedance of X, which has made variable, then the selectivity may be
a very sharp resonance curve. varied at will from sharp to broad.
If the impedance of Z plus Z, is made high The circuit shown in figure 19 also achieves
compared to the resonant impedance of X, then variable selectivity by adding a variable im-
there will be no appreciable drop in voltage pedance in series with the crystal circuit. In
across Z, as the frequency departs from the this case, the variable impedance is in series
resonant frequency of X until the point is with the crystal output circuit. The impedance
reached where the impedance of X approaches of the output circuit is varied by varying the
that of Z plus Z,. This has the effect of broad- Q. As the Q is reduced (by adding resistance
ening out the curve of frequency versus voltage in series with the coil), the impedance de-
developed across Z which is another way of creases and the selectivity becomes greater.
The input circuit impedance is made low by
saying that the selectivity of the crystal filter
(but not the crystal proper) has been reduced. using a non -resonant secondary on the input
In practicable filter circuits the impedances transformer.
Z and Z, usually are represented by some form A variation of the circuit shown at figure
of tuned circuit, but the basic principle of 19 consists of placing the variable resistance
operation is the same. across the coil and capacitor, rather than in
series with them. The result of adding the re-
Practical Filters It is necessary to balance sistor is a reduction of the output impedance,
out the capacitance across and an increase in selectivity. The circuit be-
the crystal holder (C in figure 16) to prevent haves oppositely to that of figure 19, however;
bypassing around the crystal undesired signals as the resistance is lowered the selectivity
off the crystal resonant frequency. The bal- becomes greater. Still another variation of fig-
ancing is done by a phasing circuit which ure 19 is to use the tuning capacitor across
takes out -of -phase voltage from a balanced in- the output coil to vary the output impedance.
CRYSTAL
PHASING
CONTROL
SELECTIVITY
CONTROL
CRYSTAL NOTCH
Figure 19
VARIABLE SELECTIVITY
CRYSTAL FILTER
This circuit permits of a greater control of selec-
tivity than does the circuit of figure 16, and does
not require a split- stator variable capacitor.
-3 -2 -I 455
KC.
il 4.2 3
As the output circuit is detuned from reso- Figure 20

nance, its impedance is lowered, and the -F PASS BAND OF TYPICAL
I
selectivity increases. Sometimes a set of CRYSTAL FILTER

fixed capacitors and a multipoint switch are COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVER
used to give step-by -step variation of the out-
put circuit tuning, and thus of the crystal
filter selectivity.
phony reception, and the receiver tuned so
that the carrier frequency of the undesired
Rejection As previously discussed, a filter signal falls in the rejection notch. The modu-
Notch crystal has both a resonant(series lation sidebands of the undesired signal still
resonant) and an anti- resonant will come through, but the carrier heterodyne
(parallel resonant) frequency, the impedance will be effectively eliminated and interference
of the crystal being quite low at the former greatly reduced.
frequency, and quite high at the latter fre- A typical crystal selectivity curve for a
quency. The anti- resonant frequency is just communications receiver is shown in figure 20.
slightly higher than the resonant frequency,
the difference depending upon the effective Crystal Filter A crystal filter, especially
shunt capacitance of the filter crystal and Considerations when adjusted for single sig-
holder. As adjustment of the phasing capacitor nal reception, greatly reduces
controls the effective shunt capacitance of the interference and background noise, the latter
crystal, it is possible to vary the anti -reso- feature permitting signals to be copied that
nant frequency of the crystal slightly without would ordinarily be too weak to be heard above
unbalancing the circuit sufficiently to let un- the background hiss. However, when the filter
desired signals leak through the shunt capac- is adjusted for maximum selectivity, the pass
itance in appreciable amplitude. At the exact band is so narrow that the received signal
anti- resonant frequency of the crystal the at- must have a high order of stability in order to
tenuation is exceedingly high, because of the stay within the pass band. Likewise, the local
high impedance of the crystal at this frequen- oscillator in the receiver must be highly stable,
cy. This is called the rejection notch, and or constant retuning will be required. Another
can be utilized virtually to eliminate the effect that will be noticed with the filter ad-
heterodyne image or repeat tuning of c -w sig- justed too "sharp" is a tendency for code
nals. The beat frequency oscillator can be characters to produce a ringing sound, and
so adjusted and the phasing capacitor so ad- have a hangover or "tails." This effect limits
justed that the desired beat note is of such the code speed that can be copied satisfac-
a pitch that the image (the same audio note torily when the filter is adjusted for extreme
on the other side of zero beat) falls in the re- selectivity.
jection notch and is inaudible. The receiver
then is said to be adjusted for single - signal The Mechanical The Collins Mechanical Fil -
operation. Filter ter (figure 21) is a new con-
The rejection notch sometimes can be em- cept in the field of selec-
ployed to reduce interference from an un- tivity. It is an electro- mechanical bandpass
desired phone signal which is very close in filter about half the size of a cigarette pack-
frequency to a desired phone signal. The filter age. As shown in figure 22, it consists of an
is adjusted to "broad" so as to permit tele- input transducer, a resonant mechanical sec-
HANDBOOK Collins Mechanical Filter 223
tion comprised of a number of metal discs, and

an output transducer.
The frequency characteristics of the reso-
nant mechanical section provide the almost
rectangular selectivity curves shown in figure
23. The input and output transducers serve
only as electrical to mechanical coupling de-
vices and do not affect the selectivity charac-
teristics which are determined by the metal
discs. An electrical signal applied to the in-
put terminals is converted into a mechanical
vibration at the input transducer by means of
magnetostriction. This mechanical vibration
travels through the resonant mechanical sec-
tion to the output transducer, where it is con-
verted by magnetostriction to an electrical c./
signal which appears at the output terminals. Figure 21
In order to provide the most efficient electro- COLLINS MECHANICAL FILTERS
mechanical coupling, a small magnet in the The Collins Mechanical Filter is on
mounting above each transducer applies a mag- lectro- mechanical bandpass filter which
netic bias to the nickel transducer core. The surpasses, in one small unit, the se-
electrical impulses then add to or subtract lectivity of conventional, space-consuming
from this magnetic bias, causing vibration of filters. At the left is the miniaturized
filter, less than 21/4R long. Type H is
the filter elements that corresponds to the next, and two horizontal mounting types
exciting signal. There is no mechanical motion are at right. For exploded view of Collins
except for the imperceptible vibration of the Mechanical Filter, see figure 46.
metal discs.
Magnetostrictively -driven mechanical filters
have several advantages over electrical equi-
valents. In the region from 100 kc. to 500 kc.,
the mechanical elements are extremely small, The frequency characteristics of the mechan-
and a mechanical filter having better selectivi- ical filter are permanent, and no adjustment is
ty than the best of conventional i -f systems required or is possible. The filter is enclosed
may be enclosed in a package smaller than one in a hermetically sealed case.
i -f transformer. In order to realize full benefit from the me-
Since mechanical elements with Q's of 5000 chanical filter's selectivity characteristics,
or more are readily obtainable, mechanical fil- it is necessary to provide shielding between
ters may be designed in accordance with the the external input and output circuits, capable
theory for lossless elements. This permits fil- of reducing transfer of energy external to the
ter characteristics that are unobtainable with
electrical circuits because of the relatively
high losses in electrical elements as compared
with the mechanical elements used in the
filters.
ONE SUPPORTING
DISC AT COUPLING RODS
EACH END RESONANT MECHANICAL SECTION
(e RESONANT DISCS) PIAS MAGNET
f/!iYYYAYYYY
1\ \\V\\\Vd_ ^
c!S-iì/iSd
071
MAGNETOSTRICTIVE
DRIVING ROD
-----
RANSOUCER
COIL
-4 -3 -2 -I 4SS 41 +2 +3 14
KC
ELECTRICAL SIGNAL ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
(INPUT OR OUTPUT( (INPUT OR OUTPUT)
Figure 23
Figure 22 Selectivity curves of 455acc. mechanical filters
MECHANICAL FILTER with nominal 0.8 -)cc. (dotted line) and 3.1 -kc.
FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM (solid line) bandwidth at -6 db.
r 6SJ 7 I vERY SMALL

I.F. STAGE DE T.
(-- AUDIO
rr(I -z uur)
L_ --
rDE T
POT I DETECTOR
1 5+ e.
OA GRID LEAK DETECTOR
I.F. STAGE DET.

Figure 24
VARIABLE -OUTPUT B -F -O CIRCUIT
A beat -frequency oscillator whose output is con-
trollable is of considerable assistance in copying
c-w signals over a wide range of levels, and such
a control is almost a necessity for satisfactory
copying of single-sideband radiophone signals.
AUDIO
filter by a minimum value of 100 db. If the in-

put circuit is allowed to couple energy into © DIODE DETECTOR
the output circuit external to the filter, the
excellent skirt selectivity will deteriorate and
the passband characteristics will be distorted.
As with almost any mechanically resonant
I.F. STAGE DET.
(- AUDIO
circuit, elements of the mechanical filter have

multiple resonances. These result in spurious
modes of transmission through the filter and
produce minor passbands at frequencies on
other sides of the primary passband. Design
of the filter reduces these sub -bands to a low © PLATE DETECTOR
level and removes them from the immediate
area of the major passband. Two conventional
i -f transformers supply increased attenuation
I.F. STAGE
to these spurious responses, and are sufficient DET.
to reduce them to an insignificant level.
Beat- Frequency The beat- frequency oscillator,

Oscillators usually called the b.J.o., is a
necessary adjunct for recep-
tion of c -w telegraph signals on superhetero-
dynes which have no other provision for ob- pD INFINITE IMPEDANCE DETECTOR
taining modulation of an incoming c -w tele-
graphy signal. The oscillator is coupled into Figure 25
or just ahead of second detector circuit and TYPICAL CIRCUITS FOR GRID -LEAK,
supplies a signal of nearly the same frequency DIODE, PLATE AND INFINITE IMPE-
as that of the desired signal from the i -f am- DANCE DETECTOR STAGES
plifier. If the i -f amplifier is tuned to 455 kc.,
for example, the b.f.o. is tuned to approxi-
mately 454 or 456 kc. to produce an audible
(1000 cycle) beat note in the output of the
second detector of the receiver. The carrier justing the b -f-o output to correspond with the
signal itself is, of course, inaudible. The b.f.o. strength of received signals. This type of vari-
is not used for voice reception, except as an able b-f -o output control is a useful adjunct
aid in searching for weak stations. to any superheterodyne, since it allows suffi-
The b -f -o input to the second detector need cient b-f-o output to be obtained to beat with
only be sufficient to give a good beat note on strong signals or to allow single - sideband
an average signal. Too much coupling into the reception and at the same time permits the
second detector will give an excessively high b-f-o output, and consequently the hiss, to be
hiss level, masking weak signals by the high reduced when attempting to receive weak sig-
noise background. nals. The circuit shown is somewhat better
Figure 24 shows a method of manually ad- than those in which one of the electrode volt-
HANDBOOK Detector Circuits 225
Figure 26
TYPICAL A -V -C CIRCUIT USING A DOUBLE DIODE
Any of the small dual -diode tubes may be used in this circuit. Or, if
triode may be used, with the triode acting as the first audio desired, a duo- diode-
as the detector, while the right-hand side acts
stage. The left-hand diode serves
as the a-v -c rectifier. The use of separate
diodes for detector and o-v-c reduces distortion when receiving
an AM signal with a high
modulation percentage.
ages on the b -f-o tube is changed, as the latter diode, plate, or infinite -impedance types. Oc-
circuits usually change the frequency of the casionally, grid -leak detectors are used in re-
b.f.o. at the same time they change the strength, ceivers using one i -f stage or none at all, in
making it necessary to reset the trimmer each which case the second detector usually is
time the output is adjusted. made regenerative.
The b.f.o. usually is provided with a small Diodes are the most popular second detect-
trimmer which is adjustable from the front ors because they allow a simple method of
panel to permit adjustment over a range of 5 obtaining automatic volume control to be used.
or 10 kc. For single -signal reception the b.f.o. Diodes load the tuned circuit to which they
always is adjusted to the high- frequency side, are connected, however, and thus reduce the
in order to permit placing the heterodyne image selectivity slightly. Special i -f transformers
in the rejection notch. are used for the purpose of providing a low -
In order to reduce the b-f-o signal output impedance input circuit to the diode detector.
voltage to a reasonable level which will pre- Typical circuits for grid -leak, diode, plate
vent blocking the second detector, the signal and infinite- impedance detectors are shown
voltage is delivered through a low- capacitance in figure 25.
(high -reactance) capacitor having a value of
1 to 2 ,yifd.
Care must be taken with the b.f.o. to pre- Automatic Vol- The elements of an automatic
vent harmonics of the oscillator from being urne Control volume control (a.v.c.) sys-
picked up at multiples of the b -f -o frequency. tem are shown in figure 26.
The complete b.f.o. together with the coupling A dual -diode tube is used as a combination
circuits to the second detector, should be thor- diode detector and a -v -c rectifier. The left -
oughly shielded to prevent pickup of the har- hand diode operates as a simple rectifier in
monics by the input end of the receiver. the manner described earlier in this chapter.
If b-f -o harmonics still have a tendency to Audio voltage, superimposed on a d -c voltage,
give trouble after complete shielding and iso- appears across the 500,000 -ohm potentiometer
lation of the b -f-o circuit has been accom- (the volume control) and the .0001 -µfd. capa-
plished, the passage of these harmonics from citor, and is passed on to the audio amplifier.
the b-f-o circuit to the rest of the receiver can The right -hand diode receives signal voltage
be stopped through the use of a low -pass filter directly from the primary of the last i -f ampli-
in the lead between the output of the b -f -o cir- fier, and acts as the a -v -c rectifier. The pul-
cuit and the point on the receiver where the sating d-c voltage across the 1- megohm a.v.c.-
b-f -o signal is to be injected. diode load resistor is filtered by a 500,000 -ohm
resistor and a .05 -µfd. capacitor, and applied
as bias to the grids of the r -f and i -f amplifier
12-8 Detector, Audio, and tubes; an increase or decrease in signal
Control Circuits strength will cause a corresponding increase
or decrease in a -v -c bias voltage, and thus the
Detectors Second detectors for use in super - gain of the receiver is automatically adjusted
heterodynes are usually of the to compensate for changes in signal strength.
A -C Loading of By disassociating the a.v.c. RF F IF

Second Detector and detecting fun c t ion s
through using separate
diodes, as shown, most of the ill effects of
a -c shunt loading on the detector diode are
avoided. This type of loading causes serious
distortion, and the additional components re-
quired to eliminate it are well worth their cost.
Even with the circuit shown, a -c loading can
occur unless a very high (5 megohms, or more)
value of grid resistor is used in the following
audio amplifier stage. RF OR I F
A.V.C. in In receivers having a beat -

B-F-O- Equipped frequency oscillator for the
Receivers reception of radiotelegraph
signals, the use of a.v.c.
can result in a great loss in sensitivity when
the b.f.o. is switched on. This is because the 0-1 DC
beat oscillator output acts exactly like a

strong received signal, and causes the a -v -c
circuit to put high bias on the r -f and i -f stages, RFORIF
thus greatly reducing the receiver 's sensitivi-
ty. Due to the above effect, it is necessary to
provide a method of making the a -v -c circuit
inoperative when the b.f.o. is being used. The
simplest method of eliminating the a -v -c ac-
tion is to short the a -v -c line to ground when
the b.f.o. is turned on. A two- circuit switch
may be used for the dual purpose of turning on
the beat oscillator and shorting out the a.v.c.
if desired. e 6U5/6G5
OR 6E5
1ME
TO A V C
Signal Strength Visual means for determining
Indicators whether or not the receiver is
properly tuned, as well as an .250v
indication of the relative signal strength, are

both provided by means of tuning indicators
(S meters) of the meter or vacuum -tube type. Figure 27
A d -c milliammeter can be connected in the SIGNAL -STRENGTH -METER CIRCUITS
plate supply circuit of one or more r -f or i -f Shown above are four circuits for obtaining a sig-
amplifiers, as shown in figure 27A, so that the nal- strength reading which is a function of incom-
change in plate current, due to the action of ing carrier amplitude. The circuits are discussed
lin the accompanying text.
the a -v -c voltage, will be indicated on the in-
strument. The d -c instrument MA should have
a full -scale reading approximately equal to the
total plate current taken by the stage or stages
whose plate current passes through the instru- with respect to strength. This is because in-
ment. The value of this current can be esti- creased a -v -c bias on stronger signals causes
mated by assuming a plate current on each lower plate current through the meter. For this
stage (with no signal input to the receiver) of reason, special meters which indicate zero at
about 6 ma. However, it will be found to be the right -hand end of the scale are often used
more satisfactory to measure the actual plate for signal strength indicators in commercial
current on the stages with a milliammeter of receivers using this type of circuit. Alter-
perhaps 0 -100 ma. full scale before purchasing natively, the meter may be mounted upside
an instrument for use as an S meter. The down, so that the needle moves toward the
50 -ohm potentiometer shown in the drawing is right with increased strength.
used to adjust the meter reading to full scale The circuit of figure 27B can frequently be
with no signal input to the receiver. used to advantage in a receiver where the cath-
When an ordinary meter is used in the plate ode of one of the r -f or i -f amplifier stages
circuit of a stage, for the purpose of indicat- runs directly to ground through the cathode
ing signal strength, the meter reads backwards bias resistor instead of running through a cath-
HANDBOOK Noise Suppression 227
ode -voltage gain control. In this case a 0 -1 over the audio-frequency range. The speaker
d -c milliammeter in conjunction with a resistor and transformer will tend to present a rising
from 1000 to 3000 ohms can be used as shown impedance to the tube as the frequency in-
as a signal- strength meter. With this circuit creases, and the parallel capacitor will tend
the meter will read backwards with increasing to make the total impedance more constant
signal strength as in the circuit previously since it will tend to present a decreasing im-
discussed. pedance with increasing audio frequency.
Figure 27C is the circuit of a forward -read- A still better way of improving the frequency
ingS meter as is often used in communications characteristic of the output stage, and at the
receivers. The instrument is used in an un- same time reducing the harmonic distortion,
balanced bridge circuit with the d -c plate reis to use shunt feedback from the plate of the
sistance of one i -f tube as one leg of the output tube to the plate of a tube such as a
bridge and with resistors for the other three 6SJ7 acting as an audio amplifier stage ahead
legs. The value of the resistor R must be de- of the output stage.
termined by trial and error and will be some-
where in the vicinity of 50,000 ohms. Some-
times the screen circuits of the r -f and i -f
stages are taken from this point along with 12 -9 Noise Suppression
the screen -circuit voltage divider.
Electron -ray tubes (sometimes called "magic The problem of noise suppression confronts
eyes ") can also be used as indicators of rela- the listener who is located in places where
tive signal strength in a circuit similar to that interference from power lines, electrical ap-
shown in figure 27D. A 6U5/6G5 tube should pliances, and automobile ignition systems is
be used where the a -v -c voltage will be from troublesome. This noise is often of such in-
5 to 20 volts and a type 6E5 tube should be tensity as to swamp out signals from desired
used when the a -v-c voltage will run from 2 stations.
to 8 volts. There are two principal methods for reduc-
ing this noise:
Audio Amplifiers Audio amplifiers are em- (1) A -c line filters at the source of inter-
ployed in nearly all radio ference, if the noise is created by an
receivers. The audio amplifier stage or stages electrical appliance.
are usually of the Class A type, although Class (2) Noise -limiting circuits for the reduc-
AB push -pull stages are used in some re- tion, in the receiver itself, of interfer-
ceivers. The purpose of the audio amplifier is ence of the type caused by automobile
to bring the relatively weak signal from the ignition systems.
detector up to a strength sufficient to operate
a pair of headphones or a loud speaker. Either Power Line Many household appliances, such
triodes, pentodes, or beam tetrodes may be Filters as electric mixers, heating pads,
used, the pentodes and beam tetrodes usually vacuum sweepers, refrigerators,
giving greater output. In some receivers, par- oil burners, sewing machines, doorbells, etc.,
ticularly those employing grid leak detection, create an interference of an intermittent na-
it is possible to operate the headphones di- ture. The insertion of a line filter near the
rectly from the detector, without audio ampli- source of interference often will effect a com-
fication. In such receivers, a single audio plete cure. Filters for small appliances can
stage with a beam tetrode or pentode tube is consist of a 0.1-pfd. capacitor connected a-
ordinarily used to drive the loud speaker. cross the 110 -volt a -c line. Two capacitors
Most communications receivers, either home - in series across the line, with the midpoint
constructed or factory -made, have a single - connected to ground, can be used in conjunc-
ended beam tetrode (such as a 6L6 or 6V6) or tion with ultraviolet ray machines, refriger-
pentode (6F6 or 6K6-GT) in the audio output ators, oil burner furnaces, and other more stub-
stage feeding the loudspeaker. If precautions born offenders. In severe cases of interfer-
are not taken such a stage will actually bring ence, additional filters in the form of heavy -
about a decrease in the effective signal -to- duty r -f choke coils must be connected in
noise ratio of the receiver due to the rising series with the 110 -volt a -c line on both sides
high- frequency characteristic of such a stage of the line right at the interfering appliance.
when feeding a loud -speaker. One way of im-
proving this condition is to place a mica or Peak Noise Numerous noise -limiting circuits
paper capacitor of approximately 0.003 pfd. Limiters which are beneficial in overcom-
capacitance across the primary of the output ing key clicks, automobile ig-
transformer. The use of a capacitor in this nition interference, and similar noise impulses
manner tends to make the load impedance seen have become popular. They operate on the
by the plate of the output tube more constant principle that each individual noise pulse is
of very short duration, yet of very high ampli- IST DET. IST 1.F. 2ND I.F.
6L 7
tude. The popping or clicking type of noise
from electrical ignition systems may produce
a signal having a peak value ten to twenty
times as great as the incoming radio signal,
but an average power much less than the sig-
nal.
As the duration of this type of noise peak
is short, the receiver can be made inoperative
during the noise pulse without the human ear
detecting the total loss of signal. Some noise
limiters actually punch a bole in the signal,
while others merely limit the maximum peak
signal which reaches the headphones or loud-
speaker.
The noise peak is of such short duration
that it would not be objectionable except for
the fact that it produces an over-loading effect
on the receiver, which increases its time con-
stant. A sharp voltage peak will give a kick
to the diaphragm of the headphones or speak-
er, and the momentum or inertia keeps the
diaphragm in motion until the dampening of
the diaphragm stops it. This movement pro-
duces a popping sound which may completely
Figure 28
obliterate the desired signal. If the noise pulse THE LAMB I -F NOISE SILENCER
can be limited to a peak amplitude equal to
that of the desired signal, the resulting inter-
ference is practically negligible for moder-
ately low repetition rates, such as ignition stage and in addition sets the bias level on
noise. the 6H6 diode so that the incoming signal will
In addition, the i -f amplifier of the receiver not be rectified. Only noise peaks louder than
will also tend to lengthen the duration of the the signal can overcome the resting bias of
noise pulses because the relatively high -Q i-f the 6H6 and cause it to conduct. A noise pulse
tuned circuits will ring or oscillate when ex- rectified by the 6H6 is applied as a negative
cited by a sharp pulse, such as produced by voltage to the control grid of the 6L7 i-f tube,
ignition noise. The most effective noise limiter disabling the tube, and punching a hole in the
woúld be placed before the high -Q i -f tuned signal at the instant of the noise pulse. By
circuits. At this point the noise pulse is the varying the bias control of the noise limiter,
sharpest and has not been degraded by pass- the negative control voltage applied to the
age through the i -f transformers. In addition, 6L7 may be adjusted until it is barely suffi-
the pulse is eliminated before it can produce cient to overcome the noise impulses applied
ringing effects in the i -f chain. to the #1 control grid without allowing the
modulation peaks of the carrier to become
badly distorted.
The Lamb An i -f noise limiter is shown in
Noise Limiter figure 28. This is an adapta- The Bishop effective i -f noise
Another
tion of the Lamb noise silenc- Noise Limiter limiter is the Bishop limiter.
er circuit. The i -f signal is fed into a double This is a full -wave shunt type
grid tube, such as a 6L7, and thence into the diode limiter applied to the primary of the last
i -f chain. A 6AB7 high gain pentode is capa- i -f transformer of a receiver. The limiter is
city coupled to the input of the i -f system. self- biased and automatically adjusts itself
This auxiliary tube amplifies both signal and to the degree of modulation of the received
noise that is fed to it. It has a minimum of signal. The schematic of this limiter is shown
selectivity ahead of it so that it receives the in figure 29. The bias circuit time constant is
true noise pulse before it is degraded by the determined by C, and the shunt resistance,
i -f strip. A broadly tuned i -f transformer is used which consists of R, and R, in series. The
to couple the noise amplifier to a 6H6 noise plate resistance of the last i -f tube and the
rectifier. The gain of the noise amplifier is capacity of C, determine the charging rate of
controlled by a potentiometer in the cathode the circuit. The limiter is disabled by opening
of the 6AB7 noise amplifier. This potenti- S which allows the bias to rise to the value
ometer controls the gain of the noise amplifier of the i -f signal.
HANDBOOK Noise Limiters 229
ter peak noise suppression than a standard

communications receiver having an i -f band-
width of perhaps 8 kc. Likewise, when a crys-
tal filter is used on the "sharp" position an
a -f peak' limiter is of little benefit.
Practical Noise limiters range all the

Peak Noise way from an audio stage
Limiter Circuits running at very low screen
or plate voltage, to elabor-
Figure 29 ate affairs employing 5 or more tubes. Rather
THE BISHOP I -F NOISE LIMITER than attempt to show the numerous types, many
of which are quite complex considering the
results obtained, only two very similar types
will be described. Either is just about as ef-
fective as the most elaborate limiter that can
Audio Noise Some of the simplest and most be constructed, yet requires the addition of
Limiters practical peak limiters for radio- but a single diode and a few resistors and
telephone reception employ one capacitors over what would be employed in a
or two diodes either as shunt or series limiters good superheterodyne without a limiter. Both
in the audio system of the receiver. When a circuits, with but minor modifications in re-
noise pulse exceeds a certain predetermined sistance and capacitance values, are incor-
threshold value, the limiter diode acts either porated in one form or another in different
as a short or open circuit, depending upon types of factory-built communications receiv-
whether it is used in a shunt or series circuit. ers.
The threshold is made to occur at a level high Referring to figure 30, the first circuit shows
enough that it will not clip modulation peaks a conventional superheterodyne second de-
enough to impair voice intelligibility, but low tector, a.v.c., and first audio stage with the
enough to limit the noise peaks effectively. addition of one tube element, D which may
Because the action of the peak limiter is be either a separate diode or part of a twin -
needed most on very weak signals, and these diode as illustrated. Diode D, acts as a series
usually are not strong enough to produce proper gate, allowing audio to get to the grid of the
a-v -c action, a threshold setting that is cor- a -f tube only so long as the diode is conduct-
rect for a strong phone signal is not correct ing. The dicde is biased by a d -c voltage ob-
for optimum limiting on very weak signals. For tained in the same manner as a -v-c control volt-
this reason the threshold control often is tied age, the bias being such that pulses of short
in with the a -v -c system so as to make the duration no longer conduct when the pulse
optimum threshold adjustment automatic in- voltage exceeds the carrier by approximately
stead of manual. 60 per cent. This also clips voice modulation
Suppression of impulse noise by means of peaks, but not enough to impair intelligibility.
an audio peak limiter is best accomplished at It is apparent that the series diode clips
the very front end of the audio system, and only positive modulation peaks, by limiting
for this reason the function of superheterodyne upward modulation to about 60 per cent. Neg-
second detector and limiter often are combined ative or downward peaks are limited automati-
in a composite circuit. cally to 100 per cent in the detector, because
The amount of limiting that can be obtained obviously the rectified voltage out of the
is a function of the audio distortion that can diode detector cannot be less than zero. Limit-
be tolerated. Because excessive distortion ing the downward peaks to 60 per cent or so
will reduce the intelligibility as much as will instead of 100 per cent would result in but
background noise, the degree of limiting for little improvement in noise reduction, and the
which the circuit is designed has to be a com- results do not justify the additional compon-
promise. ents required.
Peak noise limiters working at the second It is important that the exact resistance
detector are much more effective when the i -f values shown be used, for best results, and
bandwidth of the receiver is broad, because a that 10 per cent tolerance resistors be used
sharp i -f amplifier will lengthen the pulses by for R, and R4. Also, the rectified carrier volt-
the time they reach the second detector, mak- age developed across C, should be at least 5
ing the limiter less effective. V-h -f super - volts for good limiting.
heterodynes have an i -f bandwidth consider- The limiter will work well on c -w telegraphy
ably wider than the minimum necessary for if the amplitude of beat frequency oscillator
voice sidebands (to take care of drift and in- injection is not too high. Variable injection is
stability). Therefore, they are capable of bet- to be preferred, adjustable from the front panel.
VI V2 C,,_0.1 -µld. paper

LAST I.f.TUBE I.f.T. 61-16 ETC orr Ç AUDIO
C2_50-µµfd. mica
C2 -100 -µµfd. mica
Cr, Cs -0.01 -µfd. paper
R1, R2 -1
megohm,
K watt
R3, R4- 220,000 ohms,
Vi watt
R!, R6-1 megehm,
Vi watt
Rr -2-
megohm poten-
tiometer
Figure 30
NOISE LIMITER CIRCUIT, WITH ASSOCIATED A -V-C
This limiter is of the series type, and is self- adjusting to carrier strength for phone reception. For proper
operatioq several volts should be developed across the secondary of the lost I -f transformer (1FT) under
carrier conditions.
If this feature is not provided, the b-f-o injec- the mid -point of the heater potential for the
tion should be reduced to the lowest value that noise -limiter diode be as close to ground
will give a satisfactory beat. When this is potential as possible. This means that the
done, effective limiting and a good beat can center -tap of the heater supply for the tubes
be obtained by proper adjustment of the r-f should be grounded wherever possible rather
and a -f gain controls. It is assumed, of course, than grounding one side of the heater supply
that the a.v.c. is cut out of the circuit for as is often done. Difficulty with hum pickup
c -w telegraphy reception. in the limiter circuit may be encountered when
one side of the heater is grounded due to the
Alternative circuit of figure 31 is
The high values of resistance necessary in the
Limiter Circuit more effective than that limiter circuit.
shown in figure 30 under cer- The circuit of figure 31 has been used with
tain conditions and requires the addition of excellent success in several home -constructed
only one more resistor and one more capaci- receivers, and in the BC-312/BC-342 and BC-
tor than the other circuit. Also, this circuit 348 series of surplus communications receiv-
involves a smaller loss in output level than ers. It is also used in certain manufactured
the circuit of figure 30. This circuit can be receivers.
used with equal effectiveness with a com- An excellent check on the operation of the
bined diode-triode or diode -pentode tube (6R7, noise limiter in any communications receiver
6SR7, 6Q7, 6SQ7 or similar diode- triodes, or can be obtained by listening to the Loran sig-
6B8, 6SF7, or similar diode-pentodes) as diode nals in the 160 -meter band. With the limiter
detector and first audio stage. However, a out a sharp rasping buzz will be obtained
separate diode must be used for the noise when one of these stations is tuned in. With
limiter, D2. This diode may be one -half of a the noise limiter switched into the circuit the
6H6, 6AL5, 7A6, etc., or it may be a triode buzz should be greatly reduced and a low -
connected 6J5, 6C4 or similar type. pitched hum should be heard.
Note that the return for the volume control
must be made to the cathode of the detector The Full-Wave most satisafctory diode
The
diode (and not to ground) when a dual tube is Limiter noise limiter is the series full -
used as combined second -detector first- audio. wave limiter, shown in figure
This means that in the circuit shown in figure 32. The positive noise peaks are clipped by
31 a connection will exist across the points diode A, the clipping level of which may be
where the "X" is shown on the diagram since adjusted to clip at any modulation level be-
a common cathode lead is brought out of the tween 25 per cent and 100 per cent. The nega-
tube for D, and V,. If desired, of course, a ative noise peaks are clipped by diode B at
single dual diode may be used for D, and D2 a fixed level.
in this circuit as well as in the circuit of fig-
ure 30. Switching the limiter in and out with The TNS Limiter The Twin Noise Squelch,
the switch S brings about no change in volume. popularized by CQ maga-
In any diode limiter circuit such as the ones zine, is a combination of a diode noise clipper
shown in these two figures it is important that and an audio squelch tube. The squelch cir-
HANDBOOK U -H -F Circuits 231
This circuit Is of the self-

adjusting type and gives less
distortion for o given degree
of modulation than the more
common limiter circuits.
R5, R2-470K, watt SS
R5 -100K, Y, watt
R4, R5 -1 megohm, watt 45
R6 -2- megohm potentiometer

C1- 0.00025 mico (approx.)
C2- 0.01 -µid. paper
C5- 0.01 -0d. paper
C4- 0.01 -1ifd. paper
D5, D= -6H6, 6ÁL5, 7A6, or
diode sections of o 658 -GT
Figure 31
ALTERNATIVE NOISE LIMITER CIRCUIT
cuit is useful in eliminating the grinding back- wavelength sections of parallel conductors or
ground noise that is the residual left by the concentric transmission line are not only more
diode clipper. In figure 33, the setting of the efficient but also become of practical dimen-
470K potentiometer determines the operating sions.
level of the squelch action and should be set
to eliminate the residual background noise.
Because of the low inherent distortion of the
TNS, it may be left in the circuit at all times. Tuning Tubes and tuning capacitors con -
As with other limiters, the TNS requires a Short Lines netted to the open end of a trans-
high signal level at the second detector for mission line provide a capaci-
maximum limiting effect. tance that makes the resonant length less than
a quarter wave -length. The amount of shorten-
ing for a specified capacitive reactance is
12 -i0 Special Considerations determined by the surge impedance of the line
in U -H -F Receiver Design
Transmission At increasingly higher frequen- F. STAGE 2ND DET. -AUDIO

Line Circuits cies, it becomes progressively (-- AUDIO
more difficult to obtain a satis-
factory amount of selectivity and impedance
from an ordinary coil and capacitor used as a
resonant circuit. On the other hand, quarter
AUDIO
Figure 32
THE FULL -WAVE SERIES AUDIO Figure 33
NOISE LIMITER THE TNS AUDIO NOISE LIMITER
CAVITY CAVITY
nLOOV
CONCENTRIC LINE
LINE
CAVITY CAVITY CAVITY

O
Figure 34 CRIDS
ELECTRON
HOLE
COUPLING AN ANTENNA TO A REAM
COAXIALRESONANT CIRCUIT
(A) shows the recommended method for coupling Figure 35
a coaxial line to a coaxial resonant circuit. (B)
shows an alternative method for use with an open- METHODS OF EXCITING A RESONANT
wire type of antenna feed line. CAVITY
section. It is given by the equation for reso- circuit can be made directly on the inner con-
nance: ductor at the point where it is properly matched
(figure 34). For low impedances, such as a con-
1 centric line feeder, a small one -half turn loop
= Z° tan 1
can be inserted through a hole in the outer
2 n /C
conductor of the coaxial circuit, being in ef-
in which n = 3.1416, / is the frequency, C the fect a half of the hairpin type recommended
capacitance, Zo the surge impedance of the for coupling balanced feeders to coaxial re-
line, and tan I is the tangent of the electrical sonant lines. The size of the loop and close-
length in degrees. ness to the inner conductor determines the
The capacitive reactance of the capacitance impedance matching and loading. Such loops
across the end is 1 /(2rr / C) ohms. For reson- coupled in near the shorting disc do not alter
ance, this must equal the surge impedance of the tuning appreciably, if not overcoupled.
the line times the tangent of its electrical
length (in degrees, where 90° equals a quar-
ter wave). It will be seen that twice the capac- Resonant cavity is a closed resonant
A
itance will resonate a line if its surge imped- Cavities chamber made of metal. It is
ance is halved; also that a given capacitance known also as a rhumbatron. The
has twice the loading effect when the frequen- cavity, having both inductance and capaci-
cy is doubled. tance, supersedes coil -capacitor and capaci-
tance- loaded transmission -line tuned circuits
Coupling Into It is possible to couple into at extremely high frequencies where conven-
Lines and a parallel -rod line by tapp- tional L and C components, of even the most
Coaxial Circuits ing directly on one or both refined design, prove impractical because of
rods, preferably through the tiny electrical and physical dimensions
blocking capacitors if any d.c. is present. they must have. Microwave cavities have high
More commonly, however, a hairpin is induc- Q factors and are superior to conventional
tively coupled at the shorting bar end, either tuned circuits. They may be employed in the
to the bar or to the two rods, or both. This manner of an absorption wavemeter or as the
normally will result in a balanced load. Should tuned circuit in other r -f test instruments, and
a loop unbalanced to ground be coupled in, in microwave transmitters and receivers.
any resulting unbalance reflected into the rods Resonant cavities usually are closed on all
can be reduced with a simple Faraday screen, sides and all of their walls are made of elec-
made of a few parallel wires placed between trical conductor. However, in some forms,
the hairpin loop and the rods. These should small openings are present for the purpose of
be soldered at only one end and grounded. excitation. Cavities have been produced in
An unbalanced tap on a coaxial resonant several shapes including the plain sphere,
HANDBOOK U -H -F Circuits 233
TUNING
SLUGS
NPUT _ OUTPUT
Figure 36 Figure 37
TUNING METHODS FOR CYLINDRICAL THE BUTTERFLY RESONANT CIRCUIT
RESONANT CAVITIES Shown or (A) is the physical cppearance of the
butterfly circuit os used in the v-h-f and lower
u-h-f range. (B) shows an electrical representa-
tion of the circuit.
dimpled sphere, sphere with reentrant cones

of various sorts, cylinder, prism (including
cube), ellipsoid, ellipsoid -hyperboloid, dough- wide u -h -f band. The butterfly circuit is very
nut- shape, and various reentrant types. In ap- similar to a conventional coil -variable capaci-
pearance, they resemble in their simpler forms tor combination, except that both inductance
metal boxes or cans. and capacitance are provided by what appears
The cavity actually is a linear circuit, but to be a variable capacitor alone. The Q of this
one which is superior to a conventional co- device is somewhat less than that of a con-
axial resonator in the s -h -f range. The cavity centric -line tuned circuit but is entirely ade-
resonates in much the same manner as does a quate for numerous applications.
barrel or a closed room with reflecting walls.
Because electromagnetic energy, and the Figure 37A shows construction of a single
associated electrostatic energy, oscillates to butterfly section. The butterfly- shaped rotor,
from which the device derives its name, turns
and fro inside them in one mode or another,
in relation to the unconventional stator. The
resonant cavities resemble wave guides. The
mode of operation in a cavity is affected by two groups of stator "fins" or sectors are in
the manner in which micro -wave energy is in- effect joined together by a semi -circular metal
jected. A cavity will resonate to a large num- band, integral with the sectors, which provides
ber of frequencies, each being associated with the circuit inductance. When the rotor is set
a particular mode or standing -wave pattern. to fill the loop opening (the position in which
The lowest mode (lowest frequency of opera- it is shown in figure 37A), the circuit induct-
tion) of a cavity resonator normally is the one ance and capacitance are reduced to minimum.
used. When the rotor occupies the position indicated
The resonant frequency of a cavity may be by the dotted lines, the inductance and capaci-
varied, if desired, by means of movable plung- tance are at maximum. The tuning range of
ers or plugs, as shown in figure 36A, or a practical butterfly circuits is in the ratio of
movable metal disc (see figure 36B). A cavity 1.5:1 to 3.5:1.
that is too small for a given wavelength will Direct circuit connections may be made to
not oscillate. points A and B. If balanced operation is de-
The resonant frequencies of simple spheri- sired, either point C or D will provide the
cal, cylindrical, and cubical cavities may be electrical mid -point. Coupling may be effected
calculated simply for one particular mode. by means of a small singleturn loop placed
Wavelength and cavity dimensions (in centi- near point E or F. The butterfly thus permits
meters) are related by the following simple continuous variation of both capacitance and
resonance formulae: inductance, as indicated by the equivalent
circuit in figure 37B, while at the same time
For Cylinder Ar = 2.6 x radius eliminating all pigtails and wiping contacts.
" Cube A, = 2.83 x half of 1 side Several butterfly sections may be stacked
" Sphere A, = 2.28x radius in parallel in the same way that variable ca-
pacitors are built up. In stacking these sec-
Butterfly Unlike the cavity resonator, which tions, the effect of adding inductances in paral-
Circuit in its conventional form is a device lel is to lower the total circuit inductance,
which can tune over a relatively while the addition of stators and rotors raises
narrow band, the butterfly circuit is a tunable the total capacitance, as well as the ratio of
resonator which permits coverage of a fairly maximum to minimum capacitance.
Butterfly circuits have been applied specifi- tor and new principles must be enlisted. In
cally to oscillators for transmitters, super- general, the improvements embodied in exist-
heterodyne receivers, and heterodyne frequen- ing tubes have consisted of (1) reducing elec-
cy meters in the 100 - 1000 -Mc. frequency range. trode spacing to cut down electron transit
time, (2) reducing electrode areas to decrease
Receiver The types of resonant circuits de- interelectrode capacitances, and (3) shorten-
Circuits scribed in the previous paragraphs ing of electrode leads either by mounting the
have largely replaced conventional electrode assembly close to the tube base or
coil -capacitor circuits in the range above 100 by bringing the leads out directly through the
Mc. Tuned short lines and butterfly circuits glass envelope at nearby points. Through re-
are used in the range from about 100 Mc. to duction of lead inductance and interelectrode
perhaps 3500 Mc., and above about 3500 Mc. capacitances, input and output resonant fre-
resonant cavities are used almost exclusively. quencies due to tube construction have beet:
The resonant cavity is also quite generally increased substantially.
employed in the 2000 -Mc. to 3500 -Mc. range. Tubes embracing one or more of the fea-
In a properly designed receiver, thermal tures just outlined include the later loctal
agitation in the first tuned circuit is amplified types, high- frequency acorns, button -base
by subsequent tubes and predominates in the types, and the lighthouse types. Type 6J4
output. For good signal -to- set-noise ratio, button -base triode will reach 500 Mc. Type
therefore, one must strive for a high -gain low - 6F4 acorn triode is recommended for use up to
noise r -f stage. Hiss can be held down by giv- 1200 Mc. Type 1A3 button -base diode has a
ing careful attention to this point. A mixer resonant frequency of 1000 Mc., while type
has about 0.3 of the gain of an r -f tube of the 9005 acorn diode resonates at 1500 Mc. Light-
same type; so it is advisable to precede a house type 2C40 can be used at frequencies
mixer by an efficient r -f stage. It is also of up to 3500 Mc. as an oscillator.
some value to have good r -f selectivity before
the first detector in order to reduce noises Crystal More than two decades have
produced by beating noise at one frequency Rectifiers passed since the crystal (mineral)
against noise at another, to produce noise at rectifier enjoyed widespread use
the intermediate frequency in a superheter- in radio receivers. Low -priced tubes complete-
odyne. ly supplanted the fragile and relatively insen-
The frequency limit of a tube is reached sitive crystal detector, although it did con-
when the shortest possible external connec- tinue for a few years as a simple meter recti-
tions are used as the tuned circuit, except for fier in absorption wavemeters after its demise
abnormal types of oscillation. Wires or size- as a receiver component.
able components are often best considered as Today, the crystal detector is of new im-
sections of transmission lines rather than as portance in microwave communication. It is
simple resistances, capacitances, or induct- being employed as a detector and as a mixer
ances. in receivers and test instruments used at ex-
So long as small triodes and pentodes will tremely high radio frequencies. At some of
operate normally, they are generally preferred the frequencies employed in microwave opera-
as v -h -f tubes over other receiving methods tions, the crystal rectifier is the only satis-
that have been devised. However, the input factory detector or mixer. The chief advan-
capacitance, input conductance, and transit tages of the crystal rectifier are very low ca-
time of these tubes limit the upper frequency pacitance, relative freedom from transit -time
at which they may be operated. The input re- difficulties, and its two -terminal nature. No
sistance, which drops to a low value at very batteries or a -c power supply are required for
short wave -lengths, limits the stage gain and its operation.
broadens the tuning. The crystal detector consists essentially of
a small piece of silicon or germanium mount-
ed in a base of low- melting -point alloy and
V -H -F The first tube in a v -h -f receiver is contacted by means of a thin, springy feeler
Tubes most important in raising the signal wire known as the cat whisker. This arrange-
above the noise generated in succes- ment is shown in figure 38A.
sive stages, for which reason small v -h-f types The complex physics of crystal rectification
are definitely preferred. is beyond the scope of this discussion. It is
Tubes employing the conventional grid -con- sufficient to state that current flows from sev-
trolled and diode rectifier principles have been eral hundred to several thousand times more
modernized, through various expedients, for readily in one direction through the contact of
operation at frequencies as high, in some new cat whisker and crystal than in the opposite
types, as 4000 Mc. Beyond that frequency, direction. Consequently, an alternating current
electron transit time becomes the limiting fac- (including one of microwave frequency) will
HANDBOOK Receiver Adjustment 235
receiver output when tuning to a modulated

SYMBOL A \_I BRASS BASE CONNECTOR
signal. If the signal is a steady tone, such as
from a test oscillator, the output meter will
indicate the value of the detected signal. In
-CERAMIC SLEEVE
this manner, alignment results may be visually
noted on the meter.
BRASS CAP
BRASS CONNECTOR PIN Alignment procedure in a mul-
T -R-F Receiver
Figure 38
Alignment tistage t -r -f receiver is exact-
1N23 MICROWAVE -TYPE
ly the same as aligning a
CRYSTAL DIODE single stage. If the detector is regenerative,
each preceding stage is successively aligned
A small silicon crystal is attached to while keeping the detector circuit tuned to the
the base connector and a fine "cat - test signal, the latter being a station signal
whisker" wire is set to the most sensi- or one locally generated by a test oscillator
tive spot on the crystal. After adjust- loosely coupled to the antenna lead. During
ment the ceramic shell is filled with these adjustments, the r -f amplifier gain con-
compound to hold the contact wire in trol is adjusted for maximum sensitivity, as-
position. Crystals of this type are used suming that the r -f amplifier is stable and
to over 30,000 mc. does not oscillate. Often a sensitive receiver
can be roughly aligned by tuning for maximum
be rectified by the crystal detector. The load,
noise pickup.
through which the rectified currents flow, may
be connected in series or shunt with the crys- Superheterodyne Aligning a superhet is a de-
tal, although the former connection is most Alignment tailed task requiring a great
generally employed. amount of care and patience.
The basic arrangement of a modern fixed It should never be undertaken without a thor-
crystal detector developed during World War II ough understanding of the involved job to be
for microwave work, particularly radar, is done and then only when there is abundant
shown in figure 38B. Once the cat whisker of time to devote to the operation. There are no
this unit is set at the factory to the most sen- short cuts; every circuit must be adjusted in-
sit ve spot on the surface of the silicon crys- dividually and accurately if the receiver is to
tal and its pressure is adjusted, a filler com- give peak performance. The precision of each
pound is injected through the filling hole to adjustment is dependent upon the accuracy
hol i the cat whisker permanently in position. with which the preceding one was made.
Superhet alignment requires (1) a good sig-
nal generator (modulated oscillator) covering
12 -11 Receiver Adjustment the radio and intermediate frequencies and
equipped with an attenuator; (2) the necessary
A simple regenerative receiver requires socket wrenches, screwdrivers, or "neutral-
little adjustment other than that necessary izing tools" to adjust the various i -f and r -f
to insure correct tuning and smooth regenera- trimmer capacitors; and (3) some convenient
tion over some desired range. Receivers of type of tuning indicator, such as a copper-
the tuned radio- frequency type and superheter- oxide or electronic voltmeter.
odynes require precise alignment to obtain the Throughout the alignment process, unless
highest possible degree of selectivity and specifically stated otherwise, the r -f gain con-
sensitivity. trol must be set for maximum output, the beat
Good results can be obtained from a receiv- oscillator switched off, and the a.v.c. turned
er only when it is properly aligned and ad- off or shorted out. When the signal output of
justed. The most practical technique for mak- the receiver is excessive, either the attenuator
ing these adjustments is given below. or the a -f gain control may be turned down, but
never the r -f gain control.
Instruments A very small number of instru-
ments will suffice to check and 1 After the receiver has been
-F Al ignment
align a communications receiver, the most im- given a rigid electrical and
portant of these testing units being a modu- mechanical inspection, and any faults which
lated oscillator and a d -c and a -c voltmeter. may have been found in wiring or the selec-
The meters are essential in checking the volt- tion and assembly of parts corrected, the i -f
age applied at each circuit point from the pow- amplifier may be aligned as the first step in
er supply. If the a -c voltmeter is of the oxide- the checking operations.
rectiEer type, it can be used, in addition, as With the signal generator set to give a modu-
an output meter when connected across the lated signal on the frequency at which the i -f
amplifier is to operate, clip the "hot" output I-F SIGNAL IN

lead from the generator to the last i -f stage
through a small fixed capacitor to the control
grid. Adjust both trimmer capacitor's in the
last i-f transformer (the one between the last
i -f amplifier and the second detector) to reson-
ance as indicated by maximum deflection of
the output meter.
Each i-f stage is adjusted in the same man-
ner, moving the hot lead, stage by stage, back I -F ALONE
toward the front end of the receiver and back-
PLUS MULTIPLIER
ing off the attenuator as the signal strength I F O
increases in each new position. The last ad-

justment will be made to the first i -f trans-
former, with the hot signal generator lead con-
nected to the control grid of the mixer. Oc-
casionally it is necessary to disconnect the
mixer grid lead from the coil, grounding it
through a 1,000- or 5,000 -ohm resistor, and
coupling the signal generator through a small Figure 39
capacitor to the grid. THE Q- MULTIPLIER
When the last i -f adjustment has been com-
pleted, it is good practice to go back through The loss resistance of o high -Q circuit
the i -f channel, re- peaking all of the transis neutralized by regeneration in a
formers. It is imperative that this recheck be simple feedback amplifier. A highly
made in sets which do not include a crystal selective passband is produced which
filter, and where the simple alignment of the is coupled to the i -f circuit of the
i-f amplifier to the generator is final. receiver.
I- F with There are several ways of align -

Crystal Filter ing an i -f channel which con-
tains a crystal -filter circuit. resonance with the signal, as this will cause
However, the following method is one which
has been found to give satisfactory results in an equally strong beat to be obtained on both
every case: An unmodulated signal generator sides of resonance.
capable of tuning to the frequency of the filter
crystal in the receiver is coupled to the grid of Front -End Alignment of the front end of a
the stage which precedes the crystal filter in Alignment home- constructed receiver is a
the receiver. Then, with the crystal filter relatively simple process, con-
switched in, the signal generator is tuned sisting of first getting the oscillator to cover
slowly to find the frequency where the crystal the desired frequency range and then of peak-
ing the various r -f circuits for maximum gain.
peaks. The receiver "S" meter may be used However, if the frequency range covered by
as the indicator, and the sound heard from the the receiver is very wide a fair amount of cut
loudspeaker will be of assistance in finding and try will be required to obtain satisfactory
the point. When the frequency at which the tracking between the r -f circuits and the oscil-
crystal peaks has been found, all the i -f trans- lator. Manufactured communications receivers
formers in the receiver should be touched up should always be tuned in accordance with
to peak at that frequency. the instructions given in the maintenance man-
ual for the receiver.
B -F -O Adjustment Adjusting the beat oscil-
lator on a receiver that has
no front panel adjustment is relatively simple.
It is only necessary to tune the receiver to 12 -12 Receiving Accessories
resonance with any signal, as indicated by
the tuning indicator, and then turn on the b.f.o. The Q- Multiplier The selectivity of a receiver
and set its trimmer (or trimmers) to produce may be increased by raising
the desired beat note. Setting the beat oscil- the Q of the tuned circuits of the i -f strip. A
lator in this way will result in the beat note simple way to accomplish this is to add a con-
being stronger on one "side" of the signal trolled amount of positive feedback to a tuned
than on the other, which is what is desired circuit, thus increasing its Q. This is done in
for c -w reception. The b.f.o. should not be set the Q- multiplier, whose basic circuit is shown
to zero beat when the receiver is tuned to in figure 39. The circuit L -C1 -C2 is tuned to
HANDBOOK Receiving Accessories 237
TO PLATE TERMINAL
OF FIRST -1. TUBE THRU
1
2' OF COAXIAL LINE

i 12Ax7
7
L2
.005 Lt
.005
NUL L H PEAK
0 MULTIPLIER "NULL"
i I2Ax7 SELECTIVITY
CONTROLS
1.5Kÿ 32MEG 10K 4,3

I 3-
- e +200-300 V. 4.3 V.
455 KC
L1= GRAYOURNE VO CHOKE (0.6 -6.0 MN)
FREQUENCY L2= GRAYBURNE "LOOPSTICK" COIL
Figure 40 Figure 41
Q- MULTIPLIER NULL CIRCUIT SCHEMATIC OF A 455KC
Q- MULTIPLIER
The addition of a second triode permits
the 0-Multiplier to be used for nulling Coil Li is required to tune out the
out an unwanted hetrodyne. reactance of the coaxial line. It is ad-
justed for maximum signal response.
LI may be omitted if the Q- multiplier
is connected to the receiver with a
short length of wire, and the i -f trans-
the intermediate frequency, and the loss re-
sistance of the circuit is neutralized by the former within the receiver is retuned.
positive feedback circuit composed of C3 and
the vacuum tube. Too great a degree of positive
feedback will cause the circuit to break into
oscillation. may be used as a second detector in a receiver
At the resonant frequency, the impedance of in place of the usual diode detector. The diode
the tuned circuit is very high, and when shunted is an envelope detector (section 12 -1) and de-
across an i -f stage will have little effect upon velops a d -c output voltage from a single r -f
the signal. At frequencies removed from reso- signal, and audio "beats" from two or more
input signals. A product detector (figure 42)
nance, the impedance of the circuit is low, re-
sulting in high attenuation of the i -f signal. requires that a local carrier voltage be present
The resonant frequency of the Q- multiplier may in order to produce an audio output signal.
by varied by changing the value of one of the
components in the tuned circuit.
The Q- multiplier may also be used to "null"
a signal by employing negative feedback to R -F SIGNAL PRODUCT AUDIO OUTPUT
DETECTOR
control the plate resistance of an auxiliary
amplifier stage as shown in figure 40. Since the
grid -cathode phase shift through the Q- multiplier
is zero, the plate resistance of a second tube
may be readily controlled by placing it across
LOCAL
the Q- multiplier. At resonance, the high nega- OSCILLATOR
tive feedback drops the plate resistance of
V2, shunting the i -f circuit. Off resonance, the
feedback is reduced and the plate resistance
of V2 rises, reducing the amount of signal at- Figure 42
tenuation in the i -f strip. A circuit combining THE PRODUCT
both the "peak" and "null" features is shown DETECTOR
in figure 41.
Audio output signal is
The Product Detector A version of the common developed only when
mixer or converter stage local oscillator is on.
238 Radio Receiver Fundamentals
6BE6 01
(--. AUDIO OUT i VI
12AU7 +
V2
12AU7
VS
B
01
r- AUDIO OUT
-F SIGNAL
7K
I
I,F 47N
SIG
2
70
BEAT OSC.
1
BEAT OSC
SIGNAL
SIGNAL
Figure 44
Figure 43
PENTAGRID MIXER TRIPLE -TRIODE
PRODUCT DETECTOR
USED AS PRODUCT
DETECTOR
VI and V2 act as cathode follow-
ers, delivering sideband signal
and local oscillator signal to
grounded grid triode mixer (V3).
Such a detector is useful for single sideband
work, since the inter -modulation distortion is
extremely low.
A pentagrid product detector is shown in
figure 43. The incoming signal is applied to
grid 3 of the mixer tube, and the local oscillator
is injected on grid 1. Grid bias is adjusted for
operation over the linear portion of the tube
characteristic curve. When grid 1 injection
is removed, the audio output from an unmodu-
lated signal applied to grid 3 should be reduced
approximately 30 to 40 db below normal de-
tection level. When the frequency of the local BEAT OSC. +
oscillator is synchronized with the incoming SIGNAL
carrier, amplitude modulated signals may be

received by exalted carrier reception, wherein
the local carrier substitutes for the transmitted
Figure 45
carrier of the a -m signal.
DOUBLE -TRIODE
Three triodes may be used as a product
PRODUCT DETECTOR
detector (figure 44). Triodes V1 and V2 act
as cathode followers, delivering the sideband
signal and the local oscillator signal to a
grounded grid triode (V3) which functions as
the mixer stage. A third version of the product "plate" detector, the cathode of which is
detector is illustrated in figure 45. A twin common with the cathode follower amplifier.
triode tube is used. Section V1 functions as The local oscillator signal is injected into the
a cathode follower amplifier. Section V2 is a grid circuit of tube V2.
Wa4 Figure 46
EXPLODED VIEW OF COLLINS
MECHANICAL FILTER
ingat
1111111111IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Generation of
Radio Frequency Energy
A radio communication or broadcast trans- stable crystal- controlled or self -controlled

mitter consists of a source of radio frequency oscillator to stabilize the output frequency, a
power, or carrier; a system for modulating the series of frequency multipliers, one or more
carrier whereby voice or telegraph keying or amplifier stages to increase the power up to
other modulation is superimposed upon it; and the level which is desired for feeding the an-
an antenna system, including feed line, for tenna system, and a filter system for keeping
radiating the intelligence- carrying radio fre- the harmonic energy generated in the trans-
quency power. The power supply employed to mitter from being fed to the antenna system.
concert primary power to the various voltages
required by the r -f and modulator portions of
the transmitter may also be considered part
of the transmitter. 13 -1 Self-Controlled
Voice modulation usually is accomplished
by varying either the amplitude or the frequen- Oscillators
cy of the radio frequency carrier in accordance
with the components of intelligence to be In Chapter Four, it was explained that the
transmitted. amplifying properties of a tube having three
Radiotelegraph modulation (keying) normal- or more elements give it the ability to gener-
ly is accomplished either by interrupting, ate an alternating current of a frequency de-
shifting the frequency of, or superimposing an termined by the components associated with
audio tone on the radio -frequency carrier in it. A vacuum tube operated in such a circuit
accordance with the dots and dashes to be is called an oscillator, and its function is
transmitted. essentially to convert direct current into radio -
The complexity of the radio -frequency gen- frequency alternating current of a predeter-
erating portion of the transmitter is dependent mined frequency.
upon the power, order of stability, and frequen- Oscillators for controlling the frequency of
cy desired. An oscillator feeding an antenna conventional radio transmitters can be divided
directly is the simplest form of radio -frequency into two general classes: self-controlled and
generator. A modern high- frequency transmitter, crystal -controlled.
on the other hand, is a very complex generator. There are a great many types of self -con-
Such an equipment usually comprises a very trolled oscillators, each of which is best suited
239
240 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADIO
.008 RFC RFC
RFC
OA SHUNT-FED HARTLEY OB SHUNT-FED COLPITTS © TUNED PLATE TUNED GRID
L2
OD TUNED -PLATE UNTUNED GRID © ELECTRON COUPLED FO COLPITTS ELECTRON COUPLED
OG CLAPP pH CLAPP ELECTRON COUPLED
Figure 1
COMMON TYPES OF SELF -EXCITED OSCILLATORS

Fixed capacitor values are typical, but will vary somewhat with the application.
In the Clapp oscillator circuits (G) and (H), capacitors Cr and C2 should have a
reactance of 50 to 100 ohms at the operating frequency of the oscillator. Tuning of
these two oscillators is accomplished by capacitor C. In the circuits of (E), (F), and
(H), tuning of the tank circuit in the plate of the oscillator tube will have relatively
small effect on the frequency of oscillation. The plate tank circuit also may, if de-
sired, be tuned to a harmonic of the oscillation frequency, or a broadly resonant
circuit may be used in this circuit position.
to a particular application. They can further trol grid is biased negatively with respect to
be subdivided into the classifications of: neg- the cathode. Common types of negative -grid
ative -grid oscillators, electron -orbit oscilla- oscillators are diagrammed in figure 1.
tors, negative- resistance oscillators, velocity
modulation oscillators, and magnetron oscil-
lators. The Hartley Illustrated in figure 1 (A) is the
oscillator circuit which finds the
Negative -Grid negative -grid oscillator is
A most general application at the present time;
Oscillators essentially
a vacuum -tube am- this circuit is commonly called the Hartley.
plifier with a sufficient por- The operation of this oscillator will be de-
tion of the output energy coupled back into the scribed as an index to the operation of all
input circuit to sustain oscillation. The con- negative -grid oscillators; the only real differ-
HANDBOOK Oscillators 241
ence between the various circuits is the man- sired frequency and the plate capacitor to the
ner in which energy for excitation is coupled high side. A broadly resonant coil may be sub-
from the plate to the grid circuit. stituted for the grid tank to form the T. N. T.
When plate voltage is applied to the Hartley oscillator shown at (D).
oscillator shown at (A), the sudden flow of
plate current accompanying the application of Electron -Coupled In any of theoscillator cir-
plate voltage will cause an electromagnetic Oscillators cuits just described it is
field to be set up in the vicinity of the coil. possible to take energy from
The building -up of this field will cause a po- the oscillator circuit by coupling an external
tential drop to appear from turn -to-turn along load to the tank circuit. Since the tank circuit
the coil. Due to the inductive coupling be- determines the frequency of oscillation of the
tween the portion of the coil in which the plate tube, any variations in the conditions of the
current is flowing and the grid portion, a po- external circuit will be coupled back into the
tential will be induced in the grid portion. frequency determining portion of the oscillator.
Since the cathode tap is between the grid These variations will result in frequency in-
and plate ends of the coil, the induced grid stability.
voltage acts in such a manner as to increase The frequency determining portion of an
further the plate current to the tube. This ac- oscillator may be coupled to the load circuit
tion will continue for a short period of time only by an electron stream, as illustrated in
determined by the inductance and capacitance (E) and (F) of figure 1. When it is considered
of the tuned circuit, until the flywheel effect that the screen of the tube acts as the plate
of the tuned circuit causes this action to come to the oscillator circuit, the plate merely act-
to a maximum and then to reverse itself. The ing as a coupler to the load, then the sim-
plate current then decreases, the magnetic ilarity between the cathode -grid- screen circuit
field around the coil also decreasing, until a of these oscillators and the cathode -grid -plate
minimum is reached, when the action starts circuits of the corresponding prototype can be
again in the original direction and at a greater seen.
amplitude than before. The amplitude of these The electron- coupled oscillator has good
oscillations, the frequency of which is de- stability with respect to load and voltage var-
termined by the coil -capacitor circuit, will in- iation. Load variations have a relatively small
crease in a very short period of time to a limit effect on the frequency, since the only cou-
determined by the plate voltage of the oscil- pling between the oscillating circuit and the
lator tube. load is through the electron stream flowing
through the other elements to the plate. The
The Colpitts Figure 1 (B) shows a version of plate is electrostatically shielded from the
the Colpitts oscillator. It can oscillating portion by the bypassed screen.
be seen that this is essentially the same cir- The stability of the e.c.o. with respect to
cuit as the Hartley except that the ratio of a variations in supply voltages is explained as
pair of capacitances in series determines the follows: The frequency will shift in one direc-
effective cathode tap, instead of actually us- tion with an increase in screen voltage, while
ing a tap on the tank coil. Also, the net ca- an increase in plate voltage will cause it to
pacitance of these two capacitors comprises shift in the other direction. By a proper pro-
the tank capacitance of the tuned circuit. This portioning of the resistors that comprise the
oscillator circuit is somewhat less suscep- voltage divider supplying screen voltage, it is
tible to parasitic (spurious) oscillations than possible to make the frequency of the oscil-
the Hartley. lator substantially independent of supply volt-
For best operation of the Hartley and Col- age variations.
pitts oscillators, the voltage from grid to cath-
ode, determined by the tap on the coil or the The Clapp A relatively new type of oscillator
setting of the two capacitors, normally should Oscillator circuit which is capable of giving
be from 1/3 to 1/5 that appearing between excellent frequency stability is
plate and cathode. illustrated in figure 1G. Comparison between
the more standard circuits of figure lA through
The T.P.T.G. The tuned-plate tuned-grid os- IF and the Clapp oscillator circuits of figures
cillator illustrated at (C) has 1G and 1H will immediately show one marked
a tank circuit in both the plate and grid cir- difference: the tuned circuit which controls
cuits. The feedback of energy from the plate the operating frequency in the Clapp oscillator
to the grid circuits is accomplished by the is series resonant, while in all the more stand-
plate -to-grid inter -electrode capacitance with- ard oscillator circuits the frequency control-
in the tube. The necessary phase reversal in ling circuit is parallel resonant. Also, the
feedback voltage is provided by tuning the capacitors C, and C2 are relatively large in
grid tank capacitor to the low side of the de- terms of the usual values for a Colpitts oscil-
lator. In fact, the value of capacitors C, and lation of succeeding stages from the oscillat-
C2 will be in the vicinity of 0.001 pfd. to ing circuit is desired, the electron -coupled
0.0025 pfd. for an oscillator which is to be Clapp oscillator diagrammed in figure 1H may
operated in the 1.8 -Mc. band. be used. Output then may be taken from the
The Clapp oscillator operates in the follow- plate circuit of the tube by capacitive coupling
ing manner: at the resonant frequency of the with either a tuned circuit, as shown, or with
oscillator tuned circuit (L, C) the impedance an r -f choke or a broadly resonant circuit in
of this circuit is at minimum (since it oper- the plate return. Alternatively, energy may be
ates in series resonance) and maximum cur- coupled from the output circuit 1..2-C, by link
rent flows through it. Note however, that C, coupling. The considerations with regard to
and C2 also are included within the current
path for the series resonant circuit, so that at
C C2, and the grid tuned circuit are the same
as for the triode oscillator arrangement of
the frequency of resonance an appreciable figure 1G.
voltage drop appears across these capacitors.
The voltage drop appearing across C, is ap-
plied to the grid of the oscillator tube as ex- Negative Resist- Negative -resistance oscil-
citation, while the amplified output of the anca Oscillators lators often are used when
oscillator tube appears across C7 as the driv- unusually high frequency
ing power to keep the circuit in oscillation. stability is desired, as in a frequency meter.
Capacitors C, and C2 should be made as The dynatron of a few years ago and the newer
large in value as possible, while still permit- transitron are examples of oscillator circuits
ting the circuit to oscillate over the full tun- which make use of the negative resistance
ing range of C. The larger these capacitors characteristic between different elements in
are made, the smaller will be the coupling be- some multi -grid tubes.
tween the oscillating circuit and the tube, and In the dynatron, the negative resistance is a
consequently the better will be oscillator sta- consequence of secondary emission of elec-
bility with respect to tube variations. High Gm trons from the plate of a tetrode tube. By a
tubes such as the 6AC7, 6AG7, and 6CB6 will proper proportioning of the electrode voltage,
permit the use of larger values of capacitance an increase in screen voltage will cause a
at C, and C2 than will more conventional tubes decrease in screen current, since the increased
such as the 6SJ7, 6V6, and such types. In gen- screen voltage will cause the screen to attract
eral it may be said that the reactance of ca- a larger number of the secondary electrons
pacitors C, and C2 should be on the order of emitted by the plate. Since the net screen cur-
40 to 120 ohms at the operating frequency of rent flowing from the screen supply will be
the oscillator -with the lower values of re- decreased by an increase in screen voltage,
actance going with high -Gm tubes and the it is said that the screen circuit presents a
higher values being necessary to permit oscil- negative resistance.
lation with tubes having Gm in the range of If any type of tuned circuit, or even a re-
2000 micromhos such as the 6SJ7. sistance- capacitance circuit, is connected in
It will be found that the Clapp oscillator series with the screen, the arrangement will
will have a tendency to vary in power output oscillate -provided, of course, that the external
over the frequency range of tuning capacitor circuit impedance is greater than the negative
C. The output will be greatest where C is at resistance. A negative resistance effect simi-
its largest setting, and will tend to fall off lar to the dynatron is obtained in the transitron
with C at minimum capacitance. In fact, if circuit, which uses a pentode with the suppres-
capacitors C, and C2 have too large a value sor coupled to the screen. The negative re-
the circuit will stop oscillation near the mini- sistance in this case is obtained from a com-
mum capacitance setting of C. Hence it will bination of secondary emission and inter-elec-
be necessary to use a slightly smaller value trode coupling, and is considerably more stable
of capacitance at C, and C2 (to provide an in- than that obtained from uncontrolled secondary
crease in the capacitive reactance at this emission alone in the dynatron. A representa-
point), or else the frequency range of the oscil- tive transitron oscillator circuit is shown in
lator must be restricted by paralleling a fixed figure 2.
capacitor across C so that its effective capaci- The chief distinction between a conven-
tance at minimum setting will be increased to tional negative grid oscillator and a negative
a value which will sustain oscillation. resistance oscillator is that in the former the
In the triode Clapp oscillator, such as shown tank circuit must act as a phase inverter in
at figure 1G, output voltage for excitation of order to permit the amplification of the tube
an amplifier, doubler, or isolation stage nor- to act as a negative resistance, while in the
mally is taken from the cathode of the oscil- latter the tube acts as its own phase inverter.
lator tube by capacitive coupling to the grid Thus a negative resistance oscillator requires
of the next tube. However, where greater iso- only an untapped coil and a single capacitor
HANDBOOK Oscillators 243
6SK7 Figure 2
TWO- TERMINAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS
Both circuits may be used for on audio

oscillator or for frequencies into the
v -h -f range simply by placing a tank cir-
cuit tuned to the proper frequency where
indicated on the drawing. Recommended
values for the components are given be-
low for both oscillators.
OA TRANSITION OSCILLATOR
TRANS ITRON OSCILLATOR
C,-0.01- pfd. mica for r.f. 10 -ufd. elect. for a.f.
c2-0.00005-Pfd. mica for r.f. 0.1-Pfd. paper for
o.f.
C3-0.003- pfd. mica for r.f. 0.5 -µfd. paper for
a.f.
6SN7 oa 6J6
Ct- 0.01 -4fd. mica for r.f. 8-Pfd. elect. for o.f.
R, -220K b -watt carbon
R2 -1800 ohms 15 -watt carbon
R3 -22K 2-watt carbon
R.,-22K 2 -watt carbon
CATHODE -COUPLED OSCILLATOR

C, -0.00005- µfd. mica for r.f. 0.1- Pfd. paper
for audio
C2- 0.003 -µfd. mica for r.f. 8- pfd. elect. for
audio
R1-47K 1/2-watt carbon
O CATHODE COUPLED OSCILLATOR R2 -1K 1 -watt carbon
as the frequency determining tank circuit, and herently good stability is with respect to tube
is classed as a two terminal oscillator. In fact, variations; instability of the tuned circuit with
the time constant of an R/C circuit may be respect to vibration or temperature will of
used as the frequency determining element and course have as much effect on the frequency of
such an oscillator is rather widely used as a oscillation as with any other type of oscillator
tunable audio frequency oscillator. circuit. Solid mechanical construction of the
components of the oscillating circuit, along
The Franklin The Franklin oscillator makes with a small negative- coefficient compensating
Oscillator use of two cascaded tubes to capacitor included as an element of the tuned
obtain the negative- resistance circuit, usually will afford an adequate degree
effect (figure 3). The tubes may be either a of oscillator stability.
pair of triodes, tetrodes, or pentodes, a dual
triode, or a combination of a triode and a multi -
grid tube. The chief advantage of this oscil-
lator circuit is that the frequency determining
tank only has two terminals, and one side of
the circuit is grounded.
The second tube acts as a phase inverter to
give an effect similar to that obtained with the
dynatron or transitron, except that the effective
transconductance is much higher. If the tuned
circuit is omitted or is replaced by a resistor,
the circuit becomes a relaxation oscillator or
a multivibrator. Figure 3
THE FRANKLIN OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT

Oscillator The Clapp oscillator has proved A separate phase inverter tube is used in
Stability to be inherently the most stable this oscillator to feed a portion of the output
of all the oscillator circuits dis- back to the input in the proper phase to sus-
cussed above, since minimum coupling be- tain oscillation. The values of Cr and C2
should be as small as will permit oscillations
tween the oscillator tube and its associated to be sustained over the desired frequency
tuned circuit is possible. However, this in- range.
V.F.O. Transmit - When used to control the fre-

c 3- Li
ter Controls quency of a transmitter in (SMALL)
. i
which there are s t r i n g e n t

limitations on frequency tolerance, several pre- LI ===cz
cautions are taken to ensure that a variable (LARGE) I (STRAY
SHUNT)
frequency oscillator will stay on frequency.
The oscillator is fed from a voltage regulated Ri
(SMALL)
power supply, uses a well designed and tem- -J
perature compensated tank circuit, is of rugged
mechanical construction to avoid the effects
of shock and vibration, is protected against
excessive changes in ambient room tempera- Figure 4
ture, and is isolated from feedback or stray EQUIVALENT ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT OF
coupling from other portions of the transmitter QUARTZ PLATE IN A HOLDER
by shielding, filtering of voltage supply leads,
At (A) is shown the equivalent series -reso-
and incorporation of one or more buffer- ampli- nant circuit of the crystal itself, at (B) is
fier stages. In a high power transmitter a small shown how the shunt capacitance of the
amount of stray coupling from the final ampli- holder electrodes and associated wiring af-
fier to the oscillator can produce appreciable fects the circuit to the combination circuit
of (C) which exhibits both series resonance
degradation of the oscillator stability if both and parallel resonance (anti- resonance), the
are on the same frequency. Therefore, the os- separation in frequency between the two
cillator usually is operated on a subharmonic modes being very small and determined by
of the transmitter output frequency, with one the ratio of C1 to C2.
or more frequency multipliers between the os-
cillator and final amplifier.
crystal this will be considerably greater than
the capacitance component of an equivalent
series L/C circuit, and unless the shunt ca-
13 -2 Quartz Crystal pacitance is balanced out in a bridge circuit,
Oscillators the crystal will exhibit both resonant (series
resonant) and anti- resonant (parallel resonant)
Quartz is a naturally occuring crystal hav- frequencies, the latter being slightly higher
ing a structure such that when plates are cut than the series resonant frequency and ap-
in certain definite relationships to the crystal- proaching it as Ca is increased.
lographic axes, these plates will show the The series resonance characteristic is em-
piezoelectric effect -the plates will be de- ployed in crystal filter circuits in receivers
formed in the influence of an electric field, and also in certain oscillator circuits wherein
and, conversely, when such a plate is com- the crystal is used as a selective feedback
pressed or deformed in any way a potential element in such a manner that the phase of the
difference will appear upon its opposite sides. feedback is correct and the amplitude ade-
The crystal has mechanical resonance, and quate only at or very close to the series reso-
will vibrate at a very high frequency because nant frequency of the crystal.
of its stiffness, the natural period of vibration While quartz, tourmaline, Rochelle salts,
depending upon the dimensions, the method of ADP, and EDT crystals all exhibit the piezo-
electrical excitation, and crystallographic electric effect, quartz is the material widely
orientation. Because of the piezoelectric pro- employed for frequency control.
perties, it is possible to cut a quartz plate As the cutting and grinding of quartz plates
which, when provided with suitable electrodes, has progressed to a high state of development
will have the characteristics of a series reso- and these plates may be purchased at prices
nant circuit with a very high L/C ratio and which discourage the cutting and grinding by
very high Q. The Q is several times as high simple hand methods for one's own use, the
as can be obtained with an inductor -capacitor procedure will be only lightly touched upon
combination in conventional physical sizes. here.
The equivalent electrical circuit is shown in The crystal blank is cut from the raw quartz
figure 4A, the resistance component simply at a predetermined orientation with respect to
being an acknowledgment of the fact that the the optical and electrical axes, the orientation
Q, while high, does not have an infinite value. determining the activity, temperature coeffi-
The shunt capacitance of the electrodes and cient, thickness coefficient, and other charac-
associated wiring (crystal holder and socket, teristics. Various orientations or "cuts" hav-
plus circuit wiring) is represented by the dot- ing useful characteristics are illustrated in
ted portion of figure 4B. In a high frequency figure 5.
HANDBOOK Crystal Oscillators 245
ZERO TCRFCR.TORC COIITKK.T

OWCCATORS AND FILTERS
.K. ISCDOC.CT .T. ST
COW IRCOUC.CT CT,OT.CT,IT
AT aYU
RT -.S-
CTIM 2 Z
(5..=0)
Figure 5 ET
-COI
C OOSOCFl.4
TEEs
IT -6/. o
CT
.,a->-T ....KS
i
CT
ORIENTATION OF THE
COMMON CRYSTAL CUTS
ZEROTCICR.TORC
COEIIKKM
0 OSCILLATORS
u.O..[I.T.0 WD
SECOND waRI.OwC
Z.R ..
CERO
COLIIKKIR
.oox.uTORS
EyT 'un us .,.
CT
nsnss
no«rwFC..TwT
I.,
7. CO, e.
The crystal blank is then rough -ground al- The first quartz plates used were either Y
most to frequency, the frequency increasing cut or X cut. The former had a very high tem-
in inverse ratio to the oscillating dimension perature coefficient which was discontinuous,
(usually the thickness). It is then finished to causing the frequency to jump at certain criti-
exact frequency either by careful lapping, by cal temperatures. The X cut had a moderately
etching, or plating. The latter process con- bad coefficient, but it was more continuous,
sists of finishing it to a frequency slightly and by keeping the crystal in a temperature
higher than that desired and then silver plating controlled oven, a high order of stability could
the electrodes right on the crystal, the fre- be obtained. However, the X cut crystal was
quency decreasing as the deposit of silver is considerably less active than the Y cut, es-
increased. If the crystal is not etched, it must pecially in the case of poorly ground plates.
be carefully scrubbed and "baked" several For frequencies between 500 kc. and about
times to stabilize it, or otherwise the frequen- 6 Mc., the AT cut crystal now is the most
cy and activity of the crystal will change with widely used. It is active, can be made free
time. Irradiation by X -rays recently has been from spurious responses, and has an excellent
used in crystal finishing. temperature characteristic. However, above
Unplated crystals usually are mounted in about 6 Mc. it becomes quite thin, and a diffi-
pressure holders, in which two electrodes are cult production job. Between 6 Mc. and about
held against the crystal faces under slight 12 Mc., the BT cut plate is widely used. It
pressure. Unplated crystals also are some- also works well between 500 kc. and 6 Mc.,
times mounted in an air -gap holder, in which but the AT cut is more desirable when a high
there is a very small gap between the crystal order of stability is desired and no crystal
and cne or both electrodes. By making this oven is employed.
gap variable, the frequency of the crystal may For low frequency operation on the order of
be altered over narrow limits (about 0.3% for 100 kc., such as is required in a frequency
certain types). standard, the GT cut crystal is recommended,
The temperature coefficient of frequency for though CT and DT cuts also are widely used
various crystal cuts of the " -T" rotated fam- for applications between 50 and 500 kc. The
ily is indicated in figure 5. These angles are CT, DT, and GT cut plates are known as con-
typical, but crystals of a certain cut will vary tour cuts, as these plates oscillate along the
slightly. By controlling the orientation and di- long dimension of the plate or bar, and are
mensioning, the turning point (point of zero much smaller physically than would be the
temperature coefficient) for a BT cut plate may case for a regular AT or BT cut crystal for
be made either lower or higher than the 75 de- the same frequency.
grees shown. Also, by careful control of axes
and dimensions, it is possible to get AT cut
crystals with a very flat temperature- frequency Crystal Holders Crystals normally are pur-
characteristic. chased ready mounted. The
CaCITATIoN
best type mount is determined by the type crys-
tal and its application, and usually an opti-
mum mounting is furnished with the crystal.
However, certain features are desirable in all
holders. One of these is exclusion of moisture
and prevention of electrode oxidization. The
best means of accomplishing this is a metal
holder, hermetically sealed, with glass insula-
tion and a metal -to -glass bond. However, such +9
100-1S0 V.
holders are more expensive, and a ceramic or
phenolic holder with rubber gasket will serve BASIC "PIERCE" OSCILLATOR HOT -CATHODE "PIERCE.
OSCILLATOR
where requirements are not too exacting.
Temperature Control; Where the frequency tol- Figure 6

Crystal Ovens erance requirements are THE PIERCE CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
not too stringent and the CIRCUIT
ambient temperature does not include extremes, Shown at (A) is the basic Pierce crystal os-
an AT -cut plate, or a BT -cut plate with opti- cillator circuit.A capacitance of 10 to 75
mum (mean temperature) turning point, will Id. normally will be required at C1 for
often provide adequate stability without re- optimum operation. If a plate supply voltage
higher than indicated is to be used, RFC1
sorting to a temperature controlled oven. How- may be replaced by a 22,000 -ohm 2 -watt re-
ever, for broadcast stations and other applica- sistor. Shown at (8) is an alternative ar-
tions where very close tolerances must be rangement with the r -f ground moved to the
maintained, a thermostatically controlled oven, plate, and with the cathode floating. This
alternative circuit has the advantage that
adjusted for a temperature slightly higher than the full r -f voltage developed across the
the highest ambient likely to be encountered, crystal may be used as excitation to the next
must of necessity be employed. stage, since one side of the crystal is
grounded.
Harmonic Cut just as a vibrating string can
Crystals be made to vibrate on its har-
monics, a quartz crystal will
nate against the fundamental frequency or un-
exhibit mechanical resonance (and therefore
electrical resonance) at harmonics of its funda- desired harmonics. Otherwise the crystal might
mental frequency. When employed in the usual not always oscillate on the intended frequency.
For this reason the Pierce oscillator, later
holder, it is possible to excite the crystal
only on its odd harmonics (overtones). described in this chapter, is not suitable for
By grinding the crystal especially for har-
use with harmonic -cut crystals, because the
monic operation, it is possible to enhance its only tuned element in this oscillator circuit
operation as a harmonic resonator. BT and AT is the crystal itself.
cut crystals designed for optimum operation
on the 3d, 5th and even the 7th harmonic are Crystal Current; a given crystal op-
For
available. The 5th and 7th harmonic types, Heating and Fracture crating as an anti -reso-
especially the latter, require special holder nant tank in a given os-
and oscillator circuit precautions for satis- cillator at fixed load impedance and plate and
factory operation, but the 3d harmonic type screen voltages, the r -f current through the
needs little more consideration than a regular crystal will increase as the shunt capacitance
fundamental type. A crystal ground for optimum C2 of figure 4 is increased, because this effec-
operation on a particular harmonic may or may tively increases the step-up ratio of C, to Cr.
not be a good oscillator on a different har- For a given shunt capacitance, C
the crystal
monic or on the fundamental. One interesting current for a given crystal is directly propor-
characteristic of a harmonic cut crystal is that tional to the r-f voltage across C2. This volt-
its harmonic frequency is not quite an exact age may be measured by means of a vacuum
multiple of its fundamental, though the dis- tube voltmeter having a low input capacitance,
parity is very small. and such a measurement is a more pertinent
The harmonic frequency for which the crys- one than a reading of r -f current by means of
tal was designed is the working frequency. It a therniogalvanometer inserted in series with
is not the fundamental since the crystal itself one of the leads to the crystal holder.
actually oscillates on this working frequency The function of a crystal is to provide accu-
when it is functioning in the proper manner. rate frequency control, and unless it is used
When a harmonic -cut crystal is employed, a in such a manner as to take advantage of its
selective tuned circuit must be employed some- inherent high stability, there is no point in
where in the oscillator in order to discrimi- using a crystal oscillator. For this reason a
HANDBOOK Crystal Oscillators 247
crystal oscillator should not be run at high confusion, we shall refer to it as the tuned -
plate input in an attempt to obtain consider- plate crystal oscillator. It is essentially an
able power directly out of the oscillator, as Armstrong or tuned plate -tuned grid oscillator
such operation will cause the crystal to heat, with the crystal replacing the usual L -C grid
with resultant frequency drift and possible tank. The plate tank must be tuned to a fre-
fracture. quency slightly higher than the anti -resonant
(parallel resonant) frequency of the crystal.
Whereas the Pierce circuits of figure 6 will
oscillate at (or very close to) the anti -reso-
13 -3 Crystal Oscillator nant frequency of the crystal, the circuits of
figure 7 will oscillate at a frequency a little
Circuits above the anti- resonant frequency of the
crystal.
Considerable confusion exists as to nomen- The diagram shown in figure 7A is the basic
clature of crystal oscillator circuits, due to a circuit. The most popular version of the tuned-
tendency to name a circuit after its discoverer. plate oscillator employs a pentode or beam
Nearly all the basic crystal oscillator circuits tetrode with cathode bias to prevent excessive
were either first used or else developed inde- plate dissipation when the circuit is not oscil-
pendently by G. W. Pierce, but he has not been lating. The cathode resistor is optional. Its
so credited in all the literature. omission will reduce both crystal current and
Use of the crystal oscillator in master os- oscillator efficiency, resulting in somewhat
cillator circuits in radio transmitters dates more output for a given crystal current. The
back to about 1924 when the first application tube usually is an audio or video beam pentode
articles appeared. or tetrode, the plate -grid capacitance of such
tubes being sufficient to ensure stable oscilla-
The Pierce The circuit of figure6A is the sim- tion but not so high as to offer excessive feed-
Oscillator plest crystal oscillator circuit. It back with resulting high crystal current. The
is one of those developed by 6AG7 makes an excellent all- around tube for
Pierce, and is generally known among ama- this type circuit.
teurs as the Pierce oscillator. The crystal
simply replaces the tank circuit in a Colpitts Pentode The usual type of crystal -
or ultra -audion oscillator. The r -f excitation Harmonic Crystal controlled h -f transmitter
voltage available to the next stage is low, be- Oscillator Circuits operates, at least part of
ing somewhat less than that developed across the time, on a frequency
the crystal. Capacitor C, will make more of which is an integral multiple of the operating
the voltage across the crystal available for frequency of the controlling crystal. Hence,
excitation, and sometimes will be found nec- oscillator circuits which are capable of pro-
essary to ensure oscillation. Its value is small, viding output on the crystal frequency if de-
usually approximately equal to or slightly sired, but which also can deliver output energy
greater than the stray capacitance from the on harmonics of the crystal frequency have
plate circuit to ground (including the grid of come into wide use. Four such circuits which
the stage being driven). have found wide application are illustrated in
If the r -f choke has adequate inductance, a figures 7C, 7D, 7E, and 7F.
crystal (even a harmonic cut crystal) will al- The circuit shown in figure 7C is recom-
most invariably oscillate on its fundamental. mended for use with harmonic -cut crystals
The Pierce oscillator therefore cannot be used when output is desired on a multiple of the
with harmonic cut crystals. oscillating frequency of the crystal. As an
The circuit at (B) is the same as that of example, a 25 -Mc. harmonic -cut crystal may
(A) except that the plate instead of the cath- be used in this circuit to obtain output on 50
ode is operated at ground r-f potential. All of Mc., or a 48 -Mc. harmonic -cut crystal may be
the r -f voltage developed across the crystal used to obtain output on the 144 -Mc. amateur
is available for excitation to the next stage, band. The circuit is not recommended for use
but still is low for reasonable values of crys- with the normal type of fundamental- frequency
tal current. For best operation a tube with low crystal since more output with fewer variable
heater- cathode capacitance is required. Exci- elements can be obtained with the circuits of
tation for the next stage may also be taken 7D and 7F.
from the cathode when using this circuit. The Pierce-harmonic circuit shown in fig-
ure 7D is satisfactory for many applications
Tuned -Plate The circuit shown in fig - which require very low crystal current, but
Crystal Oscillator ure 7A is also one used by has the disadvantage that both sides of the
Pierce, but is more widely crystal are above ground potential. The Tri -tet
referred to as the "Miller" oscillator. To avoid circuit of figure 7E is widely used and can
6J5, ETC. F 6V6, 6AQ5, ETC. 6ÁG7, 6AQ5. 5763 3F
.002
+150V
+250 V. +250 V.
BASIC TUNED-PLATE OSCILLATOR RECOMMENDED TUNED -PLATE SPECIAL C RCUIT FOR USE WITH
OSCILLATOR HARMONIC CUT CRYSTAL.
6AG7 F, 2F, 3F 6ÁG7 F, 2F, 3F, 4F 6ÁG7 F. 2F. 3F, 4F
22 II +250 V.
PIERCE HARMONIC CIRCUIT "TRITET" CIRCUIT COLPITTS HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
O
Figure 7
COMMONLY USED CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS
Shown at (A) is the basic tuned -plate crystal oscillator with a triode oscillator tube.
The plate tank must be tuned on the low -capacitance side of resonance to sustain
oscillation. (8) shows the tuned -plate oscillator as it is normally used, with an a-f
power pentode to permit high output with relatively low crystal current.
Schematics (C), (D), (E), and (F) illustrate crystal oscillator circuits which can de-
liver moderate output energy on harmonics of the oscillating frequency of the crys-
tal. (C) shows a special circuit which will permit use of a harmonic -cut crystal to
obtain output energy well into the v -h-f range. (D) is valuable when extremely low
crystal current is a requirement, but delivers relatively low output. (E) is commonly
used, but is subject to crystal damage if the cathode circuit is mistuned. (F) is
recommended as the most generally satisfactory from the standpoints of: low crys-
tal current regardless of misadjustment, good output on harmonic frequencies, one
side of crystal is grounded, will oscillate with crystals from 1.5 to 10 Mc. without
adjustment, output tank may be tuned to the crystal frequency for fundamental out-
put without stopping oscillation or changing frequency.
give excellent output with low crystal current. tremely low; (3) one side of the crystal is
However, the circuit has the disadvantages of grounded, which facilitates crystal- switching
requiring a cathode coil, of requiring careful circuits; (4) the circuit will operate straight
setting of the variable cathode capacitor to through without frequency pulling, or it may
avoid damaging the crystal when changing fre- be operated with output on the second, third,
quency ranges, and of having both sides of or fourth harmonic of the crystal frequency.
the crystal above ground potential.
The Colpitts harmonic oscillator of figure Crystal Oscillator The tunable circuits of all
7F is recommended as being the most gener- Tuning oscillators illustrated
ally satisfactory harmonic crystal oscillator should be tuned for maxi-
circuit since it has the following advantages: mum output as indicated by maximum excita-
(1) the circuit will oscillate with crystals tion to the following stage, except that the
over a very wide frequency range with no oscillator tank of tuned-plate oscillators (fig-
change other than plugging in or switching in ure 7A and figure 7B) should be backed off
the desired crystal; (2) crystal current is ex- slightly towards the low capacitance side from
All -band Crystal Oscillator 24 9
HANDBOOK
6AG7 1s from 160 meters through 10 meters to fully

drive a pentode tube, such as the 807, 2E26
20-15-104F. or 6146. Such an oscillator is extremely use-
ful for portable or mobile work, since it com-
2 bines all essential exciter functions in one
tube. The circuit of this oscillator is shown
150 in figure 8. For 160, 80 and 40 meter opera-
tion the 6AG7 functions as a tuned-plate os-
AFC
cillator. Fundamental frequency crystals are
7r. *JO !
BI w MIN/DUCroR SK 4.10,2 used on these three bands. For 20, 15 and 10
(2.0 UN) 300 V. meter operation the 6AG7 functions as a Tri-
NOTES
tet oscillator with a fixed -tuned cathode cir-
I. LI.1SUN (if OF saw s 30,S) cuit. The impedance of this cathode circuit
2. L2 =I.6UN (I -OF8SW w3003) does not affect operation of the 6AG7 on the
3. FOP 160 METER OPERATION ADO 3 LIMP CONDENSER lower frequency bands so it is left in the cir-
BETWEEN PINS SO OF 6AG7. PLATE COIL. 33 UN,
(2 OF Sew 3016) cuit at all times. A 7 -Mc. crystal is used for
4. X = 7 MC. CRYSTAL FOR NARMONIC OPERATION fundamental output on 40 meters, and for har-
monic output on 20, 15 and 10 meters. Crystal
current is extremely low regardless of the out-
Figure 8
put frequency of the oscillator. The plate cir-
ALL -BAND 6AG7 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR cuit of the 6AG7 is capable of tuning a fre-
CAPABLE OF DRIVING quency range of 2:1, requiring only two output
BEAM PENTODE TUBE coils: one for 80 -40 meter operation, and one
for 20, 15 and 10 meter operation. In some
cases it may be necessary to add 5 micromicro-
farads of external feedback capacity between
maximum output, as the oscillator then is in the plate and control grid of the 6AG7 tube to
a more stable condition and sure to start im- sustain oscillation with sluggish 160 meter
mediately when power is applied. This is es- crystals.
pecially important when the oscillator is keyed,
as for break -in c -w operation. Triode Overtone The recent development of
Oscillators reliable overtone crystals
Crystal Switching It is desirable to keep stray capable of operation on the
shunt capacitances in the third, fifth, seventh (or higher) overtones has
crystal circuit as low as possible, regardless made possible v -h -f output from a low frequen-
of the oscillator circuit. If a selector switch cy crystal by the use of a double triode regen-
is used, this means that both switch and crys- erative oscillator circuit. Some of the new
tal sockets must be placed close to the oscil- twin triode tubes such as the 12ÁU7, 12AV7
lator tube socket. This is especially true of and 6J6 are especially satisfactory when used
harmonic -cut crystals operating on a compara- in this type of circuit. Crystals that are ground
tively high frequency. In fact, on the highest for overtone service may be made to oscillate
frequency crystals it is preferable to use a on odd overtone frequencies other than the
turret arrangement for switching, as the stray one marked on the crystal holder. A 24 -Mc.
capacitances can be kept lower. overtone crystal, for example, is a specially
ground 8 -Mc. crystal operating on its third
Crystal Oscillator When the crystal oscillator overtone. In the proper circuit it may be made
Keying is keyed, it is necessary to oscillate on 40 Mc. (fifth overtone), 56 Mc.
that crystal activity and os- (seventh overtone), or 72 Mc. (ninth overtone).
cillator-tube transconductance be moderately Even the ordinary 8 -Mc. crystals not designed
high, and that oscillator loading and crystal for overtone operation may be made to oscil-
shunt capacitance be low. Below 2500 kc. and late readily on 24 Mc. (third overtone) in these
above 6 Mc. these considerations become es- circuits.
pecially important. Keying of the plate voltage A variety of overtone oscillator circuits is
(in the negative lead) of a crystal oscillator, shown in figure 9. The oscillator of figure 9A
with the screen voltage regulated at about is attributed to Frank Jones, W6AJF. The first
150 volts, has been found to give satisfactory section of the 6J6 dual triode comprises a re-
results. generative oscillator, with output on either the
third or fifth overtone of the crystal frequency.
A Versatile 6AG7 The 6AG7 tube may be The regenerative loop of this oscillator con-
Crystal Oscillator used in a modified Tri -tet sists of a condenser bridge made up of C, and
crystal oscillator, capable C2, with the ratio C2/C, determining the amount
of delivering sufficient power on all bands of regenerative feedback in the circuit. With
6J 6
3F oR 5F 2F 6J6
E+6,9,10oRISF 4F
20
FOR 7 MC. CRYSTAL

+300 V Li =2E7 AI 2.10N NATIONAL ARSO
+300 V. FORM
L2 =6T // /E ON NAT /ONAL ARSO
FORM
0 JONES HARMONIC OSCILLATOR OB COLPITTS HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
12AU7
6J6
3F 6, 9F 3F /yo
6,9F
RFC ¡La
F =RUC
00 1000
F=eMC.
a 6.20 FOR 8 MC. CRYSTAL
FOR SMC. CRYSTAL
+300v. Lo. 9 T. 65005 SEW MIN/DOCTOR L 1= /OT 30 /I 04W M N /OOCTOR,
L2 T.63003 RAW MIN/DUCTOR +300V.
THESE COILS MADE FROM SINGLE TAP Ar JrFROM GR/O END
ro
ESECTION
D/VIDE //NDUCTO INTO rwoCO/LSN
© REGENERATIVE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR REGENERATIVE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
- 12AT7 (OR 6AB4)

20
6, 9F
F= i441.4 L2
+200V.
LI =ST e/A,
L2 = /T. HOOKUP WIRE,
f D. SPACED
D.
300 V.
© CATHODE FOLLOWER OVERTONE OSCILLATOR OF V.H.F. OVERTONE OSCILLATOR
Figure 9
VARIOUS TYPES OF OVERTONE OSCILLATORS USING MINIATURE DOUBLE-TRIODE
TUBES
an 8 -plc. crystal, output from the first section case consists of C

C, and RFC between the
of the 6J6 tube may be obtained on either 24 grid, cathode and ground of the first section
Mc. or 40 Mc., depending upon the resonant of the 6J6. The plate circuit of the first sec-
frequency of the plate circuit inductor, L,. The tion is tuned to the second overtone of the
second half of the 6J6 acts as a frequency crystal, and the second section of the 6J6
multiplier, its plate circuit, L2, tuned to the doubles to the fourth harmonic of the crystal.
sixth or ninth harmonic frequency when L, is This circuit is useful in obtaining 28 -Mc. out-
tuned to the third overtone, or to the tenth put from a 7 -plc. crystal and is highly popular
harmonic frequency when L, is tuned to the in mobile work.
fifth overtone. The circuit of figure 9C shows a typical re-
Figure 9B illustrates a Colpitts overtone generative overtone oscillator employing a
oscillator employing a 6J6 tube. This is an 12AU7 double triode tube. Feedback is con-
outgrowth of the Colpitts harmonic oscillator trolled by the number of turns in L2, and the
of figure 7F. The regenerative loop in this coupling between L2 and L,. Only enough feed-
HANDBOOK R -F Amplifiers 251
back should be employed to maintain proper mum harmonic output is desired in a particu-
oscillation of the crystal. Excessive feedback lar stage. A Class B amplifier operates with
will cause the first section of the 12AÚ7 to cutoff bias and a comparatively small amount
oscillate as a self- excited TNT oscillator, of excitation. Power gains of 20 to 200 or so
independent of the crystal. A variety of this are obtainable in a well- designed Class B
circuit is shown in figure 9D, wherein a tapped amplifier. The plate efficiency of a Class B
coil, L is used in place of the two separate
coils. Operation of the circuit is the same in
c -w amplifier will run around 65 per cent.
either case, regeneration now being controlled The Class B Another type of Class B ampli -
by the placement of the tap on L,. Linear fier is the Class B linear stage
as employed in radiophone work.
A cathode follower overtone oscillator is
shown in figure 9E. The cathode coil, L
chosen so as to resonate with the crystal and
is
This type of amplifier is used to increase the
level of a modulated carrier wave, and de-
pends for its operation upon the linear rela-
tube capacities just below the third overtone
tion between excitation voltage and output
frequency of the crystal. For example, with an voltage. Or, to state the fact in another man-
8 -Mc. crystal, L3 is tuned to 24 Mc.. L, reson-
ner, the power output of a Class B linear stage
ates with the circuit capacities to 23.5 Mc.,
varies linearly with the square of the excita-
and the harmonic tank circuit of the second
tion voltage.
section of the 12AT7 is tuned either to 48 Mc.
The Class B linear amplifier is operated
or 72 Mc. If a 24 -Mc. overtone crystal is used
with cutoff bias and a small value of excita-
in this circuit, L, may be tuned to 72 Mc., L,
resonates with the circuit capacities to 70
tion, the actual value of exciting power being
Mc., and the harmonic tank circuit, L is tuned
to 144 Mc. If there is any tendency towards
such that the power output under carrier con-
ditions is one - fourth of the peak power capa-
self -oscillation in the circuit, it may be elimi- bilities of the stage. Class B linears are very
nated by a small amount of inductive coupling widely employed in broadcast and commercial
between L2 and L,. Placing these coils near installations, but are comparatively uncommon
each other, with the winding of L2 correctly in amateur application, since tubes with high
polarized with respect to L, will prevent self- plate dissipation are required for moderate
oscillation of the circuit. output. The carrier efficiency of such an am-
The use of a 144 -Mc. overtone crystal is plifier will vary from approximately 30 per
illustrated in figure 9F. A 6AB4 or one -half cent to 35 per cent.
of a 12AT7 tube may be used, with output
directly in the 2 -meter amateur band. A slight The Class C Class C amplifiers are very wide -
amount of regeneration is provided by the one
Amplifier ly used in all types of trans-
turn link, L2, which is loosely coupled to the mitters. Good power gain may be
144 -Mc. tuned tank circuit, L, in the plate cir- obtained (values of gain from 3 to 20 are com-
cuit of the oscillator tube. If a 12AT7 tube mon) and the plate circuit efficiency may be,
and a 110 -Mc. crystal are employed, direct out- under certain conditions, as high as 85 per
put in the 220 -Mc. amateur band may be ob- cent. Class C amplifiers operate with consider-
tained from the second half of the 12AT7. ably more than cutoff bias and ordinarily with
a large amount of excitation as compared to a
Class B amplifier. The bias for a normal Class
C amplifier is such that plate current on the
13 -4 Radio Frequency stage flows for approximately 120° of the 360°
Amplifiers excitation cycle. Class C amplifiers are used
in transmitters where a fairly large amount of
The output of the oscillator stage in a trans- excitation power is available and good plate
mitter (whether it be self -controlled or crystal circuit efficiency is desired.
controlled) must be kept down to a fairly low
level to maintain stability and to maintain a Plate Modulated The characteristic of a Class
Class C C amplifier which makes it
factor of safety from fracture of the crystal
when one is used. The low power output of linear with respect to
the oscillator is brought up to the desired changes in plate voltage is that which allows
power level by means of radio -frequency am- such an amplifier to be plate modulated for
plifiers. The two classes of r -f amplifiers that radiotelephony. Through the use of higher bias
find widest application in radio transmitters than is required for a c -w Class C amplifier
are the Class B and Class C types. and greater excitation, the linearity of such
an amplifier may be extended from zero plate
The Class B Class B amplifiers are used in a voltage to twice the normal value. The output
Amplifier radio -telegraph transmitter when power of a Class C amplifier, adjusted for
maximum power gain and mini- plate modulation, varies with the square of the
plate voltage. This is the same condition that Excessive grid current damages tubes by
would take place if a resistor equal to the overheating the grid structure; beyond a cer-
voltage on the amplifier, divided by its plate tain point of grid drive, no increase in power
current, were substituted for the amplifier. output can be obtained for a given plate volt-
Therefore, the stage presents a resistive load age.
to the modulator.
Grid Modulated If the grid current to a Class

13 -5 Neutralization of
Class C C amplifier is reduced to a R.F. Amplifiers
low value, and the plate load-
ing is increased to the point where the plate The plate -to -grid feedback capacitance of
dissipation approaches the rated value, such triodes makes it necessary that they be neu-
an amplifier may be grid modulated for radio- tralized for operation as r -f amplifiers at fre-
telephony. If the plate voltage is raised to quencies above about 500 kc. Those screen -
quite a high value and the stage is adjusted grid tubes, pentodes, and beam tetrodes which
carefully, efficiencies as high as 40 to 43 per have a plate -to -grid capacitance of 0.1 µµfd.
cent with good modulation capability and com- or less may be operated as an amplifier with-
paratively low distortion may be obtained. out neutralization in a well -designed amplifier
Fixed bias is required. This type of operation up to 30 Mc.
is termed Class C grid-bias modulation.
Neutralizing The object of neutralization is
Grid Excitation Adequate grid excitation Circuits to cancel or neutralize the ca-
must be available for Class pacitive feedback of energy from
B or Class C service. The excitation for a plate to grid. There are two general methods
plate -modulated Class C stage must be suffi- by which this energy feedback may be elimi-
cient to produce a normal value of d-c grid cur- nated: the first, and the most common method,
rent with rated bias voltage. The bias voltage is through the use of a capacitance bridge,
preferably should be obtained from a combina- and the second method is through the use of a
tion of grid leak and fixed C-bias supply. parallel reactance of equal and opposite po-
Cutoff bias can be calculated by dividing larity to the grid -to -plate capacitance, to nul-
the amplification factor of the tube into the lify the effect of this capacitance.
d-c plate voltage. This is the value normally Examples of the first method are shown in
used for Class B amplifiers (fixed bias, no figure 10. Figure l0A shows a capacity neu-
grid resistor). Class C amplifiers use from 11/2 tralized stage employing a balanced tank cir-
to 5 times this value, depending upon the avail- cuit. Phase reversal in the tank circuit is ob-
able grid drive, or excitation, and the desired tained by grounding the center of the tank coil
plate efficiency. Less grid excitation is need- to radio frequency energy by condenser C.
ed for c -w operation, and the values of fixed Points A and B are 180 degrees out of phase
bias (if greater than cutoff) may be reduced, or with each other, and the correct amount of out
the value of the grid leak resistor can be low- of phase energy is coupled through the neu-
ered until normal rated d -c grid current flows. tralizing condenser NC to the grid circuit of
The values of grid excitation listed for each the tube. The equivalent bridge circuit of this
type of tube may be reduced by as much as is shown in figure 11A. It is seen that the
50 per cent if only moderate power output and bridge is not in balance, since the plate -fila-
plate efficiency are desired. When consulting ment capacity of the tube forms one leg of the
the tube tables, it is well to remember that bridge, and there is no corresponding capacity
the power lost in the tuned circuits must be from the neutralizing condenser (point B) to
taken into consideration when calculating the ground to obtain a complete balance. In addi-
available grid drive. At very high frequencies, tion, it is mechanically difficult to obtain a
the r -f circuit losses may even exceed the perfect electrical balance in the tank coil, and
power required for actual grid excitation. the potential between point A and ground and
Link coupling between stages, particularly point B and ground in most cases is unequal.
to the final amplifier grid circuit, normally will This circuit, therefore, holds neutralization
provide more grid drive than can be obtained over a very small operating range and unless
from other coupling systems. The number of tubes of low interelectrode capacity are used
turns in the coupling link, and the location of the inherent unbalance of the circuit will per-
the turns on the coil, can be varied with res- mit only approximate neutralization.
pect to the tuned circuits to obtain the great-
est grid drive for allowable values of buffer Split Stator
- Figure 10B shows the neu-
or doubler plate current. Slight readjustments Plate Neutrali- tralization circuit which is
sometimes can be made after plate voltage zation most widely used in single -
has been applied to the driver tube. ended r-f stages. The use of
HANDBOOK Neutralization 253
JCT
Figure 10
COMMON NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE -ENDED AMPLIFIERS
a split- stator plate capacitor makes the electri- of the grid coil. If an r-f voltmeter is placed
cal balance of the circuit substantially inde- between point A and ground, and a second
pendent of the mutual coupling within the coil voltmeter placed between point B and ground
and also makes the balance independent of the the loading effect of the tube will be notice-
place where the coil is tapped. With conven- able. When the tube is supplied excitation
tional tubes this circuit will allow one neutral- with no plate voltage, NC may be adjusted
ization adjustment to be made on, say, 28 Mc., until the circuit is in balance. When plate
and this adjustment usually will hold suffi- voltage is applied to the stage, the voltage
ciently close for operation on all lower fre- from point A to ground will decrease, and the
quency bands. voltage from point B to ground will increase,
Condenser C, is used to balance out the both in direct proportion to the amount of cir-
plate -filament capacity of the tube to allow a cuit unbalance. The use of this circuit is not
perfect neutralizing balance at all frequencies. recommended above 7 Mc., and it should be
The equivalent bridge circuit is shown in fig- used below that frequency only with low in-
ure 11B. If the plate- filament capacity of the ternal capacity tubes.
tube is extremely low (100TH triode, for ex-
ample), condenser C, may be omitted, or may Push-Pull Two tubes of the same type
merely consist of the residual capacity of NC Neutralization can be connected for push -pull
to ground. operation so as to obtain twice
as much output as that of a single tube. A
Grid Neutralization A split grid tank circuit push -pull amplifier, such as that shown in fig-
may also be used for neu- ure 12 also has an advantage in that the cir-
tralization of a triode tube as shown in figure cuit can more easily be balanced than a single -
10C. Out of phase voltage is developed across tube r -f amplifier. The various inter -electrode
a balanced grid circuit, and coupled through capacitances and the neutralizing capacitors
NC to the single -ended plate circuit of the are connected in such a manner that the re-
tube. The equivalent bridge circuit is shown actances on one side of the tuned circuits are
in figure 11C. This circuit is in balance until exactly equal to those on the opposite side.
the stage is in operation when the loading ef- For this reason, push -pull r-f amplifiers can
fect of the tube upon one -half of the grid cir- be more easily neutralized in very- high -fre-
cuit throws the bridge circuit out of balance. quency transmitters; also, they usually remain
The amount of unbalance depends upon the in perfect neutralization when tuning the am-
grid -plate capacity of the tube, and the amount plifier to different bands.
of mutual inductance between the two halves The circuit shown in figure 12 is perhaps
O BRIDGE EQUIVALENT OF FIGURE IO -A
Figure 12
STANDARD CROSS -NEUTRALIZED
PUSH -PULL TRIODE AMPLIFIER
actance, coupling energy back from the plate

© BRIDGE EQUIVALENT OF FIGURE 10 -B
to the grid circuit. If this capacitance is par-
C alleled with an inductance having the same
value of reactance of opposite sign, the re-
N actance of one will cancel the reactance of
the other and a high -impedance tuned circuit
OUT.
from grid to plate will result.
\ This neutralization circuit can be used on
(RESIDUAL, CC L )
ultra -high frequencies where other neutraliza-
SMALF
CAVACITr). RFC
tion circuits are unsatisfactory. This is true
because the lead length in the neutralization
CO BRIDGE EQUIVALENT OF FIGURE 10 -C circuit is practically negligible. The circuit
can also be used with push -pull r -f amplifiers.
In this case, each tube will have its own neu-
tralizing inductor connected from grid to plate.
Figure 11 The main advantage of this arrangement is
EQUIVALENT NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS that it allows the use of single -ended tank
circuits with a single -ended amplifier.
The chief disadvantage of the shunt neutral-
ized arrangement is that the stage must be re-
neutralized each time the stage is retuned to
the most commonly used arrangement for a a new frequency sufficiently removed that the
push -pull r -f amplifier stage. The rotor of the grid and plate tank circuits must be retuned to
grid capacitor is grounded, and the rotor of the resonance. However, by the use of plug -in
plate tank capacitor is bypassed to ground. coils it is possible to change to a different
band of operation by changing the neutral-
izing coil at the same time that the grid and
Shunt or Coil feedback of energy from
The plate coils are changed.
Neutralization grid to plate in an unneutral- The 0.0001 -pfd. capacitor in series with
ized r -f amplifier is a result of the neutralizing coil is merely a blocking ca-
the grid -to -plate capacitance of the amplifier pacitor to isolate the plate voltage from the
tube. A neutralization circuit is merely an grid circuit. The coil L will have to have a
electrical arrangement for nullifying the effect very large number of turns for the band of oper-
of this capacitance. All the previous neutrali- ation in order to be resonant with the compara-
zation circuits have made use of a bridge cir- tively small grid -to -plate capacitance. But
cuit for balancing out the grid -to -plate energy since, in all ordinary cases with tubes operat-
feedback by feeding back an equal amount of ing on frequencies for which they were de-
energy of opposite phase. signed, the L/C ratio of the tuned circuit will
Another method of eliminating the feedback be very high, the coil can use comparatively
effect of this capacitance, and hence of neu- small wire, although it must be wound on air
tralizing the amplifier stage, is shown in fig- or very low loss dielectric and must be insu-
ure 13. The grid -to -plate capacitance in the lated for the sum of the plate r-f voltage and
triode amplifier tube acts as a capacitive re- the grid r -f voltage.
ffANDB00K Neutralizing Procedure 255
grid excitation is applied, even though no pri-

mary a -c voltage is being fed to the plate trans-
former.
further check on the neutralization of any
A
r-f amplifier can be made by noting whether
maximum grid current on the stage comes at
the same point of tuning on the plate tuning
capacitor as minimum plate current. This check
is made with plate voltage on the amplifier
and with normal antenna coupling. As the plate
tuning capacitor is detuned slightly from reso-
nance on either side the grid current on the
stage should decrease the same amount and
Figure 13
without any sudden jumps on either side of
COIL NEUTRALIZED AMPLIFIER resonance. This will be found to be a very
This neutralization circuit is very effective precise indication of accurate neutralization
with triode tubes on any frequency, but Is in either a triode or beam -tetrode r -f amplifier
particularly effective in the v -h-f range. The stage, so long as the stage is feeding a load
coil L is adjusted so that it resonates at the
operating frequency with the grid-to -plat which presents a resistive impedance at the
capacitance of the tube. Capacitor C may be operating frequency.
o very small unit of the low -capacitance Push -pull circuits usually can be more com-
neutralizing type and is used to trim the cir- pletely neutralized than single -ended circuits
cuit to resonance at the operating frequency.
li some means of varying the inductance of at very high frequencies. In the intermediate
the coil a small amount is available, the range of from 3 to 15 Mc., single -ended cir-
trimmer capacitor is not needed. cuits will give satisfactory results.
Neutralization of Radio- frequency amplifiers

Screen -Grid R -F using screen-grid tubes can
Amplifiers be operated without any ad-
13 -6 Neutralizing ditional provision for neu-
Procedure tralization at frequencies up to about 15 Mc.,
provided adequate shielding has been provided
An r -f amplifier is neutralized to prevent between the input and output circuits. Special
self-oscillation or regeneration. A neon bulb, v -h -f screen -grid and beam tetrode tubes such
a flashlight lamp and loop of wire, or an r -f as the 2E26, 807W, and 5516 in the low -power
galvanometer can be used as a null indicator category and HK -257B, 4E27/8001, 4 -125A,
for neutralizing low -power stages. The plate and 4 -250A in the medium -power category can
voltage lead is disconnected from the r -J am- frequently be operated at frequencies as high
plifier stage while it is being neutralized. as 100 Mc. without any additional provision
Normal grid drive then is applied to the r -f for neutralization. Tubes such as the 807,
stage, the neutralizing indicator is coupled 2E22, HY -69, and 813 can be operated with
to the plate coil, and the plate tuning capac- good circuit design at frequencies up to 30
itor is tuned to resonance. The neutralizing Mc. without any additional provision for neu-
capacitor (or capacitors) then can be adjusted tralization. The 815 tube has been found to
until minimum r.f. is indicated for resonant require neutralization in many cases above
settings of both grid and plate tuning capac- 20 Mc., although the 829B tube will operate
itors. Both neutralizing capacitors are ad- quite stably at 100 Mc. without neutralization.
justed simultaneously and to approximately the None of these tubes, however, has perfect
same value of capacitance when a physically shielding between the grid and the plate, a
symmetrical push-pull stage is being neu- condition brought about by the inherent in-
tralized. ductance of the screen leads within the tube
A final check for neutralization should be itself.ln addition, unless "watertight" shield-
made with a d -c milliammeter connected in the ing is used between the grid and plate circuits
grid leak or grid-bias circuit. There will be of the tube a certain amount of external leak -
no movement of the meter reading as the plate age between the two circuits is present. These
circuit is tuned through resonance (without difficulties may not be serious enough to re-
plate voltage being applied) when the stage quire neutralization of the stage to prevent
is completely neutralized. oscillation, but in many instances they show
Plate voltage should be completely removed up in terms of key- clicks when the stage in
by actually opening the d -c plate circuit. If question is keyed, or as parasitics when the
there is a d -c return through the plate supply, stage is modulated. Unless the designer of the
a small amount of plate current will flow when equipment can carefully check the tetrode
C.»
Figure 14
NEUTRALIZING CIRCUITS FOR
BEAM TETRODES
A conventional cross neutralized circuit for use with push-pull beam tetrodes
shown at (A). The neutralizing capacitors (NC) usually consist of small plates is
rods mounted alongside the plate elements of the tubes. (B) and (C) or
neutralized" circuits for use with a single -ended tetrode stage having show "grid
either link
coupling or capacitive coupling into the grid tank. (D) shows a method of tuning the
lead inductance to accomplish neutralization in a single - frequency -h-f
tetrode amplifier, while (E) shows a method of neutralization by increasing the vgrid -
to -plate capacitance on a tetrode when the operating frequency is higher than that
frequency where the tetrode is "self- neutralized" as a result of series resonance
in the screen lead. Methods (D) and (E) normally are not practicable at frequencies
below about SO Mc. with the usual types of beam tetrode tubes.
stage for miscellaneous feedback between the tubes. This order of capacitance is far less
grid and plate circuits, and make the neces- than can be obtained with a conventional neu-
sary circuit revisions to reduce this feedback tralizing capacitor at minimum setting, so the
to an absolute minimum, it is wise to neutral- neutralizing arrangement is most commonly
ize the tetrode just as if it were a triode tube. made especially for the case at hand. Most
In most push -pull tetrode amplifiers the sim- common procedure is to bringa conductor (con-
plest method of accomplishing neutralization nected to the opposite grid) in the vicinity of
is to use the cross -neutralized capacitance the plate itself or of the plate tuning capacitor
bridge arrangement as normally employed with of one of the tubes. Either one or two such
triode tubes. The neutralizing capacitances, capacitors may be used, two being normally
however, must be very much smaller than used used on a higher frequency amplifier in order
with triode tubes, values of the order of 0.2 to maintain balance within the stage.
µµEd. normally being required with beam tetrode An example of this is shown in figure 14A.
H A N D B O O K Tetrode Neutralization 257
Neutralizing A single-ended tetrode r -f am- though the socket terminal on the tube is care-
Single -Ended plifier stage may be neutral - fully bypassed to ground. This condition takes
Tetrode Stages ized in the same manner as place even though the socket pin is bypassed
illustrated for a push -pull since the reactance of the screen lead
stage in figure 14A, provided a split- stator will allow a moderate amount of r-f potential
tank capacitor is in use in the plate circuit. to appear on the screen itself inside the elec-
However, in the majority of single -ended tet- trode assembly in the tube. This effect has
rode r -f amplifier stages a single- section ca- been reduced to a very low amount in such
pacitor is used in the plate tank. Hence, other tubes as the Hytron 5516, and the Eimac 4X 150A
neutralization procedures must be employed and 4X50CA but it is still quite appreciable in
when neutralization is found necessary. most beam -tetrode tubes.
The circuit shown in figure 14B is not a The effect of screen -lead inductance on the
true neutralizing circuit, in that the plate -to- stability of a stage can be eliminated at any
grid capacitance is not balanced out. However, particular frequency by one of two methods.
the circuit can afford the equivalent effect by These methods are: (1) Tuning out the screen-
isolating the high resonant impedance of the lead inductance by series resonating the screen
grid tank circuit from the energy fed back from lead inductance with a capacitor to ground.
plate to grid. When NC and C are adjusted to This method is illustrated in figure 14D and is
bear the following ratio to the grid-to -plate commonly employed in commercially -built equip-
capacitance and the total capacitance from ment for operation on a narrow frequency band
grid -to- ground in the output tube: in the range above about 75 Mc. The other
method (2) is illustrated in figure 14E and
NC Cgp consists in feeding back additional energy
from plate to grid by means of a small capac-
C Cgk itor connected between these two elements.
Note that this capacitor is connected in such
both ends of the grid tank circuit will be at the a manner as to increase the effective grid-to-
same voltage with respect to ground as a result plate capacitance of the tube. This method
of r -f energy fed back to the grid circuit. This has been found to be effective with 807 tubes
means that the impedance from grid to ground in the range above 50 Mc. and with tubes such
will be effectively equal to the reactance of as the 4 -125A and 4 -250A in the vicinity of
the grid -to- cathode capacitance in parallel their upper frequency limits.
with the stray grid -to- ground capacitance, since Note that both these methods of stabilizing
the high resonant impedance of the tuned cir- a beam-tetrode v -h -f amplifier stage by can-
cuit in the grid has been effectively isolated cellation of screen-lead inductance are suit-
from the feedback path. It is important to note able only for operation over a relatively narrow
that the effective grid -to- ground capacitance band of frequencies in the v -h -f range. At low-
of the tube being neutralized includes the er frequencies both these expedients for re-
rated grid -to- cathode or input capacitance of ducing the effects of screen -lead inductance
the tube, the capacitance of the socket, wiring will tend to increase the tendency toward os-
capacitances and other strays, but it does not cillation of the amplifier stage.
include the capacitances associated with the
grid tuning capacitor. Also, if the tube is be-
ing excited by capacitive coupling from a pre- Neutralizing When a stage cannot be com-
ceding stage (as in figure 14C), the effective Problems pletely neutralized, the difficulty
grid-to- ground capacitance includes the out- usually can be traced to one or
put capacitance of the preceding stage and more of the following causes: (1) Filament
its associated socket and wiring capacitances. leads not bypassed to the common ground of
that particular stage. (2) Ground lead from the
rotor connection of the split- stator tuning ca-
Cancellation of The provisions discussed in pacitor to filament open or too long. (3) Neu-
Screen -Lead the previous paragraphs are tralizing capacitors in a field of excessive
Inductance for neutralization of the small, r.f. from one of the tuning coils. (4) Electro-
though still important at the magnetic coupling between grid and plate
higher frequencies, grid -to -plate capacitance coils, or between plate and preceding buffer
of beam -tetrode tubes. However, in the vicinity or oscillator circuits. (5) Insufficient shielding
of the upper- frequency limit of each tube type or spacing between stages, or between grid
the inductance of the screen lead of the tube and plate circuits in compact transmitters.
becomes of considerable importance. With a (6) Shielding placed too close to plate circuit
tube operating at a frequency where the in- coils, causing induced currents in the shields.
ductance of the screen lead is appreciable, (7) Parasitic oscillations when plate voltage
the screen will allow a considerable amount is applied. The cure for the latter is mainly a
of energy leak -through from plate to grid even matter of cut and try- rearrange the parts,
GRID
LEA,
INTtR WOUND COILS

(UNITY COUPLING)
Figure 16
CONVENTIONAL TRIODE FREQUENCY
MULTIPLIER
FIL +NV
Small triodes such as the 6C4 operate satis-
factorily as frequency multipliers, and can
Figure 15 deliver output well into the v -h-f range. Re-
GROUNDED -GRID AMPLIFIER sistor R normally will have a value in the
vicinity of 100,000 ohms.
This type of triode amplifier requires no
neutralization, but can be used only with
tubes having a relatively low plate -to- cathode
capacitance
given output, because a moderate amount of
power is delivered to the amplifier load by the
driver stage of a grounded -grid amplifier.
change the length of grid or plate or neutraliz-
ing leads, insert a parasitic choke in the grid
lead or leads, or eliminate the grid r -f chokes
which may be the cause of a low- frequency 13 -8 Frequency Multipliers
parasitic(in conjunction with plate r -f chokes).
Quartz crystals and variable- frequency os-
13- 7 Grounded Grid cillators are not ordinarily used for direct con-
trol of the output of high- frequency transmit-
Amplifiers ters. Frequency multipliers are usually em-
ployed to multiply the frequency to the desired
Certain triodes have a grid configuration value. These multipliers operate on exact mul-
and lead arrangement which results in very low tiples of the excitation frequency; a 3.6-Mc.
plate to filament capacitance when the control crystal oscillator can be made to control the
grid is grounded, the grid acting as an effec- output of a transmitter on 7.2 or 14.4 Mc., or
tive shield much in the manner of the screen on 28.8 Mc., by means of one or more frequency
in a screen -grid tube. multipliers. \Chen used at twice frequency,
By connecting such a triode in the circuit of they are often termed frequency doublers. A
figure 15, taking the usual precautions against simple doubler circuit is shown in figure 16.
stray capacitive and inductive coupling be- It consists of a vacuum tube with its plate cir-
tween input and output leads and components, cuit tuned to twice the frequency of the grid
a stable power amplifier is realized which re- driving circuit. This doubler can be excited
quires no neutralization. from a crystal oscillator or another multiplier
At ultra -high frequencies, where it is diffi- or amplifier stage.
cult to obtain satisfactory neutralization with Doubling is best accomplished by operating
conventional triode circuits (particularly when the tube with high grid bias. The grid circuit
a wide band of frequencies is to be covered), is driven approximately to the normal value of
the grounded -grid arrangement is about the only d -c grid current through the r -f choke and grid -
practicable means of employing a triode am- leak resistor, shown in figure 16. The resist-
plifier. ance value generally is from two to five times
Because of the large amount of degeneration as high as that used with the same tube for
inherent in the circuit, considerably more ex- straight amplification. Consequently, the grid
citation is required than if the same tube were bias is several times as high for the same
employed in a conventional grounded- cathode value of grid current.
circuit. The additional power required to drive Neutralization is seldom necessary in a
a triode in a grounded -grid amplifier is not doubler circuit, since the plate is tuned to
lost, however, as it shows up in the output cir- twice the frequency of the grid circuit. The
cuit and adds to the power delivered to the impedance of the grid driving circuit is very
load. But nevertheless it means that a larger low at the doubling frequency, and thus there
driver stage is required for an amplifier of is little tendency for self- excited oscillation.
HANDBOOK Frequency Multipliers 259
TANK CIRCUIT OUTPUT VOLTAGE

s P¡ K N T K
71CUTOrr) n n n,-
A CI re GI IJ LI Y
-I\I
O /S
.-
- ,5
Ut
n
W v
I I I
.N%
I I I
11 I
EXCITATION
\ i VOLTAGE
Figure 18
ILLUSTRATING THE ACTION OF A
FREQUENCY DOUBLER
45 degrees or less. Under these conditions

the efficiency will be on the same order as
the reciprocal of the harmonic on which the
stage operates. In other words the efficiency
Figure 17
of a doubler will be approximately % or 50
FREQUENCY MULTIPLIER CIRCUITS per cent, the efficiency of a tripler will be
The output of a triode v -h -f frequency multi- approximately '/ or 33 per cent and that of a
plier often maybe increased by neutralization quadrupler will be about 25 per cent. With good
of the grid-to -plate capacitance as shown at stage design the efficiency can be somewhat
(A) above. Such a stage also may be oper-
ated as a straight amplifier when the occa- greater than these values, but as the angle
sicn demands. A pentode frequency multi- of flow is made greater than these limiting
plier is shown at (B). Conventional power values, the efficiency falls off rapidly. The
tot -odes operate satisfactorily as multipliers reason is apparent from a study of figure 18.
so long as the output frequency is below
about 100 Mc. Above this frequency special The pulses ABC, EFG, JKL illustrate 180 -
v-h -f tetrodes must be used to obtain satis- degree excitation pulses under Class B opera-
factory output. tion, the solid straight line indicating cutoff
bias. If the bias is increased by N times, to
the value indicated by the dotted straight line,
and the excitation increased until the peak
Frequency doublers require bias of several r-f voltage with respect to ground is the same
times cutoff; high -ft tubes therefore are desir- as before, then the excitation frequency can
able for this type of service. Tubes which be cut in half and the effective excitation
have amplification factors from 20 to 200 are pulses will have almost the same shape as
suitable for doubler circuits. Tetrodes and before. The only difference is that every other
pentodes make excellent doublers. Low-ii pulse is missing; NINO simply shows where
triodes, having amplification constants of from the missing pulse would go. However, if the
3 to 10, are not applicable for doubler service. Q of the plate tank circuit is high, it will have
In extreme cases the grid voltage must be as sufficient flywheel effect to carry over through
high as the plate voltage for efficient doubling the missing pulse, and the only effect will be
action. that the plate input and r -f output at optimum
loading drop to approximately half. As the in-
Angle of Flow The angle of plate current flow put frequency is half the output frequency, an
in Frequency in a frequency multiplier is a efficient frequency doubler is the result.
Multipliers very important factor in deter- By the same token, a tripler or quadrupler
mining the efficiency. As the can be analyzed, the tripler skipping two ex-
angle of flow is decreased for a given value citation pulses and the quadrupler three. In
of grid current, the efficiency increases. To each case the excitation pulse ideally should
reduce the angle of flow, higher grid bias is be short enough that it does not exceed 180
required so that the grid excitation voltage degrees at the output frequency; otherwise the
will exceed the cutoff value for a shorter por- excitation actually is bucking the output over
tion of the exciting-voltage cycle. For a high a portion of the cycle.
order of efficiency, frequency doublers should In actual practice, it is found uneconomical
have an angle of flow of 90 degrees or less, to provide sufficient excitation to run a tripler
tripiers 60 degrees or less, and quadruplera or quadrupler in this fashion. Usually the ex-
Figure 19
PUSH -PUSH FREQUENCY DOUBLER Figure 20
The output of a doubler stage may be materi- PUSH -PULL FREQUENCY TRIPLER
ally increased through the use of a push-push The push -pull tripler is advantageous in the
circuit such as illustrated above. v -h-f range since circuit balance is main-
tained both in the input and output circuits.
If the circuit is neutralized it may be used
either as a straight amplifier or os a tripler.
Either triodes or tetrades may be used; dual -
citation pulses will be at least 90 degrees at unit tetrodes such as the 815, 832A, and
the exciting frequency, with correspondingly 8298 are particularly effective in the v -h -f
range.
low efficiency, but it is more practicable to
accept the low efficiency and build up the out-
put in succeeding amplifier stages. The effi-
ciency can become quite low before the power
gain becomes less than unity.
center tap of the grid coil being bypassed to
ground).
Push -Push Two tubes can be connected in
Multipliers parallel to give twice the output Push -Pull Frequency It is frequently desirable
of a single -tube doubler. If the Tripiers in the case of u -h -f and
grids are driven out of phase instead of in v -h -f transmitters that
phase, the tubes then no longer work simul- frequency multiplication stages be balanced
taneously, but rather one at a time. The effect with respect to ground. Further it is just as
is to fill in the missing pulses (figure 18). easy in most cases to multiply the crystal or
Not only is the output doubled, but several v -f -o frequency by powers of three rather than
advantages accrue which cannot be obtained multiplying by powers of two as is frequently
by straight parallel operation. done on lower frequency transmitters. Hence
Chief among these is the effective neutral- the use of push-pull tripiers has become quite
ization of the fundamental and all odd harmon- prevalent in both commercial and amateur
ics, an advantage when spurious emissions v -h -f and u -h -f transmitter designs. Such stages
must be minimized. Another advantage is that are balanced with respect to ground and appear
when the available excitation is low and ex- in construction and on paper essentially the
citation pulses exceed 90 degrees, the output same as a push -pull r -f amplifier stage with
and efficiency will be greater than for the the exception that the output tank circuit is
same tubes connected in parallel. tuned to three times the frequency of the grid
The same arrangement may be used as a tank circuit. A circuit for a push -pull tripler
quadrupler, with considerably better efficiency stage is shown in figure 20.
than for straight parallel operation, because A push -pull tripler stage has the further
seldom is it practicable to supply sufficient advantage in amateur work that it can also be
excitation to permit 45 degree excitation used as a conventional push -pull r -f amplifier
pulses. As pointed out above, the push-push merely by changing the grid and plate coils
arrangement exhibits better efficiency than a so that they tune to the same frequency. This
single ended multiplier when excitation is in- is of some advantage in the case of operating
adequate for ideal multiplier operation. the 50 -Mc. band with 50 -Mc. excitation, and
A typical push -push doubler is illustrated then changing the plate coil to tune to 144
in figure 19. When high transconductance tubes Mc. for operation of the stage as a tripler from
are employed, it is necessary to employ a excisetion on 48 Mc. This circuit arrangement
split - stator grid tank capacitor to prevent self is excellent for operation with push -pull beam
oscillation; with well screened tetrodes or tetrodes such as the 6360 and 829B, although
pentodes having medium values of transcon- a pair of tubes such as the 2E26, or 5763 could
ductance, a split -coil arrangement with a sin- just as well be used if proper attention were
gle- section capacitor may be employed (the given to the matter of screen -lead inductance.
HANDBOOK Tank Circuits 261
13 -9 Tank Circuit
Capacitances DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTIC
0 0 0
It is necessary that the proper value of Q
be used in the plate tank circuit of any r-f o+
amplifier. The following section has been de-
voted to a treatment of the subject, and charts
are given to assist the reader in the determina-
tion of the proper L/C ratio to be used in a
radio -frequency amplifier stage.
A Class C amplifier draws plate current in
the form of very distorted pulses of short dura-
tion. Such an amplifier is always operated in- GRID SW NG
to a tuned inductance -capacitance or tank cir-
cuit which tends to smooth out these pulses,
by its storage or tank action, into a sine wave Figure 21
of radio-frequency output. Any wave -form dis- CLASS AMPLIFIER OPERATION
C
tortion of the carrier frequency results in har- Plate current pulses are shown at (A), (e),
monic interference in higher- frequency chan- and (C). The dip in the top of the plate cur-
nels. rent waveform will occur when the excitation
A Class A r -f amplifier would produce a sine voltage is such that the minimum plate volt-
age dips below the maximum grid voltage.
wave of radio- frequency output if its exciting A detailed discussion of the operation of
waveform were also a sine wave. However, a Class C amplifiers is given in Chapter Seven.
Class A amplifier stage converts its d -c input
to r-f output by acting as a variable resistance,
and therefore heats considerably. A Class C
amplifier when driven hard with short pulses
at the peak of the exciting waveform acts more
as an electronic switch, and therefore can con-
vert its d-c input to r-f output with relatively
good efficiency. Values of plate circuit effi-
Q= -=
RL
Xc
RL
XL
ciency from 65 to 85 per cent are common in
Class C amplifiers operating under optimum where RL is the resonant impedance of the
conditions of excitation, grid bias, and load- tank and Xc is the reactance of the tank ca-
ing. pacitor and XL is the reactance of the tank
coil. This value of resonant impedance, RL,
is the load which is presented to the Class C
Tank Circuit Q As stated before, the tank cir- amplifier tube in a single -ended circuit such
cuit of a Class C amplifier as shown in figure 21.
receives energy in the form of short pulses of The value of load impedance, RL, which the
plate current which flow in the amplifier tube. Class C amplifier tube sees may be obtained,
But the tank circuit must be able to store looking in the other direction from the tank
enough energy so that it can deliver a current coil, from a knowledge of the operating con-
essentially sine wave in form to the load. The ditions on the Class C tube. This load imped-
ability of a tank to store energy in this man- ance may be obtained from the following ex-
ner may be designated as the effective Q of
the tank circuit. The effective circuit Q may
pression, which is true in the general case of
any Class C amplifier:
be stated in any of several ways, but essen-
tially the Q of a tank circuit is the ratio of the Epm2
energy stored to 277 times the energy lost per RL =
cycle. Further, the energy lost per cycle must, 2NpIbEbb
by definition, be equal to the energy delivered
to the tank circuit by the Class C amplifier where the values in the equation have the char -
tube or tubes. acteristics listed in the beginning of Chapter 6.
TheQ of a tank circuit at resonance is equal The expression above is academic, since
to its parallel resonant impedance (the reso- the peak value of the fundamental component
nant impedance is resistive at resonance) di- of plate voltage swing, Epm, is not ordinarily
vided by the reactance of either the capaci- known unless a high-voltage peak a-c voltmeter
tor or the inductor which go to make up the is available for checking. Also, the decimal
tank. The inductive reactance is equal to the value of plate circuit efficiency is not ordinari-
capacitive reactance, by definition, at reso- ly known with any degree of accuracy. How-
nance. Hence we may state: ever, in a normally operated Class C amplifier
which means simply that the resistance pre-

sented by the tank circuit to the Class C tube
is approximately equal to one -half the d -c load
resistance which the Class C stage presents
to the power supply (and also to the modulator
in case high -level modulation of the stage is
to be used).
MÁRMON C
Combining the above simplified expression
3RD
for the r -f impedance presented by the tank to
HARMONIC
the tube, with the expression for tank Q given
in a previous paragraph we have the following
expression which relates the reactance of the
s lo 1s 30 25 30 tank capacitor or coil to the d-c input to the
TANK CIRCUIT Q
Class C stage:
Figure 22 Xc = XLrv Rd. c.

RELATIVE HARMONIC OUTPUT 2Q
PLOTTED AGAINST TANK CIRCUIT 0
The above expression is the basis of the
usual charts giving tank capacitance for the
various bands in terms of the d -c plate voltage
and current to the Class C stage, including
the plate voltage swing will be approximately the charts of figure 23, figure 24 and figure 25.
equal to 0.85 to 0.9 times the d-c plate voltage
on the stage, and the plate circuit efficiency Harmonic Radio- The problem of harmonic
will be from 70 to 80 per cent (NP of 0.7 to tion vs. 0 radiation from transmitters
0.8), the higher values of efficiency normally has long been present, but
being associated with the higher values of it has become critical only relatively recently
plate voltage swing. With these two assump- along with the extensive occupation of the
v -h -f range. Television signals are particularly
tions as to the normal Class C amplifier, the
expression for the plate load impedance can susceptible to interference from other signals
be greatly simplified to the following approxi- falling within the pass band of the receiver,
mate but useful expression: so that the TV! problem has received the major
emphasis of all the services in the v -h -f range
Rd. c. which are susceptible to interference from
RL .v harmonics of signals in the h -f or lower v -h -f
2 range.
30000
Q=12
..
NEUTRALIZING
RUKINORIPRIN
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COIL
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10 30 !0 100 200 !00 ID00 3000
TOTAL CAPACITANCE ACROSS LC CIRCUIT (CI)
Figure 23
PLATE -TANK CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
Shown above in the case of each of the tank circuit types is the recommended tank circuit ca-
pacitance. (A) is a conventional tetrode amplifier, (B) is a coil-neutralized triode amplifier,
(C) is a grounded -grid triode amplifier, (D) is a grid -neutralized triode amplifier.
HANDBOOK Tank Circuits 263
\\III111\1111011111110111111M Q=1211111
_a
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3 7 10 20 30 30 100 200 300 woo
CORRECT VALUES OF TANK CIRCUIT CAPACITANCE (C FOR
OPERATING Q OF 12 WITH SINGLE -ENDED SPLIT TANK COILS
Figure 24
PLATE -TANK CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
Shown above for each of the tank circuit types is the recommended tank circuit capacitance at
the operating frequency for on operating Q of 12. (A) is a split -stator tank, each section of which
is twice the capacity value read on the graph. (B) Is circuit using tapped coil for phase r 1.
Irspection of figure 22 will show quickly inductance plate -to- ground by -pass capacitor
that the tank circuit of a Class C amplifier as used for reducing harmonic generation, in
should have an operating Q of 12 or greater addition to the actual "in-use" capacitance
to afford satisfactory rejection of second har- of the plate tuning capacitor. Total circuit
monic energy. The curve begins to straighten stray capacitance may vary from perhaps 5
out above a Q of about 15, so that a consider- micromicrofarads for a v -h -f stage to 30 micro-
able increase in Q must be made before an ap- microfarads for a medium power tetrode h -f
preciable reduction in second -harmonic energy stage.
is obtained. Above a circuit Q of about 10 any When a split plate tank coil is employed in
increase will not afford appreciable reduction the stage in question, the graph of figure 24
in the third -harmonic energy, so that additional should be used. The capacity read from the
harmonic filtering circuits external to the am- graph is the total capacity across the tank
plifier proper must be used if increased atten- coil. If the split- stator tuning capacitor is
uation of higher order harmonics is desired. used, each section of the capacitor should
The curves also show that push -pull amplifi. rs have a value of capacity equal to twice the
may be operated at Q values of 6 or so, since value indicated by the graph. As in the case
the second harmonic is cancelled to a large of figure 23, the values of capacity read on
extent if there is no unbalanced coupling be- the graph of figure 24 include all residual cir-
tween the output tank circuit and the antenna cuit capacities.
system. For push -pull operation, the correct values
of tank circuit capacity may be determined
Capacity Charts for Figures 23, 24 and 25 il- with the aid of figure 25. The capacity values
Correct Tank Q lustrate the correct value obtained from figure 25 are the effective values
of tank capacity for vari across the tank circuit, and if a split- stator
ous circuit configurations. A Q value of 12 tuning capacitor is used, each section of the
has been chosen as optimum for single ended capacitor should have a value of capacity e-
circuits, and a value of 6 has been chosen for qual to twice the value indicated by the graph.
push -pi:ll circuits. Figure 23 is used when a As in the case of figures 23 and 24, the values
single ended stage is employed, and the ca- of capacity read on the graph of figure 25 in-
pacitance values given are for the total ca- clude all residual circuit capacities.
pacitance across the tank coil. This value in- The tank circuit operates in the same man-
cludes the tube interelectrode capacitance ner whether the tube feeding it is a pentode,
(plate to ground), coil distributed capacitance, beam tetrode, neutralized triode, grounded -
wiring capacities, and the value of any low- grid triode, whether it is single ended or push-
264
`w
1-
I- ce
20000
13000 \
Generation of
\\1111
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l'111ì1\;111111
\
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. I
1
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,
R -F Energy
Q°6
Il=111111
11111
THE RADIO
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« IN1i1\\\NIIII\\11111111
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a. a.
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3 7 10 20 30 50 CO 200 300 000
CORRECT VALUES OF TANK CIRCUIT CAPACITANCE C ) FOR
OPERAI NG Q OF 8 WITH PUSH -PULL TANK CIRCUITS
Figure 25
PLATE -TANK CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS FOR PUSH-PULL STAGES
Shown above is recommended tank circuit capacity at operating frequency for a Q of 6. (A) is
split- stator tank, each section of which is twice the capacity value read on the graph. (8) Is
circuit using tapped coil for phase reversal.
pull, or whether it is shunt fed or series fed. circuit has the effect of increasing the series
The important thing in establishing the oper- resistance, though in this case the power is
ating Q of the tank circuit is the ratio of the consumed as useful radiation by the antenna.
loaded resonant impedance across its termi- Mathematically, the antenna increases the
nals to the reactance of the L and the C which value of R in the expression Q = úL /R where
make up the tank. L is the coil inductance in microhenrys and
Due to the unknowns involved in determin- a) is the term 2nf, f being in megacycles.
ing circuit stray capacitances it is sometimes The coupling from the final tank circuit to
more convenient to determine the value of L the antenna or antenna transmission line can
required for the proper circuit Q (by the method be varied to obtain values of Q from perhaps
discussed earlier in this Section) and then to 3 at maximum coupling to a value of Q equal
vary the tuned circuit capacitance until reso- to the unloaded Q of the circuit at zero an-
nance is reached. This method is most fre- tenna coupling. This value of unloaded Q can
quently used in obtaining proper circuit Q in be as high as 500 or 600, as mentioned in the
commercial transmitters. preceding paragraph. However, the value of
The values of Rp for using the charts are Q = 12 will not be obtained at values of nor-
easily calculated by dividing the d-c plate sup- mal d -c plate current in the Class C amplifier
ply voltage by the total d-c plate current (ex- stage unless the C -to -L ratio in the tank cir-
pressed in amperes). Correct values of total cuit is correct for that frequency of operation.
tuning capacitance are shown in the chart for
the different amateur bands. The shunt stray Tuning Capocitor To determine the required
capacitance can be estimated closely enough Air Gap tuning capacitor air gap for
for all practical purposes. The coil inductance a particular amplifier cir-
should then be chosen which will produce cuit it is first necessary to estimate the peak
resonance at the desired frequency with the r -f voltage which will appear between the
total calculated tuning capacitance. plates of the tuning capacitor. Then, using
figure 26, it is possible to estimate the plate
Effect of Load- The Q of a circuit depends spacing which will be required.
ing on Q upon the resistance in series The instantaneous r -f voltage in the plate
with the capacitance and in- circuit of a Class C amplifier tube varies from
ductance. This series resistance is very low nearly zero to nearly twice the d -c plate volt-
for a low -loss coil not loaded by an antenna age. If the d -c voltage is being 100 per cent
circuit. The value of Q may be from 100 to 600 modulated by an audio voltage, the r -f peaks
under these conditions. Coupling an antenna will reach nearly four times the d -c voltage.
HANDBOOK L and Pi Networks 265
FIGURE 26 RP= RA(Q2+1)(ExACT)
RP = Q2 RA (APPROX.)
USUAL BREAKDOWN RATINGS OF
COMMON PLATE SPACINGS Rv
Air-gap in Peak voltage RA-RA -XC XL
inches breakdown RFC XL=Xc
030 1,000
.050 2,000 RP= APPROX PLATEVOLTAGf
PLATE CURRENT
.070 3,000 yis RP= 225 RA
.100 4,000 FOR OPERATING CIRCUIT
.125 4,500
*
QoF 15 XC= R5
.1 SO 5,200
.170 6,000
.200 7,500 XL=
.250 9,000
.350 11,000
.500 15,000
.700 20,000 Figure 27
THE L NETWORK IMPEDANCE
Recommended air -gap for use when no d -c TRANSFORMER
voltage appears across plate tank condenser
(when plate circuit is shunt fed, or when the The L network is useful with a moderate
plate tank condenser is insulated from operating Q for high values of impedance
ground). transformation, and it may be used for appli-
cations other than in the plate circuit of a
D.C. PLATE PLATE tube with relatively low values of operating
VOLTAGE C.W. MOD. Q for moderate impedance transformations.
400 .030 .050 Exact and approximate design equations are
600 .050 .070 given.
750 .050 .084
1000 .070 .100
1250 .070 .144
1500 .078 .200
2000 .100 .250
2500 .175 .375
3000 .200 .500 between the plate tank circuit of an amplifier
3500 .250 .600
and a transmission line, or they may be used
to match directly from the plate circuit of an
Spacings should be multiplied by 1.5 for amplifier to the line without the requirement
some safety factor when d -c voltage appears
across plate tank condenser. for a tank circuit -provided the network is de-
signed in such a manner that it has sufficient
operating Q for accomplishing harmonic atten-
uation.
These rules apply to a loaded amplifier or The L Matching The L network is of limited
buffer stage. If either is operated without an
r -f lead, the peak voltages will be greater and
Network utility in impedance match-
ing since its ratio of imped-
can exceed the d -c plate supply voltage. For
ance transformation is fixed at a value equal
this reason no amplifier should be operated
to (Q2 +1). The operating Q may be relatively
without load when anywhere near normal d -c
low (perhaps 3 to 6) in a matching network be-
plate voltage is applied.
tween the plate tank circuit of an amplifier
If a plate blocking condenser is used, it and a transmission line; hence impedance
must be rated to withstand the d -c plate volt-
age plus any audio voltage. This capacitor
transformation ratios of 10 to 1 and even lower
may be attained. But when the network also
shoull be rated at a d -c working voltage of at
least :u ice the d-c plate supply in a plate mod- acts as the plate tank circuit of the amplifier
ulated amplifier, and at least equal to the d-c stage, as in figure 27, the operating Q should
be at least 12 and preferably 15. An operating
supply in any other type of r -f amplifier.
Q of 15 represents an impedance transforma-
tion of 225; this value normally will be too
high even for transforming from the 2000 to
L and Pi Matching 10,000 ohm plate impedance of a Class C am-
13 -10
plifier stage down to a 50 -ohm transmission
Networks line.
However, the L network is interesting since
The L and pi networks often can be put to it forms the basis of design for the pi network.
advantageous use in accomplishing an imped- Inspection of figure 27 will show that the L
ance match between two differing impedances. network in reality must be considered as a
Common applications are the matching between parallel- resonant tank circuit in which RA
a transmission line and an antenna, or between represents the coupled -in load resistance;
the plate circuit of a single -ended amplifier only in this case the load resistance is di-
stage and an antenna transmission line. Such rectly coupled into the tank circuit rather than
networks may be used to accomplish a match being inductively coupled as in the conven-
266 Generation of R -F Energy THE RADI O
pacitance may be obtained for an operating Q

of 12 by reference to figures 23, 24 and 25.
The inductive arm in the pi network can be
thought of as consisting of two inductances
in series, as illustrated in figure 28. The first
portion of this inductance, L is that value of
inductance which would resonate with C, at
the operating frequency -the same as in a con-
ventional tank circuit. However, the actual
value of inductance in this arm of the pi net-
work, L101 will be greater than L, for normal
Ebb _ Rv
Ro.c.
I
XC2 RA
RA(Q2+1)-RP values of impedance transformation. For high
transformation ratios Lao, will be only slightly
RPa Rp.c.
RA2 XC2
greater than L,; for a transformation ratio of
LO, L10, will be twice as great as L,. The
)(CI 2 -
XL2 RA2+XC22
amount of inductance which must be added to
L, to restore resonance and maintain circuit
XL,
Q-- ALTO,..' XL,+XL2 Q is obtained through use of the expression
for X13 in figure 28.
Figure 28 The peak voltage rating of the main tuning
capacitor C, should be the normal value for a
THE PI NETWORK
Class C amplifier operating at the plate volt-
The pi network is valuable for use as an image to be employed. The inductor L,o, may be
pedance transformer over a wide ratio of
transformationvalues. The operating Q should a plug -in coil which is changed for each band
be at least 12 and preferably 15 to 20 when of operation, or some sort of variable inductor
the circuit is to be used in the plate circuit may be used. A continuously variable slider -
of a Class C amplifier. Design equations type of variable inductor, such as used in cer-
are given above. The inductor Ltot repre- tain items of surplus military equipment, may
sents a single inductance, usually variable,
with a value equal to the sum of L1 and L2. be used to good advantage if available, or a
tapped inductor such as used in the ART -13
may be employed. However, to maintain good
circuit Q on the higher frequencies when a
variable or tapped coil is used on the lower
tional arrangement where the load circuit is frequencies, the tapped or variable coil should
coupled to the tank circuit by means of a link. be removed from the circuit and replaced by
When RA is shorted, L and C comprise a con- a smaller coil which has been especially de-
ventional parallel- resonant tank circuit, since signed for the higher frequency ranges.
for proper operation L and C must be resonant The peak voltage rating of the output or
in order for the network to present a resistive loading capacitor, C2, is determined by the
load to the Class C amplifier. power level and the impedance to be fed. If a
50 -ohm coaxial line is to be fed from the pi
network, receiving -type capacitors will be
satisfactory even up to the power level of a
The Pi Network The pi impedance matching plate -modulated kilowatt amplifier. In any
network, illustrated in figure event, the peak voltage which will be im-
28, is much more general in its application pressed across the output capacitor is ex-
than the L network since it offers greater har- pressed by: Epk2 = 2 R. Wa, where Epk is the
monic attenuation, and since it can be used peak voltage across the capacitor, R. is the
to match a relatively wide range of impedances value of resistive load which the network is
while still maintaining any desired operating feeding, and W. is the maximum value of the
Q. The values of C, and L, in the pi network average power output of the stage. The har-
of figure 28 can be thought of as having the monic attenuation of the pi network is quite
same values of the L network in figure 27 for good, although an external low -pass filter will
the same operating Q, but what is more impor- be required to obtain harmonic attenuation
tant from the comparison standpoint these val- value upward of 100 db such as normally re-
ues will be the same as in a conventional tank quired. The attenuation to second harmonic
circuit. energy will be approximately 40 db for an oper-
The value of the capacitance may be deter- ating Q of 15 for the pi network; the value
mined by calculation, with the operating Q and increases to about 45 db for a 1:1 transforma-
the load impedance which should be reflected tion and falls to about 38 db for an impedance
to the plate of the Class C amplifier as the step -down of 80:1, assuming that the oper-
two knowns -or the actual values of the ca- ating Q is maintained at 15.
HANDBOOK Grid Bias 267
COAX
OUTPUT
WHERE EB IS PLATE VOLTAGE

PLATE LOAD (OHMS) AND I B IS PLATE CURRENT
2x
B IN AD PEAES.
CB- .000252/F MICA CAPACITOR RATED AT TWICE THE D.C.

PLATE VOLTAGE.
RFC! -N 28 ENAMELED, CLOSE -WOUNDR-ON/75AA CERAM /C INSULATOR
1 -DIA., 4 -LONG OR NATIONAL
RFCa- 2 MN, NAT IONAL R-100
Estimated Plate
Load (ohms) 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500 5,000 6,000 NOTES
C, in µµf, 3.5 Mc 520 360 280 210 180 155 135 120 110 90 The actual capacitance setting
7 260 180 140 105 90 76 68 60 56 45 for C, equals the value in this
14 130 90 70 52 45 38 34 30 28 23 table minus the published tube
21 85 60 47 35 31 25 23 20 19 15 output capacitance. Air gap
28 65 45 35 26 23 19 17 15 14 11 approx. 10 mils 100 v E,,.
L in 0h, 3.5 Mc 4.5 6.5 8.5 10.5 12.5 14 15.5 18 20 25 Inductance values ore for o
7 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.2 6.2 7 7.8 9 10 12.5 50 -ohm load. For a 70.ohm
14 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.5 3.9 4.5 5 6.2 load, values are approx. 3%
21 0.73 1.08 1.38 1.7 2.05 2.3 2.6 3 3.3 4.1 higher.
28 0.55 0.8 1.05 1.28 1.55 1.7 1.95 2.25 2.5 3.1
C, in Iuf, 3.5 Mc 2,400 2,100 1,800 1,550 1,400 1,250 1,100 1,000 900 700 For 50 -ohm transmission line.
7 1,200 1,060 900 760 700 630 560 500 460 350 Air gap for Cr is approx. 1
14 600 530 450 380 350 320 280 250 230 175 mil 100 v E,.
21 400 350 300 250 230 210 185 165 155 120
28 300 265 225 190 175 160 140 125 115 90
C., in µµi, 3.5 Mc 1,800 1,500 1,300 1,100 1,000 900 800 720 640 500 For 70-ohm transmission line.
7 900 750 650 560 500 450 400 360 320 250
14 450 370 320 280 250 220 200 180 160 125
21 300 250 215 190 170 145 130 120 110 85
28 225 185 160 140 125 110 100 90 80 65
Values given ore approximations. All components shown in Table ore for a O of 12. For other values of O, use
I
Q. C. Q. L,.
and - - When the estimated plate load is higher than 5,000 ohms, it is recommended that the
Q,, C,, Q,. L.
components be selected for a circuit O between 20 and 30.
Table I Components for Pi- Coupled Final Amplifiers
Component Chart To simplify design pro -

with a sinusoidal excitation voltage, the oper-
for PI- Networks cedure, a pi- network chart, ating grid bias must be at least sufficient to
compiled by M. Seybold, cut off the plate current. In very high efficien-
'4'2RYi (reproduced by courtesy of R.C.A. Tube cy Class C amplifiers the operating bias may
Division, Harrison, N.J.) is shown in table 1. be many times the cutoff value. Cutoff bias,
This chart summarizes the calculations of fig- it will be recalled, is that value of grid volt-
ure 28 for various values of plate load. age which will reduce the plate current to
zero at the plate voltage employed. The method
for calculating it has been indicated previous-
ly. This theoretical value of cutoff will not
reduce the plate current completely to zero,
13 -11 Grid Bias due to the variable -µ tendency or "knee"
which is characteristic of all tubes as the
Radio-frequency amplifiers require some cutoff point is approached.
form of grid bias for proper operation. Prac-
tically all r -f amplifiers operate in such a man- Class C Amplitude modulated Class C
Bias
ner that plate current flows in the form of amplifiers should be operated
short pulses which have a duration of only a with the grid bias adjusted to a value greater
fraction of an r -f cycle. To accomplish this than twice cutoff at the operating plate volt-
FIIOM DRIVER FROM DRIVCR
-DIAS SUPPLY
Figure 29
GRID -LEAK BIAS
Figure 30
The grid leak on an amplifier or multiplier COMBINATION GRID -LEAK AND
stage may also be used as the shunt feed FIXED BIAS
impedance to the grid of the tube when a Grid -leak bias often is used in conjunction
high value of grid leak (greater than perhaps with a fixed minimum value of power supply
20,000 ohms) is used. When a lower value of bias. This arrangement permits the operating
grid leak is to be employed, an r-f choke bias to be established by the excitation ener-
should be used between the grid of the tube gy, but in the absence of excitation the elec-
and the grid leak to reduce r-f losses in the trode currents to the tube will be held to safe
grid leak resistance. values by the fixed-minimum power supply
bias. If a relatively low value of grid leak
is to be used, an r -f choke should be con-
nected between the grid of the tube and the
grid leak as discussed in figure 29.
age. This procedure will insure that the tube
is operating at a bias greater than cutoff when
the plate voltage is doubled on positive modu-
lation peaks. C -w telegraph and FM trans-
mitters can be operated with bias as low as excitation. Grid -leak bias cannot be used for
cutoff, if only limited excitation is available grid -modulated or linear amplifiers in which
and moderate plate efficiency is satisfactory. the average d -c grid current is constantly
In a c -w transmitter, the bias supply or re- varying with modulation.
sistor should be adjusted to the point which
will allow normal grid current to flow for the
particular amount of grid driving r -f power Safety Bias Grid-leak bias alone provides no
available. This form of adjustment will allow protection against excessive
mote output from the under-excited r -f ampli- plate current in case of failure of the source
fieff than when higher bias is used with corre- of r -f grid excitation. A C- battery or C -bias
spdnding lower values of grid current. In any supply can be connected in series with the
event, the operating bias should be set at as grid leak, as shown in figure 30. This fixed
low a value as will give satisfactory opera- protective bias will protect the tube in the
tion, since harmonic generation in a stage in- event of failure of grid excitation. "Zero- bias"
creases rapidly as the bias is increased. tubes do not require this bias source in addi-
tion to the grid leak, since their plate current
Grid -Leak Bias resistor can be connected
A will drop to a safe value when the excitation
in the grid circuit of a Class is removed.
C amplifier to provide grid-leak bias. This re-
sistor, R, in figure 29, is part of the d -c path Cathode Bias resistor can be connected in
A
in the grid circuit. series with the cathode or cen-
The r -f excitation applied to the grid cir- ter- tapped filament lead of an amplifier to se-
cuit of the tube causes a pulsating direct cur- cure automatic bias. The plate current flows
rent to flow through the bias supply lead, due through this resistor, then back to the cathode
to the rectifying action of the grid, and any or filament, and the voltage drop across the
current flowing through R, produces a voltage resistor can be applied to the grid circuit by
drop across that resistor. The grid of the tube connecting the grid bias lead to the grounded
is positive for a short duration of each r -f or power supply end of the resistor R, as shown
cycle1 and draws electrons from the filament in figure 31.
or cathode of the tube during that time. These The grounded (B- minus) end of the cathode
electrons complete the circuit through the d-c resistor is negative relative to the cathode
grid return. The voltage drop across the re- by an amount equal to the voltage drop across
sistance in the grid return provides a nega- the resistor. The value of resistance must be
tive bias for the grid. so chosen that the sum of the desired grid
Grid -leak bias automatically adjusts itself and plate current flowing through the resistor
over fairly wide variations of r -f excitation. will bias the tube for proper operation.
The value of grid -leak resistance should be This type of bias is used more extensively
such that normal values of grid current will in audio-frequency than in radio -frequency am-
flow at the maximum available amount of r-f plifiers. The voltage drop across the resistor
HANDBOOK Protective Circuits 269
FROM
DRIVER
Figure 32
Figure 31 R -F STAGE WITH BATTERY BIAS
R -F STAGE WITH CATHODE BIAS Battery bias is seldom used, due to deteriora-
Cathode bias sometimes is advantageous for tion of the cells by the reverse grid current.
use in an r -f stage that operates with a rela- However, it may be used in certain special
tively small amount of r -f excitation. applications, or the fixed bias voltage may
be supplied by a bias power supply.
must be subtracted from the total plate supply siderably when it is flowing through the bias -
voltage when calculating the power input to supply bleeder resistance.
the amplifier, and this loss of plate voltage
in an r -f amplifier may be excessive. A Class
A audio amplifier is biased only to approxi-
mately one -half cutoff, whereas an r -f amplifier
may be biased to twice cutoff, or more, and
thus the plate supply voltage loss may be a 13 -12 Protective Circuits for
large percentage of the total available voltage Tetrode Transmitting Tubes
when using low or medium It tubes.
Oftentimes just enough cathode bias is em-
ployed in an r -f amplifier to act as safety bias The tetrode transmitting tube requires three
to protect the tubes in case of excitation fail- operating voltages: grid bias, screen voltage,
ure, with the rest of the bias coming from a and plate voltage. The current requirements of
grid leak. these three operating voltages are somewhat
interdependent, and a change in potential of
Separate Bias An external supply often is one voltage will affect the current drain of the
Supply used for grid bias, as shown in tetrode in respect to the other two voltages.
figure 32. Battery bias gives In particular, if the grid excitation voltage is
very good voltage regulation and is satisfac- interrupted as by keying action, or if the plate
tory for grid- modulated or linear amplifiers, supply is momentarily interrupted, the resulting
which operate at low grid current. In the case voltage or current surges in the screen circuit
of Class C amplifiers which operate with high are apt to permanently damage the tube.
grid current, battery bias is not satisfactory.
This direct current has a charging effect on The Series Screen A simple methodof obtain -
the dry batteries; after a few months of service Supply ing screen voltage is by
the cells will become unstable, bloated, and means of a dropping resis-
noisy. tor from the high voltage plate supply, as shown
A separate a -c operated power supply is in figure 33. Since the current drawn by the
commonly used for grid bias. The bleeder re- screen is a function of the exciting voltage
sistance across the output of the filter can be applied to the tetrode, the screen voltage will
made sufficiently low in value that the grid rise to equal the plate voltage under condi-
current of the amplifier will not appreciably tions of no exciting voltage. If the control grid
change the amount of negative grid -bias volt- is overdriven, on the other hand, the screen
age. Alternately, a voltage regulated grid -bias current may become excessive. In either case,
supply can be used. This type of bias supply damage to the screen and its associated com-
is used in Class B audio and Class B r -f lin- ponents may result. In addition, fluctuations
ear amplifier service where the voltage regu- in the plate loading of the tetrode stage will
lation in the C -bias supply is important. For cause changes in the screen current of the
a Class C amplifier, regulation is not so im- tube. This will result in screen voltage fluc-
portant, and an economical design of compo- tuations due to the inherently poor voltage
nents in the power supply, therefore, can be regulation of the screen series dropping resis-
utilized. In this case, the bias voltage must tor. These effects become dangerous to tube
be adjusted with normal grid current flowing, life if the plate voltage is greater than the
as the grid current will raise the bias con- screen voltage by a factor of 2 or so.
RFC
+B
NEGATIVE
OPERAT/Ni CLAMP
Figure 33 BIAS curs TUBE
OFF CLAMP
TuaE
DROPPING - RESISTOR SCREEN SUPPLY
Figure 34
The Clamp Tube A clamp tube may be added CLAMP - TUBE SCREEN SUPPLY
to the series screen supply,
as shown in figure 34. The clamp tube is nor-
mally cut off by virtue of the d -c grid bias drop
developed across the grid resistor of the tet- piing. The latter is a special form of induc-
rode tube. When excitation is removed from tive coupling. The choice of a coupling method
the tetrode, no bias appears across the grid depends upon the purpose for which it is to
resistor, and the clamp tube conducts heavily, be used.
dropping the screen voltage to a safe value.
When excitation is applied to the tetrode the Capacitive Capacitive coupling between an
clamp tube is inoperative, and fluctuations of Coupling amplifier or doubler circuit and a
the plate loading of the tetrode tube could preceding driver stage is shown
allow the screen voltage to rise to a damaging in figure 36. The coupling capacitor, C, iso-
value. Because of this factor, the clamp tube lates the d -c plate supply from the next grid
does not offer complete protection to the tet- and provides a low impedance path for the r -f
rode. energy between the tube being driven and the
driver tube. This method of coupling is simple
The Separate A low voltage screen supply and economical for low poweL amplifier or ex-
Screen Supply may be used instead of the citer stages, but has certain disadvantages,
series screen dropping resis- particularly for high frequency stages. The
tor. This will protect the screen circuit from grid leads in an amplifier should be as short
excessive voltages when the other tetrode as possible, but this is difficult to attain in
operating parameters shift. However, the screen the physical arrangement of a high power am-
can be easily damaged if plate or bias volt- plifier with respect to a capacitively -coupled
age is removed from the tetrode, as the screen
driver stage.
current will reach high values and the screen
dissipation will be exceeded. If the screen Disadvantages of One significant disadvan-
supply is capable of providing slightly more Capacitive tage of capacitive coupling
screen voltage than the tetrode requires for Coupling is the difficulty of adjusting
proper operation, a series wattage- limiting re-
the load on the driver stage.
sistor may be added to the circuit as shown Impedance adjustment can be accomplished
in figure 35. With this resistor in the circuit by tapping the coupling lead a part of the way
it is possible to apply excitation to the tet- down on the plate coil of the tuned stage of
rode tube with screen voltage present (but in
the driver circuit; but often when this is done
the absence of plate voltage) and still not dam-
age the screen of the tube. The value of the
resistor should be chosen so that the product
of the voltage applied to the screen of the
tetrode times the screen current never exceeds
the maximum rated screen dissipation of the
tube.
SERIES RESISTOR
LOW VOLTAGE
SCREEN SUPPLY
13 -13 Interstage Coupling
Figure 35
Energy is usually coupled from one circuit A PROTECTIVE WATTAGE- LIMITING RE-
of a transmitter into another either by capaci- SISTOR FOR USE WITH LOW -VOLTAGE
tive coupling, inductive coupling, or link cou- SCREEN SUPPLY
HANDBOOK Interstage Coupling 271
Figure 36
Figure 37
CAPACITIVE INTERSTAGE COUPLING BALANCED CAPACITIVE COUPLING
Balanced capacitive coupling sometimes is
useful when it is desirable to use a relatively
large inductance in the interstage tank cir-
a parasitic oscillation will take place in the cuit, or where the exciting stage is neutral-
stage being driven. ized as shown above.
One main disadvantage of capacitive coupl-
ing lies in the fact that the grid -tofilament
capacitance of the driven tube is placed di-
rectly across the driver tuned circuit. This Inductive coupling is used extensively for
condition sometimes makes the r-f amplifier coupling r -f amplifiers in radio receivers. How-
difficult to neutralize, and the increased mini - ever, the mechanical problems involved in ad-
mun circuit capacitance makes it difficult to justing the degree of coupling limit the use-
use a reasonable size coil in the v -h -f range. fulness of direct inductive coupling in trans-
Difficulties from this source can be partially mitters. Either the primary or the secondary
eliminated by using a center -tapped or split - or both coils may be tuned.
stator tank circuit in the plate of the driver
stage, and coupling capacitively to the oppo-
site end from the plate. This method places Unity Coupling If the grid tuning capacitor of
the ?late -tofilament capacitance of the driver figure 38 is removed and the
across one -half of the tank and the grid -to- coupling increased to the maximum practicable
filament capacitance of the following stage value by interwinding the turns of the two coils,
across the other half. This type of coupling is the circuit insofar as r.f. is concerned acts
shown in figure 37. like that of figure 36, in which one tank serves
Capacitive coupling can be used to advan- both as plate tank for the driver and grid tank
tage in reducing the total number of tuned cir- for the driven stage. The inter -wound grid
cuits in a transmitter so as to conserve space winding serves simply to isolate the d -c plate
and cost. It also can be used to advantage be- voltage of the driver from the grid of the driven
tween stages for driving beam tetrode or pen- stage, and to provide a return for d-c grid cur-
tode amplifier or doubler stages. rent. This type of coupling, illustrated in fig-
ure 39, is commonly known as unity coupling.
Inductive Inductive coupling (figure 38) re- Because of the high mutual inductance, both
Coupling sults when two coils are electro- primary and secondary are resonated by the
magnetically coupled to one an- one tuning capacitor.
other. The degree of coupling is controlled by
varying the mutual inductance of the two coils,
which is accomplished by changing the spac- NT (R WOUND
ing oc the relationship between the axes of

the coils.
Figure 39
"UNITY" INDUCTIVE COUPLING
Due to the high value of coupling between
the two coils, one tuning capacitor tunes
both circuits. This arrangement often is use-
Figure 38 ful in coupling from a single -ended to a push -
INDUCTIVE INTERSTAGE COUPLING pull stage.
LINK COUPLING LINK COUPLING

AT "COLD" ENDS. AT "COLD" CENTER.
UPPER ENDS -MOT" ENDS "NOT"
Figure 40
INTERSTAGE COUPLING BY MEANS
Figure 41
OF A "LINK"
Link interstage coupling is very commonly PUSH -PULL LINK COUPLING
used since the two stages may be separated
by a considerable distance, since the amount
of a coupling between the two stages may be
easily varied, and since the capacitances of
the two stages may be isolated to permit use
of larger inductances in the v-h -f range. The link -coupling line and links can be
made of no. 18 push -back wire for coupling
between low -power stages. For coupling be-
tween higher powered stages the 150 -ohm
Link Coupling A special form of inductive Twin -Lead transmission line is quite effective
coupling which is widely em- and has very low loss. Coaxial transmission is
ployed in radio transmitter circuits is known most satisfactory between high powered am-
as link coupling. A low impedance r -f trans- plifier stages, and should always be used
mission line couples the two tuned circuits where harmonic attenuation is important.
together. Each end of the line is terminated
in one or more turns of wire, or links, wound
around the coils which are being coupled to-
gether. These links should be coupled to each
tuned circuit at the point of zero r -f potential, 13 -14 Radio- Frequency
or nodal point. A ground connection to one Chokes
side of the link usually is used to reduce har-
monic coupling, or where capacitive coupling
between two circuits must be minimized. Co- Radio -frequency chokes are connected in
axial line is commonly used to transfer energy circuits for the purpose of stopping the pas-
between the two coupling links, although Twin - sage of r -f energy while still permitting a di-
Lead may be used where harmonic attenuation rect current or audio -frequency current to pass.
is not so important. They consist of inductances wound with a
Typical link coupled circuits are shown in large number of turns, either in the form of a
figures 40 and 41. Some of the advantages of solenoid, a series of solenoids, a single uni-
link coupling are the following: versal pie winding, or a series of pie wind-
ings. These inductors are designed to have as
much inductance and as little distributed or
(1) It eliminates coupling taps on tuned cir-
cuits. shunt capacitance as possible. The unavoid-
(2) It permits the use of series power supply able small amount of distributed capacitance
connections in both tuned grid and tuned resonates the inductance, and this frequency
plate circuits, and thereby eliminates the normally should be much lower than the fre-
need of shunt -feed r -f chokes. quency at which the transmitter or receiver
(3) It allows considerable separation between circuit is operating. R -f chokes for operation
transmitter stages without appreciable on several bands must be designed carefully
r -f losses or stray chassis currents. so that the impedance of the choke will be ex-
(4) It reduces capacitive coupling and there- tremely high (several hundred thousand ohms)
by makes neutralization more easily at- in each of the bands.
tainable in r -f amplifiers. The direct current which flows through the
(5) It provides semi -automatic impedance r -f choke largely determines the size of wire
matching between plate and grid tuned to be used in the winding. The inductance of
circuits, with the result that greater grid r -f chokes for the v -h -f range is much less
drive can be obtained in comparison to than for chokes designed for broadcast and
capacitive coupling. ordinary short-wave operation. A very high
(6) It effectively reduces the coupling of har- inductance r -f choke has more distributed ca-
monic energy. pacitance than a smaller one, with the result
HANDBOOK Shunt and Series Feed 273
+SG +MV +SG +HV

-BIAS -BIAS
PARALLEL PLATE FEED SERIES PLATE FEED
PARALLEL BIAS FEED SERIES BIAS FEED
Figure 42
ILLUSTRATING PARALLEL AND Figure 43
SERIES PLATE FEED
ILLUSTRATING SERIES AND
Parallel plate feed is desirable from a safety PARALLEL BIAS FEED
standpoint since the tank circuit is at ground
potential with respect to d.c. However, a
high -impedance r -f choke is required, and
the r-f choke must be able to withstand the
peak r-f voltage output of the tube. Series
plate feed eliminates the requirement for a 13 -15 Parallel and
high -performance r -f choke, but requires the
use of a relatively large value of by -pass Push -Pull Tube Circuits
capacitance at the bottom end of the tank
circuit, as contrasted to the moderate value
of coupling capacitance which may be used The comparative r -f power output from paral-
at the top of the tank circuit for parallel lel or push -pull operated amplifiers is the same
plate feed. if proper impedance matching is accomplished,
if sufficient grid excitation is available in
both cases, and if the frequency of measure-
ment is considerably lower than the frequency
limit of the tubes.
that it will actually offer less impedance at
very high frequencies. Parallel Operating tubes in parallel has
Another consideration, just as important as Operation some advantages in transmitters
the amount of d.c. the winding will carry, is designed for operation below 10
the r-f voltage which may be placed across \Ic., particularly when tetrode or pentode tubes
the choke without its breaking down. This is are to be used. Only one neutralizing capacitor
a function of insulation, turn spacing, frequen- is required for parallel operation of triode
cy, number and spacing of pies and other fac- tubes, as against two for push -pull. Above
tors. about 10 Mc., depending upon the tube type,
Some chokes which are designed to have a parallel tube operation is not ordinarily recom-
high impedance over a very wide range of fre- mended with triode tubes. However, parallel
quency are, in effect, really two chokes: a operation of grounded -grid stages and stages
u -h -f choke in series with a high- frequency using low -C beam tetrodes often will give ex-
choke. A choke of this type is polarized; that cellent results well into the v -h -f range.
is, it is important that the correct end of the
combination choke be connected to the "hot" Push -Pull The push -pull connection provides
side of the circuit. Operation a well -balanced circuit insofar as
miscellaneous capacitances are
Shunt and Direct- current grid and plate concerned; in addition, the circuit can be neu-
Series Feed connections are made either by tralized more completely, especially in high -
series or parallel leed systems. frequency amplifiers. The L/C ratio in a push -
Simplified forms of each are shown in figures pull amplifier can be made higher than in a
42 and 43. plate- neutralized parallel -tube operated am-
Series feed can be defined as that in which plifier. Push -pull amplifiers, when perfectly
the d -c connection is made to the grid or plate balanced, have less second- harmonic output
circuits at a point of very low r -f potential. than parallel or single -tube amplifiers, but in
Shins feed always is made to a point of high practice undesired capacitive coupling and
r -f voltage and always requires a high imped- circuit unbalance more or less offset the theo-
ance r -f choke or a relatively high resistance retical harmonic -reducing advantages of push -
to prevent waste of r -f power. pull r-f circuits.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
R -F Feedback
Comparatively high gain is required in sin- 14 -1 R -F Feedback

gle sideband equipment because the signal is
usually generated at levels of one watt or less.
Circuits
To get from this level to a kilowatt requires R -f feedback circuits have been developed
about 30 db of gain. High gain tetrodes may by the Collins Radio Co. for use with linear
be used to obtain this increase with a minimum amplifiers. Tests with large receiving and small
number of stages and circuits. Each stage con- transmitting tubes showed that amplifiers us-
tributes some distortion; therefore, it is good ing these tubes without feedback developed
practice to keep the number of stages to a signal -to- distortion ratios no better than 30 db
minimum. It is generally considered good prac- or so. Tests were run employing cathode fol-
tice to operate the low level amplifiers below lower circuits, such as shown in figure 1A.
their maximum power capability in order to Lower distortion was achieved, but at the cost
confine most of the distortion to the last two of low gain per stage. Since the voltage gain
amplifier stages. R -f feedback can then be through the tube is less than unity, all gain
utilized to reduce the distortion in the last has to be achieved by voltage step -up in the
two stages. This type of feedback is no dif- tank circuits. This gain is limited by the dis-
ferent from the common audio feedback used sipation of the tank coils, since the circuit
in high fidelity sound systems. A sample of capacitance across the coils in a typical trans-
the output waveform is applied to the ampli- mitter is quite high. In addition, the tuning
fier input to correct the distortion developed of such a stage is sharp because of the high
in the amplifier. The same advantages can be Q circuits.
obtained at radio frequencies that are obtained The cathode follower performance of the
at audio frequencies when feedback is used. tube can be retained by moving the r-f ground
B
B.
B AS - BIAS
Figure 1
SIMILAR CATHODE FOLLOWER CIRCUITS HAVING DIFFERENT R -F GROUND POINTS.
274
R -F Feedback Circuits 275
B* B
RF our
BIAS B AS P.
Figure 2 Figure 4
SINGLE STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH R -FAMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
R -F FEEDBACK CIRCUIT AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING
OUTPUT NETWORK.
Tuning and loading are accomplished by C,
and C.. C and L are tuned in unison to
establish the correct degree of feedback.
R F OUT
Inductive coupling is required for this cir-

cuit, as shown in the illustration.
The circuit of figure 3 eliminates the need
for inductive coupling by moving the r -f
ground to the point common to both tank
Figure 3 circuits. The advantages of direct coupling be-
SINGLE STAGE FEEDBACK tween stages far outweigh the disadvantages of
AMPLIFIER WITH GROUND having the r -f feedback voltage appear on the
RETURN POINT MODIFIED FOR
UNBALANCED INPUT AND cathode of the amplifier tube.
OUTPUT CONNECTIONS. In order to match the amplifier to a load,
the circuit of figure 4 may be used. The ratio
of XL, to XCI determines the degree of feed-
point of the circuit from the plate to the cath-
back, so it is necessary to tune them in unison
ode as shown in figure 1B. Both ends of the
when the frequency of operation is changed.
input circuit are at high r -f potential so in-
Tuning and loading functions are accomplished
ductive coupling to this type of amplifier is
by varying G and G. L: may also be varied to
necessary.
adjust the loading.
Inspection of figure 1B shows that by mov-
ing the top end of the input tank down on a Feedback Around a The maximum phase
voltage divider tap across the plate tank cir- Two -Stage Amplifier shift obtainable over
cuit, the feedback can be reduced from 100%, two simple tuned cir-
as in the case of the cathode follower circuit, cuits does not exceed 180 degrees, and feed-
down to any desired value. A typical feedback back around a two stage amplifier is possible.
circuit is illustrated in figure 2. This circuit The basic circuit of a two stage feedback
is more practical than those of figure 1, since amplifier is shown in figure 5. This circuit
the losses in the input tank are greatly reduced. is a conventional two -stage tetrode amplifier
A feedback level of 12 db may be achieved except that r -f is fed back from the plate
as a good compromise between distortion and circuit of the PA tube to the cathode of the
stage gain. The voltage developed across G driver tube. This will reduce the distortion
wi I he three times the grid -cathode voltage.
1
Figure 5
BASIC CIRCUIT OF TWO -STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH R -F FEEDBACK
reedback voltage is obtained from o voltage divider across the output circuit and
applied directly to the cathode of the first tube. The input tank circuit is thus
outside the feedback loop.
276 R -F Feedback THE RADIO
of both tubes as effectively as using individual cuit is inductive there is energy transferred
feedback loops around each stage, yet will from the plate to the grid circuit (positive
allow a higher level of overall gain. With feedback) which will introduce negative resist-
only two tuned circuits in the feedback loop, ance in the grid circuit. When this shunt
it is possible to use 12 to 15 db of feedback negative resistance across the grid circuit is
and still leave a wide margin for stability. It lower than the equivalent positive resistance
is possible to reduce the distortion by nearly of the grid loading, circuit losses, and driving
as many db as are used in feedback. This cir- source impedance, the amplifier will oscillate.
cuit has two advantages that are lacking in the When the plate circuit is in resonance
single stage feedback amplifier. First, the fila- ( phase angle equal to zero) the input resist-
ment of the output stage can now be operated ance due to the grid -plate capacitance becomes
at r -f ground potential. Second, any conven- infinite. As the plate circuit is tuned to the
tional pi output network may be used. capacitive side of resonance, the input resist-
R -f feedback will correct several types of ance becomes positive and power is actually
distortion. It will help correct distortion caused transferred from the grid to the plate circuit.
by poor power supply regulation, too low grid This is the reason that the grid current in an
bias, and limiting on peaks when the plate unneutralized tetrode r -f amplifier varies from
voltage swing becomes too high. a low value with the plate circuit tuned on the
low frequency side of resonance to a high value
Neutralization The purpose of neutraliza- on the high frequency side of resonance The
and R -F Feedback tion of an r -f amplifier grid current is proportional to the r -f voltage
stage is to balance out ef- on the grid which is varying under these con-
fects of the grid -plate capacitance coupling in ditions. In a tetrode class AB, amplifier, the
the amplifier. In a conventional amplifier us- effect of grid -plate feedback can be observed
ing a tetrode tube, the effective input capacity by placing a r -f voltmeter across the grid cir-
is given by:
cuit and observing the voltage change as the
Input Capacitance = Cao + CRD (1 +A cos e) plate circuit is tuned through resonance.
If the amplifier is over -neutralized, the ef-
where: Can = tube input capacitance fects reverse so that with the plate circuit
CRP = grid -plate capacitance tuned to the low frequency side of resonance
A = voltage amplification from grid the grid voltage is high, and on the high fre-
to plate quency side of resonance, it is low.
O = phase angle of load
Amplifier A useful "rule of
In a typical unneutralized tetrode amplifier Neutralization Check thumb" method of
having a stage gain of 33, the input capaci- checking neutraliza-
tance of the tube with the plate circuit in tion of an amplifier stage (assuming that it
resonance is increased by 8 µµfd. due to the is nearly correct to start with) is to tune both
unneutralized grid -plate capacitance. This is grid and plate circuits to resonance. Then, ob-
unimportant in amplifiers where the gain (A) serving the r -f grid current, tune the plate cir-
remains constant but if the tube gain varies, cuit to the high frequency side of resonance.
serious detuning and r -f phase shift may result. If the grid current rises, more neutralization
A grid or screen modulated r -f amplifier is an capacitance is required. Conversely, if the grid
example of the case where the stage gain var- current decreases, less capacitance is needed.
ies from a maximum down to zero. The gain This indication is very sensitive in a neutral-
of a tetrode r -f amplifier operating below plate ized triode amplifier, and correct neutraliza-
current saturation varies with loading so that tion exists when the grid current peaks at the
if it drives a following stage into grid current point of plate current dip. In tetrode power
the loading increases and the gain falls off. amplifiers this indication is less pronounced.
The input of the grid circuit is also affected Sometimes in a supposedly neutralized tetrode
by the grid -plate capacitance, as shown in this amplifier, there is practically no change in
equation: grid voltage as the plate circuit is tuned
Input Resistance - 27rf X
1
CeP ( Asina )
through resonance, and in some amplifiers it
is unchanged on one side of resonance and
drops slightly on the other side. Another ob-
This resistance is in shunt with the grid servation sometimes made is a small dip in
current loading, grid tank circuit losses, and the center of a broad peak of grid current.
driving source impedance. When the plate cir- These various effects are probably caused by
HANDBOOK R -F Feedback Circuits 277
^ T
PR-F
Figure 6 Figure 7
SINGLE STAGE R -F AMPLIFIER NEUTRALIZED AMPLIFIER AND
WITH FEEDBACK RATIO OF INHERENT FEEDBACK CIRCUIT.
C. ,'C, to C,, C,. DETERMINES
z
Neutralization is achieved by varying
STAGE NEUTRALIZATION the capacity of Cn.
coupling from the plate to the grid circuit tential when r -f is impressed upon the cathode.
through other paths which are not balanced The output voltage available with capacity
out by the particular neutralizing circuit used. coupling, of course, is less than the plate -
cathode r -f voltage developed by the amount
Feedback and Figure 6 shows an r -f am- of feedback voltage across G.
Neutralization plifier with negative feed -
of a One -Stage back. The voltage developed
R-F Amplifier across C1 due to the voltage 14 -2 Feedback and
divider action of Ca and C. Neutralization of a
is introduced in series with the voltage devel-
oped across the grid tank circuit and is in
Two -Stage R -F Amplifier
phase- opposition to it. The feedback can be Feedback around two r -f stages has the ad-
made any value from zero to 100% by proper- vantage that more of the tube gain can be
ly choosing the values of G and C.. realized and nearly as much distortion reduc-
For reasons stated previously, it is necessary tion can be obtained using 12 db around two
to neutralize this amplifier, and the relation- stages as is realized using 12 db around each
ship for neutralization is: of two stages separately. Figure 9 shows a
basic circuit of a two stage feedback ampli-
G __Cso fier. Inductive output coupling is used, al-
G Ct though a pi- network configuration will also
It is often necessary to add capacitance from work well. The small feedback voltage required
plate to grid to satisfy this relationship is obtained from the voltage divider C. - G
Figure 7 is identical to figure 6 except that and is applied to the cathode of the driver
it is redrawn to show the feedback inherent in tube. G is only a few tatifd., so this feedback
this neutralization circuit more clearly. C. and voltage divider may be left fixed for a wide
C replace G and C., and the main plate tank frequency range. If the combined tube gain is
tuning capacitance is G. The circuit of figure 160, and 12 db of feedback is desired, the ratio
7 presents a problem in coupling to the grid
of C: to G is about 40 to 1. This ratio in
circuit. Inductive coupling is ideal, but the practice may be 400 µµfd. to 2.5 µµEd., for
extra tank circuits complicate the tuning of a example.
transmitter which uses several cascaded am- A complication is introduced into this sim-
plifiers with feedback around each one. The plified circuit by the cathode -grid capacitance
grid could be coupled to a high source imped-
ance such as a tetrode plate, but the driver R F OUT
then cannot use feedback because this would

cause the source impedance to be low. A pos- R-F IN
sible solution is to move the circuit ground
point from the cathode to the bottom end of
the grid tank circuit. The feedback voltage then
appears between the cathode and ground
(figure 8) . The input can be capacitively
coupled, and the plate of the amplifier can
Figure 8
be capacitively coupled to the next stage. Also, UNBALANCED INPUT AND OUTPUT
cathode type transmitting tubes are available CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE -STAGE
that allow the heater to remain at ground po- R -F AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK
FF iN
Figure 9
TWO -STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH FEEDBACK.
Included is a capacitor (C ) for neutralizing the cathode -grid capacity of the first tube V; is neutralized
by capacitor C and V: is neutralized by the correct ratio of C C.
,
of the first tube which causes an undersired more feedback from the output stage to over-
coupling to the input grid circuit. It is neces- come.
sary to neutralize out this capacitance coupling,
Tests For Neutralizing the circuit of
as illustrated in figure 9. The relationship for
Neutralization figure 9 balances out cou-
neutralization is:
pling between the input
G Gr tank circuit and the output tank circuit, but it
G G does not remove all coupling from the plate
circuit to the grid- cathode tube input. This
The input circuit may be made unbalanced latter coupling is degenerative, so applying a
by making C1 five times the capacity of G. signal to the plate circuit will cause a signal
This will tend to reduce the voltage across to appear between grid and cathode, even
the coil and to minimize the power dissipated though the stage is neutralized. A bench test
by the coil. For proper balance in this case, for neutralization is to apply a signal to the
G must be five times the grid -filament capaci- plate of the tube and detect the presence of a
tance of the tube. signal in the grid coil by inductive coupling
Except for tubes having extremely small to it. No signal will be present when the stage
grid -plate capacitance, it is still necessary to is neutralized. Of course, a signal could be in-
properly neutralize both tubes. If the ratio of ductively coupled to the input and neutraliza-
C, to G is chosen to be equal to the ratio of tion accomplished by adjusting one branch of
the grid -plate capacitance to the grid -filament the neutralizing circuit bridge (G for ex-
capacitance in the second tube (V2) , this tube ample) for minimum signal on the plate cir-
will be neutralized. Tubes such as a 4X -150A cuit.
have very low grid -plate capacitance and prob-
ably will not need to be neutralized when used Neutralizing the cathode -grid capacitance of
in the first (V2) stage. If neutralization is the first stage of figure 9 may be accomplished
necessary, capacitor G is added for this pur- by applying a signal to the cathode of the tube
pose and the proper value is given by the and adjusting the bridge balance for minimum
following relationship: signal on a detector inductively coupled to the
input coil.
Cav Co Ca
G G G Tuning a Two -Stage Tuning the two-stage
Feedback Amplifier feedback amplifier of
If neither tube requires neutralization, the figure 9 is accom-
bottom end of the interstage tank circuit may plished in an unconventional way because the
be returned to r -f ground. The screen and output circuit cannot be tuned for maximum
suppressor of the first tube should then be output signal. This is because the output cir-
grounded to keep the tank output capaci- cuit must be tuned so the feedback voltage
tance directly across this interstage circuit and applied to the cathode is in -phase with the
to avoid common coupling between the feed- input signal applied to the first grid. When
back on the cathode and the interstage circuit. the feedback voltage is not in- phase, the result-
A slight amount of degeneration occurs in the ant grid- cathode voltage increases as shown
first stage since the tube also acts as a grounded in figure 10. When the output circuit is
grid amplifier with the screen as the grounded properly tuned, the resultant grid -cathode volt-
grid. The of the screen is much lower than age on the first tube will be at a minimum, and
that of the control grid so that this effect may the voltage on the interstage tuned circuit will
be unnoticed and would only require slightly also be at a minimum.
VOLTAGE-GRID TO CATHODE
VCLTAGE-
iNGLT GRID
TO
GROUND >VOLTAGE - CATHODE TO GROUND -
frEEOeACR)
Figure 12
l INTERSTAGE CIRCUIT WITH
SEPARATE NEUTRALIZING
Figure 10 AND FEEDBACK CIRCUITS.
VECTOR RELATIONSHIP OF
FEEDBACK VOLTAGE
A Output Circuit Properly Tuned It is convenient, however, to separate these cir-
B - Output Circuit Mis -Tuned cuits so neutralization and feedback can be
adjusted independently. Also, it may be de-
The two -stage amplifier may be tuned by sirable to be able to switch the feedback out
placing a r -f voltmeter across the interstage of the circuit. For these reasons, the circuit
tank circuit ("hot" side to ground) and tuning shown in figure 12 is often used. Switch S.
the input and interstage circuits for maximum removes the feedback loop when it is closed.
meter reading, and tuning the output circuit A slight tendency for low frequency para-
for minimum meter reading. If the second tube sitic oscillations still exists with this circuit.
is driven into the grid current region, the grid L. should have as little inductance as possible
current meter may be used in place of the r -f without upsetting the feedback. If the value of
voltmeter. On high powered stages where oper- L. is too low, it cancels out part of the re-
ation is well into the Class AB region, the actance of feedback capacitor C. and causes
plate current dip of the output tube indicates the feedback to increase at low values of radio
correct output circuit tuning, as in the usual frequency. In some cases, a swamping resistor
amplifier. may be necessary across L.. The value of this
resistor should be high compared to the re-
Parasitic Oscillations in Quite often low fre- actance of C. to avoid phase -shift of the r-f
the Feedback Amplifier q u e n c y parasitics feedback.
may be found in
the interstage circuit of the two -stage feedback
amplifier. Oscillation occurs in the first stage 14 -3 Neutralization
due to low frequency feedback in the cathode Procedure in
circuit. R-f chokes, coupling capacitors, and Feedback -Type Amplifiers
bypass capacitors provide the low frequency
tank circuits. When the feedback and second Experience with feedback amplifiers has
stage neutralizing circuits are combined, it is brought out several different methods of neu-
necessary to use the configuration of figure 11. tralizing. An important observation is that
This circuit has the advantage that only one when all three neutralizing adjustments are
capacitor (Ca) is required from the plate of correctly made the peaks and dips of various
the output tube, thus keeping the added ca- tuning meters all coincide at the point of cir-
pacitance across the output tank at a minimum. cuit resonance. For example, the coincident in-
dications when the various tank circuits are
tuned through resonance with feedback oper-
ating are:
A -When the PA plate circuit is tuned
through resonance:
1 -PA plate current dip
2 -Power output peak
3 -PA r-f grid voltage dip
e AS
4 -PA grid current dip
Figure 11 (Note: The PA grid current peaks
INTERSTAGE CIRCUIT COMBINING
NEUTRALIZATION AND when feedback circuit is disabled
FEEDBACK NETWORKS. and the tube is heavily driven)
Clt
R-F IN-
R F OUT
6 ¡[`CB CCP
2 :UP I
LIÓ H-11
(=.
bo 0.1
o .L
` T
i
iO T.._
Ct0
-CGF-
C7
/ey_
10UT
-{ir,
i. i.w o
-I1
F
RrC o
HI' _ = 1
BIAS B B AS
Figure 3
TWO -STAGE AMPLIFIER WITH FEED BACK CIRCUIT.
B-When the PA grid circuit is tuned 2- Neutralize the grid -plate capaci-
through resonance: tance of the driver stage
1- Driver plate current dip 3-Neutralize the grid -plate capaci-
2-PA r -f grid voltage peak tance of the power amplifier (PA)
3 -PA grid current peak stage
4-PA power output peak 4 -Apply r -f feedback
C -When the driver grid circuit is tuned

5- Neutralize driver grid -cathode ca-
pacitance
through resonance:
1-Driver r-f grid voltage peak These steps will be explained in more detail
2-Driver plate current peak in the following paragraphs:
3 -PA r -f grid current peak Step 1. The removal of r -f feedback through
4 -PA plate current peak the feedback circuit must be complete. The
5 -PA power output peak
switch (St) shown in the feedback circuit
Four meters may be employed to measure ( figure 13) is one satisfactory method. Since
the most important of these parameters. The G, is effectively across the PA plate tank cir-
meters should be arranged so that the follow- cuit it is desirable to keep it across the circuit
ing pairs of readings are displayed on meters when feedback is removed to avoid appreciable
located close together for ease of observation detuning of the plate tank circuit. Another
of coincident peaks and dips: method that can be used if properly done is
to ground the junction of C. and G. Ground-
1 -PA plate current and power output ing this common point through a switch or
2 -PA r-f grid current and PA plate relay is not good enough because of common
current coupling through the length of the grounding
3 -PA r -f grid voltage and power out- lead. The grounding method shown in figure
put 14 is satisfactory.
4-Driver plate current and PA r-f
Step 2. Plate power and excitation are applied.
grid voltage
The driver grid tank is resonated by tuning
The third pair listed above may not be for a peak in driver r-f grid voltage or driver
necessary if the PA plate current dip is pro- plate current. The power amplifier grid tank
nounced. When this instrumentation is pro- circuit is then resonated and adjusted for a
vided, the neutralizing procedure is as follows: dip in driver plate current. Driver neutraliza-
tion is now adjusted until the PA r -f grid
1-Remove the r-f feedback voltage (or PA grid current) peaks at exactly
the point of driver plate current dip. A handy
rule for adjusting grid -plate neutralization of
CeI OPEN
SHOP ET
a tube without feedback: with all circuits io
resonance, detune the plate circuit to the high
CNA I frequency side of resonance: If grid current
to next stage (or power output of the stage
, under test) increases, more neutralizing capaci-
tance is required and vice versa.
Figure 14 If the driver tube operates class A so that

FEEDBACK SHORTING DEVICE. a plate current dip cannot be observed, a dif-
Neutralizat;on The method of neutralization

Techniques employing a sensitive r-f de-
tector inductively coupled to
a tank coil is difficult to apply in some cases
because of mechanical construction of the
C7
equipment, or because of undesired coupling.
Another method for observing neutralization
Figure 15 can be used, which appears to be more ac-
FEEDBACK NEUTRALIZING curate in actual practice. A sensitive r -f detec-
CIRCUIT USING tor such as a receiver is loosely coupled to the
AUXILIARY RECEIVER. grid of the stage being neutralized, as shown
in figure 15. The coupling capacitance is of
ferent neutralizing procedure is necessary This the order of one or two µµtd. It must be small
enough to avoid upsetting the neutralization
will be discussed in a subsequent section. when it is removed because the total grid -
Step 3. This is the same as step 2 except it
ground capacitance is one leg of the neutraliz-
ing bridge. A signal generator is connected at
is applied to the power amplifier stage. Ad- point S and the receiver at point R. If C10 is
just the neutralization of this stage for a peak not properly adjusted the S -meter on the re-
in power output at the plate current dip. ceiver will either kick up or down as the grid
tank circuit is tuned through resonance. Cie
Step 4. Reverse step 1 and apply the r -f feed- may be adjusted for minimum deflection of the
back. S -meter as the grid circuit is tuned through
resonance.
Step 5. Apply plate power and an exciting sig- The grid -plate capacitance of the tube is
nal to drive the amplifier to nearly full out- then neutralized by connecting the signal gen-
put. Adjust the feedback neutralization for a erator to the plate of the tube and adjusting
peak in amplifier power output at the exact C,, of figure 13 for minimum deflection again
as the grid tank is tuned through resonance.
point of minimum amplifier plate current. The power amplifier stage is neutralized in
Decrease the feedback neutralization capaci- the same manner by connecting a receiver
tance if the power output rises when the tank loosely to the grid circuit, and attaching a
circuit is tuned to the high frequency side of signal generator to the plate of the tube. The
r -f signal can be fed into the amplifier output
resonance.
terminal if desired.
The above sequence applies when the neu- Some precautions are necessary when using
tralizing adjustments are approximately cor- this neutralization method. First, some driver
tubes (the 6CL6, for example) have appre-
rect to start with. If they are far off, some "cut -
ciably more effective input capacitance when
and -try" adjustment may be necessary. Also, in operation and conducting plate current than
the driver stage may break into oscillation if when in standby condition. This increase in
the feedback neutralizing capacitance is not input capacitance may be as great as three or
near the correct setting. four µµtd, and since this is part of the neu-
tralizing bridge circuit it must be taken into
It is assumed that a single tone test signal consideration. The result of this change in
is used for amplifier excitation during the input capacitance is that the neutralizing ad-
above steps, and that all tank circuits are at justment of such tubes must be made when
resonance except the one being detuned to they are conducting normal plate current. Stray
make the observation. There is some interaction coupling must be avoided, and it may prove
between the driver neutralization and the feed- helpful to remove filament power from the
back neutralization so if an appreciable change preceding stage or disable its input circuit in
is made in any adjustment the others should some manner.
be rechecked. It is important that the grid -plate It should be noted that in each of the above
neutralization be accomplished first when using adjustments that minimum reaction on the
the above procedure, otherwise the feedback grid is desired, not minimum voltage. Some
neutralization will be off a little, since it par- residual voltage is inherent on the grid when
tially compensates for that error. this neutralizing circuit is used.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Amplitude Modulation
If the output of a c -w transmitter is varied frequencies are mixed with a radio frequency
in amplitude at an audio frequency rate in- carrier so that the voice frequencies are con-
stead of interrupted in accordance with code verted to radio frequency sidebands. Though
characters, a tone will be heard on a receiver it may be difficult to visualize, the amplitude
tuned to the signal. If the audio signal con- of the radio frequency carrier does not vary
sists of a band of audio frequencies com- during conventional amplitude modulation.
prising voice or music intelligence, then the Even though the amplitude of radio fre-
voice or music which is superimposed on the quency voltage representing the composite
radio frequency carrier will be heard on the signal (resultant of the carrier and sidebands,
receiver. called the envelope) will vary from zero to
When voice, music, video, or other intelli- twice the unmodulated signal value during
gence is superimposed on a radio frequency full modulation, the amplitude of the carrier
carrier by means of a corresponding variation component does not vary. Also, so long as
in the amplitude of the radio frequency output the amplitude of the modulating voltage does
of a transmitter, amplitude modulation is the not vary, the amplitude of the sidebands will
result. Telegraph keying of a c -w transmitter remain constant. For this to be apparent, how-
is the simplest form of amplitude modulation, ever, it is necessary to measure the amplitude
while video modulation in a television trans- of each component with a highly selective
mitter represents a highly complex form. Sys- filter. Otherwise, the measured power or volt-
tems for modulating the amplitude of a carrier age will be a resultant of two or more of the
envelope in accordance with voice, music, or components, and the amplitude of the resultant
similar types of complicated audio waveforms will vary at the modulation rate.
are many and varied, and will be discussed If a carrier frequency of 5000 kc. is modu-
later on in this chapter. lated by a pure tone of 1000 cycles, or 1 kc.,
two sidebands are formed: one at 5001 kc.
(the sum frequency) and one at 4999 kc. (the
difference frequency). The frequency of each
151 Sidebands sideband is independent of the amplitude of
the modulating tone, or modulation percent-
age; the frequency of each sideband is deter-
Modulation is essentially a form of mixing mined only by the frequency of the modulat-
or combining already covered in a previous ing tone. This assumes, of course, that the
chapter. To transmit voice at radio frequencies transmitter is not modulated in excess of its
by means of amplitude modulation, the voice linear capability.
282
Modulation 283
When the modulating signal consists of

multiple frequencies, as is the case with
voice or music modulation, two sidebands will
be formed by each modulating frequency (one
(D V
l 11P1 1
C.W. OR UNMODULATED CARRIER
,í J11 1:
on each side of the carrier), and the radiated
signal will consist of a band of frequencies.
The band width, or channel taken up in the
frequency spectrum by a conventional double -
SINE WAVE
sideband amplitude- modulated signal, is equal AUDIO SIGNAL FROM MODULATOR
to twice the highest modulating frequency.
For example, if the highest modulating fre- A/2
quency is 5000 cycles, then the signal (as-
suming modulation of complex and varying
waveform) will occupy a band extending from 1111111111111111! !! f t
A/2
t Á Z i l l
!
5000 cycles below the carrier to 5000 cycles 00% MODULATED CARRIER
above the carrier.
Frequencies up to at least 2500 cycles, and
preferably 3500 cycles, are necessary for good
speech intelligibility. If a filter is incorpo-
rated in the audio system to cut out all fre-
quencies above approximately 3000 cycles,
111111111111111111111 lt.. .tO
the band width of a radio -telephone signal can 11111111111111111
'III I'
be limited to 6 kc. without a significant loss
in intelligibility. However, if harmonic distor- 00 % MODULATED CARRIER
tion is introduced subsequent to the filter, as
would happen in the case of an overloaded
modulator or overmodulation of the carrier, Figure 1
new frequencies will be generated and the
signal will occupy a band wider than 6 kc. AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE
Top drawing (A) represents an unmodulated
carrier wave; (B) shows the audio output of
the modulator. Drawing (C) shows the audio
signal impressed on the carrier wove to the
15-2 Mechanics of extent of 50 per cent modulation; (D) shows
Modulation the carrier with 100 per cent amplitude modu-
lation.
A c -w or unmodulated r -f carrier wave is
represented in figure 1A. An audio frequency
sine wave is represented by the curve of
figure 1B. When the two are combined or
"mixed," the carrier is said to be amplitude mum obtainable distortionless modulation with
modulated, and a resultant similar to 1C or a sine modulating wave, the r -f voltage at the
1D is obtained. It should be noted that under peak of the r -f cycle varying from zero to
modulation, each half cycle of r -f voltage twice the unmodulated value, and the r -f power
differs slightly from the preceding one and varying from zero to four times the unmodu-
the following one; therefore at no time during lated value ( the power varies as the square
modulation is the r -f waveform a pure sine of the voltage).
wave. This is simply another way of saying While the average r -f voltage of the modu-
that during modulation, the transmitted r -f lated wave over a modulation cycle is the
energy no longer is confined to a single radio same as for the unmodulated carrier, the aver-
frequency. age potter increases with modulation. If the
It will be noted that the average amplitude radio frequency power is integrated over the
of the peak r -f voltage, or modulation enve- audio cycle, it will be found with 100 per cent
lope, is the same with or without modulation. sine wave modulation the average r -f power
This simply means that the modulation is has increased 50 per cent. This additional
symmetrical (assuming a symmetrical modu- power is represented by the sidebands, be-
lating wave) and that for distortionless modu- cause as previously mentioned, the carrier
lation the upward modulation is limited to a power does not vary under modulation. Thus,
value of twice the unmodulated carrier wave when a 100 -watt carrier is modulated 100 per
amplitude because the amplitude cannot go cent by a sine wave, the total r -f power is 150
below zero on downward portions of the mod- watts; 100 watts in the carrier and 25 watts
ulation cycle. Figure ID illustrates the maxi- in each of the two sidebands.
284 Amplitude Modulation THE RADIO
Modulation long as the relative propor-

So
Percentage of the various sidebands
Lion
making up voice modulation is
maintained, the signal may be received and
detected without distortion. However, the
higher the average amplitude of the sidebands,
the greater the audio signal produced at the
receiver. For this reason it is desirable to
increase the modulation percentage, or degree Figure 2
of modulation, to the point where maximum GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF MODU-

peaks just hit 100 per cent. If the modulation LATION PERCENTAGE
percentage is increased so that the peaks ex- The procedure for determining modulation
ceed this value, distortion is introduced, and percentage from the peak voltage points in-
if carried very far, bad interference to signals dicated is discussed in the text.
on nearby channels will result.
Modulation The amount by which a carrier

Measurement is being modulated may be ex- carrier shift, or change in average amplitude,
pressed either as a modulation with modulation.
factor, varying from zero to 1.0 at maximum If the modulating voltage is symmetrical,
modulation, or as a percentage. The percent- such as a sine wave, and modulation is ac-
age of modulation is equal to 100 times the complished without the introduction of dis-
modulation factor. Figure 2A shows a carrier tortion, then the percentage modulation will
wave modulated by a sine -wave audio tone. be the same for both negative and positive
A picture such as this might be seen on the peaks. However, the distribution and phase
screen of a cathode -ray oscilloscope with relationships of harmonics in voice and music
sawtooth sweep on the horizontal plates and waveforms are such that the percentage modu-
the modulated carrier impressed on the verti-
lation of the negative modulation peaks may
cal plates. The same carrier without modulation
would appear on the oscilloscope screen as exceed the percentage modulation of the posi-
figure 2B. tive peaks, and vice versa. The percentage
modulation when referred to without regard
The percentage of modulation of the posi-
to polarity is an indication of the average of
tive peaks and the percentage of modulation
the negative and positive peaks.
of the negative peaks can be determined sepa-
rately from two oscilloscope pictures such
as shown.
Modulation The modulation capability of a
The modulation factor of the positive peaks Capability transmitter is the maximum per-
may be determined by the formula:
E. - Ecar
centage to which that transmitter
may be modulated before spurious sidebands
M = are generated in the output or before the dis-
Ecar tortion of the modulating waveform becomes
The factor for negative peaks may be de- objectionable. The highest modulation cap-
termined from this formula: ability which any transmitter may have on the
M =
Ecar - Ernia
negative peaks is 100 per cent. The maximum
permissible modulation of many transmitters
is less than 100 per cent, especially on posi-
Ecar tive peaks. The modulation capability of a
In the above two formulas Emax is the max- transmitter may be limited by tubes with in-
imum carrier amplitude with modulation and sufficient filament emission, by insufficient
Furia is the minimum amplitude; ECM is the excitation or grid bias to a plate -modulated
steady -state amplitude of the carrier with- stage, too light loading of any type of ampli-
out modulation. Since the deflection of the fier carrying modulated r.f., insufficient power
spot on a cathode -ray tube is linear with re- output capability in the modulator, or too much
spect to voltage, the relative voltages of excitation to a grid- modulated stage or a
these various amplitudes may be determined Class B linear amplifier. In any case, the
by measuring the deflections, as viewed on FCC regulations specify that no transmitter
the screen, with a rule calibrated in inches be modulated in excess of its modulation
or centimeters. The percentage of modulation capability. Hence, it is desirable to make the
of the carrier may be had by multiplying the modulation capability of a transmitter as near
modulation factor thus obtained by 100. The as possible to 100 per cent so that the carrier
above procedure assumes that there is no power may be used most effectively.
HANDBOOK Modulation Systems 285
Speech Waveform The manner in which the The use of the proper polarity of the incom-
Dissymmetry human voice is produced ing speech wave in modulating a transmitter
by the vocal cords gives can afford an increase of approximately two
rise to a certain dissymmetry in the waveform to one in the amount of speech audio power
of voice sounds when they are picked up by which may be placed upon the carrier for an
a good-quality microphone. This is especially amplitude -modulated transmitter for the same
pronounced in the male voice, and more so amount of sideband splatter. More effective
on certain voiced sounds than on others. The methods for increasing the amount of audio
result of this dissymmetry in the waveform is power on the carrier of an AM phone trans-
that the voltage peaks on one side of the mitter are discussed later in this chapter.
average value of the wave will be consider-
ably greater, often two or three times as great, Single- Sidebond Because the same intelli-
as the voltage excursions on the other side Transmission gibility is contained in each
of the zero axis. The average value of volt- of the sidebands associated
age on both sides of the wave is, of course, with a modulated carrier, it is not necessary
the same. to transmit sidebands on both sides of the
As a result of this dissymmetry in the male carrier. Also, because the carrier is simply a
voice waveform, there is an optimum polarity single radio frequency wave of unvarying am-
of the modulating voltage that must be ob- plitude, i t is no t necessary to transmit the
served if maximum sideband energy is to be carrier if some means is provided for inserting
obtained without negative peak clipping and a locally generated carrier at the receiver.
generation of "splatter" on adjacent channels. When the carrier is suppressed but both
A double -pole double -throw "phase revers- upper and lower sidebands are transmitted, it
ing" switch in the input or output leads of any is necessary to insert a locally generated
transformer in the speech amplifier system will carrier at the receiver of exactly the same
permit poling the extended peaks in the direc- frequency and phase as the carrier which was
tion of maximum modulation capability. The suppressed. For this reason, suppressed -
optimum polarity may be determined easily by carrier double - sideband systems have little
listening on a selective receiver tuned to a practical application.
frequency 30 to 50 kc. removed from the de- When the carrier is suppressed and only the
sired signal and adjusting the phase reversing upper or the lower sideband is transmitted, a
switch to the position which gives the least highly intelligible signal may be obtained at
"splatter" when the transmitter is modulated the receiver even though the locally generated
rather heavily. If desired, the switch then may carrier differs a few cycles from the frequency
be replaced with permanent wiring, so long as of the carrier which was suppressed at the
the microphone and speech system are not to transmitter. A communications system utiliz-
be changed. ing but one group of sidebands with carrier
A more conclusive illustration of the lop- suppressed is known as a single sideband
sidedness of a speech waveform may be ob- system. Such systems are widely used for
tained by observing the modulated waveform commercial point to point work, and are being
of a radiotelephone transmitter on an oscillo- used to an increasing extent in amateur com-
scope. A portion of the carrier energy of the munication. The two chief advantages of the
transmitter should be coupled by means of a system are: ( 1) an effective power gain of
link directly to t h e vertical plates of the about 9 db results from putting all the radiat-
'scope, and the horizontal sweep should be a ed power in intelligence carrying sideband
sawtooth or similar wave occurring at a rate frequencies instead of mostly into radiated
of approximately 30 to 70 sweeps per second. carrier, and (2) elimination of the selective
With the speech signal from the speech am- fading and distortion that normally occurs in
plifier connected to the transmitter in one po- a conventional double -sideband system when
larity it will be noticed that negative -peak the carrier fades and the sidebands do not, or
clipping -as indicated by bright "spots" in the sidebands fade differently.
the center of the 'scope pattern whenever the
carrier amplitude goes to zero -will occur at
a considerably lower level of average modula- 15 -3 Systems of Amplitude
tion than with the speech signal being fed to Modulation
the transmitter in the other polarity. When the
input signal to the transmitter is polarized in
such a manner that the "fingers" of the There are many different systems and meth-
speech wave extend in the direction of posi- ods for amplitude modulating a carrier, but
tive modulation these fingers usually will be most may be grouped under three general clas-
clipped in the plate circuit of the modulator sifications: (1) variable efficiency systems
at an acceptable peak modulation level. in which the average input to the stage re-
mains constant with and without modulation Average input with 100%
and the variations in the efficiency of the modulation 100 watts
stage in accordance with the modulating sig- Average output with 100% modula-
nal accomplish the modulation; (2) constant tion (35 watts carrier plus 17.5
efficiency systems in which the input to the watts sideband) 52.5 watts
stage is varied by an external source of modu- Average efficiency with 100%
lating energy to accomplish the modulation; modulation 52.5%
and (3) so- called high- efficiency systems in
which circuit complexity is increased to ob-
high plate circuit efficiency in the modulated Systems of Efficiency There are many sys-
stage without the requirement of an external Modulation tems of efficiency mod-
high -level modulator. The various systems ulation, but they all
under each classification have individual have the general limitation discussed in the
characteristics which make certain ones best previous paragraph -so long as the carrier
suited to particular applications. amplitude is to remain constant with and
without modulation, the efficiency at carrier
level must be not greater than one -half the
Variable Efficiency Since the average input peak modulation efficiency if the stage is to
Modulation remains constant in a be capable of 100 per cent modulation.
stage employing variable The classic example of efficiency modula-
efficiency modulation, and since the average tion is the Class B linear r -f amplifier, to be
power output of the stage increases with modu- discussed below. The other three common
forms of efficiency modulation are control -
lation, the additional average power output grid modulation, screen -grid modulation, and
from the stage with modulation must come from
the plate dissipation of the tubes in the stage.
suppressor -grid modulation. In each case,
including that of the Class B linear amplifier,
Hence, for the best relation between tube cost note that the modulation, or the modulated
and power output the tubes employed should signal, is impressed on a control electrode
have as high a plate dissipation rating per of the stage.
dollar as possible.
The plate efficiency in such an amplifier is
doubled when going from the unmodulated The Class B This is the simplest practi-
condition to the peak of the modulation cycle. Linear Amplifier cable type amplifier for an
Hence, the unmodulated efficiency of such an amplitude- modulated wave
amplifier must always be less than 45 per or a single -sideband signal. The system pos-
cent, since the maximum peak efficiency ob- sesses the disadvantage that excitation, grid
tainable in a conventional amplifier is in the bias, and loading must be carefully controlled
vicinity of 90 per cent. Since the peak effi- to preserve the linearity of the stage. Also,
ciency in certain types of amplifiers will be the grid circuit of the tube, in the usual appli-
as low as 60 per cent, the unmodulated effi- cation where grid current is drawn on peaks,
ciency in such amplifiers will be in the vici- presents a widely varying value of load im-
nity of 30 per cent. pedance to the source of excitation. Hence it
Assuming a typical amplifier having a peak is necessary to include some sort of swamping
efficiency of 70 per cent, the following fig- resistor to reduce the effect of grid- imped-
ures give an idea of the operation of an ideal- ance variations with modulation. If such a
ized efficiency -modulated stage adjusted for swamping resistance across the grid tank is
100 per cent sine -wave modulation. It should not included, or is too high in value, the posi-
be kept in mind that the plate voltage is con- tive modulation peaks of the incoming modu-
stant at all times, even over the audio cycles. lated signal will tend to be flattened with
resultant distortion of the wave being amplified.
100 watts
The Class B linear amplifier has long been
Plate input without modulation used in broadcast transmitters, but recently
Output without modulation 35 watts
has received much more general usage in the
Efficiency without modulation 35%
h -f range for two significant reasons: (a) the
Input on 100% positive modulation Class B linear is an excellent way of increas-
peak (plate current doubles) 200 watts ing the power output of a single -sideband
Efficiency on 100% positive peak 70% transmitter, since the plate efficiency with
Output on 100% positive modula- full signal will be in the vicinity of 70 per
tion peak 140 watts cent, while with no modulation the input to
the stage drops to a relatively low value; and
Input on 100% negative peak 0 watts (b) the Class B linear amplifier operates with
Efficiency on 100% negative peak 0% relatively low harmonic output since the grid
Output on 100% negative peak 0 watts bias on the stage normally is slightly less
HANDBOOK Class B Linear Amplifier 287
than the value which will cut off plate current peak output of the r -f envelope should fall to
to the stage in the absence of excitation. half the value obtained on positive modula-
Since r. Class B linear amplifier is biased tion peaks.
to extended cutoff with no excitation ( the
grid bias at extended cutoff will be approxi- Class C . One widely used system of
mately equal to the plate voltage divided by Grid Modulation efficiency modulation for
the amplification factor for a triode, and will communications work is
be approximately equal to the screen voltage Class C control -grid bias modulation. The dis-
divided by the grid- screen mu factor for a tortion is slightly higher than for a properly
tetrode or pentode) the plate current will flow operated Class B linear amplifier, but the effi-
essentially in 180 -degree pulses. Due to the ciency is also higher, and the distortion can
relatively large operating angle of plate cur- be kept within tolerable limits for communi-
rent flow the theoretical peak plate efficiency cations work.
is limited to 78.5 per cent, with 65 to 70 per Class C grid modulation requires high plate
cent representing a range of efficiency nor- voltage on the modulated stage, if maximum
mally attainable, and the harmonic output output is desired. The plate voltage is nor-
will be low. mally run about 50 per cent higher than for
The carrier power output from a Class B maximum output with plate modulation.
linear amplifier of a normal 100 per cent mod- The driving power required for operation of
ulated AM signal will be about one -half the a grid -modulated amplifier under these condi-
rated plate dissipation of the stage, with opti- tions is somewhat more than is required for
mum operating conditions. The peak output operation at lower bias and plate voltage, but
from a Class B linear, which represents the the increased power output obtainable over-
maximum- signal output as a single -sideband balances the additional excitation require-
amplifier, or peak output with a 100 per cent ment. Actually, almost half as much excitation
AM signal, will be about twice the plate dis- is required as would be needed if the same
sipation of the tubes in the stage. Thus the stage were to be operated as a Class C plate -
carrier -level input power to a Class B linear modulated amplifier. The resistor R across
should be about 1.5 times the rated plate dis- the grid tank of the stage serves as swamping
sipation of the stage. to stabilize the r-f driving voltage. At least
The schematic circuit of a Class B linear 50 per cent of the output of the driving stage
amplifier is the same as a conventional single - should be dissipated in this swamping resistor
ended or push -pull stage, whether triodes or under carrier conditions.
beam tetrodes are used. However, a swamping A comparatively small amount of audio power
resistor, as mentioned before, must be placed will be required to modulate the amplifier stage
across the grid tank of the stage if the oper- 100 per cent. An audio amplifier having 20
ating conditions of the tube are such that watts output will be sufficient to modulate an
appreciable gridcurrent will be drawn on modu- amplifier with one kilowatt input. Proportion-
lation peaks. Also, a fixed source of grid bias ately smaller amounts of audio will be re-
must be provided for the stage. A regulated quired for lower powered stages. However, the
grid -bias power supply is the usual source of audio amplifier that is being used as the grid
negative bias voltage. modulator should, in any case, either employ
low plate resistance tubes such as 2A3's,
Adjustment of a Class With grid bias adjusted employ degenerative feedback from the output
B Linear Amplifier to the correct value, stage to one of the preceding stages of the
and with provision for speech amplifier, or be resistance loaded with
varying the excitation voltage to the stage a resistor across the secondary of the modu-
and the loading of the plate circuit, a fully lation transformer. This provision of low drive
modulated signal is applied to the grid circuit ing impedance in the grid modulator is to insure
of the stage. Then with an oscilloscope cou- good regulation in the audio driver for the grid
pled to the output of the stage, excitation and modulated stage. Good regulation of both the
loading are varied until the stage is drawing audio and the r-f drivers of a grid -modulated
the normal plate input and the output wave - stage is quite important if distortion -free
shape is a good replica of the input signal. modulation approaching 100 per cent is desired,
The adjustment procedure normally will re- because the grid impedance of the modulated
quire a succession of approximations, until stage varies widely over the audio cycle.
the optimum set of adjustments is attained. A practical circuit for obtaining grid -bias
Then the modulation being applied to the in- modulation is shown in figure 3. The modula-
put signal should be removed to check the tor and bias regulator tube have been com-
linearity. With modulation removed, in the bined in a single 6B4G tube.
case of a 100 per cent AM signal, the input The regulator-modulator tube operates as
to the stage should remain constant, and the a cathode -follower. The average d-c voltage
R.F. AMPLIFIER per cent. If the antenna coupling is decreased

slightly from the condition just described, and
11 y...0 O the excitation is increased to the point where
R,
ANT. the amplifier draws the same input, carrier
efficiency of 50 per cent is obtainable with
*',2°J.`
w.w.
~ rfUUV` tolerable distortion at 90 per cent modulation.
Tuning the
Grid -Bias
The most satisfactory pro -
cedure for tuning a stage
Modulated Stage for grid-bias modulation of
the Class C type is as
-
follows. The amplifier should first be neutra-
lized, and any possible tendency toward para-
sitics under any condition of operation should
be eliminated. Then the antenna should be
MIDGET CHORE
¿5k tow coupled to the plate circuit, the grid bias
al)V should be run up to the maximum available
value, and the plate voltage and excitation
025 476 - 610-. 6LF
should be applied. The grid bias voltage
R2T
70
FROM 65 J7 should then be reduced until the amplifier
ETC.
draws the approximate amount of plate cur-
rent it is desired to run, and modulation corre-
5Y3GT sponding to about 80 per cent is then applied.
If the plate current kicks up when modulation
is applied, the grid bias should be reduced;
if the plate meter kicks down, increase the
325 V. 325 V.
grid bias.
s_Q O P0, When the amount of bias voltage has been
found (by adjusting the fine control, R2, on
115V. A.C.
1 SMALL 60 -60 MA.
D.C. TRANSFORMER
the bias supply) where the plate meter re-
mains constant with modulation, it is more
than probable that the stage will be drawing
Figure 3
either too much or too little input. The an-
GRID -BIAS MODULATOR CIRCUIT tenna coupling should then be either increased
or decreased (depending on whether the in-
put was too little or too much, respectively)
until the input is more nearly the correct value.
on the control grid is controlled by the 70, 000 - The bias should then be readjusted until the
ohm wire -wound potentiometer and this poten- plate meter remains constant with modulation
tiometer adjusts the average grid bias on the as before. By slight jockeying back and forth
modulated stage. However, a -c signal voltage of antenna coupling and grid bias, a point can
is also impressed on the control -grid of the be reached where the tubes are running at
tube and since the cathode follows this a -c rated plate dissipation, and where the plate
wave the incoming speech wave is superim- milliammeter on the modulated stage remains
posed on the average grid bias, thus effecting substantially constant with modulation.
grid -bias modulation of the r -f amplifier stage. The linearity of the stage should then be
An audio voltage swing is required on the grid checked by any of the conventional methods;
of the 6B4G of approximately the same peak the trapezoidal pattern method employing a
value as will be required as bias -voltage cathode -ray oscilloscope is probably the most
swing on the grid -bias modulated stage. This satisfactory. The check with the trapezoidal
voltage swing will normally be in the region pattern will allow the determination of the
from 50 to 200 peak volts. Up to about 100 proper amount of gain to employ on the speech
volts peak swing can be obtained from a 6SJ7 amplifier. Too much audio power on the grid
tube as a conventional speech amplifier stage. of the modulated stage should not be used in
The higher voltages may be obtained from a the tuning -up process, as the plate meter will
tube such as a 6J5 through an audio trans- kick erratically and it will be impossible to
former of 2:1 or 21/2:1 ratio. make a satisfactory adjustment.
With the normal amount of comparatively
tight antenna coupling to the modulated stage, Screen -Grid Amplitude modulation may be
a non -modulated carrier efficiency of 40 per Modulation accomplished by varying the
cent can be obtained with substantially dis- screen -grid voltage in a Class
tortion -free modulation up to practically 100 C amplifier which employs a pentode, beam
HANDBOOK Screen Grid Modulation 289
tetrode, or other type of screen -grid tube. The swing at peak- modulation level. This condition
modulation obtained in this way is not es- must exist in any type of conventional effi-
pecially linear, but screen -grid modulation ciency-modulated stage if 100 per cent posi-
does offer other advantages and the linearity tive modulation is to be attainable. Since the
is quite adequate for communications work. plate -voltage swing is at half amplitude, and
There are two significant and worthwhile since the screen voltage is at half its full -
advantages of screen -grid modulation for com- modulation value, the screen current is rela-
munications work: (1) The excitation require- tively low. But at the positive modulation peak
ments for an amplifier which is to be modu- the screen voltage is approximately doubled,
lated in the screen are not at all critical, and and the plate- voltage swing also is at twice
good regulation of the excitation voltage is the carrier amplitude. Due to the increase in
not required. The normal rated grid- circuit plate -voltage swing with increasing screen
operating conditions specified for Class C voltage, the screen current increases more than
c-w operation are quite adequate for screen -
linearly with increasing screen voltage.
grid modulation. (2) The audio modulating In a test made on an amplifier with an 813
power requirements for screen -grid modulation tube, the screen current at carrier level was
are relatively low. about 6 ma. with screen potential of 190 volts;
A screen -grid modulated r -f amplifier oper- but under conditions which represented a posi-
ates as an efficiency -modulated amplifier, the tive modulation peak the screen current meas-
same as does a Class B linear amplifier and ured 25 ma. at a potential of 400 volts. Thus
a grid- modulated stage. Hence, plate circuit instead of screen current doubling with twice
loading is relatively critical as in any effi- screen voltage as would be the case if the
ciency- modulated stage, and must be adjusted screen presented a resistive impedance, the
to the correct value if normal power output screen current became about four times as
with full modulation capability is to be ob- great with twice the screen voltage.
tained. As in the case of any efficiency -modu- Another factor which must be considered
lated stage, the operating efficiency at the in the design of a screen -modulated stage, if
peak of the modulation cycle will be between full modulation is to be obtained, is that the
70 and 80 per cent, with efficiency at the car- power output of a screen -grid stage with zero
rier level (if the stage is operating in the nor- screen voltage is still relatively large. Hence,
mal manner with full carrier) about half of the if anything approaching full modulation on
peak- modulation value. negative peaks is to be obtained, the screen
There are two main disadvantages of screen - potential must be made negative with respect
grid modulation, and several factors which to ground on negative modulation peaks. In
must be considered if satisfactory operation the usual types of beam tetrode tubes the
of the screen -grid modulated stage is to be screen potential must be 20 to 50 volts nega-
obtained. The disadvantages are: (1) As men- tive with respect to ground before cut -off of
tioned before, the linearity of modulation with output is obtained. This condition further com-
respect to screen -grid voltage of such a stage plicates the problem of obtaining good linearity
is satisfactory only for communications work, in the audio modulating voltage for the screen -
unless carrier- rectified degenerative feed -back modulated stage, since the screen voltage
is employed around the modulated stage to must be driven negatively with respect to
straighten the linearity of modulation. (2) The ground over a portion of the cycle. Hence the
impedance of the screen grid to the modulating screen draws no current over a portion of the
signal is non -linear. This means that the mod- modulating cycle, and over the major portion
ulating signal must be obtained from a source of the cycle when the screen does draw cur-
of quite low impedance if audio distortion of rent, it presents approximately a square -law
the signal appearing at the screen grid is to impedance.
be avoided.
Circuits for Laboratory analysis of a large
Screen -Grid Instead of being linear with re- Screen -Grid number of circuits for accom-
Impedance spect to modulating voltage, as Modulation plishing screen modulation has
is the plate circuit of a plate - led to the conclusion that the
modulated Class C amplifier, the screen grid audio modulating voltage must be obtained
presents approximately a square -law imped- from a low- impedance source if low- distor-
ance to the modulating signal over the region tion modulation is to be obtained. Figure 4
of signal excursion where the screen is posi- shows a group of sketches of the modulation
tive with respect to ground. This non -linearity envelope obtained with various types of modu-
may be explained in the following manner: At lators and also with insufficient antenna coup-
the carrier level of a conventional screen - ling. The result of this laboratory work led
modulated stage the plate- voltage swing of to the conclusion that the cathode -follower
the modulated tube is one -half the voltage modulator of the basic circuit shown in figure
ENVELOPE OETAINCD WITH

INSUFFICIENT ANTENNA
COUPLING
-50 V. APPRO%.
Figure 4
SCREEN -MODULATION CIRCUITS

Three common screen modulation circuits are illustrated above. All three circuits
are capable of giving intelligible voice modulation although the waveform distortion
in the circuits of (A) and (B) is likely to be rather severe. The arrangement at (A)
is often called "clamp tube" screen modulation; by returning the grid leak on the
clamp tube to ground the circuit will give controlled - carrier screen modulation. This
circuit has the advantage that it is simple and is well suited to use in mobile trans-
mitters. (8) is an arrangement using a transformer coupled modulator, and offers no
particular advantages. The arrangement at (C) is capable of giving good modulation
linearity due to the low impedance of the cathode -follower modulator. However, due
to the relatively low heater -cathode ratings on tubes suited for use as the modula-
tor, a separate heater supply for the modulator tube normally is required. This limi-
tation makes application of the circuit to the mobile transmitter a special problem,
since an isolated heater supply normally is not available. Shown at (D) as an assist-
ance in the tuning of a screen -modulated transmitter (or any efficiency- modulated
transmitter for that matter) is the type of modulation envelope which results when
loading to the modulated stage is insufficient.
5 is capable of giving good- quality screen - grid stage since it acts as a relatively low -
grid modulation, and in addition the circuit impedance source of modulating voltage for
provides convenient adjustments for the car- the screen -grid circuit.ln addition the cathode -
rier level and the output level on negative follower modulator allows the supply voltage
modulation peaks. This latter control, P2 in both for the modulator and for the screen grid
figure 5, allows the amplifier to be adjusted of the modulated tube to be obtained from the
in such a manner that negative -peak clipping high -voltage supply for the plate of the screen -
cannot take place, yet the negative modulation grid tube or beam tetrode. In the usual case
peaks may be adjusted to a level just above the plate supply for the cathode follower, and
that at which sideband splatter will occur. hence for the screen grid of the modulated
tube, may be taken from the bleeder on the
The Cathode - The cathode follower is high -voltage power supply. A tap on the bleeder
Follower Modulator ideally suited for use as may be used, or two resistors may be connect-
the modulator for a screened in series to make up the bleeder, with ap-
HANDBOOK Modulation Systems 291
3.1
propriate values such that the voltage applied 6J5, ETC. STEPUP 6L6 +350TO600V
to the plate of the cathode follower is appro-
priate for the tube to be modulated. It is im-
portant that a bypass capacitor be used from
TO SCREEN OF
the plate of the cathode -follower modulator MODULATED STAGE
to ground.
The voltage applied to the plate of the
cathode follower should be about 100 volts
greater than the rated screen voltage for the
tetrode tube as a c -w Class C amplifier. Hence -loo V
the cathode -follower plate voltage should be 15 0 POT.
P2
about 350 volts for an 815, 2E26, or 829B, +2500
about 400 volts for an 807 or 4 -125A, about
500 volts for an 813, and about 600 volts for
a 4 -250A or a 4E27. Then potentiometer P1 Figure 5
in figure 5 should be adjusted until the carrier - CATHODEFOLLOWER
level screen voltage on the modulated stage SCREEN -MODULATION CIRCUIT
is about one -half the rated screen voltage A detailed discussion of this circuit, which
specified for the tube as a Class C c -w ampli- also is represented in figure 4C, is given in
fier. The current taken by the screen of the the accompanying text.
modulated tube under carrier conditions will
be about one - fourth the normal screen current
for c -w operation.
The only current taken by the cathode it is not difficult to readjust the amplifier for
follower itself will be that which will flow operation on different bands. Potentiometers
through the 100,000-ohm resistor between the
cathode of the 6L6 modulator and the nega- Pt (carrier level), and P2 ( negative peak level)
may be left fixed after a satisfactory adjust-
tive supply. The current taken from the bleeder ment, with the aid of the scope, has once been
on the high -voltage supply will be the carrier - found. Then when changing bands it is only
level screen current of the tube being modu- necessary to adjust excitation until the correct
lated (which current passes of course through value of grid current is obtained, and then to
the cathode follower) plus that current which adjust antenna coupling until correct plate
will pass through the 100,000 -ohm resistor. current is obtained. Note that the correct plate
The loading of the modulated stage should current for an efficiency -modulated amplifier
be adjusted until the input to the tube is about is only slightly less than the out -of- resonance
50 per cent greater than the rated plate dissi- plate current of the stage. Hence carrier-level
pation of the tube or tubes in the stage. If the screen voltage must be low so that the out -of-
carrier -level screen voltage value is correct resonance plate current will not be too high,
for linear modulation of the stage, the loading and relatively heavy antenna coupling must be
will have to be somewhat greater than that used so that the operating plate current will
amount of loading which gives maximum output be near the out -of- resonance value, and so that
from the stage. The stage may then be modu- the operating input will be slightly greater
lated by applying an audio signal to the grid than 1.5 times the rated plate dissipation of
of the cathode -follower modulator, while ob-
the tube or tubes in the stage. Since the carrier
serving the modulated envelope on an oscillo-
scope. efficiency of the stage will be only 35 to 40
per cent, the tubes will be operating with plate
If good output is being obtained, and the dissipation of approximately the rated value
modulation envelope appears as shown in fig- without modulation.
ure 4C, all is well, except that P2 in figure 5
should be adjusted until negative modulation Speech Clipping in The maximum r -f output
peaks, even with excessive modulating signal, the Modulated Stage of an efficiency-modu-
do not cause carrier cutoff with its attendant lated stage is limited
sideband splatter. If the envelope appears as by the maximum possible plate voltage swing
at figure 4D, antenna coupling should be in- on positive modulation peaks. In the modula -
creased while the carrier level is backed down lation circuit of figure 5 the minimum output
by potentiometer P1 in figure 5 until a set of is limited by the minimum voltage which the
adjustments is obtained which will give a satis- screen will reach on a negative modulation
factory modulation envelope as shown in peak, as set by potentiometer P2. Hence the
figure 4C. screen-grid -modulated stage, when using the
modulator of figure 5, acts effectively as a
Changing Bands After a satisfactory set of ad- speech clipper, provided the modulating signal
justments has been obtained, amplitude is not too much more than that value
which will accomplish full modulation. With transformer or filament winding. Note also that
correct adjustments of the operating conditions the operating plate -to- cathode voltage on the
of the stage it can be made to clip positive 6L6 modulator tube does not exceed the 360 -
and negative modulation peaks symmetrically. volt rating of the tube, since the operating
However, the inherent peak clipping ability of potential of the cathode is considerably above
the stage should not be relied upon as a means ground potential.
of obtaining a large amount of speech com-
pression, since excessive audio distortion and SuppressorGrid Still another form of effi-
excessive screen current on the modulated Modulation ciency modulation may be
stage will result. obtained by applying the
audio modulating signal to the suppressor grid
Characteristics of o An important character - of a pentode Class C r -f amplifier. Basically,
Typical Screen- istic of the screen -modu- suppressor -grid modulation operates in the
Modulated Stage laced stage, when using same general manner as other forms of effi-
the cathode -follower mod- ciency modulation; carrier plate circuit effi-
ulator, is that excessive plate voltage on the ciency is about 35 per cent, and antenna coup-
modulated stage is not required. In fact, full ling must be rather tight. However, suppressor -
output usually may be obtained with the larger grid modulation has one sizeable disadvantage,
tubes at an operating plate voltage from one - in addition to the fact that pentode tubes are
half to two- thirds the maximum rated plate not nearly so widely used as beam tetrodes
voltage for c -w operation. This desirable con- which of course do not have the suppressor
dition is the natural result of using a low - element. This disadvantage is that the screen -
impedance source of modulating signal for grid current to a suppressor-grid modulated
the stage. amplifier is rather high. The high screen cur-
As an example of a typical screen -modu- rent is a natural consequence of the rather high
lated stage, full output of 75 watts of carrier negative bias on the suppressor grid, which
may be obtained from an 813 tube operating reduces the plate- voltage swing and plate cur-
with a plate potential of only 1250 volts. No rent with a resulting increase in the screen
increase in output from the 813 may be ob- current.
tained by increasing the plate voltage, since In tuning a suppressor -grid modulated am-
the tube may be operated with full rated plate plifier, the grid bias, grid current, screen volt-
dissipation of 125 watts, with normal plate age, and plate voltage are about the same as
efficiency for a screen -modulated stage, 37.5 for Class C c -w operation of the stage. But
per cent, at the 1250 -volt potential. the suppressor grid is biased negatively to a
The operating conditions of a screen -modu- value which reduces the plate -circuit effici-
lated 813 stage are as follows: ency to about one -half the maximum obtainable
from the particular amplifier, with antenna
Plate voltage -1250 volts coupling adjusted until the plate input is about
Plate current -160 ma. 1.5 times the rated plate dissipation of the
Plate input -200 watts stage. It is important that the input to the
Grid current -11 ma. screen grid be measured to make sure that the
Grid bias -110 volts rated screen dissipation of the tube is not
Carrier screen voltage -190 volts being exceeded. Then the audio signal is ap-
Carrier screen current -6 ma. plied to the suppressor grid. In the normal
Power output -approx. 75 watts application the audio voltage swing on the
suppressor will be somewhat greater than the
With full 100 per cent modulation the plate negative bias on the element. Hence sup-
current decreases about 2 ma. and the screen pressor -grid current will flow on modulation
current increases about 1 ma.; hence plate, peaks, so that the source of audio signal volt-
screen, and grid current remain essentially age must have good regulation. Tubes suitable
constant with modulation. Referring to figure for suppressor -grid modulation are: 2E22,
5, which was the circuit used as modulator 837, 4E27/8001, 5 -125, 804 and 803. A typi-
for the 813, (E1) measured plus 155 volts, (E2) cal suppressor -grid modulated amplifier is
measured -50 volts, (E3) measured plus 190 illustrated in figure 6.
volts, (E4) measured plus 500 volts, and the
r.m.s. swing at (E5) for full modulation meas-
ured 210 volts, which represents a peak swing Input Modulation
of about 296 volts. Due to the high positive 15 -4
voltage, and the large audio swing, on the Systems
cathode of the 6L6 (triode connected) modu-
lator tube, it is important that the heater of Constant efficiency variable -input modula-
of this tube be fed from a separate filament tion systems operate by virtue of the addition
HANDBOOK Plate Modulation 293
4E27 CARRIER
OUTPUT
to the plate circuit of an r -f amplifier. The r -f
33 W amplifier must be operated Class C for this
type of modulation in order to obtain a radio -
R.F. INPUT
frequency output which changes in exact ac-
IG=
e MA.
cordance with the variation in plate voltage.
The r-f amplifier is 100 per cent modulated
ISG°
M IP=7oMA.
when the peak a -c voltage from the modulator
-130V. 22 K is equal to the d. c. voltage applied to the r- f
6J5 2:ISTEPUP +1500V. tube. The positive peaks of audio voltage in-
crease the instantaneous plate voltage on the
A.F. INPUT PEAK SWING FOR FULL r -f tube to twice the d -c value, and the nega-
MODULATION' 210 V.
tive peaks reduce the voltage to zero.
The instantaneous plate current to the r -f
stage also varies in accordance with the modu-
+300 V. -210 V.
lating voltage. The peak alternating current
in the output of a modulator must be equal to
Figure 6 the d -c plate current of the Class C r -f stage
AMPLIFIER WITH SUPPRESSOR -GRID at the point of 100 per cent modulation. This
MODULATION combination of change in audio voltage and
Recommended operating conditions for lin- current can be most easily referred to in terms
ear suppressor -grid modulation of a 4E27/ of audio power in watts.
2S7B/8001 stage are given on the drawing. In a sinusoidally modulated wave, the an-
tenna current increases approximately 22 per
cent for 100 per cent modulation with a pure
tone input; an r -f meter in the antenna circuit
of ez:ernal power to the modulated stage to indicates this increase in antenna current.
effect the modulation. There are two general The average power of the r -f wave increases
classifications that come under this heading; 50 per cent for 100 per cent modulation, the
those systems in which the additional power efficiency remaining constant.
is supplied as audio frequency energy from a This indicates that in a plate -modulated
modulator, usually called plate modulation radiotelephone transmitter, the audio- frequency
systems, and those systems in which the addi- channel must supply this additional 50 per
tional power to effect modulation is supplied cent increase in average power for sine -wave
as direct current from the plate supply. modulation. If the power input to the modu-
Under the former classification comes Heis- lated stage is 100 watts, for example, the
ing modulation (probably the oldest type of average power will increase to 150 watts at
modulation to be applied to a continuous car- 100 per cent modulation, and this additional
rier), Class B plate modulation, and series 50 watts of power must be supplied by the
modulation. These types of plate modulation modulator when plate modulation is used. The
are by far the easiest to get into operation, actual antenna power is a constant percentage
and they give a very good ratio of power input of the total value of input power.
to the modulated stage to power output; 65 to
One of the advantages of plate (or power)
80 per cent efficiency is the general rule. It
modulation is the ease with which proper ad-
is for these two important reasons that these justments can be made in the transmitter. Also.
modulation systems, particularly Class B plate there is less plate loss in the r -f amplifier for
modulation, are at present the most popular a given value of carrier power than with other
for communications work. forms of modulation because the plate effi-
ciency is higher.
Modulation systems coming under the sec-
ond classification are of comparatively recent By properly matching the plate impedance
development but have been widely applied to of the r -f tube to the output of the modulator,
broadcast work. There are quite a few systems the ratio of voltage and current swing to d -c
in this c'ass. Two of the more widely used voltage and current is automatically obtained.
are the Doherty linear amplifier, and the Ter - The modulator should have a peak voltage
man- Woodyard high- efficiency grid -modulated output equal to the average d -c plate voltage
amplifier. Both systems operate by virtue of on the modulated stage. The modulator should
a carrier amplifier and a peak amplifier con- also have a peak power output equal to the
nected together by electrical quarter -wave d -c plate input power to the modulated stage.
lines. They will be described later in this
section. The average power output of the modulator will
depend upon the type of waveform. If the am-
Plate Modulation Plate modulation is the ap- plifier is being Heising modulated by a Class
plication of the audio power A stage, the modulator must have an average
MODULATED CLASS C CLASS C

R F. AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
CLASS B
MODULATOR
Figure 7
HEISING PLATE MODULATION
MOD B R F B
This type of modulation was the first form
of plate modulation. It is sometimes known
as "constant current'' modulation. Because Figure 8
of the effective 1:1 ratio of the coupling
CLASS B PLATE MODULATION
choke, it is impossible to obtain 100 per cent
modulation unless the plate voltage to the This type of modulation is the most flexible
in that the loading adjustment can be made
modulated stage is dropped slightly by re-
in o short period of time and without elabo-
sistor R. The capacitor C merely bypasses
the audio around R, so that the full a-f out- rate test equipment aher a change in oper-
put voltage of the modulator is impressed ating frequency of the Class C amplifier has
on the Class C stage. been made.
power output capability of one -half the input the maximum available a -c peak voltage if
to the Class C stage. If the modulator is a 100% modulation is to be obtained.
Class B audio amplifier, the average power A higher degree of distortion can be toler-
required of it may vary from one -quarter to more ated in low -power emergency phone transmitters
than one -half the Class C input depending which use a pentode modulator tube, and the
upon the waveform. However, the peak power series resistor and by -pass capacitor are
output of any modulator must be equal to the usually omitted in such transmitters.
Class C input to be modulated.
Class B High -level Class B plate
Heising Heising modulation is the oldest Plate Modulation modulation is the least ex-
Modulation system of plate modulation, and pensive method of plate
usually consists of a Class A modulation. Figure 8 shows a conventional
audio amplifier coupled to the r -f amplifier by Class B plate- modulated Class C amplifier.
means of a modulation choke coil, as shown The statement that the modulator output
in figure 7. power must be one -half the Class C input for
The d.c. plate voltage and plate current in 100 per cent modulation is correct only if the
the r -f amplifier must be adjusted to a value waveform of the modulating power is a sine
which will cause the plate impedance to match wave. Where the modulator waveform is un-
the output of the modulator, since the modula- clipped speech, the average modulator power
tion choke gives a 1 -to -1 coupling ratio. A for 100 per cent modulation is considerably
series resistor, bypassed for audio frequen- less than one -half the Class C input.
cies by means of a capacitor, must be connect-
ed in series with the plate of the r -f amplifier Power Relations inIt has been determined ex-
to obtain modulation up to 100 per cent. The Speech Waveforms perimentally that the ratio
peak output voltage of a Class A amplifier of peak to average power
does not reach a value equal to the d -c voltage in a speech waveform is approximately 4 to 1
applied to the amplifier and, consequently, as contrasted to a ratio of 2 to 1 in a sine
the d -c plate voltage impressed across the wave. This is due to the high harmonic con-
r -f tube must be reduced to a value equal to tent of such a waveform, and to the fact that
HANDBOOK Plate Modulation 295
this high harmonic content manifests itself by a pair of 811 tubes operating at 1500 plate
making the wave unsymmetrical and causing volts will deliver 225 watts of audio output.
sharp peaks or "fingers" of high energy con- The plate -to -plate load resistance for these
tent to appear. Thus for unclipped speech, the tubes under the specified operating conditions
average modulator plate current, plate dissi- is 18,000 ohms. Hence our problem is to match
pation, and power output are approximately the Class C amplifier load resistance of 8888
one -half the sine wave values for a given peak ohms to the 18,000 -ohm load resistance re-
output power. quired by the modulator tubes.
Both peak power and average power are A 200 -to -300 watt modulation transformer
necessarily associated with waveform. Peak will be required for the job. If the taps on the
power is just what the name implies; the power transformer are given in terms of impedances
at the peak of a wave. Peak power, although it will only be necessary to connect the sec-
of the utmost importance in modulation, is of ondary for 8888 ohms (or a value approximately
no great significance in a -c power work, ex- equal to this such as 9000 ohms) and the pri-
cept insofar as the average power may be de- mary for 18,000 ohms. If it is necessary to
termined from the peak value of a known wave determine the proper turns ratio required of the
form. transformer it can be determined in the follow-
There is no time element implied in the ing manner. The square root of the impedance
definition of peak power; peak power may be ratio is equal to the turns ratio, hence:
instantaneous -and for this reason average
power, which is definitely associated with ¡ 8888 = 0.494 = 0.703
time, is the important factor in plate dissipa-
tion. It is possible that the peak power of a V
/ 18000 N/
given waveform be several times the average

value; for a sine wave, the peak power is twice The transformer must have a turns ratio of
the average value, and for unclipped speech approximately 1- to -0.7 step down, total pri-
the peak power is approximately four times mary to total secondary. The greater number
the average value. For 100 per cent modula- of turns always goes with the higher imped-
tion, the peak (instantaneous) audio power ance, and vice versa.
must equal the Class C input, although the
average power for this value of peak varies
widely depending upon the modulator wave- Pl ate- and- Screen only the plate of a
When
form, being greater than 50 per cent for speech Modulation screen-grid tube is modu-
that has been clipped and filtered, 50 per cent lated, it is impossible to ob-
for a sine wave, and about 25 per cent for typ- tain high -percentage linear modulation under
ical unclipped speech tones. ordinary conditions. The plate current of such
a stage is not linear with plate voltage. How-
Modulation The modulation transformer is ever, if the screen is modulated simultaneously
Transformer a device for matching the load with the plate, the instantaneous screen volt-
Calculations impedance of the Class C am- age drops in proportion to the drop in the plate
plifier to the recommended load voltage, and linear modulation can then be ob-
impedance of the Class B modulator tubes. tained. Four satisfactory circuits for accom-
Modulation transformers intended for com- plishing combined plate and screen modula-
munications work are usually designed to tion are shown in figure 9.
carry the Class C plate current through their The screen r -f by -pass capacitor C2 should
secondary windings, as shown in figure 8. not have a greater value than 0.005 pfd., pref-
The manufacturer's ratings should be con- erably not larger than 0.001 pfd. It should be
sulted to insure that the d -c plate current large enough to bypass effectively all r -f volt-
passed through the secondary winding does age without short-circuiting high - frequency
not exceed the maximum rating. audio voltages. The plate by -pass capacitor
A detailed discussion of the method of can be of any value from 0.002 pfd. to 0.005
making modulation transformer calculations /dd. The screen -dropping resistor, 111. should
has been given in Chapter Six. However, to reduce the applied high voltage to the value
emphasize the method of making the calcula- specified for operating the particular tube in
tion, an additional example will be given. the circuit. Capacitor C1 is seldom required
Suppose we take the case of a Class C am- yet some tubes may require this capacitor in
plifier operating at a plate voltage of 2000 order to keep C2 from attenuating the high fre-
with 225 ma. of plate current. This amplifier quencies. Different values between .0002 and
would present a load resistance of 2000 divi- .002 pfd. should be tried for best results.
ded by 0.225 amperes or 8888 ohms. The plate Figure 9C shows another method which uses
power input would be 2000 times 0.225 or 450 a third winding on the modulation transformer,
watts. By reference to Chapter Six we see that through which the screen -grid is connected to
8+ 0+
B+S.G. B+
Figure 9
PLATE MODULATION OF A BEAM TETRODE OR SCREEN -GRID TUBE
These alternative arrangements for plate modulation of tetrodes or pentodes are dis-
cussed in detail in the text. The arrangements shown at (B) or (D) are recommended
fur most applications.
a low- voltage power supply. The ratio of turns in plate voltage. This circuit arrangement is
between the two output windings depends upon illustrated in figure 9B.
the type of screen -grid tube which is being A similar application of this principle is
modulated. Normally it will be such that the shown in figure 9D. In this case the screen
screen voltage is being modulated 60 per cent voltage is fed directly from a low- voltage sup-
when the plate voltage is receiving 100 per ply of the proper potential through a choke L.
cent modulation. A conventional filter choke having an induc-
If the screen voltage is derived from a drop- tance from 10 to 20 henries will be satisfac-
ping resistor (not a divider) that is bypassed tory for L.
for r.f. but not a.f., it is possible to secure To afford protection of the tube when plate
quite good modulation by applying modulation voltage is not applied but screen voltage is
only to the plate. Under these conditions, the supplied from the exciter power supply, when
screen tends to modulate itself, the screen using the arrangement of figure 9D, a resistor
voltage varying over the audio cycle as a re- of 3000 to 10,000 ohms can be connected in
sult of the screen impedance increasing with series with the choke L. In this case the screen
plate voltage, and decreasing with a decrease supply voltage should be at least VA times as
HANDBOOK Cathode Modulation 297
much as is required tor actual screen voltage, upon the relative percentages of grid and
and the value of resistor is chosen such that plate modulation.
with normal screen current the drop through Since the system is a compromise between
the resistor and choke will be such that nor- the two fundamental modulation arrangements,
mal screen voltage will be applied to the tube. a value of efficiency approximately half way
When the plate voltage is removed the screen between the two would seem to be the best
current will increase greatly and the drop compromise. Experience has proved this to be
through resistor R will increase to such a the case. A compromise efficiency of about
value that the screen voltage will be lowered 56.5 per cent, roughly half way between the
to the point where the screen dissipation on two limits, has proved to be optimum. Cal-
the tube will not be exceeded. However, the culation has shown that this value of effi-
supply voltage and value of resistor R must ciency can be obtained from a cathode -modu-
be chosen carefully so that the maximum rated lated amplifier when the audio -frequency modu-
screen dissipation cannot be exceeded. The lating power is approximately 20 per cent of
maximum possible screen dissipation using the d -c input to the cathode -modulated stage.
this arrangement is equal to: W = E2/4R where
E is the screen supply voltage and R is the An Economical Series cathode modulation is
combined resistance of the resistor in figure Series Cathode ideally suited as an economi-
91) and the d -c resistance of the choke L. It Modulator cal modulating arrangement
is wise, when using this arrangement to check, for a high -power triode c -w
using the above formula, to see that the value transmitter. The modulator can be constructed
of W obtained is less than the maximum rated quite compactly and for a minimum component
screen dissipation of the tube or tubes used cost since no power supply is required for it.
in the modulated stage. This same system can When it is desired to change over from c -w to
of course also be used in figuring the screen 'phone, it is only necessary to cut the series
supply circuit of a pentode or tetrode ampli- modulator into the cathode return circuit of the
fier stage where modulation is not to be c -w amplifier stage. The plate voltage for the
applied. modulator tubes and for the speech amplifier
The modulation transformer for plate -and- is taken from the cathode voltage drop of the
screen- modulation, when utilizing a dropping modulated stage across the modulator unit.
resistor as shown in figure 9A, is similar to Figure 10 shows the circuit of such a modu-
the type of transformer used for any plate lator, designed to cathode modulate a Class C
modulated phone. The combined screen and amplifier using push-pull 810 tubes, running
plate current is divided into the plate voltage at a supply voltage of 2500, and with a plate
in order to obtain the Class C amplifier load input of 660 watts. The modulated stage runs
impedance. The peak audio power required to at about 50% efficiency, giving a power output
obtain 100 per cent modulation is equal to the of nearly 350 watts, fully modulated. The volt-
d -c power input to the screen, screen resistor, age drop across the cathode modulator is 400
and plate of the modulated r -f stage. volts, allowing a net plate to cathode voltage
of 2100 volts on the final amplifier. The plate
current of the 810' s should be about 330 ma.,
15 -5 Cathode Modulation and the grid current should be approximately
40 ma., making the total cathode current of the
Cathode modulation offers a workable com- modulated stage 370 ma. Four parallel 6L6
promise between the good plate efficiency but modulator tubes can pass this amount of plate
expensive modulator of high -level plate modu- current without difficulty. It must be remem-
lation, and the poor plate efficiency but in- bered that the voltage drop across the cathode
expensive modulator of grid modulation. Cathode modulator is also the cathode bias of the modu-
modulation consists essentially of an ad- lated stage. In most cases, no extra grid bias
mixture of the two. is necessary. If a bias supply is used for c -w
The efficiency of the average well- designed operation, it may be removed for cathode modu-
plate-modulated transmitter is in the vicinity lation, as shown in figure 11. With low -mu
of 75 to 80 per cent, with a compromise per- triodes, some extra grid bias (over and above
haps at 77.5 per cent. On the other hand, the that amount supplied by the cathode modulator)
efficiency of a good grid -modulated transmitter may be needed to achieve proper linearity of
may run from 28 to maybe 40 per cent, with the modulated stage. In any case, proper oper-
the average falling at about 34 per cent. Now ation of a cathode modulated stage should be
since cathode modulation consists of simul- determined by examining the modulated output
taneous grid and plate modulation, in phase waveform of the stage on an oscilloscope.
with each other, we can theoretically obtain
any efficiency from about 34 to 77.5 per cent Excitation The r -f driver for a cathode -mod-
from our cathode- modulated stage, depending ulated stage should have about
TO CATHODE
MODULATED
STAGE
6AU6 6AU6 6L6 6L6 6L6 6L6
500 n
.002
II
eT
ALL IESISTORS 0.5 WATT UNLESI CAUTION - FILAMENTS OF BLB TUBES MUST BE AT OPERATING
OTHERWISE NOTED TEMPERATURE BEFORE PLATE VOLTAGE IS APPLIED
ALL CAPACITORS IN AIF UNLESS TO MODULATED AMPLIFIER.
OTHERWISE NOTED.
Figure 10
SERIES CATHODE MODULATOR FOR A HIGH -POWERED TRIODE R -F
AMPLIFIER
the same power output capabilities as would supplies the unmodulated carrier, and whose
be required to drive a c -w amplifier to the same output is reduced to supply negative peaks,
input as it is desired to drive the cathode - and a peak tube (V3) whose function is to
modulated stage. However, some form of exci- supply approximately half the positive peak
tation control should be available since the of the modulation cycle and whose additional
amount of excitation power has a direct bearing function is to lower the load impedance on the
on the linearity of a cathode- modulated am- carrier tube so that it will be able to supply
plifier stage. If link coupling is used between the other half of the positive peak of the modu-
the driver and the modulated stage, variation lation cycle.
in the amount of link coupling will afford
apple excitation variation. If much less than The peak tube is enabled to increase the
output of the carrier tube by virtue of an im-
40% plate modulation is employed, the stage
pedance inverting line between the plate cir-
begins to resemble a grid -bias modulated
stage, and the necessity for good r -f regula- cuits of the two tubes. This line is designed
to have a characteristic impedance of one -half
tion will apply.
the value of load into which the carrier tube
operates under the carrier conditions. Then a
Cathode Modulation Cathode modulation has
of Tetrodes
load of one -half the characteristic impedance
not proved too satisfac-
tory for use with beam
of the quarter -wave line is coupled into the
tetrode tubes. This is a result of the small output. By experience with quarter -wave lines
excitation and grid swing requirements for in antenna- matching circuits we know that
such tubes, plus the fact that some means for such a line will vary the impedance at one
holding the screen voltage at the potential of end of the line in such a manner that the geo-
the cathode as far as audio is concerned is
metric mean between the two terminal imped-
usually necessary. Because of these factors, ances will be equal to the characteristic im-
pedance of the line. Thus, if we have a value
cathode modulation is not recommended for
use with tetrode r-f amplifiers. of load of one -hall the characteristic imped-
ance of the line at one end, the other end of
the line will present a value of twice the char-
15 -6 The Doherty and the acteristic impedance of the lines to the car-
Terman- Woodyard rier tube V,.
Modulated Amplifiers This is the situation that exists under the
carrier conditions when the peak tube merely
floats across the load end of the line and con-
These two amplifiers will be described to- tributes no power. Then as a positive peak of
gether since they operate upon very similar modulation comes along, the peak tube starts
principles. Figure 12 shows a greatly simpli- to contribute power to the load until at the
fied schematic diagram of the operation of both peak of the modulation cycle it is contributing
types. Both systems operate by virtue of a car- enough power so that the impedance at the
rier tube (V1 in both figures 12 and 13) which load end of the line is equal to R, instead of
HANDBOOK Doherty Amplifier 299
R. F. AMPLIFIER ELECTRICAL A/1

-JXRc LINE ZO' R
I
V2
JX =R
TT
Figure 12
DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF
THE DOHERTY LINEAR
uIC EAU!. GALA -ALE'S desirable phase shift of 90° between the plate
CATHODE circuits of the carrier and peak tubes, an equal
MODULATOR and opposite phase shift must be introduced in
the exciting voltage to the grid circuits of the
two tubes so that the resultant output in the
plate circuit will be in phase. This additional
Figure 11
phase shift has been indicated in figure 12 and
a method of obtaining it has been shown in
CATHODE MODULATOR INSTALLATION figure 13.
SHOWING PHONE -C.W. TRANSFER SWITCH
Comparison Between The difference between
Linear and the Doherty linear am-
the R/2 that is presented under the carrier Grid Modulator plifier and the Terman-
conditions. This is true because at a positive Woodyard grid -modulated
modulation peak (since it is delivering full amplifier is the same as the difference between
power) the peak tube subtracts a negative any linear and grid -modulated stages. Modulated
resistance of R/2 from the load end of the r.f.is applied to the grid circuit of the Doherty
line. linear amplifier with the carrier tube biased to
Now, since under the peak condition of modu- cutoff and the peak tube biased to the point
lation the load end of the line is terminated where it draws substantially zero plate current
in R ohms instead of R /2, the impedance at at the carrier condition.
the carrier-tube will be reduced from 2R ohms In the Terman- Woodyard grid -modulated am-
to R ohms. This again is due to the impedance plifier the carrier tube runs Class C with com-
inverting action of the line. Since the load re- paratively high bias and high plate efficiency,
sistance on the carrier tube has been reduced while the peak tube again is biased so that it
to half the carrier value, its output at the peak draws almost no plate current. Unmodulated
of the modulation cycle will be doubled. Thus r.f. is applied to the grid circuits of the two
we have the necessary condition for a 100 tubes and the modulating voltage is inserted
per cent modulation peak; the amplifier will in series with the fixed bias voltages. From
deliver four times as much power as it does one -half to two - thirds as much audio voltage
under the carrier conditions. is required at the grid of the peak tube as is
On negative modulation peaks the peak tube required at the grid of the carrier tube.
does not contribute; the output of the carrier
tube is reduced until on a 100 per cent nega- Operating The resting carrier efficiency of
tive peak its output is zero. Efficiencies the grid-modulated amplifier may
run as high as is obtainable in
The Electrical While an electrical quarter- any Class C stage, 80 per cent or better. The
Quarter -Wave wave line (consisting of a pi resting carrier efficiency of the linear will be
Line network with the inductance about as good as is obtainable in any Class
and capacitance units having B amplifier, 60 to 70 per cent. The overall
a reactance equal to the characteristic imped- efficiency of the bias -modulated amplifier at
ance of the line) does have the desired im- 100 per cent modulation will run about 75 per
pedance- inverting effect, it also has the un- cent; of the linear, about 60 per cent.
desirable effect of introducing a 90° phase In figure 13 the plate tank circuits are de-
shift across such a line. If the shunt elements tuned enough to give an effect equivalent to
are capacitances, the phase shift across the the shunt elements of the quarter -wave "line"
line lags by 90 °; if they are inductances, the of figure 12. At resonance, the coils L, and
L2 in the grid circuits of the two tubes have
phase shift leads by 90 °. Since there is an un-
other undesirable features which make their

NC use impracticable alongside the more conven-
tional modulation systems. Nearly all these
circuits have been published in the I.R.E.
Proceedings and the interested reader can re-
EXCITA- fer to them in back copies of that journal.
TION
C3
51 55
3
c,1
/ BIAS
15 -7 Speech Clipping
Lxo Speech waveforms are characterized by fre-

TO
l ANT. quently recurring high- intensity peaks of very
T short duration. These peaks will cause over -
2 modulation if the average level of modulation
on loud syllables exceeds approximately 30
per cent. Careful checking into the nature of
Figure 13 speech sounds has revealed that these high -
SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF A intensity peaks are due primarily to the vowel
"HIGH EFFICIENCY" AMPLIFIER sounds. Further research has revealed that the
The basic system, comprising a "carrier" vowel sounds add little to intelligibility, the
tube and o "peak" tube lnterconnecied by major contribution to intelligibility coming
lumped -constant quarter -wave lines, is the from the consonant sounds such as v, b, k, s,
same for either grid -bias modulation or t, and 1. Measurements have shown that the
for power contained in these consonant sounds
use as o linear amplifier of o modulated
wave.
may be down 30 db or more from the energy in
the vowel sounds in the same speech passage.
Obviously, then, if we can increase the rel-
ative energy content of the consonant sounds
each an inductive reactance equal to the ca- with respect to the vowel sounds it will be
pacitive reactance of the capacitor C1, Thus possible to understand a signal modulated with
we have the effect of a pi network consisting such a waveform in the presence of a much
of shunt inductances and series capacitance. higher level of background noise and inter-
In the plate circuit we want a phase shift of ference. Experiment has shown that it is pos-
the same magnitude but in the opposite direc- sible to accomplish this desirable result sim-
tion; so our series element is the inductance ply by cutting off or clipping the high- intensity
L3 whose reactance is equal to the character- peaks and thus building up in a relative man-
istic impedance desired of the network. Then ner the effective level of the weaker sounds.
the plate tank capacitors of the two tubes C2 Such clipping theoretically can be accom-
and C3 are increased an amount past reson- plished simply by increasing the gain of the
ance, so that they have a capacitive reactance speech amplifier until the average level of
equal to the inductive reactance of the coil L3_ modulation on loud syllables approaches 90
It is quite important that there be no coupling per cent. This is equivalent to increasing the
between the inductors. speech power of the consonant sounds by about
Although both these types of amplifiers are 10 times or, conversely, we can say that 10 db
highly efficient and require no high -level audio of clipping has been applied to the voice wave.
equipment, they are difficult to adjust- parti- However, the clipping when accomplished in
cularly so on the higher frequencies -and it this manner will produce higher order side -
would be an extremely difficult problem to de- bands known as "splatter," and the transmitted
sign a multiband transmitter employing the signal would occupy a relatively tremendous
circuit. However, the grid -bias modulation sys- slice of spectrum. So another method of accom-
tem has advantages for the high -power trans- plishing the desirable effects of clipping must
mitter which will be operated on a single fre- be employed.
quency band. A considerable reduction in the amount of
splatter caused by a moderate increase in the
Other High -Efficiency Many other high- efficien- gain of the speech amplifier can be obtained
Modulation Systems cy modulation systems by poling the signal from the speech amplifier
have been described since to the transmitter such that the high- intensity
about 1936. The majority of these, however peaks occur on upward or positive modulation.
have received little application either by com- Overloading on positive modulation peaks pro-
mercial interests or by amateurs. In most cases duces less splatter than the negative -peak
the circuits are difficult to adjust, or they have clipping which occurs with overloading on the
HANDBOOK Speech Clipping 301
100% POS MODULAT}
AvER
Figure 14
SPEECH- WAVEFORM AMPLITUDE 1
MODULATION
Showing the effect of using the prop- 100% NEG. MODULATION
er polarity of a speech wave for

n-odulating a transmitter. (A) shows
the effect of proper speech polarity
on a transmitter having an upward
modulation capability of greater
AVERAGE LEVEL
than 100 per cent. (B) shows the
effect of using proper speech polar-
ity on o transmitter having an up-
ward modulation capability of only
10016 NEG. MODULATION
100 per cent. Both these conditions
will give a clean signal without
objectionable splatter. (C) shows 100% POS. MODULATION
the effect of the use of improper
speech polarity. This condition will
cause serious splatter due to nega-
tive -peak clipping in the modulated- O AVERAGE LEVEL
amplifier stage.
100 % NEG. MODULATION

NEGATIVE
PEAR CLIPPING -
negative peaks of modulation. This aspect of to a minimum. However, if there is phase shift
the problem has been discussed in more detail after the clipper -filter the system does not
in the section on Speech Waveform Dissymmetry completely break down. The presence of phase
earlier in this chapter. The effect of feeding shift merely requires that the audio gain fol-
the proper speech polarity from the speech am- lowing the clipper -filter be reduced to the point
plifier is shown in figure 14. where the cant applied to the clipped speech
A much more desirable and effective method waves still cannot cause overmodulation. This
of obtaining speech clipping is actually to em- effect is illustrated in figures 15 and 16.
ploy a clipper circuit in the earlier stages of The cant appearing on the tops of the square
the speech amplifier, and then to filter out the waves leaving the clipper -filter centers about
objectionable distortion components by means the clipping level. Hence, as the frequency
of a sharp low -pass filter having a cut -off fre- being passed through the system is lowered,
quency of approximately 3000 cycles. Tests on the amount by which the peak of the canted
clipper -filter speech systems have shown that wave exceeds the clipping level is increased.
6 db of clipping on voice is just noticeable,
12 db of clipping is quite acceptable, and Phase Shift In a normal transmitter having a
values of clipping from 20 to 25 db are toler- Correction moderate amount of phase shift
able under such conditions that a high degree the cant applied to the tops of
of clipping is necessary to get through heavy the waves will cause overmodulation on fre-
QRM or QRN. A signal with 12 db of clipping quencies below those for which the gain fol-
doesn't sound quite natural but it is not un- lowing the clipper -filter has been adjusted un-
pleasant to listen to and is much more read- less remedial steps have been taken. The fol-
able than an unclipped signal in the presence lowing steps are advised:
of strong interference. (1) Introduce bass suppression into the speech
The use of a clipper- filter in the speech am- amplifier ahead of the clipper- filter.
plifier, to be completely effective, requires
that phase shift between the clipper- filter (2) Improve the low -frequency response char-
stage and the final modulated amplifier be kept acteristic insofar as it is possible in the
3 02 A mp l i t u d e M o d u l a t i o n T H E R A D I O
POSITIVE CLIPPING LEVEL
AVERAGE IEEI
NEGATIVE CPPiNGE_V(y
Figure 15
ACTION OF A CLIPPER- FILTER
ON A SPEECH WAVE
INCOMING SPEECH WAVE
The drawing (A) shows the incom-
ing speech wave before it reaches
the clipper stage. (B) shows the
POSITIVE CLIPPING LEVEL output of the clipper -filter, illus-
trating the manner in which the
AVERAGE LEVEL peaks ore clipped and then the
sharp edges of the clipped wave
NEGATIVE CLIPPING LEVEL removed by the filter. (C) shows
CLIPPED AND FILTERED SPEECH WAVE the effect of phase shift in the
stages following the clipper -filter.
(C) also shows the manner in which
the transmitter may be adjusted for
100 per cent modulation of' the
100% POSITIVE _MOOUL_A_TIO_N
70 % POSITIVE MODULATION
"canted" peaks of the wove, the
sloping top of the wove reaching
AVERAGE LEVEL about 70 per cent modulation.
70% NEGATIVE MODULATION

% NEGATIVE MODULATION 100
MODULATED WAVE AFTER UNDERGOING PHASE SHIFT
stages following the clipper- filter. Feed- (3) Again with the normal talking into the
ing the plate current to the final amplifier microphone adjust the gain following the
through a choke rather than through the clipper- filter to the point where the side -
secondary of the modulation transformer band splatter is being heard, and then
will help materially. slightly back off the gain after the clip-
per- filter until the splatter disappears.
Even with the normal amount of improvement
which can be attained through the steps men- If the phase shift in the transmitter or mod-
tioned above there will still be an amount of ulator is not excessive the adjustment proced-
wave cant which must be compensated in some ure given above will allow a clean signal to be
manner. This compensation can be done in radiated regardless of any reasonable voice
either of two ways. The first and simpler way level being fed into the microphone.
is as follows: If a cathode -ray oscilloscope is available
the modulated envelope of the transmitter
(1) Adjust the speech gain ahead of the clip-
should be checked with 30 to 70 cycle saw -
per- filter until with normal talking into
tooth waves on the horizontal axis. If the upper
the microphone the distortion being intro-
half of the envelope appears in general the
duced by the clipper- filter circuit is quite
same as the drawing of figure 15C, all is well
apparent but not objectionable. This amount
and phase -shift is not excessive. However, if
of distortion will be apparent to the normal much more slope appears on the tops of the
listener when 10 to 15 db of clipping is waves than is illustrated in this figure, it will
taking place.
be well to apply the second step in compen-
( 2) Tune a selective communications receiver sation in order to insure that sideband splatter
about 15 kc. to one side or the other of the cannot take place and to afford a still higher
frequency being transmitted. Use a short average percentage of modulation. This second
antenna or no antenna at all on the re- step consists of the addition of a high -level
ceiver so that the transmitter is not block- splatter suppressor such as is illustrated in
ing the receiver. figure 17.
HANDBOOK Splatter Suppression 303
MODULATOR SR4GY,1616
836 C2
z
0
C4 I
TO
LA V PLATE-MODULATED
CLASS-C AMPLIFIER
3000 % WAVE FIL. TRANS. 7500 -10 000 OHMS
-- NSULATED
IFOR LOAD
Ali---
H.V.
+- -
W
> +B MOD. 115 V.A.C. fB R.F. FINAL
W
J
M
L, 0
2 Figure 17
EL_
a. HIGH -LEVEL SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
L) This circuit is effective in reducing splatter
WAVE caused by negative -peak clipping in the mod-
ulated amplifier stage. The use of a two -
section filter as shown is recommended, al-
though either a single m- derived or a con -
stant-k section may be used for greater econ-
omy. Suitable chokes, along with recom-
mended capacitor values, are available from
several manufacturers.
3001, WAVE
Hence negative -peak clipping with its attend-
Figure 16 ant splatter cannot take place. Such a device
ILLUSTRATING THE EFFECT OF PHASE can, of course, also be used in a transmitter
SHIFT AND FILTERED WAVES OF DIF- which does not incorporate a clipper- filter sys-
FERENT FREQUENCY tem. However, the full increase in average
Sketch (A) shows the effect of a clipper and
modulation level without serious distortion,
afforded by the clipper -filter system, will not
a filter having a cutoff of about 3500 cycles
be obtained.
on a wove of 3000 cycles. Note that no har-
A word of caution should be noted at this
monics are present in the wave so that phase
time in the case of tetrode final modulated
shift following the clipper-filter will have
amplifier stages which afford screen voltage
ne significant effect on the shape of the
modulation by virtue of a tap or a separate
wave. (B) and (C) show the effect of phase
winding on the modulation transformer such
shift on waves well below the cutoff frequen- as is shown in figure 9C of this chapter. If
cy of the filter. Note that the "cant" placed
such a system of modulation is in use, the
upon the top of the wave causes the peak
high -level splatter suppressor shown in figure
vofue to rise higher and higher above the
17 will not operate satisfactorily since nega-
clipping level as the frequency is lowered. tive -peak clipping in the stage can take place
It is for this reason that bass suppression when the screen voltage goes too low.
before the clipper stage is desirable. Im-
proved low- frequency response following the Clipper Circuits Two effective low -level clip-
clipper -filter will reduce the phase shift and per- filter circuits are shown
therefore the canting of the wave at the lower in figures 19 and 20. The circuit of figure 19
voice frequencies.
employs a 6J6 double triode as a clipper, each
half of the 6J6 clipping one side of the ;m-
pressed waveform. The optimum level at which
The use of a high -level splatter suppressor the clipping operation begins is set by the
after a clipper -filter system will afford the re- value of the cathode resistor. A maximum of
sult shown in figure 18 since such a device 12 to 14 db of clipping may be used with this
will not permit the negative -peak clipping circuit, which means that an extra 12 to 14 db
which the wave cant caused by audio -system of speech gain must precede the clipper. For
phase shift can produce. The high -level splat- a peak output of 8 volts from the clipper -filter,
ter suppressor operates by virtue of the fact a peak audio signal of about 40 volts must be
that it will not permit the plate voltage on the impressed upon the clipper input circuit. The
modulated amplifier to go completely to zero 6C4 speech amplifier stage must therefore be
regardless of the incoming signal amplitude. considered as a part of the clipper circuit as
Figure 18
100 % POS MODULATION ACTION OF HIGH -LEVEL
SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
A high -level splatter suppressor
may be used in a transmitter with-
ZERO AXIS out a clipper -filter to reduce nega-
tive-peak clipping, or such a unit
may be used following a clipper -
100 w NEG. MODULATION
filter to allow a higher average
.SPLATTER- CAUSING
modulation level by eliminating the
NEGATIVE OVERMODULATION PEAK negative -peak clipping which the
CUT OFF BY "HIGH- LEVEL
SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR' wave-cant caused by phase shift
might produce.
it compensates for the 12 to 14 db loss of gain so that over-modulation of the transmitter is

incurred in the clipping process. A simple low - impossible, regardless of the amount of clip-
pass filter made up of a 20 henry a.c. - d.c ping used. Once the Adj. Gain control has
replacement type filter choke and two mica been roughly set, the Adj. Clip. control may
condensers follows the 6J6 clipper. This fil- be used to set the modulation level to any per-
ter is designed for a cutoff frequency of about centage below 100 %. As the modulation level
3500 cycles when operating into a load im- is decreased, more and more clipping is intro-
pedance of % megohm. The output level of 8 duced into the circuit, until a full 12 db of
volts peak is ample to drive a triode speech clipping is used. This means that the Adj.
amplifier stage, such as a 6C4 or 6J5. Gain control may be advanced some 12 db past
A 6AL5 double diode series clipper is em- the point where the clipping action started.
ployed in the circuit of figure 20, and a com- Clipping action should start at 85% to 90%
mercially made low -pass filter is used to give modulation when a sine wave is used for cir-
somewhat better high frequency cutoff char- cuit adjustment purposes.
acteristics. A double triode is employed as a
speech amplifier ahead of the clipper circuit. High -Level Even though we may have cut off
The actual performance of either circuit is Filters all frequencies above 3000 or 3500
about the same. cycles through the use of a filter
To eliminate higher order products that may system such as is shown in the circuits of fig-
be generated in the stages following the clip- ures 19 and 20, higher frequencies may again
per- filter, it is wise to follow the modulator be introduced into the modulated wave by
with a high -level filter, as shown in figure 21. distortion in stages following the speech am-
plifier. Harmonics of the incoming audio fre-
Clipper Adjustment These clipper circuits quencies may be generated in the driver stage
have two adjustments: for the modulator; they may be generated in the
Adjust Gain and Adjust Clipping. The Adj. plate circuit of the modulator; or they may be
Gain control determines the modulation level generated by non -linearity in the modulated
of the transmitter. This control should be set amplifier itself.
6AU6 6C4 6J6 20 H

(STANCOR C1515)
ADJUST CLIP.. ADJUST GAIN
01, OLUF
TO NEXT
GRID
70 330 ¶5000
LUF ULF
PEAK OUTPUT APPROX.
S V MAX.WITH /2 DG
OF CLIPPING.
ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT UNLESS

OTHERWISE MARKED
ALL CAPACITORS IN .0/F UNLESS
OTHERWISE NOTED
Figure 19
CLIPPER FILTER USING 6J6 DOUBLE TRIODE STAGE
HANDBOOK Splatter Suppression 305
12AX7 ADJUST GAIN 6AL5 CHICAGO TRANS.

LPF -2 FILTER
TO NE %T
GRID
e 470
4.711 OEUF
500 J 470 56
x
PEAK OUTPUT APPROX.
SV MAX. WITH 1208
OF CLIPPING
-ADJUST CLIP.
SN,IW IODIC
ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT UNLESS
N. W OTHERWISE MARKED.
ALL CAPACITORS /HATE UNLESS
*300 V. OTHERWISE MARKED.
Figure 20
CLIPPER FILTER USING 6ALS STAGE
Regardless of the point in the system fol- shown in figure 21 and discussed previously.
lowing the speech amplifier where the high Another method which will give excellent re-
audio frequencies may be generated, these fre- sults in some cases and poor results in others,
quencies can still cause a broad signal to be dependent upon the characteristics of the mod-
transmitted even though all frequencies above ulation transformer, is to "build out" the mod-
3000 or 3500 cycles have been cut off in the ulation transformer into a filter section. This
speech amplifier. The effects of distortion in is accomplished as shown in figure 22 by plac-
the audio system following the speech ampli- ing mica capacitors of the correct value across
fier can be eliminated quite effectively through the primary and secondary of the modulation
the use of a post- modulator filter. Such a filter transformer. The proper values for the capaci-
must be used between the modulator plate cir-
cuit and the r -f amplifier which is being mod-
ulated
CLASS
This filter may take three general forms in C STAGE
a normal case of a Class C amplifier plate mod-

ulated by a Class B modulator. The best meth-
od is to use a high level low -pass filter as
CLASS C AMPLIFIER
MODULATION
TRANSFORMER
Figure 22
"BUILDING -OUT" THE MODULATION
TRANSFORMER
This expedient utilizes the leakage react-
ance of the modulation transformer in con-
junction with the capacitors shown to make
Bt MOO up a single -section low-pass filter. In order
to determine exact values for CI and C2 plus
Figure 21 C3, it is necessary to use a measurement
ADDITIONAL HIGH-LEVEL LOW -PASS FIL- setup such as is shown in figure 23. How-
TER TO FOLLOW MODULATOR WHEN A ever, experiment has shown in the case of a
LOW -LEVEL CLIPPER FILTER IS USED number of commercially available modulation
Suitable choke, along with recommended ca- transformers that a value for CI of 0.002 -4d.
pacitcr values, is available from several and C2 plus C3 of 0.004 -µfd. will give satis-
manufacturers. factory results.
, 11
11111 1
ESi/A/"/Iill 1
-2M11111
Figure 23
// rN1%1111
3/'I11111
1111111 RECOMMENDED CURVES MR
TEST SETUP FOR BUILDING -OUT
MODULATION TRANSFORMER
Through the use of a test setup such as is
r_I./.1'111_.,,
WIN
gill
NM
WIN 11
shown and the method described in the text
11
it Is possible to determine the correct values
for a specified filter characteristic in the
built -out modulation transformer.
I_I,.1,
-111 11
_
Ra=SOOK
"WA ..111'1_.,1I
//
_
11111 11
tors C1 and C2 must, in the ideal case, be de- FREQUENCY (CPS)
termined by trial and error. Experiment with
a number of modulators has shown, however, Figure 24
that if a 0.002 µfd. capacitor is used for C1,
BASE ATTENUATION CHART
and if the sum of C2 and C3 is made 0.004 pfd.
(0.002 pfd. for C2 and 0.002 for C3) the ideal Frequency attenuation caused by various
condition of cutoff above 3000 cycles will be values of coupling capacitor with a grid re-
approached in most cases with the "multiple - sistor of 0.5 megohm in the following stage
match" type of modulation transformer. (RG > RL)
If it is desired to determine the optimum
values of the capacitors across the transformer
this can be determined in several ways, all of
which require the use of a calibrated audio amplifier of such amplitude that limiting does
oscillator. One way is diagrammed in figure 23. not take place, a substantially clean sine wave
The series resistors R1 and R2 should each be should be obtained on the carrier of the trans-
equal to % the value of the recommended plate - mitter at all input frequencies up to the cutoff
to -plate load resistance for the Class B modu- frequency of the filter system in the speech
lator tubes. Resistor R3 should be equal to the amplifier and of the filter which includes the
value of load resistance which the Class C modulation transformer. Above these cutoff
modulated stage will present to the modulator. frequencies very little modulation of the carrier
The meter V can be any type of a-c voltmeter. wave should be obtained. To obtain a check
The indicating instrument on the secondary of on the effectiveness of the "built out" modu-
the transformer can be either a cathode -ray lation transformer, the capacitors across the
oscilloscope or a high- impedance a -c volt- primary and secondary should be removed for
meter of the vacuum -tube or rectifier type. the test. In most cases a marked deterioration
With a set -up as shown in figure 23 a plot of in the waveform output of the modulator will
output voltage against frequency is made, at be noticed with frequencies in the voice range
all times keeping the voltage across V con- from 500 to 1500 cycles being fed into the
stant, using various values of capacitance for speech amplifier.
C1 and C2 plus C3. When the proper values of A filter system similar to that shown in fig-
capacitance have been determined which give ure 17 may be used between the modulator
substantially constant output up to about 3000 and the modulated circuit in a grid- modulated
or 3500 cycles and decreasing output at all fre- or screen-modulated transmitter. Lower -voltage
quencies above, high -voltage mica capacitors capacitors and low -current chokes may of
can be substituted if receiving types were used course be employed.
in the tests and the transformer connected to
the modulator and Class C amplifier. Bass Suppression Most of the power repre-
With the transformer reconnected in the sented by ordinary speech
transmitter a check of the modulated -wave (particularly the male voice) lies below 1000
output of the transmitter should be made using cycles. If all frequencies below 400 or 500
an audio oscillator as signal generator and an cycles are eliminated or substantially atten-
oscilloscope coupled to the transmitter output. uated, there is a considerable reduction in
With an input signal amplitude fed to the speech power but insignificant reduction in intelligi-
HANDBOOK Bass Suppression 307
bility. This means that the speech level may

be increased considerably without overmodu-
lation or overload of the audio system. In
addition, if speech clipping is used, attenua-
tion of the lower audio frequencies before the
clipper will reduce phase shift and canting of L "IO HENRY' MIDGET
AC-DC FILTER CHOKE
:he clipper output. (STANCOR C- /333 )
A simple method of bass suppression is to

reduce the size of the interstage coupling ca-
pacitors in a resistance coupled amplifier. Figure 25
Figure 24 shows the frequency characteristics USE OF PARALLEL INDUCTANCE
caused by such a suppression circuit. A sec - FOR BASS SUPPRESSION
cnd simple bass suppression circuit is to
place a small a.c. - d.c. type filter choke from
grid to ground in a speech amplifier stage, as
shown in figure 25.
waste of power. It is possible, however, to
Modulated Amplifier The systems described vary the operating bias of the class A modu-
Distortion in the preceding para- lator in such a way as to allow class A oper-
graphs will have no effect ation only when an audio signal is applied to
in reducing a broad signal caused by non - the grid of the tube. During resting periods,
liflearity in the modulated amplifier. Even the bias can be shifted to a higher value,
though the modulating waveform impressed up- dropping the resting plate current and plate
on the modulated stage may be distortion free, dissipation of the tube. When voice waveforms
if the modulated amplifier is non -linear dis- having low average power are employed, the
tortion will be generated in the amplifier. The efficiency of the system is comparable to the
only way in which this type of distortion may popular class B modulator.
be corrected is by making the modulated am- The characteristic curve for a class A modu-
plifier more linear. Degenerative feedback lator is shown in figure 26. Normal bias is
which includes the modulated amplifier in the used, and the operating point is placed in the
locp will help in this regard. middle of the linear portion of the Eg -Ip curve.
Plenty of grid excitation and high grid bias Maximum plate input is limited by the plate
will go a long way toward making a plate - dissipation of the tube under quiescent con-
modulated Class C amplifier linear, although dition. The bias -shift modulator is biased
such operating conditions will make more diffi- close to plate current cut -off under no signal
cul: the problem of TVI reduction. If this still condition (figure 27). Resting plate current
does not give adequate linearity, the preced-
ing buffer stage may be modulated 50 per cent
or so at the same time and in the same phase
as the final amplifier. The use of a grid leak +1P
to cbtain the majority of the bias for a Class
C stage will improve its linearity.
The linearity of a grid -bias modulated r -f
amplifier can be improved, after proper ad-
justments of excitation, grid bias, and antenna
LINEAR PORTION
OF
Cusps
EG-I P All PLATE
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
coupling have been made by modulating the
stage which excites the grid -modulated ampli-
fier. The preceding driver stage may be grid-
bias modulated or it may be plate modulated.
Alit RESTING
PLATE
CURRENT
+Ec
Modulation of the driver stage should be in
the same phase as that of the final modulated GUT-OFF
BIAS
FF
amplifier. RESTING BIAS VOLTAGE
-IP
15 -8 The Bias -Shift
GRID INPUT
Heising Modulator SIGNAL
The simple Class A modulator is limited to

an efficiency of about 30 %, and the tube must Figure 26
dissipate the full power input during periods CHARACTERISTIC GRID
of quiescence. Class AB and class B audio VOLTAGE -PLATE CURRENT
systems have largely taken the place of the CURVE FOR CLASS A
old lieising modulator because of this great HEISING MODULATOR
308 /.bllplitude Modulation THE RADIO
+IP CLASS C
AMPLIFIER
I P (MAX SIGNAL)
AUDIO
AMPLIFIER
BIAS -SHIFT
MODULATOR -
B+
BIAS -SHIFT
PLATE CURRENT RECTIFIER
EXCURSION
I P (NO SIGNAL)
BIAS -SHIFT
EG +EG I C
CONTROL
FILTER TUBE
CUT -OFF
BIAS
BIAS -SHIFT NEGATIVE

EACURS ION BIAS
CLASS A OPERATING SUPPLY
BIAS LINE
QUIESCENT
BIAS LINE
Figure 28
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
Figure 27
BIAS -SHIFT MODULATOR
BIAS -SHIFT MODULATOR
OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
Modulator is biased close to plate a heavy -duty filter choke will serve as an im-
current cut -off under no signal, pedance coupler for the modulated stage.
condition, B. Upon application
of audio signal, the bias of the Series and Parallel The bias -shift system
stage is shifted toward the class Control Circuits make take one of several
A operating point, A. Bias -shift forms. A "series" control
voltage is obtained from audio circuit is shown in figure 29. Resting bias is
signal. applied to the bias -shift modulator tube through
the voltage divider R2 /R4. The bias control
tube is placed across resistor R2. Quiescent
and plate dissipation are therefore quite low. bias for the modulator is set by adjusting R2.
Upon application of an audio signal, the bias As the internal resistance of the bias control
of the stage is shifted toward the class A tube is varied at a syllabic rate the voltage
operating point, preventing the negative peaks drop across R2 will vary in unison. The modu-
of the applied audio voltage from cutting off lator bias, therefore varies at the same rate.
the plate current of the tube. As the audio Excitation for the bias control tube is obtained
voltage increases, the operating bias point is from the audio signal through potentiometer
shifted to the right on figure 27 until the class RI which regulates the amplitude of the con-
A operating point is reached at maximum ex- trol signal. The audio signal is rectified by
citation. the bias control rectifier, and filtered by net-
The bias -shift voltage may be obtained work R3 -C1 in the grid circuit of the bias con-
directly from the exciting signal by recti- trol tube.
fication, as shown in figure 28. A simple low The "parallel" control system is illustrated
pass filter system is used that will pass only in figure 30. Resting bias for the modulator is
the syllabic components of speech. Enough obtained from the voltage divider R2 /R4.
negative bias is applied to the bias -shift modu- Potentiometer R2 adjusts the resting bias
lator to cut the resting plate current to the level, determining the static plate current of
desired value, and the output of the bias con- the modulator. Resistor R3 serves as a bias
trol rectifier is polarized so as to "buck" resistor for the control tube, reducing its plate
the fixed bias voltage. No spurious modu- current to a low level. When an audio signal
lation frequencies are generated, since the is applied via R1 to the grid of the control
modulator operates class A throughout the tube the internal resistance is lowered, de-
audio cycle. creasing the shunt resistance across R2. The
This form of grid pulsing permits the modu- negative modulator bias is therefore reduced.
lator stage to work with an pverall efficiency The bias axis of the modulator is shifted from
of greater than 50 %, comparing favorably with the cut -off region to a point on the linear
the class B modulator. The expensive class B portion of the operating curve. The amount of
driver and output transformers are not required, bias -shift is controlled by the setting of
since resistance coupling may be used in the potentiometer R1. Capacitor Cl in conjunction
input circuit of the bias -shift modulator, and with bias resistor R3 form a syllabic filter for
HANDBOOK Heising Modulator 309
BC TO MODULATED BC TO MODULATED
SPEECH >'.AS-SHIFT R -F AMPLIFIER SPEECH BIAS -SHIFT R -F AMPLIFIER
A MPLI FI ER MODULATOR AMPLIFIER MODULATOR
ADJUST
OPERATI
BIAS
DA/ST
PERA-
4.
TING
DI AS -
B+
ADJUST
REST /NG
B AS
BIAS CONTROL BIAS CONTROL

TUBE RECTIFIER BIAS CONTROL
TUBE
NEGATIVE Fio
MODULATOR
BIAS
NEGATIVE
MODULATOR BIAS AD JUST REST/AR
SI AS 2
Figure 29
"SERIES" CONTROL CIRCUIT
FOR BIAS -SHIFT MODULATOR Figure 30
"PARALLEL" CONTRCL
The internal resistance of the CIRCUIT FOR BIAS -SHIFT
bias control tube is varied at a MODULATOR
syllabic rate to change the
operating bias of the modulator The resistance to ground of point
tube. A in the bias network is varied
at a syllabic rote by the bias
control tube.
the control bias that is applied to the modu-

lator stage.
rectifier and the control tube. A negative bias
large value of plate dissipation is re-
A supply of approximately -430 volts is required
quired for the bias -shift modulator tube. For to reduce the plate current of the 304 -TL tubes
plate voltages below 1500, the 211 {VT-4C) to the proper value. The actual bias at the
may be used, while the 304 -TL is suitable for grid of the 304 -TL's is -280 volts.
voltages up to 3000. As with normal class A
amplifiers, low mu tubes function best in this A separate filament supply is required for
circuit. the 6SN7 control tube in order to remain within
themanufacturer's recommended heater -cathode
breakdown voltage. The filament of this tube
is therefore connected to the bias line, rather
A High -Level Bias -Shift
Shown in figure 31 is than being grounded as are the filaments of
Modulator a bias -shift modulator the other 6.3 volt tubes.
employing two 304 -TL The resting bias potentiometer is adjusted
tubes in parallel, operating from a 2500 volt
plate supply. This modulator is capable of for the proper quiescent bias of the 304 -TL
modulating 1000 watts input to an r -f amplifier. tubes, determined by the static plate current
Modulator resting current is adjusted to about
level, and the audio bias control is then ad-
vanced until the operating bias of the modu-
40 milliamperes, rising to about 350 milliam-
peres on voice peaks. Plate power requirements lators drops to approximately -210 volts under
are approximately the same as a conventional
conditions of 100% modulation. Since the modu-
class B modulator. The class C r -f amplifier lator tube and the r -f amplifier tube operate at
is adjusted to draw 400 milliamperes at 2500 the same plate voltage, it will not be possible
volts. to actually reach 100% modulation, but an
average peak level of over 90% may easily be
Two stages of resistance coupled speech obtained.
amplification are employed, permitting the use A high level low -pass audio filter is placed
of a high gain crystal microphone. The 6J5
stage is transformer coupled to the parallel after the modulator stage to reduce the higher
harmonic components generated by the single -
connected 304 -TL tubes. Audio voltage to ended amplifiers.
drive the control tubes is taken from the
secondary of the 6J5 coupling transformer. A
dual 6SN7 triode is employed as the control
310
304 -TL B+ MODULATED

AMPLIFIER
6SJ7 .01 6J5
CRYSTAL CH
MICROPHONE
L--0 I
IM 7H
AT
700 SRV
=101JF 101JP MA
50V. 00V.
304-IL
+2000
65N7 30R
ADJUST _ 0
BESTING
+ 300 V. BIAS CM -CH /CACO STANDARD 25-300 (5% LOAD)
TI -CN /CACO STANDARD RC-0400
OR IM 220R T2 -CN /CACO STANDARD 8 -1001
- AJO VOLTS TS -0 VOLTS AT 40 AMPS.
EA
2w
3/ A. 20)/P EA.
00
20L P
V. NOTE - CONNSCr ONS /ILAMLNr B/N of OSNr CONTROL
TU// r0 CATNOOS (P/N J 1.
2 2
2f 31000'
Isv
Figure 31
500-WATT BIAS SHIFT MODULATOR
Two 304-TL triode tubes in bias controlled class A modulator will

effectively modulate one kilowatt input to the class C amplifier stage.
Modulator tubes are operated at 2500 volts, and approximately -280
volts bias. Resting bias is adjusted for static plate current of 40
milliamperes.
311
oF
zQ
aix
F P N 0 0 P 0 N O P P f
W
l9Z f 0 NO 0 O
O O r f h ry ^ P P
p P^ o o ^ O Ó P P 0 P 0
O f 0 ^ N ^ P P 0
F P O 0 0 f 0
100
< O O O O O
W
J f 0 0 0 .` 0 0 N 0
^ ^ ^
p 0
^ N
O
N
O
O
0 P
O P
O
O
0 0 P ^ O
N 0 O
O
O
O
0
fP O
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^ ^ ^ ^ N q O O o ó
OD Ç
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f O f
P P ^ 0 0 x x % X %
W
ñ p
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O O - O ^ P O P p ^ O p O N.. K
O m 0, N^ O
1(
O N O P O
0 O O O O O O
3 p N 14 n o 0 1 O m e N Ó O
P P n
O ^ ^ ^ al 104
O ^ ^ 0 ^ N e i d ^ N 4 O
a ry O
-
O
H
a a
I- Q -J
w 2 W
W
= Z
U m 1n V N 1O aD a O NI'
10 m O N V 10 aD O N V 10 no O N
N N N N N M M M N M O O V V h N N t f 10
v1
OD O O O O O
ul 10 I- 0301 O
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61
O ^
5 .q 0 P N o N o ..
o f
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o ^ N N N N g q 0 f f 0 O n O o
P N 0 *. 7 0 P
u N N N 14 14 14
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io
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a
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ó
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O N
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0 P N 0^^ O N O
f
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P P
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¢
W ó Ó Ó Ó N r Ñ Ñ. N f 0 0 O P
O 14
O P
P
P N 0 O O 0 P p 0
f
P O, 0 O
N N N P1 0 0 0 1Y n O N 0
O
a
a
JW
i
m - N A d h 10 t` m O1 O Al d 10 CO O N d 10 CO 0 0 O 111 O U1
U 0 0 0 Ó 0 0 0 O . N N N N N M M si f vi U1 10 P W 01 O .- N
.-
0
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Frequency Modulation and

Radioteletype Transmission
Exciter systems for FM and single sideband the advantages of FM for certain types of com-
transmission are basically similar in that modi- munication pointed out. Since the distinguish-
fication of the signal in accordance with the ing features of the two types of transmission
intelligence to be transmitted is normally ac- lie entirely in the modulating circuits at the
complished at a relatively low level. Then the transmitter and in the detector and limiter cir-
intelligence- bearing signal is amplified to the cuits in the receiver, these parts of the com-
desired power level for ultimate transmission. munication system will receive the major por-
True, amplifiers for the two types of signals tion of attention.
are basically different; linear amplifiers of the
Class, A or Class B type being used for ssb Modulation Modulation is the process of al-
signals, while Class C or non -linear Class B tering a radio wave in accordance
amplifiers may be used for FM amplification. with the intelligence to be transmitted. The
But the principle of low -level generation and nature of the intelligence is of little impor-
subsequent amplification is standard for both tance as far as the process of modulation is
types of transmission. concerned; it is the method by which this in-
telligence is made to give a distinguishing
characteristic to the radio wave which will
16 -1 Frequency Modulation enable the receiver to convert it back into in-
telligence that determines the type of modu-
The use of frequency modulation and the lation being used.
allied system of phase modulation has become Figure 1 is a drawing of an r -f carrier am-
of increasing importance in recent years. For plitude modulated by a sine -wave audio volt-
amateur communication frequency and phase age. After modulation the resultant modulated
modulation offer important advantages in the r -f wave is seen still to vary about the zero
reduction of broadcast and TV interference axis at a constant rate, but the strength of the
and in the elimination of the costly high -level individual r -f cycles is proportional to the am-
modulation equipment most commonly employed plitude of the modulation voltage.
with amplitude modulation. For broadcast work In figure 2, the carrier of figure 1 is shown
FM offers an improvement in signal -to -noise frequency modulated by the same modulating
ratio for the high field intensities available voltage. Here it may be seen that modulation
in the local - coverage area of FM and TV broad- voltage of one polarity causes the carrier fre-
cast stations. quency to decrease, as shown by the fact that
In this chapter various points of difference the individual r -f cycles of the carrier are
between FM and amplitude modulation trans- spaced farther apart. A modulating voltage of
mission and reception will be discussed and the opposite polarity causes the frequency to
312
Frequency Modulation 313
UNMODULATED CARRIER AMPLITUDE
CARRIER
U'l
SIDE FREQUENCY SIDE FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
Figure 3
AM SIDE FREQUENCIES
J
For each AM modulating frequency, a pair of side
FIGURE I FIGURE 2 frequencies is produced. The side frequencies are
spaced away from the carrier by an amount equal
to the modulation frequency, and their amplitude
is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulation. The amplitude of the carrier does not
AM AND FM WAVES change under modulation.
Figure I shows a sketch of the scope pattern of
an amplitude modulated wave at the bottom. The
center sketch shows the modulating wave and the
upper sketch shows the carrier wave.
Figure 2 shows at the bottom a sketch of a fre- Carrier -Wave The second characteristic of FM
quency modulated wave. In this case the center Distortion and AM waves revealed by fig-
sketch also shows the modulating wave and the
upper sketch shows the carrier wave. Note that ures 1 and 2 is that both types
tl-e carrier wave and the modulating wave are the of modulation result in distortion of the r -f
same in either case, but that the waveform of the carrier. That is, after modulation, the r -f cy-
modulated wave is quite different in the two cles are no longer sine waves, as they would
cases.
be if no frequencies other than the fundamen-
tal carrier frequency were present. It may be
shown in the amplitude modulation case illus-
trated, that there are only two additional fre-
increase, and this is shown by the r -f cycles quencies present, and these are the familiar
being squeezed together to allow more of them side frequencies, one located on each side of
to be completed in a given time interval. the carrier, and each spaced from the carrier
Figures 1 and 2 reveal two very important by a frequency interval equal to the modula-
characteristics about amplitude - and frequen- tion frequency. In regard to frequency and am-
cy- modulated waves. First, it is seen that plitude, the situation is as shown in figure 3.
while the amplitude (power) of the signal is The strength of the carrier itself does not vary
varied in AM transmission, no such variation during modulation, but the strength of the side
takes place in FM. In many cases this advan- frequencies depends upon the percentage of
tage of FM is probably of equal or greater im- modulation. At 100 per cent modulation the
portance than the widely publicized noise re- power in the side frequencies is equal to half
duction capabilities of the system. When 100 that of the carrier.
per cent amplitude modulation is obtained, the Under frequency modulation, the carrier wave
average power output of the transmitter must again becomes distorted, as shown in figure
be increased by 50 per cent. This additional 2. But, in this case, many more than two addi-
output must be supplied either by the modu- tional frequencies are formed. The first two of
lator itself, in the high -level system, or by these frequencies are spaced from the carrier
operating one or more of the transmitter stages by the modulation frequency, and the additional
at such a low output level that they are capa- side frequencies are located out on each side
ble of producing the additional output without of the carrier and are also spaced from each
distortion, in the low -level system. On the other by an amount equal to the modulation fre-
other hand, a frequency -modulated transmitter quency. Theoretically, there are an infinite
requires an insignificant amount of power from number of side frequencies formed, but, for-
the modulator and needs no provision for in- tunately, the strength of those beyond the fre-
creased power output on modulation peaks. quency swing of the transmitter under modula-
All of the stages between the oscillator and tion is relatively low.
the antenna maybe operated as high- efficiency One set of side frequencies that might be
Class B or Class C amplifiers or frequency formed by frequency modulation is shown in
multipliers. figure 4. Unlike amplitude modulation, the
314 FM Transmission THE RADIO
UNMODULATCD CARRIER AMPLITUDE mitter it will be directly proportional to the

amplitude of the modulating signal. When a
symmetrical modulating signal is applied to
CARRIER
the transmitter, equal deviation each side of
SI
PRCQUCÑCICS
SI DE
FREQUENCIES
the resting frequency is obtained during each
cycle of the modulating signal, and the total
frequency range covered by the FM transmitter
III I
FREQUENCY
I I I II is sometimes known as the swing. If, for in-
stance, a transmitter operating on 1000 kc.
has its frequency shifted from 1000 kc. to 1010
kc., back to 1000 kc., then to 990 kc., and
Figure 4
again back to 1000 kc. during one cycle of the
FM SIDE FREQUENCIES modulating wave, the deviation would be 10
With FM each modulation frequency conponent kc. and the swing 20 kc.
causes a large number of side frequencies to be The modulation index of an FM signal is
produced The side frequencies are separated the ratio of the deviation to the audio modu-
from each other and the carrier by an amount equal
to the modulation frequency, but their amplitude
lating frequency, when both are expressed in
varies greatly as the amount of modulation is the same units. Thus, in the example above
changed The carrier strength also varies greatly if the signal is varied from 1000 kc. to 1010
with frequency modulation. The side frequencies kc. to 990 kc., and back to 1000 kc. at a rate
shown represent a case where the deviation each
side of the "carrier" frequency is equal to five
(frequency) of 2000 times, a second, the mod-
times the modulating frequency. Other amounts of ulation index would be 5, since the deviation
deviation with the same modulation frequency (10 kc.) is 5 times the modulating frequency
would cause the relative strengths of the various (2000 cycles, or 2 kc.).
sidebands to change widely. The relative strengths of the FM carrier and
the various side frequencies depend directly
upon the modulation index, these relative
strengths varying widely as the modulation
strength of the component at the carrier fre- index is varied. In the preceding example, for
quency varies widely in FM and it may even instance, side frequencies occur on the high
disappear entirely under certain conditions. side of 1000 kc. at 1002, 1004, 1006, 1008,
The variation of strength of the carrier com- 1010, 1012, etc., and on the low frequency
ponent is useful in measuring the amount of side at 998, 996, 994, 992, 990, 988, etc. In
frequency modulation, and will be discussed proportion to the unmodulated carrier strength
in detail later in this chapter. (100 per cent), these side frequencies have
One of the great advantages of FM over AM the following strengths, as indicated by a
is the reduction in noise at the receiver which modulation index of 5: 1002 and 998-33 per
the system allows. If the receiver is made recent, 1004 and 996-5 per cent, 1006 and 994-
sponsive only to changes in frequency, a con- 36 per cent, 1008 and 992 -39 per cent, 1010
siderable increase in signal -to -noise ratio is and 990 -26 per cent, 1012 and 988 -13 per
made possible through the use of FM, when cent. The carrier strength (1000 kc.) will be
18 per cent of its unmodulated value. Chang-
the signal is of greater strength than the noise.
The noise reducing capabilities of FM arise ing the amplitude of the modulating signal will
from the inability of noise to cause appreciable change the deviation, and thus the modulation
frequency modulation of the noise-plus - signal index will be changed, with the result that the
voltage which is applied to the detector in the side frequencies, while still located in the
receiver. same places, will have different strength values
from those given above.
The deviation ratio is similar to the modu-
FM Terms Unlike amplitude modulation, the lation index in that it involves the ratio be-
term percentage modulation means tween a modulating frequency and deviation.
little in FM practice, unless the receiver char- In this case, however, the deviation in ques-
acteristics are specified. There are, however, tion is the peak frequency shift obtained under
three terms, deviation, modulation index, and full modulation, and the audio frequency to be
deviation ratio, which convey considerable considered is the maximum audio frequency to
information concerning the character of the be transmitted. When the maximum audio fre-
FM wave. quency to be transmitted is 5000 cycles, for
Deviation is the amount of frequency shift example, a deviation ratio of 3 would call for
each side of the unmodulated carrier frequency a peak deviation of 3 x 5000, or 15 kc. at full
which occurs when the transmitter is modu- ,modulation. The noise -suppression capabili-
lated. Deviation is ordinarily measured in kilo- ties of FM are directly related to the devia-
cycles, and in a properly operating FM trans- tion ratio. As the deviation ratio is increased,
HANDBOOK Narrow Band FM 315
the noise suppression becomes better if the the transmitter is swung are so small that
signal is somewhat stronger than the noise. most of them may be ignored. In FM trans-
Where the noise approaches the signal in mission, when a complex modulating wave
strength, however, low deviation ratios allow (speech or music) is used, still additional
communication to be maintained in many cases side frequencies resulting from a beating to-
where high- deviation -ratio FM and conven- gether of the various frequency components
tional AM are incapable of giving service. in the modulating wave are formed. This is a
This assumes that a narrow -band FM receiver situation that does not occur in amplitude
is in use. For each value of r -f signal -to-noise modulation and it might be thought that the
ratio at the receiver, there is a maximum de- large number of side frequencies thus formed
viation ratio which may be used, beyond which might make the frequency spectrum produced
the output audio signal -to -noise ratio de- by an FM transmitter prohibitively wide. Analy-
creases. Up to this critical deviation ratio, sis shows, however, that the additional side
however, the noise suppression becomes pro- frequencies are of very small amplitude, and,
gressively better as the deviation ratio is in- instead of increasing the bandwidth, modula-
creased. tion by a complex wave actually reduces the
For high -fidelity FM broadcasting purposes, effective bandwidth of the FM wave. This is
a deviation ratio of 5 is ordinarily used, the especially true when speech modulation is
maximum audio frequency being 15,000 cycles, used, since most of the power in voiced sounds
and the peak deviation at full modulation be- is concentrated at low frequencies in the vicin-
ing 75 kc. Since a swing of 150 kc. is covered ity of 400 cycles.
by the transmitter, it is obvious that wide - The bandwidth required in an FM receiver
band FM transmission must necessarily be is a function of a number of factors, both theo-
confined to the v -h -f range or higher, where retical and practical. Basically, the bandwidth
room for the signals is available. required is a function of the deviation ratio
In the case of television sound, the devia- and the maximum frequency of modulation,
tion ratio is 1.67; the maximum modulation although the practical consideration of drift
frequency is 15,000 cycles, and the trans- and ease of receiver tuning also must be con-
mitter deviation for full modulation is 25 kc. sidered. Shown in figure 5 are the frequency
The sound carrier frequency in a standard TV spectra (carrier and sideband frequencies)
signal is located exactly 4.5 Mc. higher than associated with the standard FM broadcast
the picture carrier frequency. In the inter - signal, the TV sound signal, and an amateur -
carrier TV sound system, which recently has band narrow -band FM signal with full modula-
become quite widely used, this constant differ- tion using the highest permissible modulating
ence between the picture carrier and the sound frequency in each case. It will be seen that
carrier is employed within the receiver to ob- for low deviation ratios the receiver band-
tain an FM sub -carrier at 4.5 Mc. This 4.5 width should be at least four times the maxi-
Mc. sub -carrier then is demodulated by the FM
mum frequency deviation, but for a deviation
detector to obtain the sound signal which
accompanies the picture. ratio of 5 the receiver bandwidth need be only
about 2.5 times the maximum frequency de-
Narrow-Band Narrow -band FM t r an s- viation.
FM Transmission mission has become stand-
ardized for use by the mo-
16 -2 Direct FM Circuits
bile services such as police, fire, and taxi-
cab communication, and also on the basis of
a temporary authorization for amateur work in Frequency modulation may be obtained either
portions of each of the amateur radiotelephone by the direct method, in which the frequency
bands. A maximum deviation of 15 kc. has of an oscillator is changed directly by the
been standardized for the mobile and commer- modulating signal, or by the indirect method
cial communication services, while a maxi- which makes use of phase modulation. Phase -
mum deviation of 3 kc. is authorized for ama- modulation circuits will be discussed in sec-
teur NBFM communication. tion 16 -3.
A successful frequency modulated trans-
Bandwidth Re- As the above discussion has mitter must meet two requirements: (1) The
quired by FM indicated, many side frequen- frequency deviation must be symmetrical about
cies are set up when a radio - a fixed frequency, for symmetrical modulation
frequency carrier is frequency modulated; theo- voltage. (2) The deviation must be directly
retically, in fact, an infinite number of side proportional to the amplitude of the modula-
frequencies is formed. Fortunately, however, tion, and independent of the modulation fre-
the amplitudes of those side frequencies fall- quency. There are several methods of direct
ing outside the frequency range over which frequency modulation which will fulfill these
AO FM BROADCAST AUDIO
DEVIATION - 75 KC. IN OSCILLATOR IN
MOO. FREQ.- IS KC. 1.75 MC. RANGE
6BA6
MOD. INDEX -5
.0066
1 C2.47
a
rR
R
If 1?
ñ
I?
1!
-105 -90 -75 -60 -45 -30 -15

,$ Is Uat Is
iI
r I °
+15 +30 +45 +60 +75 +90 +105
' R, ,o r
1006
470 6 .0069
+150 -200v.
OB TV SOUND DEVIATION- 25 KC. REGULATED
MOD. FREQ.- 15 KC.
MOD. INDEX -1.67
Figure 6
REACTANCE -TUBE MODULATOR
This circuit is convenient for direct frequen-
IN G
-45 KC -30KC -15 KC.
a
I
+15 KC +30 KC +45 KC.
cy modulation of an oscillator in the 1.75 -Mc.
range. Capacitor C5 may be only the input
capacitance of the tube, or a small trimmer
capacitor may be Included to permit a varia-
tion in the sensitivity of the reactance tube.
© AMATEUR NBFM DEVIATION- 3 KC.

MOD. FREQ.- 3 KC.
MOD. INDEX -
cillator tank is varied. By applying audio mod-
ulating voltage to one of the elements, the
IF á
e transconductance, and hence the frequency,
3 ú P.:
Iv 1=
may be varied at an audio rate. When properly
-6 KC. -3 KC. +3KC. +6KC. designed and operated, the reactance -tube
modulator gives linear frequency modulation,
CENTER and is capable of producing large amounts of
FREQUENCY
deviation.
There are numerous possible configurations
Figure 5 of the reactance -tube modulator circuit. The
EFFECT OF MODULATION INDEX
FM difference in the various arrangements lies
Showing the side - frequency amplitude and distri- principally in the type of phase- shifting cir-
bution for the three most common modulation indi-
ces used in FM work. The maximum modulating cuit used to give a grid voltage which is in
frequency and maximum deviation are shown in phase quadrature with the r -f voltage at the
each case. modulator plate.
Figure 6 is a diagram of one of the most
popular forms of reactance -tube modulators.
The modulator tube, which is usually a pen-
requirements. Some of these methods will be tode such as a 6BA6, 6ÁU6, or 6CL6, has its
described in the following paragraphs. plate coupled through a blocking capacitor,
Cl, to the "hot" side of the oscillator grid
Reactance-Tube
Modulators
One of the most pr act i c al
ways of obtaining direct fre-
circuit. Another blocking capacitor, feeds
r.f. to the phase shifting network R-C, in the
C
quency modulation is through modulator grid circuit. If the resistance of R
the use of a reactance -tube modulator. In this is made large in comparison with the react-
arrangement the modulator plate- cathode cir- ance of C, at the oscillator frequency, the cur-
cuit is connected across the oscillator tank rent through the R -C, combination will be
circuit, and made to appear as either a capaci- nearly in phase with the voltage across the
tive or inductive reactance by exciting the tank circuit, and the voltage across C, will
modulator grid with a voltage which either lag the oscillator tank voltage by almost 90
leads or lags the oscillator tank voltage by degrees. The result of the 90- degree lagging
90 degrees. The leading or lagging grid volt- voltage on the modulator grid is that its plate
age causes a corresponding leading or lagging current lags the tank voltage by 90 degrees,
plate current, and the plate- cathode circuit and the reactance tube appears as an induct-
appears as a capacitive or inductive reactance ance in shunt with the oscillator inductance,
across the oscillator tank circuit. When the thus raising the oscillator frequency.
transconductance of the modulator tube is The phase- shifting capacitor C, can consist
varied, by varying one of the element voltages, of the input capacitance of the modulator tube
the magnitude of the reactance across the os- and stray capacitance between grid and ground.
HANDBOOK Reactance Tube 317
in figures 6 and 7. The audio input may be

applied to the suppressor grid, rather than the
control grid, if desired. Another modification
is to apply the audio to a grid other than the
control grid in a mixer or pentagrid converter
tube which is used as the modulator. Gener-
ally, it will be found that the transconductance
variation per volt of control -element voltage
C3,.001 = 0.1 variation will be greatest when the control
AUDIO .150 -250
IN REGULATED
V.
(audio) voltage is applied to the control grid.
In cases where it is desirable to separate com-
pletely the audio and r-f circuits, however,
Figure 7 applying audio voltage to one of the other ele-
ALTERNATIVE REACTANCE -TUBE ments will often be found advantageous de-
MODULATOR spite the somewhat lower sensitivity.
This circuit is often preferable for use in the
lower frequency range, although it may be Adjusting the
used at 1.75 Mc. and above if desired. In the One of the simplest methods
schematic above the reactance tube is shown Phase Shift of adjusting the phase shift to
connected across the voltage -divider capaci- the correct amount is to place
tors of a Clapp oscillator, although the modu- a pair of earphones in series with the oscilla-
lator circuit may be used with any common
type of oscillator. tor cathode -to- ground circuit and adjust the
phase -shift network until minimum sound is
heard in the phones when frequency modula-
tion is taking place. If an electron -coupled or
Hartley oscillator is used, this method re-
However, better control of the operating con- quires that the cathode circuit of the oscilla-
ditions of the modulator may be had through tor be inductively or capacitively coupled to
the use of a variable capacitor as C,. Resist- the grid circuit, rather than tapped on the grid
ance R will usually have a value of between coil. The phones should be adequately by-
4700 and 100,000 ohms. Either resistance or passed for r.f. of course.
transformer coupling may be used to feed audio
voltage to the modulator grid. When a resist-
ance coupling is used, it is necessary to shield Stabilization Due to the presence of the react-
the grid circuit adequately, since the high im- ance -tube frequency modulator,
pedance grid circuit is prone to pick up stray the stabilization of an FM oscillator in regard
r -f and low frequency a -c voltage, and cause to voltage changes is considerably more in-
undesired frequency modulation. volved than in the case of a simple self-con-
An alternative reactance modulator circuit trolled oscillator for transmitter frequency
is shown in figure 7. The operating conditions control. If desired, the oscillator itself may be
are generally the same, except that the r -f made perfectly stable under voltage changes,
excitation voltage to the grid of the reactance but the presence of the frequency modulator
tube is obtained effectively through reversing destroys the beneficial effect of any such
the R and C, of figure 6. In this circuit a small stabilization. It thus becomes desirable to
capacitance is used to couple r.f. into the grid apply the stabilizing arrangement to the modu-
of the reactance tube, with a relatively small lator as well as the oscillator. If the oscilla-
value of resistance from grid to ground. This tor itself is stable under voltage changes, it
circuit has the advantage that the grid of the is only necessary to apply voltage- frequency
tube is at relatively low impedance with re- compensation to the modulator.
spect to r.f. However, the circuit normally is
not suitable for operation above a few mega- Reactance-Tube Two simple reactance -t u b e
cycles due to the shunting capacitance within Modulators modulators that may be applied
the tube from grid to ground. to an existing v.f.o. are illus-
Either of the reactance-tube circuits may trated in figures 8 and 9. The circuit of figure
be used with any of the common types of os- 8 is extremely simple, yet effective. Only two
cillators. The reactance modulator of figure tubes are used exclusive of the voltage regu-
6 is shown connected to the high -impedance lator tubes which perhaps may be already in-
point of a conventional hot -cathode Hartley corporated in the v.f.o. A 6AÚ6 serves as a
oscillator, while that of figure 7 is shown con- high -gain voltage amplifier stage, and a 6CL6
nected across the low -impedance capacitors is used as the reactance modulator since its
of a series -tuned Clapp oscillator. high value of transconductance will permit a
There are several possible variations of the large value of lagging current to be drawn
basic reactance -tube modulator circuits shown under modulation swing. The unit should be
6ÁU6
S001LF
f--- TO
OF
6RiD
V.F.O.
ON CATHODE
NOTE: ALL RESISTORS

OTHERWISE NOTED
o WATT UNLESS
ALL CAPACITORS INS/F UNLESS

OTHERWISE NOTED
,- ADJUST FOR CORRECT

VR CURRENT
Figure 8
SIMPLE FM REACTANCE -TUBE MODULATOR
mounted in close proximity to the v.f.o. so that The reactance modulator may best be ad-
the lead from the 6CL6 to the grid circuit of justed by listening to the signal of the v -f -o
the oscillator can be as short as possible. A exciter at the operating frequency and adjust-
practical solution is to mount the reactance ing the gain and clipping controls for the best
modulator in a small box on the side of the modulation level consistent with minimum side -
v -f-o cabinet. band splatter. Minimum clipping occurs when
By incorporating speech clipping in the re- the Adj. Clip. potentiometer is set for maximum
actance modulator unit, a much more effective voltage on the plates of the 6AL5 clipper tube.
use is made of a given amount of deviation. As with the case of all reactance modulators,
When the FM signal is received on an AM re-
a voltage regulated plate supply is required.
ceiver by means of slope detection, the use
of speech clipping will be noticed by the great-
ly increased modulation level of the FM sig-
nal, and the attenuation of the center frequency Linearity Test It is almost a necessity to run
null of no modulation. In many cases, it is a static test on the reactance -
difficult to tell a speech -clipped FM signal tube frequency modulator to determine its line-
from the usual AM signal. arity and effectiveness, since small changes
A more complex FM reactance modulator in- in the values of components, and in stray ca-
corporating a speech clipper is shown in fig- pacitances will almost certainly alter the modu-
ure 9. A 12AX7 double triode speech amplifier lator characteristics. A frequency- versus -con-
provides enough gain for proper clipper action trol -voltage curve should be plotted to ascer-
when a high level crystal microphone is used. tain that equal increments in control voltage,
A double diode 6AL5 speech clipper is used, both in a positive and a negative direction,
the clipping level being set by the potentiome- cause equal changes in frequency. If the curve
ter controlling the plate voltage applied to the shows that the modulator has an appreciable
diode. A 6CL6 serves as the reactance modu- amount of non -linearity, changes in bias, elec-
lator. trode voltages, r-f excitation, and resistance
12AX7 ,-ADJUST (.AIN 6AL5 6CL6

~OTOR
J500 UUF
661/U
ICATNGNODIDE OF
CHICAGO TRANS
LPF -2 FILTER K
l V F.O
dqFC M
25M
S 4TK
W
.0
1 NOTE' ALL CAPACITORS IN OF UNLESS ADJUST FOR

OTHERWISE NOTED CORRECT VR CURRENT
ADJUST ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT UNLESS
i00 K CL/PP/N6 OTHERWISE NOTED
Figure 9
FM REACTANCE MODULATOR WITH SPEECH CLIPPER
HANDBOOK Phase Modulation 319
TO MODULATOR
CONTROL ELEMENT which the modulator operates, but is depend-
ent only upon the phase deviation which is
being produced and upon the modulation fre-
quency. Expressed as an equation:
Fa = Mp modulating frequency
Where Fd is the frequency deviation one way
from the mean value of the carrier, and M, is
the phase deviation accompanying modulation
expressed in radians(a radian is approximately
Figure 10 57.3 °). Thus, to take an example, if the phase
deviation is 2 radian and the modulating fre-
REACTANCE-TUBE LINEARITY CHECKER
quency is 1000 cycles, the frequency deviation
applied to the carrier being passed through
the phase modulator will be 500 cycles.
values may be made to obtain a straight -line It is easy to see that an enormous amount
characteristic. of multiplication of the carrier frequency is
Figure 10 shows a method of connecting required in order to obtain from a phase modu-
two 41/2-volt C batteries and a potentiometer lator the frequency deviation of 75 kc. required
to plot the characteristic of the modulator. It for commercial FM broadcasting. However, for
will be necessary to use a zero -center volt- amateur and commercial narrow-band FM work
meter to measure the grid voltage, or else re- (NBFM) only a quite reasonable number of
verse the voltmeter leads when changing from multiplier stages are required to obtain a de-
positive to negative grid voltage. When a viation ratio of approximately one. Actually,
straight -line characteristic for the modulator phase modulation of approximately one -half
is obtained by the static test method, the ca- radian on the output of a crystal oscillator in
pacitances of the various by -pass capacitors
in the circuit must be kept small to retain this
the 80 -meter band will give adequate deviation
for 29 -Mc. NBFM radiotelephony. For example;
characteristic when an audio voltage is used if the crystal frequency is 3700 kc., the de-
to vary the frequency in place of the d -c volt-
age with which the characteristic was plotted. viation in phase produced is 2 radian, and the
modulating frequency is 500 cycles, the devia-
tion in the 80 -meter band will be 250 cycles.
16 -3 Phase Modulation But when the crystal frequency is multiplied
on up to 29,600 kc. the frequency deviation
By means of phase modulation (PM) it is will also be multiplied by 8 so that the result-
possible to dispense with self-controlled os- ing deviation on the 10 -meter band will be 2 kc.
cillators and to obtain directly crystal -con- either side of the carrier for a total swing in
trolled FM. In the final analysis, PM is sim- carrier frequency of 4 kc. This amount of de-
ply frequency modulation in which the devia- viation is quite adequate for NBFM work.
tiot. is directly proportional to the modulation Odd -harmonic distortion is produced when
frequency. If an audio signal of 1000 cycles FM is obtained by the phase -modulation meth-
causes a deviation of 2 kc., for example, a od, and the amount of this distortion that can
2000 -cycle modulating signal of the same am- be tolerated is the limiting factor in determin-
plitude will give a deviation of I kc., and so ing the amount of PM that can be used. Since
on. To produce an FM signal, it is necessary the aforementioned frequency - correcting net-
to make the deviation independent of the modu- work causes the lowest modulating frequency
lation frequency, and proportional only to the to have the greatest amplitude, maximum phase
modulating signal. With PM this is done by modulation takes place at the lowest modu-
including a frequency correcting network in lating frequency, and the amount of distortion
the transmitter. The audio correction network that can be tolerated at this frequency deter-
must have an attenuation that varies directly mines the maximum deviation that can be ob-
with frequency, and this requirement is easily tained by the PM method. For high- fidelity
met by a very simple resistance -capacity net- broadcasting, the deviation produced by PM is
work. limited to an amount equal to about one-third
The only disadvantage of PM, as compared of the lowest modulating frequency. But for
to direct FM such as is obtained through the NBFM work the deviation may be as high as
use of a reactance -tube modulator, is the fact 0.6 of the modulating frequency before distor-
that very little frequency deviation is pro- tion becomes objectionable on voice modula-
duced directly by the phase modulator. The tion. In other terms this means that phase de-
deviation produced by a phase modulator is viations as high as 0.6 radian may be used for
independent of the actual carrier frequency on amateur and commercial NBFM transmission.
REACTANCE
TUBE
CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
TUBE
--y ; ',
NEXT
STAGE
Measurement
of Deviation
When a single- frequency mod-
ulating voltage is used with an
FM transmitter, the relative
LOW -C amplitudes of the various sidebands and the
TANM
CIRCUIT carrier vary widely as the deviation is varied
by increasing or decreasing the amount of mod-
ulation. Since the relationship between the
amplitudes of the various sidebands and car-
RFC
rier to the audio modulating frequency and the
deviation is known, a simple method of meas-
AUDIO uring the deviation of a frequency modulated
transmitter is possible. In making the meas-
Figure 11 urement, the result is given in the form of the
REACTANCE -TUBE MODULATION OF modulation index for a certain amount of audio
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR STAGE input. As previously described, the modulation
index is the ratio of the peak frequency devia-
tion to the frequency of the audio modulation.
The measurement is made by applying a
Phase -Modulation simple reactance modula-
A
sine -wave audio voltage of known frequency
to the transmitter, and increasing the modula-
Circuits normally used for FM
tor tion until the amplitude of the carrier compo-
may also be used for PM by
nent of the frequency modulated wave reaches
connecting it to the plate circuit of a crystal zero. The modulation index for zero carrier
oscillator stage as shown in figure 11. may then be determined from the table below.
Another PM circuit, suitable for operation As may be seen from the table, the first point
on 20, 15 and 10 meters with the use of 80
of zero carrier is obtained when the modulation
meter crystals is shown in figure 12. A double index has a value of 2.405, -in other words,
triode 12AX7 is used as a combination Pierce when the deviation is 2.405 times the modula-
crystal oscillator and phase modulator. CI tion frequency. For example, if a modulation
should not be thought of as a neutralizing con- frequency of 1000 cycles is used, and the
denser, but rather as an adjustment for the modulation is increased until the first carrier
phase of the r-f voltage acting between the null is obtained, the deviation will then be
grid and plate of the 12AX7 phase modulator. 2.405 times the modulation frequency, or 2.405
C2 acts as a phase angle and magnitude con-
kc. If the modulating frequency happened to be
trol, and both these condensers should be ad- 2000 cycles, the deviation at the first null
justed for maximum phase modulation capabili- would be 4.810 kc. Other carrier nulls will be
ties of the circuit. Resonance of the circuit is obtained when the index is 5.52, 8.654, and at
established by the iron slug of coil L, -L,. A increasing values separated approximately by
6CL6 is used as a doubler to 7 Mc. and de- rr. The following is a listing of the modulation
livers approximately 2 watts on this band. Ad- index at successive carrier nulls up to the
ditional doubler stages may be added after the tenth:
6CL6 stage to reach the desired band of opera- Zero carrier
tion. Modulation
point no. index
Still another PM circuit, which is quite wide- 1 2.405
ly used commercially, is shown in figure 13. 2 5.520
In this circuit L and C are made resonant at a 3 8.654
frequency which is 0.707 times the operating 4 11.792
frequency. Hence at the operating frequency 5 14.931
the inductive reactance is twice the capacitive 6 18.071
reactance. A cathode follower tube acts as a 7 21.212
variable resistance in series with the L and 8 24.353
C which go to make up the tank circuit. The 9 27.494
operating point of the cathode follower should 10 30.635
be chosen so that the effective resistance in
series with the tank circuit (made up of the The only equipment required for making the
resistance of the cathodefollower tube in par- measurements is a calibrated audio oscillator
allel with the cathode bias resistor of the cath- of good wave form, and a communication re-
ode follower) is equal to the capacitive react- ceiver equipped with a beat oscillator and
ance of the tank capacitor at the operating fre- crystal filter. The receiver should be used
quency. The circuit is capable of about plus with its crystal filter set for minimum band-
or minus % radian deviation with tolerable dis- width to exclude sidebands spaced from the
tortion. carrier by the modulation frequency. The un-
HANDBOOK FM Reception 321
6C L6
250 ULF K - - -.TO DOUBLER STAGES
)3.5MCó
VIAL
RFC6
2.51.04
Li- 33re36E.lSPACED APART ON FORM

L2- IS r e 36E.rr POWDERED /RON COR
L3 -37T. W
20 CLOSE- SPACED 7 DIA.
B+
.500V.
X-AL MIC. 4.7 1(

NOTE: ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT UNLESS
OTHERWISE NOTED
ALL CAPACITORS IN4IF UNLESS
OTHERWISE NOTED
Figure 12
REACTANCE MODULATOR FOR 10, 15 AND 20 METER OPERATION
moculated carrier is accurately tuned in on the as used by FM broadcast stations, TV sound,

receiver with the beat oscillator operating. and mobile communications FM.
Then modulation from the audio oscillator is The FM receiver must have, first of all, a
app:ied to the transmitter, and the modulation bandwidth sufficient to pass the range of fre-
is increased until the first carrier null is ob- quencies generated by the FM transmitter. And
tained. This carrier null will correspond to a since the receiver must be a superheterodyne
modulation index of 2.405, as previously men- if it is to have good sensitivity at the frequen-
tioned. Successive null points will correspond cies to which FM is restricted, i-f bandwidth
to the indices listed in the table. is an important factor in its design.
A volume indicator in the transmitter audio The second requirement of the FM receiver
system may be used to measure the audio level is that it incorporate some sort of device for
required for different amounts of deviation, converting frequency changes into amplitude
and the indicator thus calibrated in terms of changes, in other words, a detector operating
frequency deviation. If the measurements are on frequency variations rather than amplitude
made at the fundamental frequency of the os- variations. The third requirement, and one which
cillator, it will be necessary to multiply the is necessary if the full noise reducing capa-
fregtency deviation by the harmonic upon which
the transmitter is operating, of course. It will
probably be most convenient to make the deter-
65.17 PHASE-MODULATED
mination at some frequency intermediate be- OUTPUT
tween that of the oscillator and that at which R F. INPUT
fo
the transmitter is operating, and then to mul-
tiply the result by the frequency multiplication
between that frequency and the transmitter +13200V.
output frequency.
AUDIO IN
16 -4 Reception of FM XL ABOUT 1500 n AT fo

Signals xc ABOUT MOIL AT fo
A conventional communications receiver may

Figure 13
be used to receive narrow -band FM transmis-
CATHODE -FOLLOWER PHASE
sions, although performance will be much poor-
MODULATOR
er than can be obtained with an NBFM receiver
The phase modulator illustrated above is
or adapter. However, a receiver specifically quite satisfactory when the stage is to be
designed for FM reception must be used when operated on a single frequency or over a nar-
it is desired to receive high deviation FM such row range of frequencies.
F.
FREQUENCY AUDIO
MIXER AMPLIFIER
LIMITER DETECTOR AMP.
(DISCRIMINATOR)
OSCILLATOR
F R E Q U E N C Y
Figure 14
FM RECEIVER BLOCK DIAGRAM Figure 15
Up to the amplitude limiter stage, the FM SLOPE DETECTION OF FM SIGNAL
receiver is similar to an AM receiver, except One side of the response characteristic of a
for a somewhat wider i -f bandwidth. The lim- tuned circuit or of an i -f amplifier may be
iter removes any amplitude modulation, and used os shown to convert frequency varia-
the frequency detector following the limiter tions of an incoming signal into amplitude
converts frequency variations into amplitude variations.
variations.
bilities of the F11 system of transmission are of frequency variations into amplitude varia-
desired, is a limiting device to eliminate am- tions, since the linear portion of the curve is
plitude variations before they reach the de- rather short. Any frequency variation which
tector. A block diagram of the essential parts exceeds the linear portion will cause distor-
of an FM receiver is shown in figure 14. tion of the recovered audio. It is also obvious
by inspection of figure 15 that an AM receiver
The Frequency simplest device for con -
The used in this manner is wide open to signals
Detector verting frequency variations on the peak of the resonance curve and also
to amplitude variations is an to signals on the other side of the resonance
"off- tune" resonant circuit, as illustrated in curve. Further, no noise limiting action is af-
figure 15. With the carrier tuned in at point forded by this type of reception. This system,
"A," a certain amount of r -f voltage will be therefore, is not recommended for FM recep-
developed across the tuned circuit, and, as tion, although widely used by amateurs for
the frequency is varied either side of this fre- occasional NBFU reception.
quency by the modulation, the r -f voltage will
increase and decrease to points "C" and "B" Travis Discriminator Another form of frequen-
in accordance with the modulation. If the volt- cy detector or discrimi-
age across the tuned circuit is applied to an nator, is shown in figure 16. In this arrange-
ordinary detector, the detector output will vary ment two tuned circuits are used, one tuned
in accordance with the modulation, the ampli- on each side of the i -f amplifier frequency,
tude of the variation being proportional to the and with their resonant frequencies spaced
deviation of the signal, and the rate being slightly more than the expected transmitter
equal to the modulation frequency. It is obvious swing. Their outputs are combined in a differ-
from figure 15 that only a small portion of the ential rectifier so that the voltage across the
resonance curve is usable for linear conversion series load resistors, R, and R2, is equal to
the algebraic sum of the individual output
voltages of each rectifier. When a signal at the
At its "center" fre-

quency t he discrimi-
nator produces zero
output voltage. On
either side of this
frequency It gives
a voltage of o polar-
ity and magnitude
Figure 16 which depend on the
TRAVIS DISCRIMINATOR direction and amount FREQUENCY
This type of discriminator makes use of two
off -tuned resonant circuits coupled to a sin- of frequency shift.
gle primary winding. The circuit is capable Figure 17
of xcellent linearity, but is difficult to o- DISCRIMINATOR VOLTAGE -FREQUENCY
lign. CURVE
HANDBOOK FM Reception 323
AUDIO
OUTPUT
SECONDARY VOLTAGE
Figure 18
FOSTER -SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR
This discriminator is the most widely used
circuit since it is capable of excellent lin-
earity and is relatively simple to align when Figure 19
proper test equipment is available.
DISCRIMINATOR VECTOR DIAGRAM
A signal at the resonant frequency of the
secondary will couse the secondary voltage
to be 90 degrees out of phase with the pri-
i -f mid -frequency is received, the voltages mary voltage, as shown at A, and the result-
across the load resistors are equal and oppo- ant voltages R and le are equal. If the sig-
site, and the sum voltage is zero. As the r -f nal frequency changes, the phase relation-
signal varies from the mid- frequency, however, ship also changes, and the resultant voltages
are no longer equal, as shown at B. A differ-
these individual voltages become unequal, and ential rectifier is used to give an output volt-
a voltage having the polarity of the larger voltage proportional to the difference between
age and equal to the difference between the R and R'.
two voltages appears across the series resis-
tors, and is applied to the audio amplifier.
The relationship between frequency and dis-
criminator output voltage is shown in figure ing and the primary winding in series, the re-
17. The separation of the discriminator peaks sultant r -f voltages applied to each are equal,
and the linearity of the output voltage vs. fre- and the voltages developed across each diode
quency curve depend upon the discriminator load resistor are equal and of opposite polar-
frequency, the Q of the tuned circuits, and the ity. Hence, the net voltage between the top of
value of the diode load resistors. As the inter- the load resistors and ground is zero. This is
mediate (and discriminator) frequency is in- shown vectorially in figure 19A where the re-
creased, the peaks must be separated further to
secixe good linearity and output. Within limits, sultant voltages R and R which are applied
as the diode load resistance or the Q is re- to the two diodes are shown to be equal when
duced, the linearity improves, and the separa- the phase angle between primary and second-
tion between the peaks must be greater. ary voltages is 90 degrees. If, however, the
signal varies from the resonant frequency, the
Foster -Seeley The most widely used form of 90- degree phase relationship no longer exists
Discriminator discriminator is that shown in between primary and secondary. The result of
figure 18. This type of discrimi- this effect is shown in figure 19B where the
nator yields an output- voltage- versus -frequen- secondary r -f voltage is no longer 90 degrees
cy c:iaracteristic similar to that shown in fig- out of phase with respect to the primary volt-
ure 19. Here, again, the output voltage is equal age. The resultant voltages applied to the two
to the algebraic sum of the voltages developed diodes are now no longer equal, and a d -c
across the load resistors of the two diodes, voltage proportional to the difference between
the resistors being connected in series to the r-f voltages applied to the two diodes will
ground. However, this Foster-Seeley discrim- exist across the series load resistors. As the
inator requires only two tuned circuits instead signal frequency varies back and forth across
of the three used in the previous discriminator. the resonant frequency of the discriminator,
The operation of the circuit results from the an a -c voltage of the same frequency as the
phase relationships existing in a transformer original modulation, and proportional to the
having a tuned secondary. In effect, as a close deviation, is developed and passed on to the
examination of the circuit will reveal, the pri- audio amplifier.
mary circuit is in series, for r.f., with each
half of the secondary to ground. When the re- Ratio One of the more recent types of FM
ceived signal is at the resonant frequency of Detector detector circuits, called the ratio
the secondary, the r -f voltage across the sec- detector is diagrammed in figure 20.
ondary is 90 degrees out of phase with that The input transformer can be designed so that
across the primary. Since each diode is con- the parallel input voltage to the diodes can be
nected across one half of the secondary wind- taken from a tap on the primary of the trans-
.0001 R FC
65J7
LAST
I. r.
TO
DISCRIM-
INATOR
4-250
Figure 21
Figure 20 LIMITER CIRCUIT
RATIO DETECTOR CIRCUIT One, or sometimes two, limiter stages nor-
The parallel voltage to the diodes in a ratio mally precede the discriminator so that a con-
detector may be obtained from a tap on the stant signal level will be fed to the FM de-
primary winding of the transformer or from tector. This procedure eliminates amplitude
a third winding. Note that one of the diodes variations in the signal fed to the discrimi-
is reversed from the system used with the nator, so that it will respond only to frequen-
Foster -Seeley discriminator, and that the cy changes.
output circuit is completely different. The
ratio detector does not have to be preceded
by a limiter, but is more difficult to align for
distortion -free output than the conventional
discriminator. an incoming signal. This factor alone means
that the r-f and i-f gain ahead of the detector
can be much less than the conventional dis-
criminator for the same overall sensitivity.
former, or this voltage may be obtained from a Further, the circuit provides a -v -c voltage for
tertiary winding coupled to the primary. The controlling the gain of the preceding r -f and
r -f choke used must have high impedance at i -f stages. The ratio detector is, however, sus-
the intermediate frequency used in the receiver, ceptible to variations in the amplitude of the
although this choke is not needed if the trans- incoming signal as is any other detector cir-
former has a tertiary winding. cuit except the discriminator with a limiter
The circuit of the ratio detector appears preceding it, so that a -v-c should be used on
very similar to that of the more conventional the stages preceding the detector.
discriminator arrangement. However, it will be
noted that the two diodes in the ratio detector
are poled so that their d -c output voltages add, Limiters The limiter of an FM receiver using
as contrasted to the Foster- Seeley circuit a conventional discriminator serves
wherein the diodes are poled so that the d -c to remove amplitude modulation and pass on
output voltages buck each other. At the center to the discriminator a frequency modulated
frequency to which the discriminator trans- signal of constant amplitude; a typical circuit
former is tuned the voltage appearing at the is shown in figure 21. The limiter tube is oper-
top of the 1- megohm potentiometer will be one - ated as an i-f stage with very low plate volt-
half the d -c voltage appearing at the a-v-c out- age and with grid leak bias, so that it over-
put terminal -since the contribution of each loads quite easily. Up to a certain point the
diode will be the same. However, as the input output of the limiter will increase with an in-
frequency varies to one side or the other of crease in signal. Above this point, however,
the tuned value (while remaining within the the limiter becomes overloaded, and further
pass band of the i-f amplifier feeding the de- large increases in signal will not give any in-
tector) the relative contributions of the two crease in output. To operate successfully, the
diodes will be different. The voltage appearing limiter must be supplied with a large amount
at the top of the 1- megohm volume control will of signal, so that the amplitude of its output
increase for frequency deviations in one direc- will not change for rather wide variations in
tion and will decrease for frequency deviations amplitude of the signal. Noise, which causes
in the other direction from the mean or tuned little frequency modulation but much ampli-
value of the transformer. The audio output volt- tude modulation of the received signal, is vir-
age is equal to the ratio of the relative contri- tually wiped out in the limiter.
butions of the two diodes, hence the name The voltage across the grid resistor varies
ratio detector. with the amplitude of the received signal. For
The ratio detector offers several advantages this reason, conventional amplitude modulated
over the simple discriminator circuit. The cir- signals may be received on the FM receiver
cuit does not require the use of a limiter pre- by connecting the input of the audio amplifier
ceding the detector since the circuit is inher- to the top of this resistor, rather than to the
ently insensitive to amplitude modulation on discriminator output. When properly filtered.
HANDBOOK NBFM Adapter 325
by a simple R-C circuit, the voltage across

the grid resistor may also be used as a-v -c FROM
DISCRIMINATOR
voltage for the receiver. When the limiter is TO AUDIO GRID
operating properly, a.v.c. is neither necessary

nor desirable, however, for FM reception alone.
R. 220K, C. 340 MAW
Receiver Design One of the most important R.100 K. C. 750 Mlle
Considerations factors in the design of an R=47n, C= 1600 1.11.14.
FM receiver is the frequency R. 22 K, C c 3400 LLF.
swing which it is intended to handle. It will
be apparent from figure 17 that if the straight
portion of the discriminator circuit covers a Figure 22
wider range of frequencies than those gener- 75- MICROSECOND DE- EMPHASIS
ated by the transmitter, the audio output will CIRCUITS
be reduced from the maximum value of which The audio signal transmitted by FM and TV
the receiver is capable. stations has received high -frequency pre -
emphasis, so that a de- emphasis c i r c u i t
In this respect, the term "modulation per- should be included between the output of the
centage" is more applicable to the FM receiver FM detector and the input of the audio
than it is to the transmitter, since the modula- system.
tion capability of the communication system
is limited by the receiver bandwidth and the
discriminator characteristic; full utilization of
the linear portion of the characteristic amounts, ceiver bandwidth must be slightly greater than
in effect, to 100 per cent modulation. This the expected transmitter swing, since for dis-
means that some sort of standard must be agreed tortionless reception the receiver must pass
upon, for any particular type of communication, the complete band of energy generated by the
to make it unnecessary to vary the transmitter transmitter, and this band will always cover a
swing to accommodate different receivers. range somewhat wider than the transmitter
Two considerations influence the receiver swing.
bandwidth necessary for any particular type of
communication. These are the maximum audio Pre - Emphasis Standards in FM broadcast
frequency which the system will handle, and and De- Emphasis and TV sound work call for
the deviation ratio which will be employed. the pre- emphasis of all au-
For voice communication, the maximum audio dio modulating frequencies above about 2000
frequency is more or less fixed at 3000 to 4000 cycles, with a rising slope such as would be
cycles. In the matter of deviation ratio, how- produced by a 75- microsecond RL network.
ever, the amount of noise suppression which Thus the FM receiver should include a com-
the FM system will provide is influenced by pensating de- emphasis RC network with a time
the ratio chosen, since the improvement in constant of 75 microseconds so that the over-
signal-to -noise ratio which the FM system all frequency response from microphone to
shows over amplitude modulation is equiva- loudspeaker will approach linearity. The use
lent to a constant multiplied by the deviation of pre- emphasis and de- emphasis in this man-
ratio. This assumes that the signal is some- ner results in a considerable improvement in
what stronger than the noise at the receiver, the overall signal -to -noise ratio of an FM sys-
however, as the advantages of wideband FM tem. Appropriate values for the de- emphasis
in regard to noise suppression disappear when network, for different values of circuit imped-
the signal -to -noise ratio approaches unity. ance are given in figure 22.
On the other hand, a low deviation ratio is
more satisfactory for strictly communication A NBFM 455-kc. The unit diagrammed in figure
work, where readability at low signal -to -noise Adapter Unit 23 is designed to provide
ratios is more important than additional noise NBFM reception when attached
suppression when the signal is already appre- to any communication receiver having a 455 -kc.
ciably stronger than the noise. i -f amplifier. Although NBFM can be received
As mentioned previously, broadcast FM prac- on an AM receiver by tuning the receiver to
tice is to use a deviation ratio of 5. When this one side or the other of the incoming signal,
ratio is applied to a voice -communication sys- a tremendous improvement in signal -to -noise
tem, the total swing becomes 30 to 40 kc. With ratio and in signal to amplitude ratio will be
lower deviation ratios, such as are most fre- obtained by the use of a true FM detector sys-
quently used for voice work, the swing becomes tem.
proportionally less, until at a deviation ratio The adapter uses two tubes. A 6ÁU6 is
of 1 the swing is equal to twice the highest used as a limiter, and a 6ÁL5 as a discrimi-
audio frequency. Actually, however, the re- nator. The audio level is approximately 10
326 FM Transmission Radio Teletype
6ÁU6 6AL5 keying (MBK),designated as Al emission. and;

50 ULF IOOK
100 AUDIO 3- Audio frequency shift keying (AFSK),
LL/ OUT
designated as F2 emission.
103K
io LUF Frequency shift keying is obtained by vary-
IDO'V I
ing the transmitted frequency of the radio
455 KC.
I. F. IN signal a fixed amount (usually 850 cycles)
00
220 K LUFT VOLT - during the keying process. The shift is ac-
3A K
METER.
complished in discrete intervals designated
Ti -J. W. MILLER 0 /E -C3
mark and space. Both types of intervals convey
Br2s0V. information to the teletype printer. Make -break
AT 3 MA.
NOTE: ALL CAPACITORS IN //F UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED keying is analogous to simple c -w transmission
ALL RESISTORS 0.3 WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED in that the radio carrier conveys information
by changing from an off to an on condition.
Figure 23 Early RTTY circuits employed MBK equipment,
NBFM ADAPTER FOR 455-KC. I -F SYSTEM which is rapidly becoming obsolete since it
is inferior to the frequency shift system.
Audio frequency shift keying employs a
volts peak for the maximum deviation which steady radio carrier modulated by an audio
can be handled by a conventional 455-kc. i-f tone that is shifted in frequency according to
system. The unit may be tuned by placing a the RTTY pulses. Other forms of information
high resistance d -c voltmeter across R, and transmission may be employed by a RTTY
tuning the trimmers of the i -f transformer for system which also encompass the translation
maximum voltage when an unmodulated signal of RTTY pulses into r -f signals.
is injected into the i -f strip of the receiver.
The voltmeter should next be connected across Teletype The RTTY code consists of
the audio output terminal of the discriminator. Coding the 26 letters of the alphabet,
The receiver is now tuned back and forth a- the space, the line feed, the
cross the frequency of the incoming signal, carriage return, the bell, the upper case shift,
and the movement of the voltmeter noted. When and the lower case shift; making a total of 32
the receiver is exactly tuned on the signal the coded groups. Numerals, punctuation, and
voltmeter reading should be zero. When the re- symbols may be taken care of in the case shift,
ceiver is tuned to one side of center, the volt- since all transmitted letters are capitals.
meter reading should increase to a maximum The FSK system normally employs the higher
value and then decrease gradually to zero as radio frequency as the mark, and the lower
the signal is tuned out of the passband of the frequency as the space. This relationship
receiver. When the receiver is tuned to the holds true in the AFSK system also. The lower
other side of the signal the voltmeter should audio frequency (mark) is normally 2125 cycles
increase to the same maximum value but in and the higher audio tone (space) is 2975
the opposite direction or polarity, and then cycles, giving a frequency difference of 850
fall to zero as the signal is tuned out of the cycles.
passband. It may be necessary to make small
adjustments to C, and C2 to make the volt- The Teletype A simple FSK teletype system
meter read zero when the signal is tuned in System may be added to any c -w trans-
the center of the passband. mitter. The teletype keyboard
prints the keyed letters on a tape, and at the
same time generates the electrical code group
16 -5 Radio Teletype that describes the letter. The d.c. pulses are
impressed upon a distributor unit which ar-
The teletype machine is an electric type- ranges the typing and spacing pulses in proper
writer that is stimulated by d.c. pulses origi- sequence. The resulting series of impulses
nated by the action of a second machine. The are applied to the transmitter frequency con-
pulses may be transmitted from one machine trol device, which may be a reactance modu-
to another by wire, or by a radio signal. When lator, actuated by a polar relay.
radio transmission is used, the system is The received signal is hetrodyned against
termed radio teletype (RTTY). a beat oscillator to provide the two audio tones
The d.c. pulses that comprise the teletype which are limited in amplitude and passed
signal may be converted into three basic types through audio filters to separate them. Recti-
of emission suitable for radio transmission. fication of the tones permits operation of a
These are: 1- Frequency shift keying (FSK), polar relay which can provide d.c. pulses
designated as F1 emission; 2- Make -break suitable for operation of the tele- typewriter.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Sideband Transmission
While single- sideband transmission (SSB) The problem solved by the carrier system
has attracted significant interest on amateur was that of translating the 300 -3000 cycle
frequencies only in the past few years, the prin- voice band of frequencies to a higher frequen-
ciples have been recognized and put to use in cy (for example, 40.3 to 43.0 kc.) for trans-
various commercial applications for many years. mission on the toll wires, and then to reverse
Expansion of single -sideband for both com- the translation process at the receiving termi-
mercial and amateur communication has await- nal. It was possible in some short -haul equip-
ed the development of economical components ment to amplitude modulate a 40 kilocycle
possessing the required characteristics (such as carrier with the voice frequencies, in which
sharp cutoff filters and high stability crystals) case the resulting signal would occupy a band
demanded by SSB techniques. The availability of frequencies between 37 and 43 kilocycles.
of such components and precision test equip- Since the transmission properties of wires and
ment now makes possible the economical test- cable deteriorate rapidly with increasing fre-
ing, adjustment and use of SSB equipment on quency, most systems required the bandwidth
a wider scale than before. Many of the seem- conservation characteristics of single-sideband
ingly insurmountable obstacles of past years transmission. In addition, the carrier wave was
no longer prevent the amateur from achieving generally suppressed to reduce the power
the advantages of SSB for his class of oper- handling capability of the repeater amplifiers
ation. and diode modulators. A substantial body of
literature on the components and circuit tech-
niques of SSB has been generated by the large
17 -1 Commercial and continuing development effort to produce
Applications of SSB economical carrier telephone systems.
The use of SSB for overseas radiotelephony
Before discussion of amateur SSB equipment, has been practiced for several years though
it is helpful to review some of the commercial the number of such circuits has been numeri-
applications of SSB in an effort to avoid prob- cally small. However, the economic value of
lems that are already solved. such circuits has been great enough to war-
The first and only large scale use of SSB rant elaborate station equipment. It is from
has been for multiplexing additional voice cir- these stations that the impression has been ob-
cuits on long distance telephone toll wires. tained that SSB is too complicated for all but
Carrier systems came into wide use during the a corps of engineers and technicians to handle.
30's, accompanied by the development of high Components such as lattice filters with 40
Q toroids and copper oxide ring modulators or more crystals have suggested astronomical
of controlled characteristics. expense.
327
328 Sideband Transmission T H E R A D I O
fact, and it can be proved mathematically (and

physically with a highly selective receiver)
that the carrier of an AM signal remains un-
changed in amplitude, whether it is being mod-
,I0IIIIIIIIIIIu aIIIIIIIIIu1, ulated or not. Of course the carrier appears
LOWER UPPER
310ClAND
CARRIER
SIDEBAND to be modulated when we observe the modu-
FRED.
lated signal on a receiving system or indicator
which passes a sufficiently wide band that
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM WITH CARRIER ENVELOPE WITH
COMPLEX MODULATING WAVE COMPLEX MODULATING WAVE the carrier and the modulation sidebands are
Figure 1 viewed at the same time. This apparent change
REPRESENTATION OF A in the amplitude of the carrier with modula-
CONVENTIONAL AM SIGNAL tion is simply the result of the sidebands beat-
ing with the carrier. However, if we receive
More recently, SSB techniques have been the signal on a highly selective receiver, and if
used to multiplex large numbers of voice chan- we modulate the carrier with a sine wave of
nels on a microwave radio band using equip- 3000 to 5000 cycles, we will readily see that
ment principally developed for telephone car- the carrier, or either of the sidebands can be
rier applications. It should be noted that all tuned in separately; the carrier amplitude, as
production equipment employed in these ser- observed on a signal strength meter, will re-
vices uses the filter method of generating the main constant, while the amplitude of the side -
single -sideband signal, though there is a wide bands will vary in direct proportion to the
variation in the types of filters actually used. modulation percentage.
The SSB signal is generated at a low fre-
quency and at a low level, and then trans-
Elimination of It is obvious from the pre -
the Carrier and vious discussion that the
lated and linearly amplified to a high level
One Sidebond carrier is superfluous so far
at the operating frequency.
Considerable development effort has been as the transmission of in-
expended on high level phasing type trans- telligence is concerned. It is obviously a con-
mitters wherein the problems of linear ampli- venience, however, since it provides a signal
fication are exchanged for the problems of at the receiving end for the sidebands to beat
accurately controlled phase shifts. Such equip- with and thus to reproduce the original mod-
ment has featured automatic tuning circuits, ulating signal. It is equally true that the trans-
servo -driven to facilitate frequency changing, mission of both sidebands under ordinary con-
but no transmitter of this type has been suffi- ditions is superfluous since identically the
ciently attractive to warrant appreciable pro- same intelligence is contained in both side-
duction. bands. Several systems for carrier and side-
band elimination will be discussed in this
chapter.
17 -2 Derivation of
Single- Sideband Signals Power Advantage Single sideband is a very
ofSSB over AM efficient form of voice
The single -sideband method of communica- communication by radio.
tion is, essentially, a procedure for obtaining The amount of radio frequency spectrum oc-
more efficient use of available frequency spec- cupied can be no greater than the frequency
trum and of available transmitter capability. range of the audio or speech signal transmitted,
As a starting point for the discussion of sin - whereas other forms of radio transmission re-
gle-sideband signals, let us take a conven- quire from two to several times as much spec-
tional AM signal, such as shown in figure 1, trum space. The r -f power in the transmitted
as representing the most common method for SSB signal is directly proportional to the power
transmitting complex intelligence such as in the original audio signal and no strong
voice or music. carrier is transmitted. Except for a weak pilot
It will be noted in figure 1 that there are carrier present in some commercial usage,
three distinct portions to the signal: the car- there is no r -f output when there is no audio
rier, and the upper and the lower sideband input.
group. These three portions always are present The power output rating of a SSB trans-
in a conventional AM signal. Of all these por- mitter is given in terms of peak envelope
tions the carrier is the least necessary and pcwer (PEP) . This may be defined as the
the most expensive to transmit. It is an actual r -m -s power at the crest of the modulation
HANDBOOK Derivction 329
envelope. The peak envelope power of a con-

ventional amplitude modulated signal at 100%
modulation is four times the carrier power.
The average power input to a SSB transmitter i<
is therefore a very small fraction of the power 0 4 KC KC. 4004 KC 39ae KC 4000 KC
input to a conventional amplitude modulated AUDIO SPECTRUM sse SPECTRUM SSG SPECTRUM
(UPPER SIOEIAND) (comet SIDEIAAO)
transmitter of the same power rating.
Single sideband is well suited for long - Figure 2
range communications because of its spectrum RELATIONSHIP OF AUDIO AND
and power economy and because it is less sus- SSB SPECTRUMS
ceptible to the effects of selective fading and The single sideband components are the some
interference than amplitude modulation. The as the original audio components except that
the frequency of each is raised by the fre-
principal advantages of SSB arise from the quency of the carrier. The relative amplitude
elimination of the high- energy carrier and of the various components remains the same.
from further reduction in sideband power per-
mitted by the improved performance of SSB ( e.g., 6 kilocycles) , when there is no noise or
under unfavorable propagation conditions. interference other than broadband noise, and
if the a -m signal is not degraded by propaga-
In the presence of narrow band man -made
interference, the narrower bandwidth of SSB tion. By using half the bandwidth for SSB
reception ( e.g., 3 kilocycles) the noise is re-
reduces the probability of destructive inter-
ference .A statistical study of the distribution duced 3 db so the 100 watt SSB signal be-
comes equivalent to a 200 watt carrier a -m
of signals on the air versus the signal strength
signal. It is also possible for the a -m signal
shows that the probability of successful com-
to be degraded another 3 db on the average
munication will be the same if the SSB power
is equal to one-half the power of one of the
due to narrow band interference and poor
two a -m sidebands. Thus SSB can give from 0 propagation conditions, giving a possible 4
to 1 power advantage to the SSB signal.
to 9 db improvement under various conditions
when the total sideband power is equal in It should be noted that 3 db signal -to -noise
SSB and a -m. In general, it may be assumed
ratio is lost when receiving only one sideband
that 3 db of the possible 9 db advantage will of an a -m signal. The narrower receiving band-
width reduces the noise by 3 db but the 6 db
be realized on the average contact. In this case,
the SSB power required for equivalent per- advantage of coherent detection is lost, leaving
a net loss of 3 db. Poor propagation will de-
formance is equal to the power in one of the
grade this "one sideband" reception of an a -m
a -m sidebands. For example, this would rate
a 100 -watt SSB and a 400 watt (carrier) a -m
signal less than double sideband reception,
however. Also under severe narrow band in-
transmitter as having equal performance. It
terference conditions (e.g., an adjacent strong
should be noted that in this comparison it is
assumed that the receiver bandwidth is just
signal) the ability to reject all interference on
one side of the carrier is a great advantage.
sufficient to accept the transmitted intelligence
in each case. The Nature of a The nature of a single
To help evaluate other methods of compari- SSB Signal sideband signal is easily
son the following points should be considered. visualized by noting that
In conventional amplitude modulation two the SSB signal components are exactly the same
sidebands are transmitted, each having a peak as the original audio components except that
envelope power equal to 1/4-carrier power. For the frequency of each is raised by the frequen-
example, a 100 -watt a -m signal will have 25- cy of the carrier. The relative amplitude of the
watt peak envelope power in each sideband, various components remains the same, how-
or a total of 50 watts. When the receiver de- ever. (The first statement is only true for the
tects this signal, the voltages of the two side- upper sideband since the lower sideband fre-
bands are added in the detector. Thus the de- quency components are the difference between
tector output voltage is equivalent to that of the carrier and the original audio signal) .
a 100 -watt SSB signal. This method of com- Figure 2A, B, and C shows how the audio
parison says that a 100 watt SSB transmitter spectrum is simply moved up into the radio
is just equivalent to a 100 -watt a -m trans- spectrum to give the upper sideband. The
mitter. This assumption is valid only when the lower sideband is the same except inverted, as
receiver bandwidth used for SSB is the same shown in figure 2C. Either sideband may be
as that required for amplitude modulation used. It is apparent that the carrier frequency
330 Sideband Transmission THE RADIO
TWO TONE
Figure 5 Figure 6
TWO -TONE SSB THREE -TONE SSB
ENVELOPE WHEN ENVELOPE WHEN
Figure 3 ONE TONE HAS EQUAL TONES OF
A SINGLE SINE WAVE TONE INPUT TWICE THE EQUAL FREQUENCY
TO A SSB TRANSMITTER RESULTS AMPLITUDE OF SPACINGS
IN A STEADY SINGLE SINE WAVE THE OTHER. ARE USED.
R -F OUTFIT (A). TWO AUDIO TONES
OF EQUAL AMPLITUDE BEAT
TOGETHER TO PRODUCE HALF -SINE generates the SSB envelope When the two
WAVES AS SHOWN IN (B). vectors are exactly opposite in phase, the out-
put is zero and this causes the null in the en-
of a SSB signal can only be changed by add- velope. If one tone has twice the amplitude of
ing or subtracting to the original carrier fre- the other, the envelope shape is shown in
quency. This is done by heterodyning, using figure 5. Figure 6 shows the SSB envelope of
converter or mixer circuits similar to those three equal tones of equal frequency spacings
employed in a superheterodyne receiver. and at one particular phase relationship. Figure
It is noted that a single sine wave tone in- 7A shows the SSB envelope of four equal
put to a SSB transmitter results in a single tones with equal frequency spacings and at
steady sine wave r -f ouput, as shown in figure one particular phase relationship. The phase
3A. Since it is difficult to measure the per- relationships chosen are such that at some in-
formance of a linear amplifier with a single stant the vectors representing the several tones
tone, it has become stand ird practice to use are all in phase. Figure 7B shows a SSB envel-
two tones of equal amplitude for test pur- ope of a square wave. A pure square wave re-
poses. The two radio frequencies thus pro- quires infinite bandwidth, so its SSB envelope
duced beat together to give the SSB envelope requires infinite amplitude. This emphasizes
shown in figure 3B. This figure has the shape the point that the SSB envelope shape is not
of half sine waves, and from one null to the the same as the original audio wave shape, and
next represents one full cycle of the difference usually bears no similarity to it. This is be-
frequency. How this envelope is generated is cause the percentage difference between the
shown more fully in figures 4A and 4B. fl radio frequencies is very small, even though
and f_ represent the two tone signals. When one audio tone may be several times the other
a vector representing the lower frequency tone in terms of frequency. Speech clipping as used
signal is used as a reference, the other vector
rotates around it as shown, and this action
ilwoo04041
FREQUENCY fI i2
OF
CARRIER
Figure 7A Figure 7B
FOUR TONE SSB ENVELOPE
SSB ENVELOPE OF A SQUARE
Figure 4 when equal tones WAVE.
VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF with equal frequency Peak of wave reaches
TWO -TONE SSB ENVELOPE spacings ore used infinite amplitude.
H A N D B O O K Derivation 331
in amplitude modulation is of no practical

value in SSB because the SSB r -f envelopes
are so different than the audio envelopes. A R
heavily clipped wave approaches a square wave OUT
and a square wave gives a SSB envelope with

peaks of infinite amplitude as shown in figure
7B.
Carrier Frequency Reception of a SSB

Stability Requirements s i g n a l is accom-
plished by simply
heterodyning the carrier down to zero fre-
quency. (The conversion frequency used in the
last heterodyne step is often called the rein-
serted carrier). If the SSB signal is not hetero-
R G
au.
dyned down to exactly zero frequency, each
frequency component of the detected audio
signal will be high or low by the amount of
this error. An error of 10 to 20 c.p s. for speech PUSH -PULL
AUDIO IN
signals is acceptable from an intelligibility
standpoint, but an error of the order of 50 Figure 8
c.p.s. seriously degrades the intelligibility. An SHOWING TWO COMMON TYPES
error of 20 c.p.s. is not acceptable for the OF BALANCED MODULATORS
transmission of music, however, because the Notice that a balanced modulator changes
harmonic relationship of the notes would be the circuit condition from single ended to
push -pull, or vice versa. Choice of circuit de-
destroyed. For example, the harmonics of 220 pends upon external circuit conditions since
c.p.s. are 440, 660, 880, etc., but a 10 c.p s. both the (A) and (B) arrangements con give
satisfactory generation of a double -sideband
error gives 230, 450, 670, 890, etc., or 210, suppressed- carrier signal.
430, 650, 870, etc., if the original error is on
the other side. This error would destroy the
original sound of the tones, and the harmony tien results; but when the carrier becomes
between the tones. weak and the sidebands are strong, the distor-
Suppression of the carrier is common in ama- tion is extremely severe and the signal may
teur SSB work, so the combined frequency sta- sound like "monkey chatter." This is because
bilities of all oscillators in both the transmit- a carrier of at least twice the amplitude of
ting and receiving equipment add together to either sideband is necessary to demodulate the
give the frequency error found in detection. signal properly. This can be overcome by us-
In order to overcome much of the frequency ing exalted carrier reception in which the car-
stability problem, it is common commercial rier is amplified separately and then reinserted
practice to transmit a pilot carrier at a re- before the signal is demodulated or detected.
duced amplitude. This is usually 20 db below This is a great help, but the reinserted carrier
one tone of a two -tone signal, or 26 db below must be very close to the same phase as the
the peak envelope power rating of the trans- original carrier. For example, if the reinserted
mitter. This pilot carrier is filtered out from carrier were 90 degrees from the original
the other signals at the receiver and either am- source, the a -m signal would be converted to
plified and used for the reinserted carrier or phase modulation and the usual a -m detector
used to control the frequency of a local oscil- would deliver no output.
lator. By this means, the frequency drift of The phase of the reinserted carrier is of no
the carrier is eliminated as an error in detec- importance in SSB reception and by using a
tion. strong reinserted carrier, exalted carrier recep-
tion is in effect realized. Selective fading with
Adve ntoge of SSB On long distance corn- one sideband simply changes the amplitude
with Selective Fading munication circuits and the frequency response of the system and
using a -m, selective very seldom causes the signal to become unin-
fading often causes severe distortion and at telligible. Thus the receiving techniques used
times makes the signal unintelligible. When with SSB are those which inherently greatly
one sideband is weaker than the other, distor- minimize distortion due to selective fading.
tier will be balanced out of the output circuit,
leaving only the two sidebands. Such a cir-
SIDE -
cuit is called a balanced modulator.
MOD.
BAND
VOLTA
OUTPUT Any non -linear element will produce modu-
lation. That is, if two signals are put in, sum
and difference frequencies as well as the orig-
BRIDGE SHUNT -QUAD inal frequencies appear in the output. This
MODULATOR MODULATOR phenomenon is objectionable in amplifiers and
desirable in modulators or mixers.
In addition to the sum and difference fre-
RRIER
CAI
VOLTAGE
quencies, other outputs (such as twice one
frequency plus the other) may appear. All
Ige0
combinations of all harmonics of each input
frequency may appear, but in general these are
MOO. SIOE- of decreasing amplitude with increasing order
VOLTAGE O BAND
OUTPUT of harmonic. These outputs are usually re-
1/169V11. jected by selective circuits following the mod-
ulator. All modulators are not alike in the
RING
magnitude of these higher order outputs. Bal-
MODULATOR DOUBLE- BALANCED anced diode rings operating in the square law
MODULATOR
region are fairly good and pentagrid converters
RglER l
CAI
VOLTAGE much poorer. Excessive carrier level in tube
Figure 9 mixers will increase the relative magnitude
TWO TYPES OF DIODE BALANCED of the higher order outputs. Two types of
MODULATOR triode balanced modulators are shown in figure
Such balanced modulator circuits are com- 8, and two types of diode modulators in figure
monly used in carrier telephone work and in
single -sideband systems where the carrier 9. Balanced modulators employing vacuum
frequency and modulating frequency are rela- tubes may be made to work very easily to a
tively close together. Vacuum diodes, copper -
oxide rectifiers, or crystal diodes may be point. Circuits may be devised wherein both
used in the circuits. input signals may be applied to a high im-
pedance grid, simplifying isolation and load-
17 -3 Carrier Elimination ing problems. The most important difficulties
with these vacuum tube modulator circuits
Circuits are: (1) Balance is not independent of signal
Various circuits may be employed to elimi- level. (2) Balance drifts with time and envir-
nate the carrier to provide a double sideband onment. (3) The carrier level for low "high -
signal. A selective filter may follow the carrier order output" is critical, and (4) Such circuits
elimination circuit to produce a single side - have limited dynamic range.
band signal. A number of typical circuits are shown in
Two modulated amplifiers may be connected figure 10. Of the group the most satisfactory
with the carrier inputs 180° out of phase, and performance is to be had from plate modulated
with the carrier outputs in parallel. The car- triodes.
IGO
D---i
eOAP
R.r CAR-
O T ER
IN
O-. J
I
- 100
PUSH-PULL B PUSH-PULL B
AUDIO IN
AUDIO IN
PLATE MODULATED BALANCED BALANCED TRIODE MODULATOR BALANCED PENTAGRID CON-

WITH SINGLE ENDED INPUT CIRCUITS VERTER MODULATOR
TRIODE MODULATOR
Figure 10
BALANCED MODULATORS
HANDBOOK Carrier Elimination 333
NIGH Z NIGH Z
MODULAT. SIDE BAN MODULATING SIDEBAND LOW Z LOW Z
VOLTAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT SIDEBAND
MODULATING
7 VOLTAGE OUTPUT
o
CARRIER VOLTAGE CARRIER VOLTAGE CARRIER VOLTAGE
DOUBLE- BALANCED RING MODULATOR SHUNT -QUAD MODULATOR SERIES -QUAD MODULATOR
Figure 11
DIODE RING MODULATORS
Diode Ring Modulation in telephone car- work are normally manufactured to order. They
Modulators rier equipment has been very offer no particular advantage to the amateur,
successfully accomplished with though their excellent long -term stability is
copper-oxide double balanced ring modulators. important in commercial applications. Recti-
More recently, germanium diodes have been fier types intended to be used as meter recti-
applied to similar circuits. The basic diode fiers are not likely to have the balance or high
ring circuits are shown in figure 11. The most frequency response desirable in amateur SSB
widely applied is the double balanced ring transmirters.
(A j. Both carrier and input are balanced with Vacuum diodes such as the 6AL5 may be
respect to the output, which is advantageous used as modulators. Balancing the heater -
when the output frequency is not sufficiently cathode capacity is a major difficulty except
different from the inputs to allow ready sep- when the 6AL5 is used at low source and load
aration by filters. It should be noted that the impedance levels. In addition, contact poten-
carrier must pass through the balanced input tials of the order of a few tenths of a volt may
and output transformers. Care must be taken also disturb low level applications ( figure 13) .
in adapting this circuit to minimize the carrier The double diode circuits appear attractive,
power that will be lost in these elements. The but in general it is more difficult to balance a
shunt and series quad circuits are usable when transformer at carrier frequency than an addi-
the output frequencies are entirely different tional pair of diodes. Balancing potentiometers
(i.e.: audio and r.f.) . The shunt quad (B) may be employed, but the actual cause of the
is used with high source and load impedances unbalance is far more subtile, and cannot be
and the series quad (C) with low source and adequately corrected with a single adjustment.
load impedances. These two circuits may be A signal produced by any of the above cir-
adapted to use only two diodes, substituting a cuits may be classified as a double sideband,
balanced transformer for one side of the suppressed - carrier signal.
bridge, as shown in figure 12. It should be
noted that these circuits present a half -wave
load to the carrier source. In applying any of
these circuits, r -f chokes and capacitors must SHUNT -PAIR
MODULATING SIDEBAND MODULATOR
be employed to control the path of signal and VOLTAGE OUTPUT
carrier currents. In the shunt pair, for example,

a blocking capacitor is used to prevent the r -f
load from shorting the audio input.
To a first approximation, the source and CARRIER VOLTAGE
load impedances should be an arithmetical
mean of the forward and back resistances of
o
the diodes employed. A workable rule of
SERIES -PAIR
thumb is that the source and load impedances
be ten to twenty times the forward resistance
MODULATOR MODULATING
VOLTAGE (Ì SIDEBAND
OUTPUT
for semiconductor rings. The high frequency

limit of operation in the case of junction and
copper -oxide diodes may be appreciably ex-
tended by the use of very low source and load CARRIER VOLTAGE
impedances. Figure 12
Copper -oxide diodes suitable for carrier DOUBLE -DIODE PAIRED MODULATORS
B, r
AJDIo
IN
6C4
0.5
470
o
10 -1
Jo:--
6A 5
PUSS -PULL R.F.
CARRIER IN
R f OUT
III 1
-70
OA SERIES- BALANCED DIODE MODULATOR
USING 6AL5 TUBE
I
6AL5 -11 -5 -+ -3 -2 -I 0 +1
KILOCYCLES DEVIATION
Figure 15
BANDPASS CHARACTERISTIC OF
BURNELL S -15000 SINGLE
SIDEBAND FILTER
land -line and radio communications. The mode
of operation of the filter method is diagram-
med in figure 14, in terms of components and
OB RING -DIODE MODULATOR USING 6AL5 TUBE
filters which normally would be available to
the amateur or experimenter. The output of
Figure 13 the speech amplifier passes through a con-
VACUUM DIODE MODULATOR CIRCUITS
ventional speech filter to limit the frequency
17 -4 Generation of range of the speech to about 200 to 3000
cycles. This signal then is fed to a balanced
Single -Sideband Signals modulator along with a 50,000 -cycle first car-
In general, there are two commonly used rier from a self -excited oscillator. A low -fre-
methods by which a single -sideband signal may quency balanced modulator of this type most
be generated. These systems are: (1) The Fil- conveniently may be made up of four diodes
ter Method, and (2) The Phasing Method. of the vacuum or crystal type cross connected
The systems may be used singly or in com- in a balanced bridge or ring modulator circuit.
bination, and either method, in theory, may Such a modulator passes only the sideband
be used at the operating frequency of the components resulting from the sum and dif-
transmitter or at some other frequency with ference between the two signals being fed to
the signal at the operating frequency being ob- the balanced modulator. The audio signal and
tained through the use of frequency changers the 50 -kc. carrier signal from the oscillator
(mixers) .
both cancel out in the balanced modulator so
that a band of frequencies between 47 and 50
The Filter The filter method for obtaining kc. and another band of frequencies between
Method a SSB signal is the classic meth- 50 and 53 kc. appear in the output.
od which has been in use by the The signals from the first balanced modu-
telephone companies for many years both for lator are then fed through the most critical
I00 -70000 1. t00-3000 11. 47 -30 KC 47-50 KC. 47-30 KC.
SFIICII SPI ECM BALANCED 47 -50 NC.

BALANCED MIGM -O TUNCDCINCUIT
AMPLIFIER FILTER MODULATOR SIDCSAND INVCRTMASE CR MODULATOR FOR OUTPUT IN
FILTER 11100 -2000 NC. SAND
30-Jt NC.
SO NC 1730 -1 SO NC.
Figure 14
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FILTER EXCITER EMPLOYING A 50 -K.C.
SIDEBAND FILTER
HANDBOOK Generation of S.S.B. 335
6AÚ6 2
12AU7 6AL5 2 12AU7 6C4
SHUNT-DIODE MODULATOR R F. AMPLIFIER PHASE- INVERTER
.01 0.1
(--I
75
M 250LUF SNI[LD .01
t-- ,1 aoa
7 s (so KC.) P
wKM
MIC 4.7 K
250 MN 47 K
2 3311 FILTER
e F
LAM
.002 .002 1K .O5 47K .01
K .01 10
ór
+350 V.
SOMA.
0C3 PUSH -PULL R.F. TO BALANCED
SK 20 MODULATOR FOR CONVERSION
TO 190 METERS
12AÚ7 NOTE: UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED;

SO KC OSCILLATOR RESISTORS ARE 0.5 WATT.
CAPACITORS IN/IF.
100K 00K
Figure 16
OPERATIONAL CIRCUIT FOR SSB EXCITER USING THE BURNELL
50-KC. SIDEBAND FILTER
component in the whole system -the first side- late the SSB signal to the desired frequency.
band filter. It is the function of this first side - Since only linear amplification may be used,
band filter to separate the desired 47 to 50 kc. it is not possible to use frequency multiplying
sideband from the unneeded and undesired 50 stages. Any frequency changing must be done
to 53 kc. sideband. Hence this filter must have by the beating -oscillator technique. An oper-
low attenuation in the region between 47 and ational circuit of this type of SSB exciter is
50 kc., a very rapid slope in the vicinity of shown in figure 16.
50 kc., and a very high attenuation to the A second type of filter- exciter for SSB may
sideband components falling between 50 and be built around the Collins Mechanical Filter.
53 kilocycles. Such an exciter is diagrammed in figure 17.
Burnell & Co., Inc., of Yonkers, New York Voice frequencies in the range of 200 -3000
produce such a filter, designated as Burnell cycles are amplified and fed to a low imped-
S- 15,000. The passband of this filter is shown ance phase -inverter to furnish balanced audio.
in figure 15. This audio, together with a suitably chosen
Appearing, then, at the output of the filter r -f signal, is mixed in a ring modulator, made
is a single sideband of 47 kc. to 50 kc. This up of small germanium diodes. Depending
sideband may be passed through a phase in- upon the choice of frequency of the r -f oscilla-
verter to obtain a balanced output, and then tor, either the upper or lower sideband may be
fed 'o a balanced mixer. A local oscillator applied to the input of the mechanical filter.
operating in the range of 1750 kc. to 1950 kc. The carrier, to some extent, has been rejected
is used as the conversion oscillator. Additional by the ring modulator. Additional carrier re-
conversion stages may now be added to trans- jection is afforded by the excellent passband
ZOO-3000'10 Zoo- 3000' I53-139KC I33-139 KC. 3953 KC.
o- SPEECH
AMPLIFIER
LOW
PHASE
INVERTER
Z -- SHUNT -QUAD
RING
MODULATOR
435K
MECHANICAL
FILTER
C.
CONVERTER
R F. AMPLIFIER
WITH HIGH -Q
TUNED CIRCUIT
FOR OUTPUT ON
_T
[-4'-' 3953 H.C.
450-433KC.
453 K.C 3500 K.C.

Figure 17
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FILTER EXCITER EMPLOYING A 455 -KC.
MECHANICAL FILTER FOR SIDEBAND SELECTION
CSO CNSO
o
10
20
C,150 CNSO
pr-24, CHANNEL 49 CRYSTAL 401.1 NC.

CHANNEL 50 CRYSTAL 442.PNC. .-CARRIER
JFREQUENCY
Figure 18
SIMPLE CRYSTAL LATTICE FILTER
70
459 490 461 462 443 464
FREQUENCY (KC.1
characteristics of the mechanical filter. For Q of the filter inductances should be 10 times
simplicity, the mixing and filtering operation the reciprocal of this, or 160. Appropriate Q is
usually takes place at a frequency of 455 kilo- generally obtained from toroidal inductances,
cycles. The single -sideband signal appearing though there is some possibility of using iron
at the output of the mechanical filter may be core solenoids between 10 kc. and 20 kc. A
translated directly to a higher operating fre- characteristic impedance below 1000 ohms
quency. Suitable tuned circuits must follow should be selected to prevent distributed ca-
the conversion stage to eliminate the signal pacity of the inductances from spoiling overall
from the conversion oscillator. performance. Paper capacitors intended for
bypass work may not be trusted for stability
Wove Filters The heart of a filter -type SSB or low loss and should not be used in filter
exciter is the sideband filter. circuits. Care should be taken that the levels
Conventional coils and capacitors may be of both accepted and rejected signals are low
used to construct a filter based upon standard enough so that saturation of the filter induct-
wave filter techniques. The Q of the filter in- ances does not occur.
ductances must be high when compared with
the reciprocal of the fractional bandwidth. If Crystal Filters The best known filter re-
a bandwidth of 3 kc. is needed at a carrier fre- sponses have been obtained
quency of 50 kc., the bandwidth expressed in with crystal filters. Types designed for pro-
terms of the carrier frequency is 3/50 or 6%. gram carrier service cut -off 80 db in less than
This is expressed in terms of fractional band- 50 cycles. More than 80 crystals are used in
width as 1/16. For satisfactory operation, the this type of filter. The crystals are cut to con-
trol reactance and resistance as well as the
resonant frequency. The circuits used are based
on full lattices.
The war -surplus low frequency crystals may
LOWER SIDElAND UPPER SIDEBAND
be adapted to this type of filter with some
10 success. Experimental designs usually syn-
thesize a selectivity curve by grouping sharp
20 notches at the side of the passband. Where the
CARRIER
FREQUENCY width of the passband is greater than twice
30 the spacing of the series and parallel reso-
nance of the crystals, special circuit techni-
40 ques must be used. A typical crystal filter using
these surplus crystals, and its approximate pass -
so band is shown in figure 18.
GO
244 247 244 249 250 251 252 2S3 254 255
Mechanical Filters Filters using mechanical
FREQUENCY (K.C.1 resonators have been
studied by a number of companies and are
Figure 19
PASSBAND OF LOWER AND UPPER offered commercially by the Collins Radio Co.
SIDEBAND MECHANICAL FILTER They are available in a variety of bandwidths
BALANCED
MODULATORr-
N I
20Q ]000 AUDIO
SPEECH SPEECH PHASE TO POWER AMPLIFIER STAGES
L AMPLIFIER FILTER SPLITTING
NETWORKS --.-
NI
ALANCED
MODULATOR.-
OR DIRECTLY TO ANTENNA SYSTEM
N.2
PHASE D /FFEPENCE BETWEEN e, AND BE ' PO. ei e2
PHASE D/FFEAENCE BETWEEN e/ AMO CE = PO
RADIO FRED
PHASE
SPLITTING
NETWORK
RADIO FRED
SIGNAL AT
CARRIER FREO.
Figure 20
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE "PHASING" METHOD
The phasing method of obtaining a single -sideband signal is simpler than the filter system in regard to
the number of tubes and circuits required. The system is also less expensive in regard to the components
required, but is more critical in regard to adjustments for the transmission of a pure single -sideband signal.
at center frequencies of 250 kc. and 455 kc. mitted, as is the case with all SSB transmis-
The 250 kc. series is specifically intended for sions, but only the sum or the difference of the
sideband selection. The selectivity attained by modulation band from the nominal carrier is
these filters is intermediate between good LC transmitted ( figure 20 ) .
filters at low center frequencies and engineered The phasing system has the obvious advan-
quartz crystal filters. A passband of two 250 tage that all the electrical circuits which give
kc. filters is shown in figure 19. In application
rise to the single sideband can operate in a
of the mechanical filters some special precau- practical transmitter at the nominal output fre-
tions are necessary. The driving and pick -up quency of the transmiter. That is to say that
coils should be carefully resonated to the op- if we desire to produce a single sideband whose
erating frequency. If circuit capacities are un- nominal carrier frequency is 3.9 Mc., the
known, trimmer capacitors should be used balanced modulators are fed with a 3.9 -Mc.
across the coils. Maladjustment of these tuned signal and with the audio signal from the
coils will increase insertion loss and the peak - phase splitters. It is not necessary to go through
to- valley ratio. On high impedance filters (ten several frequency conversions in order to ob-
to twenty thousand ohms) signals greater than tain a sideband at the desired output fre-
2 volts at the input should be avoided. D -c
quency, as in the case with the filter method
should be blocked out of the end coils. While of sideband generation.
the filters are rated for 5 ma. of coil current,
they are not rated for d -c plate voltage. Assuming that we feed a speech signal to
the balanced modulators along with the 3900 -
The Phasing There are a number of points kc. carrier ( 3.9 Mc. ) we will obtain in the out-
System of view from which the op- put of the balanced modulators a signal which
eration of the phasing system is either the sum of the carrier signal and the
of SSB generation may be described. We may speech band, or the difference between the car-
state that we generate two double -sideband rier and the speech band. Thus if our speech
suppressed carrier signals, each in its own bal- signal covers the band from 200 to 3000
anced modulator, that both the r -f phase and cycles, we will obtain in the output a band of
the audio phase of the two signals differ by frequencies from 3900.2 to 3903 kc. (the sum
90 degrees, and that the outputs of the two of the two, or the "upper" sideband) , or a band
balanced modulators are added with the result from 3897 to 3899.8 kc. (the difference be-
that one sideband is increased in amplitude tween the two or the "lower" sideband). A
and the other one is cancelled. This, of course, further advantage of the phasing system of
is a true description of the action that takes sideband generation is the fact that it is a very
place. But it is much easier to consider the simple matter to select either the upper side-
phasing system as a method simply of adding band or the lower sideband for transmission.
(or of subtracting) the desired modulation A simple double -pole double -throw reversing
frequency and the nominal carrier frequency. switch in two of the four audio leads to the
The carrier frequency of course is not trans- balanced modulators is all that is required.
of a few milliwatts it is most common to make
the first stage in the amplifier chain a class
A amplifier, then to use one or more class B
linear amplifiers to bring the output up to the
desired level.
R.F
OUT Balanced Illustrated in figure 8 are
o Modulator Circuits the two basic balanced
modulator circuits which
give good results with a radio frequency car-
rier and an audio modulating signal. Note that
one push -pull and one single ended tank cir-
cuit is required, but that the push -pull circuit
may be placed either in the plate or the grid
O 130.90.210 circuit. Also, the audio modulating voltage al-
ways is fed into the stage in push -pull, and
FOUR -PHASE A F.
the tubes normally are operated Class A.
When combining two balanced modulators
to make up a double balanced modulator as
used in the generation of an SSB signal by the
phasing system, only one plate circuit is re-
quired for the two balanced modulators. How-
ever, separate grid circuits are required since
the grid circuits of the two balanced modula-
tors operate at an r -f phase difference of 90
degrees. Shown in figure 21 are the two types
of double balanced modulator circuits used for
generation of an SSB signal. Note that the cir-
cuit of figure 21A is derived from the bal-
anced modulator of figure 8A, and similarly
figure 21B is derived from figure 8B.
Another circuit that gives excellent perform-
130 ao 270
0
ance and is very easy to adjust is shown in
FOUR -PHASE Ar. figure 22. The adjustments for carrier balance
Figure 21 are made by adjusting the potentiometer for
TWO CIRCUITS FOR SINGLE voltage balance and then the small variable ca-
SIDEBAND GENERATION BY THE pacitor for exact phase balance of the balanced
PHASING METHOD.
The circuit of (A) offers the advantages of carrier voltage feeding the diode modulator.
simplicity in the single-ended input circuits
plus a push -pull output circuit. Circuit (B) re-
quires double -ended input circuits but allows
all the plates to be connected in parallel for
the output circuit.
AUDIO MECHANICAL
0.2 VOLT FILTER
High -Level The plate-circuit effi-

0.1 I VaLT
oSSs
Phasing Vs. ciency of the four tubes 2
OUTPUT
Low -Level Phasing usually used to make up
the two balanced modu- 12AU7
lators of the phasing system may run as high 3*
as 50 to 70 per cent, depending upon the oper- 2.7K IOR IOR
ating angle of plate current flow. Hence it is

possible to operate the double balanced modu- e-F CARRIER
lator directly into the antenna system as the 2.5 VOLTS ,N34
output stage of the transmitter. 01
The alternative arrangement is to generate 2.7 Rf .i-12
the SSB signal at a lower level and then to
amplify this signal to the level desired by Figure 22
means of class A or class B r -f power ampli- BALANCED MODULATOR FOR USE
fiers. If the SSB signal is generated at a level WITH MECHANICAL FILTER
+190V.
3900
024220
TO CAL.
Moo. i
AUDIO
SIGNAL
3900
3900
TO CAL.
MOD.2
.00939 20
-vMSE A.r.
+e 3900
+190 V.
Figure 23 Figure 24
LOW -Q R -F PHASE -SHIFT NETWORK DOME AUDIO -PHASE-SHIFT NETWORK
The r -f phase -shift system illustrated above This circuit arrangement is convenient for ob-
is convenient in a case where it is desired to taining the audio phase shift when it is desired
make small changes in the operating he- to use a minimum of circuit components and
quency of the system without the necessity tube elements.
of being precise in the adjustment of two
coupled circuits as used for r-f phase shift
in the circuit of figure 21. variable and should have a lower value of in-
ductance than that value of inductance which
would have the same reactance as resistor R.
Radio-Frequency A single -sideband genera - Inductor L may be considered as being made
Phasing tor of the phasing type up of two values of inductance in parallel; (a)
requires that the two bal- a value of inductance which will resonate at
anced modulators be fed with r -f signals hav- the operating frequency with the circuit and
ing a 90- degree phase difference. This r -f tube capacitances, and ( b ) the value of induct-
phase difference may be obtained through the ance which is equal in reactance to the resist-
use of two loosely coupled resonant circuits, ance R. In a network such as shown in figure
such as illustrated in figures 21A and 21B. 23, equal and opposite 45- degree phase shifts
The r -f signal is coupled directly or inductive- are provided by the RL and RC circuits, thus
ly to one of the tuned circuits, and the coupling providing a 90- degree phase difference be-
between the two circuits is varied until, at tween the excitation voltages applied to the
resonance of both circuits, the r -f voltages two balanced modulators.
developed across each circuit have the same
amplitude and a 90- degree phase difference. Audio- Frequency The audio -frequency phase -
Phasing shifting networks used in
The 90- degree r -f phase difference also may generating a single -side-
be obtained through the use of a low -Q phase band signal by the phasing method usually are
shifting network, such as illustrated in figure based on those described by Dome in an ar-
23; or it may be obtained through the use of ticle in the December, 1946, Electronics. A
a lumped- constant quarter -wave line. The low - relatively simple network for accomplishing
Q phase- shifting system has proved quite prac- the 90- degree phase shift over the range from
ticable for use in single- sideband systems, 160 to 3500 cycles is illustrated in figure 24.
particularly on the lower frequencies. In such The values of resistance and capacitance must
an arrangement the two resistances R have be carefully checked to insure minimum devia-
the same value, usually in the range between tion from a 90-degree phase shift over the 200
100 and a few thousand ohms. Capacitor C, in to 3000 cycle range.
shunt with the input capacitances of the tubes
and circuit capacitances, has a reactance at Another version of the Dome network is
the operating frequency equal to the value of shown in figure 25. This network employs
the resistor R. Also, inductor L has a net in- three 12AU7 tubes and provides balanced out-
ductive reactance equal in value at the oper- put for the two balanced modulators. As with
ating frequency to resistance R. the previous network, values of the resistances
within the network must be held to very close
The inductance chosen for use at L must tolerances. It is necessary to restrict the speech
take into account the cancelling effect of the range to 300 to 3000 cycles with this network.
inpu- capacitance of the tubes and the circuit Audio frequencies outside this range will not
capacitance; hence the inductance should be have the necessary phase -shift at the output
12AU7 12AU7 12AU7
+103 REGULATED TO VAL.
V. 0.5 MOD R I
.01 PUSH -PULL

AUDIO UUf
INPUT TO DAL
AUD MOD. Na
TO DAL.
133.3A
INPUT 176
4 7 V 14013111
1 2
TO DAL.
MOD
0.5 2450 607
UUP
Figure 26
PASSIVE AUDIO- PHASE -SHIFT
NETWORK, USEFUL OVER RANGE
OF 300 TO 3000 CYCLES.
1%
+103 V. REGULATED
Figure 25 phasing method is employed on the actual
A VERSION OF THE DOME transmitting frequency, change of frequency
AUDIO -PHASE -SHIFT must be accompanied by a corresponding re-
NETWORK balance of the phasing networks. In addition,
it is difficult to obtain a phase balance with
of the network and will show up as spurious ordinary equipment within 2% over a band of
emissions on the sideband signal, and also audio frequencies. This means that carrier
in the region of the rejected sideband. A low - suppression is limited to a maximum of 40 db
pass 3500 cycle speech filter, such as the or so. However, when a relatively simple SSB
Chicago Transformer Co. LPF -2 should be transmitter is needed for spot frequency opera-
used ahead of this phase -shift network. tion, a phasing unit will perform in a satis-
A passive audio phase -shift network that factory manner.
employs no tubes is shown in figure 26. This Where a high degree of performance in the
network has the same type of operating re- SSB exciter is desired, the filter method
strictions as those described above. Additional and the phasing method may be combined.
information concerning phase -shift networks Through the use of the phasing method in the
will be found in Single Sideband Techniques first balanced modulator those undesired side -
published by the Cowan Publishing Corp., band components lying within 1000 cycles of
New York, and The Single Sideband Digest the carrier may be given a much higher degree
published by the American Radio Relay of rejection than is attainable with the filter
League. A comprehensive sideband review is method alone, with any reasonable amount of
contained in the December, 1956 issue of complexity in the sideband filter. Then the
Proceedings of the I.R.E. sideband filter may be used in its normal way
to attain very high attenuation of all undesired
Comparison of Filter Either the filter or the sideband components lying perhaps further
and Phasing Methods phasing method of than 500 cycles away from the carrier, and to
of SSB Generation single -sideband gener- restrict the sideband width on the desired side
ation is theoretically of the carrier to the specified frequency limit.
capable of a high degree of performance.
In general, it may be said that a high degree
of unwanted signal rejection may be attained
17 -5 Single Sideband
with less expense and circuit complexity with Frequency Conversion Systems
the filter method. The selective circuits for In many instances the band of sideband
rejection of unwanted frequencies operate at a frequencies generated by a low level SSB trans-
relativly low frequency, are designed for this mitter must be heterodyned up to the desired
one frequency and have a relatively high order carrier frequency. In receivers the circuits
of Q. Carrier rejection of the order of 50 db or which perform this function are called con-
so may be obtained with a relatively simple verters or mixers. In sideband work they are
filter and a balanced modulator, and unwanted usually termed mixers or modulators.
sideband rejection in the region of 60 db is
economically possible. Mixer Stages One circuit which can be used
The phasing method of SSB generation ex- for this purpose employs a
changes the problems of high -Q circuits and receiving -type mixer tube, such as the 6BE6.
linear amplification for the problems of accu- The output signal from the SSB generator is
rately controlled phase -shift networks. If the fed into the #1 grid and the conversion fre-
HANDBOOK Frequency Conversion 341
6BE6
2000 NC.
CONVERSION
FREQUENCY TUNE TO SELECT 100
(2.S V.) 2000 +250 =2250 NC. SSB OUTPUT
OR
2000 -250' 1750 NC.
12AU7
0.2 VOLT 2.0 VOLT
250 NC. sse SIGNAL INPUT CONVERSION
410 SIGNAL
SIGNAL N
(0.25 Y. )
Figure 27
PENTAGRID MIXER CIRCUIT FOR
SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION Figure 28
TWIN TRIODE MIXER CIRCUIT FOR
SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION
quency into the #3 grid. This is the reverse of
the usual grid connections, but it offers about
10 db improvement in distortion. The plate push -pull circuits and the tubes into exact
circuit is tuned to select the desired output amplitude and phase balance, about 20 db
frequency product. Actually, the output of the of injection frequency cancellation is all that
mixer tube contains all harmonics of the two can be depended upon. With suitable trim-
input signals and all possible combinations of ming adjustments the cancellation can be made
the sum and difference frequencies of all the as high as 40 db, however, in fixed frequency
harmonics. In order to avoid distortion of the circuit s.
SSB signal, it is fed to the mixer at a low The Twin Triode Mixer The mixer circuit
level, such as 0.1 to 0.2 volts. The conversion shown in figure 28
frequency is fed in at a level about 20 db has about 10 db lower distortion than the con-
higher, or about 2 volts. By this means, har- ventional 6BE6 converter tube. It has a lower
monics of the incoming SSB signal generated voltage gain of about unity and a lower out-
in the mixer tube will be very low. Usually put impedance which loads the first tuned
the desired output frequency is either the sum circuit and reduces its selectivity. In some ap-
or the difference of the SSB generator carrier plications the lower gain is of no consequence
frequency and the conversion frequency. For but the lower distortion level is important
example, using a SSB generator carrier fre- enough to warrant its use in high performance
quency of 250 kc. and a conversion injection equipment. The signal -to- distortion ratio of
frequency of 2000 kc. as shown in figure 27, this mixer is of the order of 70 db compared
the output may be tuned to select either 2250 to approximately 60 db for a 6BE6 mixer
kc. or 1750 kc. when the level of each of two tone signals is
Not only is it necessary to select the desired 0.5 volt. With stronger signals, the 6BE6
mixing product in the mixer output but also distortion increases very rapidly, whereas the
the undesired products must be highly attenu- 12AU7 distortion is much better compara-
ated to avoid having spurious output signals tively.
from the transmitter. In general, all spurious
signals that appear within the assigned fre-
quency channel should be at least 60 db below 6AS6's
the desired signal, and those appearing out-
side of the assigned frequency channel at least
80 db below the signal level.
When mixing 250 kc. with 2000 kc. as in
the above example, the desired product is the
2250 kc. signal, but the 2000 kc. injection
frequency will appear in the output about 20
db stronger than the desired signal. To reduce
it to a level 80 db below the desired signal
means that it must be attenuated 100 db.
The principal advantage of using balanced
modulator mixer stages is that the injection
frequency theoretically does not appear in the -BIAS CARRIER + 120 V.
IN ATSMA,
output. In practice, when a considerable fre-
quency range must be tuned by the balanced Figure 29
BALANCED MODULATOR CIRCUIT
modulator and it is not practical to trim the FOR SSB FREQUENCY CONVERSION
THE RADIO
Ii
Sideband Transmission
®
342
9
8
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80
Figure 30
RESPONSE OF "N" NUMBER OF TUNED CIRCUITS,
ASSUMING EACH CIRCUIT Q IS 50
HANDBOOK Frequency Conversion 343
In practical equipment where the injection

frequency is variable and trimming adjust-
ments and tube selection cannot be used, it
may be easier and more economical to obtain
f
actually tuned to 4220 kc. instead of 4250 kc.,
the f would be
220
4220
or 0.0522. Checking
the curves shows that 7 circuits would just
this extra 20 db of attenuation by using an barely provide 100 db of attenuation. This
extra tuned circuit in the output than by using illustrates the need for very accurate tuning
a balanced modulator circuit. A balanced mod- and tracking in circuits having high attenua-
ulator circuit of interest is shown in figure tion properties.
29, providing a minimum of 20 db of carrier
Coupled Tuned When as many as 7 tuned
attenuation with no balancing adjustment. Circuits circuits are required for pro-
Selective Tuned Circuits The selectivity re- per attenuation, it is not
quirements of the necessary to have the gain that 6 isolating am-
tuned circuits following a mixer stage often plifier tubes would provide. Several vacuum
become quite severe. For example, using an tubes can be eliminated by using two or three
input signal at 250 kc. and a conversion in- coupled circuits between the amplifiers. With
jection frequency of 4000 kc. the desired out- a coefficient of coupling between circuits 0.5
put may be 4250 kc. Passing the 4250 kc. of critical coupling, the overall response is
signal and the associated sidebands without very nearly the same as isolated circuits. The
attenuation and realizing 100 db of attenuation gain through a pair of circuits having 0.5
at 4000 kc. (which is only 250 kc. away) is coupling is only eight- tenths that of two criti-
a practical example. Adding the requirement cally coupled circuits, however. If critical
that this selective circuit must tune from 2250 coupling is used between two tuned circuits,
kc. to 4250 kc. further complicates the basic the nose of the response curve is broadened
requirement. The best solution is to cascade a and about 6 db is lost on the skirts of each
number of tuned circuits. Since a large num- pair of critically coupled circuits. In some
ber of such circuits may be required, the most cases it may be necessary to broaden the nose
practical solution is to use permeability tun- of the response curve to avoid adversely af-
ing. with the circuits tracked together. An ex- fecting the frequency response of the desired
ample of such circuitry is found in the Collins passband. Another tuned circuit may be re-
KWS -1 sideband transmitter. quired to make up for the loss of attenuation
If an amplifier tube is placed between each on the skirts of critically coupled circuits.
tuned circuit, the overall response will be the
sum of one stage multiplied by the number
Frequency Conversion The example in the
of stages (assuming identical tuned circuits) .
Problems previous section shows
Figure 30 is a chart which may be used to the difficult selectivi-
ty problem encountered when strong undesired
determine the number of tuned circuits re-
quired for a certain degree of attenuation at signals appear near the desired frequency. A
some nearby frequency. The Q of the circuits high frequency SSB transmitter may be re-
is assumed to be 50, which is normally realized
quired to operate at any carrier frequency in
in s-nall permeability tuned coils. The number the range of 1.75 Mc. to 30 Mc. The problem
is to find a practical and economical means of
of tuned circuits with a Q of 50 required for
providing 100 db of attenuation at 4000 kc. heterodyning the generated SSB frequency to
while passing 4250 kc. may be found as fol- any carrier frequency in this range. There are
lows: many modulation products in the output of the
mixer and a frequency scheme must be found
'f is 4250 -4000 =250 kc. that will not have undesired output of appre-
f, is the resonant frequency, 4250 kc. ciable amplitude at or near the desired signal.
When tuning across a frequency range some
f products may "cross over" the desired fre-
and
ff
= 4250 0.059 quency. These undesired crossover frequencies
should be at least 60 db below the desired
Tae point on the chart where .059 inter- signal to meet modern standards. The ampli-
sects 100 db is between the curves for 6 and 7 tude of the undesired products depends upon
tuned circuits, so 7 tuned circuits are required. the particular characteristics of the mixer and
Another point which must be considered in the particular order of the product. In general,
practice is the tuning and tracking error of most products of the 7th order and higher
the circuits. For example, if the circuits were will be at least 60 db down. Thus any cross-
- -T POWER
FROM SSB
GENERATOR
GA N CONTROL
PREAMPLIFIER
-a AMPI. FIER --TO ANT.
STAGE
- SIGNALDISTORTION
TO FROM P -A
R -F
PLATE CIRCUIT
(S /D) RATION
t
CONTROL BIA R F
RECTIFIER
-4l
SP 41-3R 30 24 SP
I
l l
III
SQ7 344P 41-S SlIP
I
DELAY BIAS VOLTAGE

FROM POWER SUPPLY
Figure 31 Figure 32
SSB DISTORTION PRODUCTS, BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AUTOMATIC
SHOWN UP TO NINTH ORDER LOAD CONTROL (A.L.C.) SYSTEM
over frequency lower than the 7th must be loaded, these spurious frequencies can extend
avoided since there is no way of attenuating far outside the original channel width and
them if they appear within the desired pass - cause an unintelligible "splatter" type of in-
band. The General Electric Ham News, volume terference in adjacent channels. This is usually
11 #6 of Nov.-Dec, 1956 covers the subject of far more importance than the distortion of
of spurious products and incorporates a "mix - the original tones with regard to intelligibility
selector" chart that is useful in determining or fidelity. To avoid interference in another
spurious products for various different mixing channel, these distortion products should be
schemes. down at least 40 db below adjacent channel
In general, for most applications when the signal. Using a two -tone test, the distortion is
intelligence bearing frequency is lower than given as the ratio of the amplitude of one
the conversion frequency, it is desirable that test tone to the amplitude of a third order
the ratio of the two frequencies be between 5 product. This is called the signal -to- distortion
to 1 and 10 to L This is a compromise be- ratio (S /D) and is usually given in decibels.
tween avoiding low order harmonics of this The use of feedback r -f amplifiers make S/D
signal input appearing in the output, and ratios of greater than 40 db possible and prac-
minimizing the selectivity requirements of the tical.
circuits following the mixer stage.
Automatic Two means may be used to
17 -6 Distortion Products Load Control keep the amplitude of these
Due to Nonlinearity of distortion products down to
acceptable levels. One is to design the ampli-
R -F Amplifiers fier for excellent linearity over its amplitude
When the SSB envelope of a voice signal or power range. The other is to employ a
is distorted, a great many new frequencies are means of limiting the amplitude of the SSB
generated. These represent all of the possible envelope to the capabilities of the amplifier.
combinations of the sum and difference fre- An automatic load control ssytem (ALC) may
quencies of all harmonics of the original fre- be used to accomplish this result. It should be
quencies. For purposes of test and analysis, noted that the r.f wave shapes of the SSB sig-
two equal amplitude tones are used as the nal are always sine waves because the tank cir-
SSB audio source. Since the SSB radio fre- cuits make them so. It is the change in gain
quency amplifiers use tank circuits, all distor- with signal level in an amplifier that distorts
tion products are filtered out except those the SSB envelope and generates unwanted dis-
which lie close to the desired frequencies. tortion products. An ALC system may be used
These are all odd order products; third order, to limit the input signal to an amplifier to
fifth order, etc.. The third order products are prevent a change in gain level caused by ex-
2p -q and 2q -p where p and q represent the cessive input level.
two SSB r -f tone frequencies. The fifth order The ALC system is adjusted so the power
products are 3p-2q and 3q -2p. These and amplifier is operating near its maximum power
some higher order products are shown in capability and at the same time is protected
figure 31. It should be noted that the fre- from being over -driven. In amplitude modu-
quency spacings are always equal to the dif- lated systems it is common to use speech com-
ference frequency of the two original tones. pressors and speech clipping systems to per-
Thus when a SSB amplifier is badly over- form this function. These methods are not
HANDBOOK Distortion Products 345
3 DB the signal is nearly up to the full power capa-

2DB- ALC LEVEL
bility of the amplifier. At this signal level,
-T - -- --t------1
the rectified output overcomes the delay bias
and the gain of the preamplifier is reduced
rapidly with increasing signal so that there is
ta very little rise in output power above the
os
threshold of gain control.
When a signal peak arrives that would nor-
mally overload the power amplifier, it is de-
sireable that the gain of the ALC amplifier be
reduced in a few milliseconds to a value where
DB SIGNAL LEVEL INPUT overloading of the power amplifier is over-
come. After the signal peak passes, the gain
Figure 33
PERFORMANCE CURVE OF should return to the normal value in about
A.L.C. CIRCUIT one -tenth second. These attack and release
times are commonly used for voice communi-
equally useful in SSB. The reason for this is cations. For this type of work, a dynamic range
that the SSB envelope is different from the of at least 10 db is desirable. Input peaks as
audio envelope and the SSB peaks do not high as 20 db above the threshold of com-
necessarily correspond with the audio peaks pression should not cause loss of control al-
as explained earlier in this chapter. For this though some increase in distortion in the up-
reason a "compressor" of some sort located per range of compression can be tolerated be-
between the SSB generator and the power am- cause peaks in this range are infrequent. An-
plifier is most effective because it is controlled other limitation is that the preceding SSB
by SSB envelope peaks rather than audio peaks. generator must be capable of passing signals
Such a "SSB signal compressor" and the means above full power output by the amount of
of obtaining its control voltage comprises a compression desired. Since the signal level
satisfactory ALC system. through the SSB generator should be main-
tained within a limited range, it is unlikely
The ALC Circuit A block diagram of an ALC that more than 12 db ALC action will be
circuit is shown in figure useful. If the input signal varies more than
32. The compressor or gain control part of this, a speech compressor should be used to
this circuit uses one or two stages of remote limit the range of the signal fed into the SSB
cutoff tubes such as 6BA6, operating very sim- generator.
ilarly to the intermediate frequency stages of Figure 33 shows the effectiveness of the
a receiver having automatic volume control. ALC in limiting the output signal to the cap-
The grid bias voltage which controls the abilities of the power amplifier. An adjustment
gain of the tubes is obtained from a voltage of the delay bias will place the threshold of
detector circuit connected to the power am- compression at the desired power output. Fig-
plifier tube plate circuit. A large delay bias is ure 34 shows a simplified schematic of an ALC
used so that no gain reduction takes place until system. This ALC uses two variable gain am-
6BA6 68A6
Figure 34 INPUT
SIMPLIFIED SCHEMA-
TIC OF AUTOMATIC
LOAD CONTROL AM-
PLIFIER. OPERATING
POINT OF ALC
CIRCUIT MAY BE
SET BY VARYING
FLOCKING BIAS ON
CATHODE OF 6X4
SIGNAL RECTIFIER
SENS.
ALC ZERO
COMPRESSION ADJ.
INDICATOR
and through r -f filter capacitors. The 3.3K
resistor and 0.1 pfd. capacitor across the recti-
fier output stabilizes the gain around the ALC
loop to prevent "motor- boating."
17 -7 Sideband Exciters
Some of the most popular sideband exciters
in use today are variations of the simple phas-
ing circuit introduced in the November, 1950
Figure 35
SSB JR. MODULATOR CIRCUIT issue of General Electric Ham Newt. Called the
R -F and A -F sources are applied in series SSB, Jr., this simple exciter is the basis for
to balanced modulator. many of the phasing transmitters now in use.
Employing only three tubes, the SSB, Jr. is a
plifier stages and the maximum overall gain is classic example of sideband generation re-
about 20 db. A meter is incorporated which is duced to its simplest form.
calibrated in db of compression. This is use-
ful in adjusting the gain for the desired The SSB, Jr. This phasing exciter employs
amount of load control. A capacity voltage audio and r -f phasing circuits
divider is used to step down the r -f voltage to produce a SSB signal at one spot frequency.
at the plate of the amplifier tube to about 50 The circuit of one of the balanced modulator
volts for the ALC rectifier. The output of the stages is shown in figure 35. The audio signal
ALC rectifier passes through R -C networks and r -f source are applied in series to two ger-
to obtain the desired attack and release times manium diodes serving as balanced modulators
XTAL
PHASE SHIFT NETWORK T2 V7O. 2
12AU7
BL O R 1F/NT
12AU7
12AT7
eAG7
+300 V. -10.5V. C+,B- 8.3 V.
C2A,B,C,D =EACH SECTION 20ÚF, 450 V. ELECTROLYTIC G1,2,3,4= 1N52 GERMANIUM DIODE OR EQUIVALENT
C7.24301000 (.002 LFD MICA *5% WITH 170 -780 W FD TR M M ER)
I L 1, L2= 33 T, N 21 E. WIRE CLOSE WOUN D ON MILLEN N 89048
C8= 4860UUFD.(0043 UFO MICA *516 WITH 170- 7BODUFD TRIMMER) IRON CORE ADJUSTABLE SLUG COIL FORM. LINK OF
C9.1215 UUFD. (.001100 MICA *5% WITH 50- 380ULFDTRILINER) TURNS OF HOOKUP WIRE WOUND ON OPEN END.
C10= 607.5UUFD(50011UFD MICA *5% WITH 5- 180LIUFD TRIMMER) L3 =1e T. N19E. WIRE SPACED TO FILL MILLEN N89046
CIB= 3S0111JFD 600V. MICA *10% (250UuFD AND 10O1110D PARALLEL) COIL FORM. TAP AT 8 TURNS. LINK OF 1 TURN AT CENTER.
Fì7,1410' 133,300 OHMS, 1/2 WATT *I% L4. SAME AS LI EXCEPT NO LINK USED.
Re.R9= 100,000 OHMS, 1/2 WATT *
1% L5. Se T. OF N19 E. WIRE. LINK ON END TO MATCH LOAD.
T1=STANCOR A -53C TRANSFORMER. (4 TURN LINK MATCHES 72 OHM LOAD)
T2,T3= OTC R -384 TRANSFORMER.
S = OPDT TOGGLE SWITCH
1 *
= MOUNTING END OF COILS.
Figure 36
SCHEMATIC, SSB, JR.
HANDBOOK S.B. Exciters 347
having a push -pull output circuit tuned to the tal oscillator stage works into the matched,
r -f "carrier" frequency. The modulator drives balanced modulator consisting of four 1N48
a linear amplifier directly at the output fre- diodes.
quency. The complete circuit of the exciter The resulting 9 Mc. SSB signal may be con-
is shown in figure 36. verted to the desired operating frequency in a
The first tube, a 12AU7, is a twin- triode 6BA7 mixer stage. Eight volts of r-f from an
serving as a speech amplifier and a crystal external v -f -o injected on grid #1 of the
oscillator. The second tube is a 12AT7, act- 6BA7 is sufficient for good conversion effic-
ing as a twin channel audio amplifier follow- iency and low distortion. The plate circuit of
ing the phase-shift audio network. The linear the 6BA7 is tuned to the sum or difference
amplifier stage is a 6AG7, capable of a peak mixing frequency and the resulting signal is
power output of 5 watts. amplified in a 6AG7 linear amplifier stage.
Sideband switching is accomplished by the Two "tweet" traps are incorporated in the
reversal of audio polarity in one of the audio 6BA7 stage to reduce unwanted responses of
channels (switch Si) , and provision is made the mixer which are apparent when the unit is
for equalization of gain in the audio channels operating in the 14 Mc. band. Band-changing
(R22). This adjustment is necessary in order is accomplished by changing coils L and L.
to achieve normal sideband cancellation, which and the frequency of the external mixing sig-
may be of the order of 35 db or better. Phase - nal. Maximum power output is of the order
shift network adjustment may be achieved by of 5 watts at any operating frequency.
adjusting potentiometer R.. Stable modulator
balance is achieved by the balance potentio- A Simple 80 Meter A SSB exciter employ-
meters R14 and R17 in conjunction with the Phasing Exciter ing r-f and audio phas-
germanium diodes. ing circuits is shown
The SSB, Jr. is designed for spot frequency in figure 38. Since the r -f phasing circuits are
operation. Note that when changing frequency balanced only at one frequency of operation,
L, L2, L, L, and L should be readjusted, the phasing exciter is necessarily a single fre-
since these circuits constitute the tuning ad- quency transmitter unless provisions are made
justments of the rig. The principal effect of to re- balance the phasing circuits every time a
mistuning L, L, and L will be lower output. frequency shift is made. However for mobile
The principal effect of mistuning L2, however, operation, or spot frequency operation a rela-
will be degraded sideband suppression. tively simple phasing exciter may be made to
perform in a satisfactory manner.
Power requirements of the SSB, Jr. are 300
volts at 60 ma., and -10.5 volts at 1 ma. A 12AU7 is employed as a Pierce crystal
Under load the total plate current will rise to oscillator, operating directly on the chosen
about 80 ma. at full level with a single tone SSB frequency in the 80 meter band. The sec-
input. With speech input, the total current ond section of this tube is used as an isolation
will rise from the resting value of 60 ma. to stage, with a tuned plate circuit, L. The out-
about 70 ma., depending upon the voice wave- put of the oscillator stage is link coupled to a
form. 90° r -f phase -shift network wherein the audio
signal from the audio phasing network is com-
The "Ten -A" The Model 10 -A phasing ex- bined with the r -f signals. Carrier balance
Exciter citer produced by Central is accomplished by adjustment of the two 1000
Electronics, Inc. is an ad- ohm potentiometers in the r -f phase network.
vanced version of the SSB, Jr. incorporating The output of the r-f phasing network is cou-
extra features such as VFO control, voice op- pled through L. to a single 6CL6 linear am-
eration, and multi -band operation. A simpli- plifier which delivers a 3 watt peak SSB sig-
fied schematic of the Model 10A is shown in nal on 80 meters.
figure 37. The 12AX7 two stage speech am- A cascade 12AT7 and a single 6C4 comprise
plifier excites a transformer coupled V2-12BH7 the speech amplifier used to drive the audio
low impedance driver stage and a voice oper- phase shift network. A small inter -stage trans-
ated (VOX) relay system employing a 12AX7 former is used to provide the necessary 180°
and a 6ÁL5. A transformer coupled 12AT7 audio phase shift required by the network. The
follows the audio phasing network, providing output of the audio phasing network is cou-
two audio channels having a 90- degree phase pled to a 12AU7 dual cathode follower which
difference. A simple 90- degree r -f phase shift provides the necessary low impedance circuit
network in the plate circuit of the 9 Mc. crys- to match the r-f phasing network. A double-
>O
V?
H,,
NO
00000
0 00 66` t 1006Ò0
0000 000
Figure 37
SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC OF "TEN -A" EXCITER
HANDBOOK S.B. Exciters 349
12AU7 800* So
LUF 6CL6
_L L2 L3
7-80k
=á
;50 33K
3W
358
.01
L
- )I
FC
LI, L2,L3' ZIT r22E.ON NOTE UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED;
XR-SO FORM .001 .001
SSE ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT
(O.S-O/A) ALL CAPACITORS /N2/F.
LI -L INA' COILS ARE IT EACH.
QCARRIER
ASTER /SR AFTER CAPACITOR OR
RESISTOR VALUE IND/CATES
DI-Da. 1N71 /NJECT.
1.0 1.0
PRECIS /ON UNIT EXACT VALUE
CRITICAL ONLY IN THAT /T SHOULD
MATCH THE MAT /Ni UNIT CLOSELY.
70K 23K
SI Dl SANO
SELECTOR
SWITCH
200K
12AT :--1(.001 STANCOR
7
A53 -C 12AU7
300 V.
8
u C.
500 7
s
u
1KM R
710.25 V. IW
Figure 38
SIMPLE 3 -WATT PHASING TYPE SSB EXCITER
pole double-throw switch in the output circuit carrier frequency to be adjusted to the "20
of the cathode follower permits sideband se- decibel" points on the response curve of the
lection. filter, as shown in figure 40. Proper r-f sig-
nal balance to the diode modulator may be
A Filter -Type Exciter A simple SSB filter - obtained by adjustment of the padding capaci-
for 80 and 40 Meters type exciter employ- tor in the cathode circuit of the triode section
ing the Collins me- of the 6U8 r -f tube. Carrier balance is set by
chanical filter illustrates many of the basic means of a 50K potentiometer placed across
principles of sideband generation. Such an ex- the balanced modulator.
citer is shown in figure 39. The exciter is de-
signed for operation in the 80 or 40 meter One half of a 12AU7 serves as a speech am-
phone bands and delivers sufficient output to plifier delivering sufficient output from a
drive a class AB, tetrode such as the 2E26, 807, high level crystal microphone to drive the sec-
or 6146. A conversion crystal may be em- ond half of the tube as a low impedance cath-
ployed, or a separate conversion v-f -o can be ode follower, which is coupled to the balanced
used as indicated on the schematic illustration. modulator. The two 1N81 diodes act as an
The exciter employs five tubes, exclusive electronic switch, impressing a double side -
of power supply. They are: 6U8 low frequency band, suppressed-carrier signal upon the me-
oscillator and r -f phase inverter, 6BA6 i -f am- chanical filter. By the proper choice of fre-
plifier, 6BA7 high frequency mixer, 6AG7 quency of the beating oscillator, the unwanted
linear amplifier, and 12AU7 speech amplifier sideband may be made to fall outside the pass -
and cathode follower. The heart of the exciter band of the mechanical filter. Thus a single
is the balanced modulator employing two sideband suppressed-carrier signal appears at
1N81 germanium diodes and the 455 kc., the output of the filter. The 455 kc. SSB sig-
3500 -cycle bandwidth mechanical filter. The nal is amplified by a 6BA6 pentode stage, and
input and output circuits of the filter are reis then converted to a frequency in the 80
sonated to 455 kc. by means of small padding meter or 40 meter band by a 6BA7 mixer
capacitors. stage. Either a crystal or an external v-f -o may
range of 452 kc. -

A series -tuned Clapp oscillator covers the
457 kc. permitting the
be used for the mixing signal.
To reduce spurious signals, a double tuned
ÁM AM
POINT POINT
0
4358440 OP
10 MECHAN C
20--- '
5-
'
I
----- I
s5e
'
30
I I
40 I
I
So I
110 I I
I I
70 I I
I 1
52 453 454 455 45C 457 5$

FREQUENCY (KC.)
Figure 40
THE "TWENTY DB" CARRIER
POINTS ON THE FILTER CURVE
The beating oscillator should be adjusted so
that its frequency corresponds to the 20 db
attenuation points of the mechanical filter
i1
passband. The carrier of the SSB signal is
thus attenuated 20 db in addition to the
inherent carrier attenuation of the balanced
mixer. A total carrier attenuation of SO db
is achieved. Unwanted sideband rejection is
of the same order.
6BE6 R FC
AUDIO
(~ SIGNAL
500 CC
CARRIER
INJECTION
SS.
SIGNAL
FROM
IF AMP. 1
110 òaJS/lI
6t
WW
N t)
V0e O Y Figure 41
-iH1'
THE PRODUCT DETECTOR
1
The above configuration resembles pentagrid
converter circuit.
=
HII
0o o
°
pt 4V
p-
©
Io' \W
II
W O 1 CYCLE OF
MODUL AT NG
WAVEFORM
N
`,1x 6J..
w
m
o
8 - 2Y
N'
H
úae
L'1WER
vIAM111 SIDESAND SIDEBAND
IHI. JW 3 CARRIER
SN tY FREQ.
K ï 11-111
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM WITH DOUBLE SIDE -BAND OUTPUT
COMPLEX MODULATING WAVE FROM BALANCED MODULATOR
a WITH SINE-WAVE MODULATION
i I xw 0, -21k.
Figure 42
,90000 DOUBLE -SIDEBAND
-111 20
. SUPPRESSED- CARRIER SIGNAL
The envelope shown at B also is obtained on
Figure 39 the oscilloscope when two audio frequencies
SCHEMATIC, FILTER-TYPE SSB EXCITER of the same amplitude are fed to the input
FOR 80 OR 40 METER OPERATION of a single -sideband transmitter.
S.B. Exciters 351
transformer is placed between the mixer stage meter #2 of the 6U8 phase inverter in order
and the 6AG7 output stage. A maximum sig- to obtain a sufficiently strong signal for prop-
nal of 3 watts may be obtained from the 6AG7 er alignment of Ti.
linear amplifier. A conversion crystal is next plugged in the
Selection of the upper or lower sideband is 6BA7 conversion oscillator circuit, and the op-
accomplished by tuning the 6U8 beating os- eration of the oscillator is checked by moni-
cillator across the passband of the mechanical toring the crystal frequency with a nearby re-
filter, as shown in figure 40. If the 80 meter ceiver. The SSB "carrier" produced by the un-
conversion oscillator is placed on the low fre- balance of potentiometer #2 should be heard
quency side of the SSB signal, placing the at the proper sideband frequency in either the
6U8 beating oscillator on the low frequency 80 meter or 40 meter band. The coupled cir-
side of the passband of the mechanical filter cuit between the 6BA7 and the 6AG7 is re-
will produce the upper sideband on 80 meters. sonated for maximum carrier voltage at the
When the beating oscillator is placed on the grid of the amplifier stage. Care should be
high frequency side of the passband of the taken that this circuit is tuned to the sideband
mechanical filter the lower sideband will be frequency and not to the frequency of the con-
generated on 80 meters. If the 80 meter conversion oscillator. Finally, the 6AG7 stage is
version oscillator is placed on the high fre- tuned for maximum output. When these ad-
quency side of the SSB signal, the sidebands justments have been completed, the 455 kc.
will be reversed from the above. The variable beating oscillator should be moved just out
oscillator should be set at approximately the of the passband of the mechanical filter. The
20 db suppression point of the passband of 80 meter "carrier" will disappear. If it does
the mechanical filter for best operation, as not, there is either energy leaking around the
shown in figure 40. If the oscillator is closer filter, or the amplifier stages are oscillating.
in frequency to the filter passband than this, Careful attention to shielding (and neutrali-
carrier rejection will suffer. If the oscillator is zation) should cure this difficulty.
moved farther away in frequency from the Audio excitation is now applied to the ex-
passband, the lower voice frequencies will be citer, and the S -meter of the receiver should
attenuated, and the SSB signal will sound high - kick up with speech, but the audio output of
pitched and tinny. A little practice in setting the receiver should be unintelligible. As the
the frequency of the beating oscillator while frequency of the beating oscillator is adjusted
monitoring the 80 meter SSB signal in the so as to bring the oscillator frequency within
station receiver will quickly acquaint the oper- the passband of the mechanical filter the mo-
ator with the proper frequency setting of the dulation should become intelligible. A single
beating oscillator control for transmission of sideband a.m. signal is now being generated.
either sideband. The BFO of the receiver should now be turned
If desired, an amplitude modulated signal on, and the beating oscillator of the exciter
with full carrier and one sideband may be moved out of the filter passband. When the
transmitted by placing the 6U8 low frequency receiver is correctly tuned, clean, crisp speech
oscillator just inside either edge of the pass - should be heard. The oscillator should be set
band of the filter (designated "AM point", at one of the "20 decibel" points of the filter
figure 40). curve, as shown in figure 40 and all adjust-
After the 6U8 oscillator is operating over ments trimmed for maximum carrier suppres-
the proper frequency range it should be possi- sion.
ble to tune the beating oscillator tuning capac-
itor across the passband of the mechanical fil- 17 -8 Reception of
ter and obtain a reading on the S -meter of a Single Sideband Signals
receiver tuned to the filter frequency and cou-
pled to the input grid of the 6BA6 i -f ampli- Single-sideband signals may be received,
fier tube. The two carrier balance controls of after a certain degree of practice in the tech-
the 6U8 phase inverter section should be ad- nique, in a quite adequate and satisfactory
justed for a null reading of the S -meter when manner with a good communications receiver.
the oscillator is placed in the center of the However, the receiver must have quite good
filter passband. The 6BA6 stage is now frequency stability both in the high - frequency
checked for operation, and transformed T, oscillator and in the beat oscillator. For this
aligned to the carrier frequency. It may be reason, receivers which use a crystal -con-
necessary to unbalance temporarily potentio- trolled first oscillator are likely to offer a
greater degree of satisfaction than the more tor is approached the voice will begin to sound
common type which uses a self -controlled os- natural but will have a background growl on
cillator. each syllable. At the correct frequency for the
Beat oscillator stability in most receivers beat oscillator the speech will clear complete-
is usually quite adequate, but many receivers ly and the voice will have a clean, crisp qual-
do not have a sufficient amplitude of beat os- ity. It should also be mentioned that there is
cillator injection to allow reception of strong a narrow region of tuning of the beat oscillator
SSB signals without distortion. In such re- a small distance on the wrong side of the side -
ceivers it is necessary either to increase the band where the voice will sound quite bassy
amount of beat- oscillator injection into the and difficult to understand.
diode detector, or the manual gain control of With a little experience it will be possible
the receiver must be turned down quite low. to identify the sound associated with improper
The tuning procedure for SSB signals is as settings of the beat -oscillator control so that
follows: The SSB signals may first be located corrections in the setting of the control can be
by tuning over the band with receiver set made. Note that the main tuning control of the
for the reception of c-w.; that is, with the man- receiver is not changed after the sideband
ual gain at a moderate level and with the beat once is tuned into the pass band of the re-
oscillator operating. By tuning in this manner ceiver. All the fine tuning should be done with
SSB signals may be located when they are far the beat oscillator control. Also, it is very im-
below the amplitude of conventional AM sig- portant that the r -f gain control be turned to
nals on the frequency band. Then after a sig- quite a low level during the tuning process.
nal has been located, the beat oscillator should Then after the signal has been tuned properly
be turned off and the receiver put on a.v.c. the r -f gain may be increased for good signal
Following this the receiver should be tuned level, or until the point is reached where best
for maximum swing of the S meter with modu- oscillator injection becomes insufficient and
lation of the SSB signal. It will not be possible the signal begins to distort.
to understand the SSB signal at this time, but
Single -Sideband Greatly simplified tuning,
the receiver may be tuned for maximum deflec-
tion. Then the receiver is put back on manual
Receivers and coupled with strong atten-
Adapters uation of undesired sig-
gain control, the beat oscillator is turned on
again, the manual gain is turned down until nals, can be obtained
the background noise level is quite low, and through the use of a single -sideband receiver
the beat oscillator control is varied until the or receiver adapter. The exalted carrier prin-
signal sounds natural. ciple usually is employed in such receivers, with
a phase- sensitive system sometimes included
The procedure in the preceding paragraph for locking the local oscillator to the frequency
may sound involved, but actually all the steps of the carrier of the incoming signal. In order
except the last one can be done in a moment. for the locking system to operate, some carrier
However, the last step is the one which will must be transmitted along with the SSB signal.
require some practice. In the first place, it is Such receivers and adapters include a means
not known in advance whether the upper or for selecting the upper or lower sideband by
lower sideband is being transmitted. So it will the simple operation of a switch. For the re-
be best to start tuning the beat oscillator from ception of a single -sideband signal the switch
one side of the pass band of the receiver to obviously must be placed in the correct posi-
the other, rather than starting with the beat tion. But for the reception of a conventional
oscillator near the center of the pass band as AM or phase- modulated signal, either sideband
is normal for c -w reception. may be selected, allowing the sideband with
With the beat oscillator on the wrong side the least interference to be used.
of the sideband, the speech will sound inverted;
that is to say that low- frequency modulation The Product Detector An unusually satis-
cy modulation tones will have a low pitch

and the speech will be quite unintelligible.
-
tones will have a high pitch and high- frequen- factory form of de-
modulator for SSB service is the product de-
tector, shown in one form in figure 41. This
With the beat oscillator on the correct side of circuit is preferred since it reduces intermodu-
the sideband but too far from the correct posi- lation products and does not require a large
tion, the speech will have some intelligibility local carrier voltage, as contrasted to the more
but the voice will sound quite high pitched. common diode envelope detector. This product
Then as the correct setting for the beat oscilla- detector operates much in the same manner as
HANDBOOK S.S.B. Reception 353
SA711850
4 -250A .001
101i
TURRET
ANT.
200
6L6 R
MODULATORS
250
15 KV.
sr4NcoR 00
A-4782
(USE .7R/MARY T 10 Fs,
AS SECONDARY )
4 -250A El
B 4000 v.
Figure 43
HIGH -LEVEL DSB BALANCED MODULATOR
a multi -grid mixer tube. The SSB signal is and excited from a push -pull r-f source. The
applied to the control grid of the tube and plates of such a modulator are connected in
the locally generated carrier is impressed upon parallel to the tank circuit, as shown in figure
the other control grid. The desired audio out- 43. This DSB modulator is capable of 1 -kilo-
put signal is recovered across the plate resist- watt peak power output at a plate potential of
ance of the demodulator tube. Since the cath- 4000 volts. The circuit is self- neutralizing and
ode current of the tube is controlled by the the tune -up process is much the same as with
simultaneous action of the two grids, the cur- any other class-C amplifier stage. As in the
rent will contain frequencies equal to the sum case of SSB, the DSB signal may also be gen-
and difference between the sideband signal and erated at a low level and amplified in linear
the carrier. Other frequencies are suppressed by stages following the modulator.
the low -pass r-f filter in the plate circuit of the
stage, while the audio frequency is recovered Synchronous A DSB signal may be re-
from the i -f sideband signal. Detection ceived with difficulty on a
conventional receiver, a n d
17 -9 Double Sideband one of the two sidebands may easily be received
on a single sideband receiver. For best recep-
Transmission tion, however, a phase -locked local oscillator
and a synchronous detector should be em-
Many systems of intelligence transmission ployed. This operation may be performed eith-
lie in the region between amplitude modula- er at the frequency of reception or at a con-
tion on the one hand and single sideband sup- venient intermediate frequency. A block dia-
pressed- carrier transmission on the other hand.
One system of interest to the amateur is the
Synchronous Communications System, popular-
ly known as "double sideband" (DSB.) trans-
I-SYN-
CHRONOUS
DETECTOR
- I-LOW
PASS
FILTER
I- AUD IO
AMPLIFIER 44-NETWORN-
mission, wherein a suppressed- carrier double

sideband signal is transmitted (figure 42) .
Reception of such a signal is possible by util-
izing a local oscillator phase- control system
s-SIGNAL
DSO
I LOCAL
Ì05C ILLATOR
F CONTROL
'HAS
H
D15CR MEN.
which derives carrier phase information from AUDIO

the sidebands alone and does not require the 90 AMPLIFIER
use of any pilot carrier. PHASE
SHIFTER
The DSB Transmitter A balanced modulator d

of the type shown in Q- SON-
-W
Q -Low Q -AUDIO
CHRONOUS PASS AMPLIFIER Q-NETWpIKr-
figure 8 may be employed to create a DSB DETECTOR FILTER
signal. For higher operating levels, a pair of Figure 44

class -C type tetrode amplifier tubes may be BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DSB
screen modulated by a push -pull audio system RECEIVING ADAPTER
354 Sideband Transmission
gram of a DSB synchronous receiver is shown rors. The reactance tube therefore locks the
in figure 44. The DSB signal is applied to local oscillator to the correct phase. Phase con-
two detectors having their local oscillator control information is derived entirely from the
version voltages in phase quadrature to each sideband component of the signal and the
carrier (if present) is not employed. Phase
other so that the audio contributions of the
control ceases with no modulation of the sig-
upper and lower sidebands reinforce one an- nal and is reestablished with the reappearance
other. The in -phase oscillator voltage is ad- of modulation.
justed to have the same phase as the suppressed
carrier of the transmitted signal. The I- ampli- Interference Rejection Interference falling
fier audio output, therefore, will contain the within the passband
demodulated audio signal, while the Q- ampli- of the receiver can be reduced by proper com-
fier (supplied with quadrature oscillator volt- bination of the I- and Q- audio signals. Under
age) will produce no output due to the quad- phase lock conditions, the I- signal is com-
rature null. Any frequency change of the local posed of the audio signal plus the undesired
oscillator will produce some audio output in interference, whereas the Q- signal contains
the Q- amplifier, while the I- amplifier is rela- only the interference component. Phase can-
tively unaffected. The Q- amplifier audio will cellation obtained by combining the two sig-
have the same polarity as the I-channel audio nals will reduce the interference while still
for one direction of oscillator drift, and oppo- adding the desired information contained in
site polarity for oscillator drift in the opposite both sidebands. The degree of interference re-
direction. The Q- amplifier signal level is projection is dependent upon the ratio of inter-
portional to the magnitude of the local oscilla- ference falling upon the two sidebands of the
tor phase angle error (the oscillator drift) for received signal and upon the basic design of
small errors. By combining the I- signal and the audio networks. A schematic and descrip-
the Q- signal in the audio phase discriminator tion of a complete DSB receiving adapter is
a d -c control voltage is developed which auto- shown in the June, 1957 issue of CQ maga-
matically corrects for local oscillator phase er- zine.
W
V
z<
P A N 0
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O.
U
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
Transmitter Design
The excellence of a transmitter is a func- attention to detail, with a good working know-
tion of the design, and is dependent upon the ledge of the limitations of the components,
execution of the design and the proper choice and with a basic conception of the actions of
of components. This chapter deals with the ground currents, the average amateur will be
study of transmitter circuitry and of the basic able to build equipment that will work "just
components that go to make up this circuitry. like the book says."
Modern components are far from faultless. Re- The twin problems of TVI and parasitics
sistors have inductance and distributed ca- are an outgrowth of the major problem of over-
pacity. Capacitors have inductance and re- all circuit design. If close attention is paid
sistance, and inductors have resistance and to the cardinal points of circuitry design, the
distributed capacity. None of these residual secondary problems of TVI and parasitics
attributes show up on circuit diagrams, yet will in themselves be solved.
they are as much responsible for the success
or failure of the transmitter as are the neces-
sary and vital bits of resistance, capacitance
and inductance. Because of these unwanted
18-1 Resistors
attributes, the job of translating a circuit on
paper into a working piece of equipment often
becomes an impossible task to those individ- The resistance of a conductor is a function
uals who disregard such important trivia. of the material, the form the material takes,
Rarely do circuit diagrams show such pitfalls the temperature of operation, and the frequen-
as ground loops and residual inductive cou- cy of the current passing through the resist-
pling between stages. Parasitic resonant cir- ance. In general, the variation in resistance
cuits are rarely visible from a study of the due to temperature is directly proportional to
schematic. Too many times radio equipment is the temperature change. With most wire -wound
rushed into service before it has been entirely resistors, the resistance increases with tem-
checked. The immediate and only too apparent perature and returns to its original value when
results of this enthusiasm are transmitter in- the temperature drops to normal. So- called
stability, difficulty of neutralization, r.f. wan- composition or carbon resistors have less
dering all over the equipment, and a general reliable temperature /resistance characteris-
"touchiness" of adjustment. Hand in glove tics. They usually have a positive tempera-
with these problems go the more serious ones ture coefficient, but the retrace curve as the
of TVI, key -clicks, and parasitics. By paying resistor is cooled is often erratic, and in
356
74
+2
+I
o
3
i7.4941111FARG
-20 - O
'
(._
MEW=
0 lO 20 30
DEGREES CENTIGRADE
HEAT CYCLE OF UNCONDITIONED

COMPOSITION
0
many cases the resistance does not return to

40
,
RESISTORS
50
In.-RESISTOR
so
E31370R e
70 SO
A
10 loo
Figure 1
3
+4
+3
4
0
-2
3
]0 -20 - 0 0 10 20
Resistors
30
DEGREES CENTIGRADE
HEAT CYCLE OF CONDITIONED

COMPOSITION RESISTORS
40
sistor will vary from these curves depending

30 !O 70 SO
357
O 100
its original value after heat cycle. It is for

a upon the manufacturer, the size and wattage
this reason that care must be taken when sol- of the resistor, etc.
dering composition resistors in circuits that
re gaire close control of the resistance value.
Matched resistors used in phase-inverter serv- Inductance of Every resistor because of its
ice can be heated out of tolerance by the act Resistors physical size has in addition
of soldering them into the circuit. Long leads to its desired resistance, less
should be left on the resistors and a long - desirable amounts of inductance and distrib-
nose pliers should grip the lead between the uted capacitance. These quantities are illus-
iror and the body of the resistor to act as a trated in figure 2A, the general equivalent cir-
heat block. General temperature character- cuit of a resistor. This circuit represents the
istics of typical carbon resistors are shown actual impedance network of a resistor at any
in figure 1. The behavior of an individual re- frequency. At a certain specified frequency
-_,.`
Figure
-
2
MM= ILIt®
I.0
RDC. L
4-0
.7
,_-__
_-_GMEN_
-=--
.
3
A
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A RESISTOR
.2
0.____115.0_1
o
5 Io
FREQUENCY (Mc.)
Figure 3
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A RESISTOR FREQUENCY EFFECTS ON SAMPLE
AT A PARTICULAR FREQUENCY COMPOSITION RESISTORS
358 Transmitter Design THE RADIO
60 R SHUNT
R. 550oon
50
.,,,\-
C L RSERIES
N
i2
o Figure 5
ó MELIM-1MI EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A CAPACITOR
NEFAI_I`
o
depend to a large extent upon the physical

configuration of the capacitor and upon the
material of which it is made. Of great interest
15 20
5
FREQUENCY (MC.)
to the amateur constructor is the series in-
ductance of the capacitor. At a certain fre-
quency the series inductive reactance of the
Figure 4 capacitor and the capacitive reactance are
equal and opposite, and the capacitor is in
CURVES OF THE IMPEDANCE OF WIRE- itself series resonant at this frequency. As
WOUND RESISTORS AT RADIO the operating frequency of the circuit in which
FREQUENCIES the capacitor is used is increased above the
series resonant frequency, the effectiveness
of the capacitor as a by-passing element de-
the impedance of the resistor may be thought teriorates until the unit is about as effective
of as a series reactance (X3) as shown in fig- as a block of wood.
ure 2B. This reactance may be either induc-
tive or capacitive depending upon whether the By -Pose The usual forms of by-pass ca-
residual inductance or the distributed capaci- Capacitors pacitors have dielectrics of paper,
tance of the resistor is the dominating factor. mica, or ceramic. For audio work,
As a rule, skin effect tends to increase the and low frequency r -f work up to perhaps 2 Mc.
reactance with frequency, while the capacity or so, the paper capacitors are satisfactory
between turns of a wire -wound resistor, or ca- as their relatively high internal inductance has
pacity between the granules of a composition little effect upon the proper operation of the
resistor tends to cause the reactance and re- circuit. The actual amount of internal induct-
sistance to drop with frequency. The behavior ance will vary widely with the manufacturing
of various types of composition resistors over process, and some types of paper capacitors
a large frequency range is shown in figure 3. have satisfactory characteristics up to a fre-
By proper component design, non -inductive requency of 5 Mc. or so.
sistors having a minimum of residual react- When considering the design of transmitting
ance characteristics may be constructed. Even equipment, it must be remembered that while
these have reactive effects that cannot be ig- the transmitter is operating at some relatively
nored at high frequencies. low frequency of, say, 7 Mc., there will be
Wirewound resistors act as low -Q inductors harmonic currents flowing through the various
at radio frequencies. Figure 4 shows typical by -pass capacitors of the order of 10 to 20
curves of the high frequency characteristics times the operating frequency. A capacitor
of cylindrical wirewound resistors. In addition that behaves properly at 7 Mc. however, may
to resistance variations wirewound resistors offer considerable impedance to the flow of
exhibit both capacitive and inductive react- these harmonic currents. For minimum har-
ance, depending upon the type of resistor and monic generation and radiation, it is obviously
the operating frequency. In fact, such resis- of greatest importance to employ by -pass ca-
tors perform in a fashion as low -Q r -f chokes pacitors having the lowest possible internal
below their parallel self-resonant frequency. inductance.
Mica dielectric capacitors have much less
internal inductance than do most paper con-
18-2
densers. Figure 6 lists self-resonant frequen-
Capacitors cies of various mica capacitors having various
lead lengths. It can be seen from inspection
The inherent residual characteristics of ca- of this table that most mica capacitors be-
pacitors include series resistance, series in- come self- resonant in the 12 -Mc. to 50 -Mc.
ductance and shunt resistance, as shown in region. The inductive reactance they would
figure 5. The series resistance and inductance offer to harmonic currents of 100 Mc. or so
HANDBOOK Capacitors 359
CONDENSER LEAD LENGTHS RESONANT FREQ. tors are used as plate bypass units in a modu-
.02 JJF MICA NONE 44.5 MC. lated transmitter they will cause acoustical
.002 LE MICA NONE 23.5 MC.
noise. Otherwise they are excellent for gen-
f eral r-f work.
fi
.01 LF MICA 10 MC.
A recent addition to the varied line of ca-
u MICA
pacitors is the coaxial or " Hypass" type of
.0009 55 MC.
.002 LE CERAMIC 24 MC
T- capacitor. These capacitors exhibit superior
.001 Li CERAMIC # 55 MC.
bypassing qualities at frequencies up to 200
300 LUE SUTTON
ff
NONE 220 MC.
Mc. and the bulkhead type are especially ef-
LF CERAMIC
.001 90 MC.
fective when used to filter leads passing
.01 LF CERAMIC I.5 MC. through partition walls between two stages.
Figure 6 Variable Air Even though air is the perfect

SELF -RESONANT FREQUENCIES OF Capacitors dielectric, air capacitors exhibit
VARIOUS CAPACITORS WITH losses because of the inherent
RANDOM LEAD LENGTH resistance of the metallic parts that make up
the capacitor. In addition, the leakage loss
across the insulating supports may become of
some consequence at high frequencies. Of
greater concern is the inductance of the ca-
wculd be of considerable magnitude. In certain pacitor at high frequencies. Since the capaci-
instances it is possible to deliberately series - tor must be of finite size, it will have tie -rods
resonate a mica capacitor to a certain frequen- and metallic braces and end plates, all of which
cy somewhat below its normal self- resonant contribute to the inductance of the unit. The
frequency by trimming the leads to a critical actual amount of the inductance will depend
length. This is sometimes done for maximum upon the physical size of the capacitor and
bypassing effect in the region of 40 Mc. to the method used to make contact to the stator
60 Mc. and rotor plates. This inductance may be cut
The recently developed button -mica capaci- to a minimum value by using as small a ca-
tors shown in figure 7 are especially designed pacitor as is practical, by using insulated tie -
to have extremely low internal inductance. rods to prevent the formation of closed induc-
Certain types of button -mica capacitors of tive loops in the frame of the unit, and by
small physical size have a self-resonant fre- making connections to the centers of the plate
quency in the region of 600 Mc. assemblies rather than to the ends as is com-
Ceramic dielectric capacitors in general
have the lowest amount of series inductance
per unit of capacitance of these three univer-
sally used types of by -pass capacitors. Typi-
cal resonant frequencies of various ceramic
units are listed in figure 6. Ceramic capaci-
tors are available in various voltage and capa-
city ratings and different physical configure-
tic-is. Stand -off types such as shown in figure
7 are useful for bypassing socket and trans-
-°!-3
former terminals. Two of these capacitors may
be mounted in close proximity on a chassis
and connected together by an r -f choke to form
a highly effective r -f filter. The inexpensive
"c:amshell" type of ceramic capacitor is
recommended for general bypassing in r -f cir-
cuitry, as it is effective as a by -pass unit to
weal over 100 Mc.
The large TV "doorknob" capacitors are
useful as by -pass units for high voltage lines.
These capacitors have a value of 500 micro -
microfarads, and are available in voltage rat- Figure 7
ings up to 40,000 volts. The dielectric of TYPES OF CERAMIC AND MICA CAPACI-
these capacitors is usually titanium -dioxide. TORS SUITABLE FOR HIGH -FREQUENCY
This material exhibits piezo-electric effects, BYPASSING
and capacitors employing it for a dielectric
will tend to "talk- back" when a -c voltages
are applied across them. When these capaci-
The Centralab 858S (1000 wild) is recom-
mended for screen and plate circuits of
rode tubes.
.-
monly done. A large transmitting capacitor Tinned or stranded wire will show greater
may have an inherent inductance as large as losses at these frequencies. Tank coil and
0.1 microhenry, making the capacitor suscep- tank capacitor leads should be of heavier wire
tible to parasitic resonances in the 50 Mc. to than other r -f leads.
150 Mc. range of frequencies. The best type of flexible lead from the en-
The question of optimum C/L ratiq and ca- velope of a tube to a terminal is thin copper
pacitor plate spacing is covered in Chapter strip, cut from thin sheet copper. Heavy, rigid
Thirteen. For all -band operation of a high power leads to these terminals may crack the enve-
stage, it is recommended that a capacitor just lope glass when a tube heats or cools.
large enough for 40 -meter phone operation be Wires carrying only a.f. or d.c. should be
chosen. (This will have sufficient capacitance chosen with the voltage and current in mind.
for phone operation on all higher frequency Some of the low -filament- voltage transmitting
bands.) Then use fixed padding capacitors for tubes draw heavy current, and heavy wire must
operation on 80 meters. Such padding capaci- be used to avoid voltage drop. The voltage is
tors are available in air, ceramic, and vacuum low, and hence not much insulation is required.
types. Filament and heater leads are usually twisted
Specially designed variable capacitors are together. An initial check should be made on
recommended for u -h -f work; ordinary capaci- the filament voltage of all tubes of 25 watts
tors often have "loops" in the metal frame or more plate dissipation rating. This voltage
which may resonate near the operating fre- should be measured right at the tube sockets.
quency. If it is low, the filament transformer voltage
should be raised. If this is impossible, heavier
Variable Vacuum Variable vacuum capacitors or parallel wires should be used for filament
Capacitors because of their small phy- leads, cutting down their length if possible.
sical size have less inher- Coaxial cable may be used for high voltage
ent inductance per unit of capacity than do leads when it is desirable to shield them from
variable air capacitors. Their losses are ex- r -f fields. RG -8 /U cable may be used at d -c
tremely low, and their dielectric strength is potentials up to 8000 volts, and the lighter
high. Because of increased production the RG -17 /U may be used to potentials of 3000
cost of such units is now within the reach of volts. Spark -plug type high- tension wire may
the designer of amateur equipment, and their be used for unshielded leads, and will with-
use is highly recommended in high power tank stand 10,000 volts.
circuits.
If this cable is used, the high -voltage leads
may be cabled with filament and other low -
voltage leads. For high -voltage leads in low-
18 -3 power exciters, where the plate voltage is not
Wire and Inductors over 450 volts, ordinary radio hookup wire of
good quality will serve the purpose.
Any length of wire, no matter how short, No r -f leads should be cabled; in fact it is
has a certain value of inductance. This prop- better to use enamelled or bare copper wire
erty is of great help in making coils and infor r -f leads and rely upon spacing for insula-
ductors, but may be of great hindrance when tion. All r -f joints should be soldered, and the
it is not taken into account in circuit design joint should be a good mechanical junction
and construction. Connecting circuit elements before solder is applied.
(themselves having residual inductance) to- The efficiency and Q of air coils commonly
gether with a conductor possessing additional used in amateur equipment is a factor of the
inductance can often lead to puzzling difficul- shape of the coil, the proximity of the coil to
ties. A piece of no. 10 copper wire ten inches other objects (including the coil form) and the
long (a not uncommon length for a plate lead material of which the coil is made. Dielectric
in a transmitter) can have a self- inductance of losses in so- called "air wound" coils are
0.15 microhenries. This inductance and that low and the Q of such coils runs in the neigh-
of the plate tuning capacitor together with the borhood of 300 to 500 at medium frequencies.
plate -to- ground capacity of the vacuum tube Unfortunately, most of the transmitting type
can form a resonant circuit which may lead to plug -in coils on the market designed for link
parasitic oscillations in the v -h -f regions. To coupling have far too small a pick up link for
keep the self- inductance at a minimum, all r -f proper operation at 7 Mc. and 3.5 Mc. The co-
carrying leads should be as short as possible efficient of coupling of these coils is about
and should be made out of as heavy material 0.5, and additional means must be employed
as possible. to provide satisfactory coupling at these low
At the higher frequencies, solid enamelled frequencies. Additional inductance in series
copper wire is most efficient for r -f leads. with the pick up link, the whole being reso-
HANDBOOK Inductors 361
Rc L Re L Rc C L
C DISTRIBUTED
Figure 8
ELECTRICAL EQUIVALENT OF R -F CHOKE AT VARIOUS FREQUENCIES
nated to the operating frequency will often At low frequencies, the distributed capacity
permit satisfactory coupling. has little effect and the electrical equivalent
circuit of the r -f choke is as shown in figure
CAI Placement For best Q a coil should be 8A. As the operating frequency of the choke
in the form of a solenoid with is raised the effect of the distributed capacity
length from one to two times the diameter. For becomes more evident until at some particular
minimum interstage coupling, coils should be frequency the distributed capacity resonates
made as small physically as is practicable. with the inductance of the choke and a parallel
The coils should then be placed so that ad- resonant circuit is formed. This point is shown
joining coils are oriented for minimum mutual in figure 8B. As the frequency of operation
coupling. To determine if this condition exists, is further increased the overall reactance of
apply the following test: the axis of one of the the choke becomes capacitive, and finally a
two coils must lie in the plane formed by the point of series resonance is reached (figure
center turn of the other coil. If this condition 8C.). This cycle repeats itself as the operating
is not met, there will be appreciable coupling frequency is raised above the series resonant
unless the unshielded coils are very small in point, the impedance of the choke rapidly be-
diameter or are spaced a considerable dis- coming lower on each successive cycle. A
chart of this action is shown in figure 9. It
tance from each other.
can be seen that as the r -f choke approaches
and leaves a condition of series resonance,
Insulation On frequencies above 7 Mc., cera-
mic, polystyrene, or Mycalex in- the performance of the choke is seriously im-
sulation is to be recommended. Cold flow must paired. The condition of series resonance
may easily be found by shorting the terminals
Ee considered when using polystyrene (Am-
phenol 912, etc.). Bakelite has low losses on of the r-f choke in question with a piece of
wire and exploring the windings of the choke
the lower frequencies but should never be
with a grid-dip oscillator. Most commercial
used in the field of high- frequency tank cir-
transmitting type chokes have series reso-
cuits.
nances in the vicinity of 11 Mc. or 24 Mc.
Lucite (or Plexiglas), which is available
in rods, sheets, or tubing, is satisfactory for
use at all radio frequencies where the r -f volt-
ages are not especially high. It is very easy
to work with ordinary tools and is not expen-
'VA -2
2.0
sive. The loss factor depends to a consider- x
able extent upon the amount and kind of plas- o
ticizer used. Ell©
The most important thing to keep in mind
regarding insulation is that the best insulation
:s air. If it is necessary to reinforce air -wound
coils to keep turns from vibrating or touching,
W
u
0
1.0 111511111E." E
use strips of Lucite or polystyrene cemented
á
1/11111NEWB.
in place with Amphenol 912 coil dope. This
will result in lower losses than the commonly
used celluloid ribs and Duco cement.
1 i,',
25
10 15 20 30
Radio Frequency R -f chokes may be consid- FREQUENCY (MC.)
Chokes Bred to be special induct-

ances designed to have a Figure 9
high value of impedance over a large range of FREQUENCY- IMPEDANCE CHARACTERIS-
frequencies. A practical r -f choke has induct- TICS FOR TYPICAL PIE -WOUND
ance, distributed capacitance, and resistance. R -F CHOKES
construction the physical size of the compon-

ents prevent such close grouping. It is nec-
essary to spread the components of such a
stage over a fairly large area. In this case it
is best to ground items directly to the chassis
at the nearest possible point, with short, direct
grounding leads. The ground currents will
flow from these points through the low induct-
ance chassis to the cathode return of the
stage. Components grounded on the top of the
chassis have their ground currents flow through
holes to the cathode circuit which is usually
located on the bottom of the chassis, since
such currents travel on the surface of the chas-
sis. The usual "top to bottom" ground path
is through the hole cut in the chassis for the
tube socket. When the gain per stage is rela-
tively low, or there are only a small number
of stages on a chassis this universal ground-
ing system is ideal. It is only in high gain
stages (i -f strips) where the "gain per inch"
Figure 10 is very high that circulating ground currents
GROUND LOOPS IN AMPLIFIER STAGES will cause operational instability.
A. Using chassis return
Intercoupling of It is important to prevent in-
B. Common ground point
Ground Currents tercoupling of various differ-
ent ground currents when the
chassis is used as a common ground return.
To keep this intercoupling at a minimum, the
stage should be completely shielded. This
18 -4 Grounds will prevent external fields from generating
spurious ground currents, and prevent the
ground currents of the stage from upsetting
At frequencies of 30 Mc. and below, a chas- the action of nearby stages. Since the ground
sismay be considered as a fixed ground refer- currents travel on the surface of the metal,
ence, since its dimensions are only a fraction the stage should be enclosed in an electrically
of a wavelength. As the frequency is increased tight box. When this is done, all ground cur-
above 30 Mc., the chassis must be considered rents generated inside the box will remain in
as a conducting sheet on which there are the box. The only possible means of escape
points of maximum current and potential. How- for fundamental and harmonic currents are im-
ever, for the lower amateur frequencies, an perfections in this electrically tight box. When-
object may be assumed to be at ground poten- ever we bring a wire lead into the box, make
tial when it is affixed to the chassis. a ventilation hole, or bring a control shaft
In transmitter stages, two important current through the box we create an imperfection. It
loops exist. One loop consists of the grid cir- is important that the effect of these imperfec-
cuit and chassis return, and the other loop tions be reduced to a minimum.
consists of the plate circuit and chassis re-
turn. These two loops are shown in figure 10A.
It can be seen that the chassis forms a return
for both the grid and plate circuits, and that 18 -5 Holes, Leads and Shafts
ground currents flow in the chassis towards
the cathode circuit of the stage. For some Large size holes for ventilation may be put
years the theory has been to separate these in an electrically tight box provided they are
ground currents from the chassis by returning properly screened. Perforated metal stock hav-
all ground leads to one point, usually the ing many small, closely spaced holes is the
cathode of the tube for the stage in question. best screening material. Copper wire screen
This is well and good if the ground leads are may be used provided the screen wires are
of minute length and do not introduce cross bonded together every few inches. As the wire
couplings between the leads. Such a technique corrodes, an insulating film prevents contact
is illustrated in figure 1013. wherein all stage between the individual wires, and the attenua-
components are grounded to the cathode pin tion of the screening suffers. The screening
of the stage socket. However, in transmitter material should be carefully soldered to the
HANDBOOK Shielding 363
EXTERNAL FIELD
TIN CAN BOTTOM WITH
FLUTED
GAINST PANEL
AGAINST
RUBBER GROMMET HOLES FOR
METER STUDS COAXIAL SOCKET
METER NUT
COAXIAL PLUG
.ODI CERAMIC
RFC LEAD
MI CERAMIC OAX IAL SHIELD

GROUND CURRENTS IN BOX
PANEL
ENTER
CONDUCTOR
J
METER LUTtO EDGES TO MAKE
PANEL LEAD GODO ELECTRICAL CON- R IGHT
METER TACT WITH PANEL
Figure 11A
SIMPLE METER SHIELD
HOLE
box, or bolted with a spacing of not less than INTERNAL GROUND

two inches between bolts. Mating surfaces of CURRENTS
the box and the screening should be clean. CURRENTS

ON.EXTERIÓvOF BOXL
A screened ventilation opening should be
roughly three times the size of an equivalent WRONG
unscreened opening, since the screening rep-
resents about a 70 per cent coverage of the Figure 11B
area. Careful attention must be paid to equip- Use of coaxial connectors on electrically
ment heating when an electrically tight box tight box prevents escape of ground currents
is used. from interior of box. At the same time exter-
Commercially available panels having half - nal fields ore not conducted into the interior
of the box.
inch ventilating holes may be used as part of
the box. These holes have much less attenua-
tion than does screening, but will perform in a
satisfactory manner in all but the areas of diameter, cut to fit the depth of the meter.
weakest TV reception. If it is desired to re- This complete shield assembly is shown in
duce leakage from these panels to a minimum, figure 11A.
the back of the grille must be covered with Careful attention should be paid to leads
screening tightly bonded to the panel. entering and leaving the electrically tight
Doors may be placed in electrically tight box. Harmonic currents generated within the
boxes provided there is no r -f leakage around box can easily flow out of the box on power
the seams of the door. Electronic weather- or control leads, or even on the outer shields
stripping or metal "finger stock" may be used of coaxially shielded wires. Figure 11B illus-
to seal these doors. A long, narrow slot in a trates the correct method of bringing shielded
closed box has the tendency to act as a slot cables into a box where it is desired to pre-
antenna and harmonic energy may pass more serve the continuity of the shielding.
readily through such an opening than it would Unshielded leads entering the box must be
through a much larger circular hole. carefully filtered to prevent fundamental and
Variable capacitor shafts or switch shafts harmonic energy from escaping down the lead.
may act as antennas, picking up currents in- Combinations of r -f chokes and low inductance
side the box and re- radiating them outside of by -pass capacitors should be used in power
the box. It is necessary either to ground the leads. If the current in the lead is high, the
shaft securely as it leaves the box, or else to chokes must be wound of large gauge wire.
make the shaft of some insulating material. Composition resistors may be substituted for
A two or three inch panel meter requires a the r -f chokes in high impedance circuits.
large leakage hole if it is mounted in the wall Bulkhead or feed -through type capacitors are
of an electrically tight box. To minimize leak - preferable when passing a lead through a
age, the meter leads should be bypassed and shield partition. A summary of lead leakage
shielded. The meter should be encased with a with various filter arrangements is shown in
metal shield that makes contact to the box figure 12.
entrely around the meter. The connecting
studs of the meter may project through the
back of the metal shield. Such a shield may Internal Leads Leads that connect two points
be made out of the end of a tin can of correct within an electrically tight box
TEST
NO.
I
FIELD STRENGTH
IN LV
12000
e+ r
r- SHIELDED OSCILLATOR
SMALL HOLE IN SHIELD
- TO
o3C.l
was operated near this frequency marked in-
stability was noted, and the filaments of the
810 tubes increased in brilliance when plate
2 10000 CI voltage was applied to the amplifier, indicat-
3 830
1 SHIELDED HOOK-UP WIRE ing the presence of r.f. in the filament circuit.
t.r.C2 RI
Changing the filament by -pass capacitors to
ROO
=nrC C2 .01 -ofd. lowered the filament resonance fre-
quency to 2.2 Mc. and cured this effect. A
5 150 "'" 2
ceramic capacitor of .01 -ofd. used as a fila-
e 70
tC]
HIELD_
140 ICI AI ,CI RI ment by -pass capacitor on each filament leg
seems to be satisfactory from both a resonant
s ROO
fi
eaF`r±sC1 RFC C2 and a TVI point of view. Filament by -pass
110
C4 RFC I C4 capacitors smaller in value than .01 -ofd.
CI RFC C, RFC should be used with caution.
10 SO
2
Various parasitic resonances are also found
II 25 C4 RFC C4 RFC v in plate and grid tank circuits. Push -pull tank
12 TRACE
_Lea C
j-C3 I LDEDVW RE circuits are prone to double resonances, as
shown in figure 14. The parasitic resonance
-C2 -J circuit is usually several megacycles higher
R I - 10000 CARBON C2 -.005 DISC CERAMIC than the actual resonant frequency of the full
RFC -OHMITE 2 -50 C3 - .01 SPRAGUE HI -PASS
CI - 75 LUF CERAMIC C4- .005 CERAMIC
tank circuit. The cure for such a double reso-
FEED -THROUGH FEED -THROUGH nance is the inclusion of an r -f choke in the
center tap lead to the split coil.
Figure 12
LEAD LEAKAGE WITH VARIOUS Chassis Material From a point of view of elec-
LEAD FILTERING SYSTEMS trical properties, aluminum
(COURTESY WIDBM) is a poor chassis material. It is difficult to
make a soldered joint to it, and all grounds
must rely upon a pressure joint. These pres-
may pick up fundamental and harmonic cur-

rents if they are located in a strong field of Figure 13
flux. Any lead forming a closed loop with it-
self will pick up such currents, as shown in SHIELDED SHIELDED
figure 13. This effect is enhanced if the lead COMPARTMENT COMPARTMENT
happens to be self -resonant at the frequency RADIATION
I
RE- RADIATED
FIELD\ FIELD
at which the exciting energy is supplied. The HOLE
solution for all of this is to by-pass all inter- 1 WRONG
nal power leads and control leads at each PICKUP

LOOP
RADIATION
LOOP
end, and to shield these leads their entire
length. All filament, bias, and meter leads BY -PASS
CAPACITOR
eY
CAP-ACITOPASSR
should be so treated. This will make the job
of filtering the leads as they leave the box
much easier, since normally "cool" leads ILLUSTRATION OF HOW A SUPPOSEDLY
within the box will not have picked up spur- GROUNDED POWER LEAD CAN COUPLE
ious currents from nearby "hot" leads. ENERGY FROM ONE COMPARTMENT
TO ANOTHER
LECTRICALLY -TIGHT ELECTRICALLY -TIGHT

(IMPARTMENT COMPARTMENT
18 -6 Parasitic Resonances RADIATION
FIELD BULKHEAD TYPE
41Y-PASS CAPACITOR
R IGHT
Filament leads within vacuum tubes may
resonate with the filament by -pass capacitors ICKUP
LOOP
at some particular frequency and cause insta-
bility in an amplifier stage. Large tubes of
the 810 and 250TH type are prone to this spur-
ious effect. In particular, a push -pull 810 am-
plifier using .001 -ofd. filament by -pass capac- ILLUSTRATION OF LEAD ISOLATION BY
itors had a filament resonant loop that fell in PROPER USE OF BULKHEAD BYPASS
the 7 -Mc. amateur band. When the amplifier CAPACITOR
HANDBOOK Parasitic Oscillations 365
final amplifier stage that might be very severe

E3ONANCE
LOOP if the plate voltage were left on and the exci-
tation were keyed.
In some cases, an all -wave receiver will
prove helpful in locating v -h -f spurious oscil-
E SO NA
LOOP
NC E lations, but it may be necessary to check from
several hundred megacycles downward in fre-
quency to the operating range. A normal har-
r monic is weaker than the fundamental but of
WRONG RIGHT good tone; a strong harmonic or a rough note
at any frequency generally indicates a para-
Figure 14 sitic.
In general, the cure for parasitic oscillation
DOUBLE RESONANCE EFFECTS IN PUSH - is two -fold: The oscillatory circuit is damped
PULL TANK CIRCUIT MAY BE ELIMI- until sustained oscillation is impossible, or
NATED BY THE INSERTION OF ANY
it is detuned until oscillation ceases. An ex-
R -F CHOKE IN THE COIL CENTER
amination of the various types of parasitic os-
TAP LEAD
cillations and of the parasitic oscillatory cir-
cuits will prove handy in applying the correct
cure.
sure joints are prone to give trouble at a later Low Frequency One type of unwanted
date because of high resistivity caused by Parasitic Oscillations oscillation often occurs
the formation of oxides from eletrolytic action in shunt -fed circuits in
in the joint. However, the ease of working which the grid and plate chokes resonate, cou-
and forming the aluminum material far out- pled through the tube's interelectrode capaci-
weighs the electrical shortcomings, and alu- tance. This also can happen with series feed.
minum chassis and shielding may be used This oscillation is generally at a much lower
with good results provided care is taken in frequency than the operating frequency and
making all grounding connections. Cadmium will cause additional carriers to appear, spaced
ano zinc plated chassis are preferable from a from perhaps twenty to a few hundred kilo-
corrosion standpoint, but are much more diffi- cycles on either side of the main wave. Such a
cult to handle in the home workshop. circuit is illustrated in figure 15. In this case,
RFC, and RFC, form the grid and plate induct-
ances of the parasitic oscillator. The neutral-
izing capacitor, no longer providing out -of-
18 -7 Parasitic Oscillation phase feedback to the grid circuit actually en-
in R -F Amplifiers
hances the low frequency oscillation. Because
of the low Q of the r -f chokes, they will usu-
ally run warm when this type of parasitic os-
Porosities (as distinguished from self- oscil- cillation is present and may actually char and
lation on the normal tuned frequency of the burn up. A neon bulb held near the oscillatory
amplifier) are undesirable oscillations either circuit will glow a bright yellow, the color
of very high or very low frequencies which appearing near the glass of the neon bulb and
may occur in radio -frequency amplifiers. not between the electrodes.
They may cause spurious signals (which One cure for this type of oscillation is to
are often rough in tone) other than normal har- change the type of choke in either the plate
monics, hash on each side of a modulated car- or the grid circuit. This is a marginal cure,
rier, key clicks, voltage breakdown or flash- because the amplifier may again break into the
over. instability or inefficiency, and shortened same type of oscillation when the plate volt-
life or failure of the tubes. They may be damped age is raised slightly. The best cure is to re-
and stop by themselves after keying or modu- move the grid r-f choke entirely and replace
lation peaks, or they may be undamped and it with a wirewound resistor of sufficient watt-
build up during ordinary unmodulated trans- age to carry the amplifier grid current. If the
mission, continuing if the excitation is re- inclusion of such a resistor upsets the operat-
moved. They may result from series or par- ing bias of the stage, an r -f choke may be
allel resonant circuits of all types. Due to neu- used, with a 100 -ohm 2 -watt carbon resistor
tralizing lead length and the nature of most in series with the choke to lower the operating
parasitic circuits, the amplifier usually is not Q of the choke. If this expedient does not
neutralized for the parasitic frequency. eliminate the condition, and the stage under
Sonetimes the fact that the plate supply is investigation uses a beam -tetrode tube, nega-
keyed will obscure parasitic oscillations in a tive resistance can exist in the screen circuit
NC
RFCI RFCa
GRID PLATE
`TANK 'TANK'
R.F. CIRCUIT PARASITIC CIRCUIT FOR CURE

LOW FREQ.OSCILLATION
Figure 15
THE CAUSE AND CURE OF LOW FREQUENCY PARASITICS
of such tubes. Try larger and smaller screen It may be said in general that the presence
by -pass capacitors to determine whether or not of low- frequency parasitics indicates that
they have any effect. If the condition is com- somewhere in the oscillating circuit there is
ing from the screen circuit an audio choke with an impedance which is high at a frequency in
a resistor across it in series with the screen the upper audio or low r -f range. This imped-
feed lead will often eliminate the trouble. ance may include one or more r-f chokes of
Low -frequency parasitic oscillations can the conventional variety, power supply chokes,
often take place in the audio system of an AM modulation components, or the high impedance
transmitter, and their presence will not be may be presented simply by an RC circuit
known until the transmitter is checked on a such as might be found in the screen-feed cir-
receiver. It is easy to determine whether or cuit of a beam -tetrode amplifier stage.
not the oscillations are coming from the modu-
lator simply by switching off the modulator
tubes. If the oscillations are coming from the
modulator, the stage in which they are being 18 -8 Elimination of V -H -F
generated can be determined by removing tubes
successively, starting with the first speech
Parasitic Oscillations
amplification stage, until the oscillation stops.
When the stage has been found, remedial steps V -h -f parasitic oscillations are often diffi-
can be taken on that stage. cult to locate and difficult to eliminate since
If the stage causing the oscillation is a low- their frequency often is only moderately above
level speech stage it is possible that the the desired frequency of operation. But it may
trouble is coming from r -f or power- supply be said that v -h -f parasitics always may be
feedback, or it may be coming about as a re- eliminated if the operating frequency is appre-
sult of inductive coupling between two trans- ciably below the upper frequency limit for the
formers. If the oscillation is taking place in tubes used in the stage. However, the elimi-
a high-level audio stage, it is possible that nation of a persistent parasitic oscillation on
inductive or capacitive coupling is taking a frequency only moderately higher than the
place back to one of the low -level speech desired operating frequency will involve a
stages. It is also possible, in certain cases, sacrifice in either the power output or the
that parasitic push -pull oscillation can take power sensitivity of the stage, or in both.
place in a Class B or Class AB modulator as Beam -tetrode stages, particularly those
a result of the grid -to-plate capacitance with- using 807 type tubes, will almost invariably
in the tubes and in the stage wiring. This con- have one or more v -h -f parasitic oscillations
dition is more likely to occur if capacitors unless adequate precautions have been taken
have been placed across the secondary of the in advance. Many of the units described in
driver transformer and across the primary of the constructional section of this edition had
the modulation transformer to act in the reduc- parasitic oscillations when first constructed.
tion of the amplitude of the higher audio fre- But these oscillations were eliminated in each
quencies. Relocation of wiring or actual neu- case; hence, the expedients used in these
tralization of the audio stage in the manner equipments should be studied. V -h -f parasitics
used for r -f stages may be required. may be readily identified, as they cause a
neon lamp to have a purple glow close to the

electrodes when it is excited by the parasitic
energy.
Parasitic Oscillations Triode stages are less

with Triodes subject to parasitic os-
cillations primarily be-
cause of the much lower power sensitivity of
such tubes as compared to beam tetrodes. But
such oscillations can and do take place. Usual- PC =eT. B IS E. ON 10011.2;
CARBON RESISTOR
ly, however, it is not necessary to incorporate
losser resistors as normally is the case with
beam tetrodes, unless the triodes are operated
quite near to their upper frequency limit, or Figura 16
the tubes are characterized by a relatively GRID PARASITIC SUPPRESSORS IN PUSH -
high transconductance. Triode v -h -f parasitic PULL TRIODE STAGE
oscillations normally may be eliminated by ad-
justment of the lengths and effective induct-
ance of the leads to the elements of the tubes.
In the case of triodes, v -h -f parasitic oscil-
lations often come about as a result of induct- obtain the desired effect. Winding these small
ance in the neutralizing leads. This is partic- coils of iron or nichrome wire may sometimes
ularly true in the case of push -pull amplifiers. be of assistance.
The cure for this effect will usually be found To increase losses at the parasitic frequency,
in reducing the length of the neutralizing leads the parasitic coils may be wound on 100 -ohm
and increasing their diameter. Both the reduc- 2 -watt resistors. These "lossy" suppressors
tion in length and increase in diameter will should be placed in the grid leads of the tubes
reduce the inductance of the leads and tend close to the grid connection, as shown in fig-
to raise the parasitic oscillation frequency ure 16.
until it is out of the range at which the tubes
will oscillate. The use of straightforward cir- Parasitic' with Where beam -tetrode tubes are
cuit design with short leads will assist in Beam Tetrads: used in the stage which has
forestalling this trouble at the outset. Butter- been found to be generating
fly -type tank capacitors with the neutralizing the parasitic oscillation, all the foregoing
capacitors built into the unit (such as the suggestions apply in general. However, there
B &W type) are effective in this regard. are certain additional considerations involved
V-h -f parasitic oscillations may take place in elimination of parasitics from beam -tetrode
as a result of inadequate bypassing or long amplifier stages. These considerations involve
by -pass leads in the filament, grid -return and the facts that a beam -tetrode amplifier stage
plate -return circuits. Such oscillations also has greater power sensitivity than an equiva-
can take place when long leads exist between lent triode amplifier, such a stage has a cer-
the grids and the grid tuning capacitor or be- tain amount of screen -lead inductance which
tween the plates and the plate tuning capaci- may give rise to trouble, and such stages have
tor. The grid and plate leads should be kept a small amount of feedback capacitance.
short, but the leads from the tuning capacitors Beam - tetrode stages often will require the
to the tank coils can be of any reasonable inclusion of a neutralizing circuit to eliminate
length insofar as parasitic oscillations are oscillation on the operating frequency. How-
concerned. In an amplifier where oscillations ever, oscillation on the operating frequency
have been traced to the grid or plate leads, normally is not called a parasitic oscillation,
their elimination can often be effected by mak- and different measures are required to elimi-
ing the grid leads much longer than the plate nate the condition.
leads or vice versa. Sometimes parasitic os- Basically, parasitic oscillations in beam -
cillations can be eliminated by using iron or tetrode amplifier stages fall into two classes:
nichrome wire for the grid or plate leads, or cathode -grid- screen oscillations, and cathode -
for the neutralizing leads. But in any event screen -plate oscillations. Both these types of
it will always be found best to make the neu- oscillation can be eliminated through the use
tralizing leads as short and of as heavy con- of a parasitic suppressor in the lead between
ductor as is practicable. the screen terminal of the tube and the screen
In cases where it has been found that in- by -pass suppressor, as shown in figure 17.
creased length in the grid leads for an ampli- Such a suppressor has negligible effect on the
fier is required, this increased length can often bypassing effect of the screen at the operat-
be wound into the form of a small coil and still ing frequency. The method of connecting this
PC=aT. 018E. ON
57.4, 2 W. CAR-
BON RESISTOR
RFC' ONM/ rE Z-50 OR
EQUIVALENT
4
Figure 17
SCREEN PARASITIC SUPPRESSION CIR-
CUIT FOR TETRODE TUBES
suppressor to tubes having dual screen leads

is shown in figure 18. At the higher frequen-
cies at which parasitics occur, the screen is
no longer at ground potential. It is therefore
necessary to include an r -f choke by-pass con-
denser filter in the screen lead after the para-
sitic suppressor. The screen lead, in addition,
should be shielded for best results.
During parasitic oscillations, considerable Figure 18
r -f voltage appears on the screen of a tetrode
PHOTO OF APPLICATION OF SCREEN
tube, and the screen by -pass condenser can PARASITIC SUPPRESSION CIRCUIT
easily be damaged. It is best, therefore, to OF FIGURE 17
employ screen by -pass condensers whose d -c
working voltage is equal to twice the maximum
applied screen voltage.
The grid- screen oscillations may occasion-
ally be eliminated through the use of a para- of the resistor and the size of the coil wound
sitic suppressor in series with the grid lead around it will be required in order to attain
of the tube. The screen plate oscillations may satisfactory parasitic suppression without ex-
also be eliminated by inclusion of a parasitic cessive power loss in the parasitic suppressor.
suppressor in series with the plate lead of the
tube. A suitable grid suppressor may be made Tetrode Screening Isolation between the grid
of a 22 -ohm 2 -watt Ohmite or Allen- Bradley and plate circuits of a tet-
resistor wound with 8 turns of no. 18 enameled rode tube is not perfect. For maximum stabili-
wire. A plate circuit suppressor is more of a ty, it is recommended that the tetrode stage
problem, since it must dissipate a quantity of be neutralized. Neutralization is absolutely
power that is dependent upon just how close necessary unless the grid and plate circuits
the parasitic frequency is to the operating fre- of the tetrode stage are each completely iso-
quency of the tube. If the two frequencies are lated from each other in electrically tight
close, the suppressor will absorb some of the boxes. Even when this is done, the stage will
fundamental plate circuit power. For kilowatt show signs of regeneration when the plate
stages operating no higher than 30 Mc. a satis- and grid tank circuits are tuned to the same
factory plate circuit suppressor may be made frequency. Neutralization will eliminate this
of five 570 -ohm 2 -watt carbon resistors in par- regeneration. Any of the neutralization cir-
allel, shunted by 5 turns of no. 16 enameled cuits described in the chapter Generation of
wire, 14 inch diameter and % inch long (figure R -F Energy may be used.
19A and B).
The parasitic suppressor for the plate cir-
cuit of a small tube such as the 5763, 2E26, 18 -9 Checking for -Parasitic
807, 6146 or similar type normally may con-
sist of a 47 -ohm carbon resistor of 2 -watt size Oscillations
with 6 turns of no. 18 enameled wire wound
around the resistor. However, for operation It is an unusual transmitter which harbors
above 30 Mc., special tailoring of the value no parasitic
oscillations when first constructed
PC
PC
FOR 807, ETC.

PC= sr. r/eE.ON PC= Ar. R /8E. ON 'TA 2w.
22ß,2w. COM- COMPOSITION RESISTOR
POSITION RESISTOR
FOR 4 -250A, ETC.
PC =5-17011.2w coMPOS/r/ON
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL WITH
51 R 16E. I/4^ DIA.
Figure 19
PLATE AND GRID PARASITIC SUPPRESSION IN TETRODE TUBES
and tested. Therefore it is always wise to fol- and plate currents of the tube should drop to
low a definite procedure in checking a new zero. Grid and plate tuning condensers should
transmitter for parasitic oscillations. be tuned to minimum capacity. No change in
Parasitic oscillations of all types are most resting grid, screen or plate current should
easily found when the stage in question is be observed. If a parasitic is present, grid cur-
running by itself, with full plate (and screen) rent will flow, and there will be an abrupt in-
voltage, sufficient protective bias to limit the crease in plate current. The size of the lamp
plate current to a safe value, and no excita- bulb in series with the high voltage supply may
tion. One stage should be tested at a time, be varied until the stage can oscillate contin-
and the complete transmitter should never be uously, without exceeding the rated plate dis-
puc on the air until all stages have been thor- sipation of the tube.
oughly checked for parasitics. 3. The frequency of the parasitic may now
To protect tetrode tubes during tests for be determined by means of an absorption wave
parasitics, the screen voltage should be ap- meter, or a neon bulb. Low frequency oscilla-
plied through a series resistor which will limit tions will cause a neon bulb to glow yellow.
the screen current to a safe value in case the High frequency oscillations will cause the
plate voltage of the tetrode is suddenly re- bulb to have a soft, violet glow. Once the fre-
moved when the screen supply is on. The cor- quency of oscillation is determined, the cures
rect procedure for parasitic testing is as fol- suggested in this chapter may be applied to
lows (figure 20): the stage.
_. The stage in question should be coupled 4. When the stage can pass the above test
to a dummy load, and tuned up in correct oper- with no signs of parasitics, the bias supply of
ati-1g shape. Sufficient protective bias should the tube in question should be decreased until
be applied to the tube at all times. For pro- the tube is dissipating its full plate rating
tection of the stage under test, a lamp bulb when full plate voltage is applied, with no r -f
should be added in series with one leg of the
primary circuit of the high voltage power sup-
ply. As the plate supply load increases during
a period of parasitic oscillation, the voltage n
drop across the lamp increases, and the effec- EXCITER
AMPLIFIER STAGE
TO BE TESTED
FOR PARASITICS
I
tive plate voltage drops. Bulbs of various UMMY
LOAD
size may be tried to adjust the voltage under
testing conditions to the correct amount. If a EXCITER CONTROL
Variac or Powerstat is at hand, it may be used SWITCH 4.
in place of the bulbs for smoother voltage con-

trol. Don't test for parasitics unless some type HIGH VOLTAGE VARIAC OR
of voltage control is used on the high voltage BIAS SUPPLY
POWER SUPPLY LIGHT BULBS
A.C.
supply! When a stage breaks into parasitic SUPPLY
oscillations, the plate current increases vio-

lently, and some protection to the tube under
test must be used. Figure 20
2. The r -f excitation to the tube should now SUGGESTED TEST SETUP FOR PARASITIC
be removed. When this is done, the grid, screen TESTS
370 Transmitter Design
excitation. Excitation may now be applied and SIGNAL GENERATOR

the stage loaded to full input into a dummy 100 NC - 200 MC
load. The signal should now be monitored in
a nearby receiver which has the antenna ter-
minals grounded or otherwise shorted out. A
series of rapid dots should be sent, and the
frequency spectrum for several megacycles
each side of the carrier frequency carefully
searched. If any vestige of parasitic is left,
it will show up as an occasional "pop" on a
keyed dot. This "pop" may be enhanced by a Figure 21
slight detuning of either the grid or plate cir-
cuit. PARASITIC GAIN MEASUREMENT
5. If such a parasitic shows up, it means Grid-dip oscillator and vacuum tube
that the stage is still not stable, and further voltmeter may be used to measure para-
measures must be applied to the circuit. Para- sitic stage gain over 100kc-200mc
sitic suppressors may be needed in both screen region.
and grid leads of a tetrode, or perhaps in both
grid and neutralizing leads of a triode stage. operating frequency. Most of these parasitic
As a last resort, a 10,000 -ohm 25 -watt wire - resonant circuits are not coupled to the tube
wound resistor may be shunted across the grid and have no significant tendency to oscillate.
coil, or grid tuning condenser of a high pow- A few, however, are coupled to the tube in
ered stage. This strategy removed a keying some form of oscillatory circuit. If the regener-
pop that showed up in a commercial transmit- ation is great enough, oscillation at the para-
ter, operating at a plate voltage of 5000. sitic frequency results. Those spurious circuits
existing just below oscillation must be found
and suppressed to a safe level.
One test method is to feed a signal from a
Test for Parasitic It is common experience grid -dip oscillator into the grid of a stage and
Tendency in Tetrode to develop an engineer - measure the resulting signal level in the plate
Amplifiers ing model of a new circuit of the stage, as shown in figure 21. The
equipment that is ap- test is made with all operating voltages applied
parently free of parasitics and then find trouble- to the tubes. Class C stages should have bias
some oscillations showing up in production reduced so a reasonable amount of static plate
units. The reason for this is that the equipment current flows. The grid-dip oscillator is tuned
has a parasitic tendency that remains below over the range of 100 kc to 200 mc. and the
the verge of oscillation until some change in relative level of the r-f voltmeter is watched
a component, tube gain, or operating condition and the frequencies at which voltage peaks
raises the gain of the parasitic circuit enough occur are noted. Each significant peak in volt-
to start oscillation. age gain in the stage must be investigated. Cir-
In most high frequency transmitters there cuit changes or suppression must then be added
are a great many resonances in the tank cir- to reduce all peaks by 10 db or more in ampli-
cuits at frequencies other than the desired tude.
t.
CHAPTER NINETEEN
Television and Broadcast
Interference
The problem of interference to television TV Set Even if the amateur transmitter

reception is best approached by the philoso- Overloading were perfect and had no har-
phy discussed in Chapter Eighteen. By correct monic r a di a t i o n or spurious
design procedure, spurious harmonic genera- emissions whatever, it still would be likely to
tiot, in low frequency transmitters may be held cause overloading of TV sets whose antennas
to a minimum. The remaining problem is two- were within a few hundred feet of the trans-
fold: to make sure that the residual harmonics mitting antenna. This type of overloading is
generated by the transmitter are not radiated, essentially the same as the common type of
and to make sure that the fundamental signal BCI encountered when operating a medium -
of the transmitter does not overload the tele- power or high -power amateur transmitter with-
vision receiver by reason of the proximity of in a few hundred feet of the normal type of
one to the other. BCL receiver. The field intensity in the im-
In an area of high TV- signal field intensity mediate vicinity of the transmitting antenna
the TVI problem is capable of complete solu- is sufficiently high that the amateur signal
tion with routine measures both at the amateur will get into the BC or TV set either through
transmitter and at the affected receivers. But overloading of the front end, or through the
in fringe areas of low TV- signal field strength i -f, video, or audio system. A characteristic
the complete elimination of TVI is a difficult of this type of interference is that it always
and challenging problem. The fundamentals will be eliminated when the transmitter tem-
illustrated in Chapter Fifteen must be closely porarily is operated into a dummy antenna.
followed, and additional antenna filtering of Another characteristic of this type of over-
the transmitter is required. loading is that its effects will be substan-
tially continuous over the entire frequency
19 -1 Types of Television coverage of the BC or TV receiver. Channels
2 through 13 will be affected in approximately
Interference the same manner.
With the overloading type of interference
There are three main types of TVI which the problem is simply to keep the fundamental
may be caused singly or in combination by the of the transmitter out of the affected receiver.
emissions from an amateur transmitter. These Other types of interference may or may not
types of interference are: show up when the fundamental is taken out of
(1) Overloading of the TV set by the trans- the TV set (they probably will appear), but at
mitter fundamental least the fundamental must be eliminated first.
(2) Impairment of the picture by spurious The elimination of the transmitter fundamen-
emissions tal from the TV set is normally the only opera-
(3) Impairment of the picture by the radiation performed on or in the vicinity of the TV
tion of harmonics receiver. After the fundamental has been elimi-
371
372 TV and Broadcast Interference THE RADIO
-1
et 0---08, 300 OHM
SHIELD BOX
SHORT
LEADS
TO
300-OHM TO INPUT LINE FROM
TERMINALS ANTENNA
LINE FROM ANTENNA TERM ON
ANTENNA OF TV SET Tv SET
c ,
Jtr'
OA FOR 300-OHM LINE, SHIELDED OR UNSHIELDED
TO TV ANTENNA COAX COAX

FITTING FITTING
TOANTENNA
TERMINALS
OF TV SET
QB FOR 50 -75 OHM COAXIAL LINE
Figure 1 Figure 2
TUNED TRAPS FOR THE TRANSMITTER HIGH -PASS TRANSMISSION LINE FILTERS
FUNDAMENTAL The arrangement at (A) will stop the passing
The arrangement at (A) has proven to be ef- of all signals below about 45 Mc. from the
fective in eliminating the condition of gen- antenna transmission line into the TV set.
eral blocking as caused by a 28 -Mc. trans- Coils L1 are each 1.2 microhenrys (17 turns
mitter in the vicinity of a TV receiver. The no. 24 enam. closewound on 14 -inch dia. poly-
tuned circuits L1 -C1 are resonated separate- styrene rod) with the center tap grounded.
ly to the frequency of transmission. The ad- It will be found best to scrape, twist, and
justment may be done at the station, or it solder the center tap before winding the coil.
may be accomplished at the TV receiver by The number of turns each side of the tap may
tuning for minimum interference on the TV then be varied until the tap is in the exact
screen. center of the winding. Coil L2 is 0.6 micro-
henry (12 turns no. 24 enam. closewound on
Shown at (B) is on alternative arrangement Ií -inch dia, polystyrene rod). The capacitors
with o series -tuned circuit across the anten- should be about 16.5 t4,-fd., but either 15 or
na terminals of the TV set. The tuned cir- 20 uµfd. ceramic capacitors will give satis-
cuit should be resonated to the operating factory results. A similar filter for coaxial
frequency of the transmitter. This arrange- antenna transmission line is shown at (B).
ment gives less attenuation of the interfer- Both coils should be 0.12 microhenry (7 turns
ing signal than that at (A); the circuit has no. 18 enam. spaced to it inch on 1/4-inch dio.
proven effective with interference from trans- polystyrene rod). Capacitors C2 should be
mitters on the 50 -Mc. band, and with low - 75 wild. midget ceramics, while C3 should
power 28 -Mc. transmitters. be a 40 -uwfd. ceramic.
nated as a source of interference to reception, must be readjusted whenever the band of oper-
work may then be begun on or in the vicinity ation is changed, or even when moving from
of the transmitter toward eliminating the other one extreme end of a band to the other. Hence,
two types of interference. wavetraps are not recommended except when
operation will be confined to a relatively nar-
Taking Out More or less standard BCI- row portion of one amateur band. However, fig-
the Fundamental type practice is most com- ure I shows two of the most common signal
monly used in t a k in g out trapping arrangements.
fundamental interference. lavetraps and fil-
ters are installed, and the antenna system may High -Pass High -pass filters in the
Filters
or may not be modified so as to offer less re- antenna lead of the TV set
sponse to the signal from the amateur trans- have proven to be quite satisfactory as a
mitter. In regard to a comparison between means of eliminating TVI of the overloading
wavetraps and filters, the same considerations type. In many cases when the interfering trans-
apply as have been effective in regard to BCI mitter is operated only on the bands below
for many years; wavetraps are quite effective 7.3 Mc., the use of a high -pass filter in the
when properly installed and adjusted, but they antenna lead has completely eliminated all
HANDBOOK Harmonic Radiation 373
TVI. In some cases the installation of a high -

pass filter in the antenna transmission line
and an a -c line filter of a standard variety has
proven to be completely effective in eliminat-
ing the interference from a transmitter operat-
ing in one of the lower frequency amateur
bands.
In general, it is suggested that commercial-
ly manufactured high -pass filters be purchased. Figure 3
Such units are available from a number of manu- SERIES -DERIVED HIGH -PASS FILTER
facturers at a relatively moderate cost. How- This filter is designed for use in the
ever, such units may be home constructed; 300 -ohm transmission line from the TV
suggested designs are given in figures 2 and antenna to the TV receiver. Nominal cut-
off frequency is 36 Mc. and maximum re-
3. Types for use both with coaxial and with jection is at about 29 Mc.
balanced transmission lines have been shown. Ct,C6- 15444fd zero -coefficient ceramic
In most cases the filters may be constructed C2,C3,C4,C5- 20 -µµfd. zero -coefficint cra-
mic
in one of the small shield boxes which are Lt,L -2.0 µh. About 24 turns no. 28 d.c.c.
now on the market. Input and output terminals
may be standard connectors, or the inexpen-
wound to S'.' on / " diameter polystyrene
rod. Turns should be adjusted until the
sive type of terminal strips usually used on coil resonates to 29 Mc. with the associ-
ated 15- /.tµfd. capacitor.
BC and TV sets may be employed. Coaxial L2 -0.66 µh., 14 turns no. 28 d.c.c. wound
terminals should of course be employed when to °ó" on l/4" dia. polystyrene rod. Adjust
a coaxial feed line is used to the antenna. In turns to resonate externally to 20 Mc.
any event the leads from the filter box to the with an auxiliary 100-N1 id. capacitor
whose value is accurately known.
TV set should be very short, including both
the antenna lead and the ground lead to the
box itself. If the leads from the box to the set
have much length, they may pick up enough
signal to nullify the effects of the high -pass ply with FCC regulations. But in the past
filter. many amateur transmitters have emitted spur-
ious signals as a result of key clicks, para-
Blocking from Operation on the 50 -Mc. ama- sitics, and overmodulation transients. In most
50-Mc. Signals teur band in an area where cases the operators of the transmitters were
channel 2 is in use for TV not aware of these emissions since they were
imposes a special problem in the matter of radiated only for a short distance and hence
blocking. The input circuits of most TV sets were not brought to his attention. But with
are sufficiently broad so that an amateur sig- one or more TV sets in the neighborhood it
nal on the 50 -Mc. band will ride through with is probable that such spurious signals will
little attenuation. Also, the normal TV antenna be brought quickly to his attention.
will have a quite large response to a signal
in the 50 -Mc. band since the lower limit of
channel 2 is 54 Mc. 19 -2
High -pass filters of the normal type simply Harmonic Radiation
are not capable of giving sufficient attenua-
tion to a signal whose frequency is so close After any condition of blocking at the TV
to the necessarypass band of the filter. Hence, receiver has been eliminated, and when the
a resonant circuit element, as illustrated in transmitter is completely free of transients
figure 1, must be used to trap out the amateur and parasitic oscillations, it is probable that
field at the input of the TV set. The trap must TVI will be eliminated in certain cases. Cer-
be tuned or the section of transmission line tainly general interference should be elimi-
cut, if a section of line is to be used for a nated, particularly if the transmitter is a well
particular frequency in the 50 -Mc. band. designed affair operated on one of the lower
This frequency will have to be near the lower frequency bands, and the station is in a high -
frequency limit of the 50 -Mc. band to obtain signal TV area. But when the transmitter is
adequate rejection of the amateur signal while to be operated on one of the higher frequency
still not materially affecting the response of bands, and particularly in a marginal TV area,
the receiver to channel 2. the job of TVI- proofing will just have begun.
The elimination of harmonic radiation from
Elimination of All spurious emission s the transmitter is a difficult and tedious job
Spurious Emissions from amateur transmitters which must be done in an orderly manner if
(ignoring harmonic signals completely satisfactory results are to be ob-
for the time being) must be eliminated to com- tained.
TRANSMITTER 2N0 3RD 4TN STH 6TH 7TN 8TH 9TH 10TH
FUNDAMENTAL
7.0 21-21.9 42-44 6}65.7 70-73
TV I.F ©NELCJYNEWVf(NEL
5j6A-5N6.4
73 TVE
14.0 42-43 56-576 70-72 8a-66.4 96-1006 V

NEW EL E FM
14.4 TV LP'. O M1MDT
21.0 63-6435 84-65.8105-1p7.25 169193 210-214.5
- IC
CM(p3)NELCN(6I)1EL FM L
(TVt I.F.) - - 6CAST

9
-
26.96 53.92-Sa 606e1.e9 107. 189 218
46
27123 CMEI CMEL FM CHAJEL CH/(IEL
1
V2 S BROAD- 9
A4OVE27 CAST
Mc ONLY
28.0 56-59.4 64-891 168-178.2194-207.9
CHL CNe NEL CHrElmi
,l:/
291 7
.
50.0 100-106 200-216 450-486 500-540

FM 9
54.0 BROAD-
CAST POSSIBLE INTERFERENCE
TO U-H-F CHANNELS
Figure 4
HARMONICS OF THE AMATEUR BANDS
Shown are the harmonic frequency ranges of the amateur bands between 7 and 54 Mc., with the
TV channels (and TV i -f systems) which are most likely to receive interference from these har-
monics. Under certain conditions amateur signals in the 1.8 and 3.5 Mc. bands can cause inter -
ference as a result of direct pickup in the video systems of TV receivers which are not ade-
quately shielded.
First it is well to become familiar with the cross -hatch or herringbone pattern on
TV channels presently assigned, with the TV the TV screen. This same general type
of picture also will occur in the case of
intermediate frequencies commonly used, and a narrow -band FM signal either with or
with the channels which will receive inter-
without modulation.
ference from harmonics of the various ama-
2. A relatively strong AM signal will give
teur bands. Figures 4 and 5 give this infor-
mation. in addition to the herringbone a very
Even a short inspection of figures 4 and 5 serious succession of light and dark
will make obvious the seriousness of the in- bands across the TV picture.
3. A moderate strength c -w signal without
terference which can be caused by harmonics
of amateur signals in the higher frequency transients, in the absence of overload-
bands. With any sort of reasonable precautions ing of the TV set, will result merely in
in the design and shielding of the transmitter the turning on and off of the herringbone
it is not likely that harmonics higher than the on the picture.
6th will be encountered. Hence the main of- To discuss condition (1) above, the herring-
fenders in the way of harmonic interference bone is a result of the beat note between the
will be those bands above 14 -Mc. TV video carrier and the amateur harmonic.
Hence the higher the beat note the less ob-
Nature of Investigations into the vious will be the resulting cross -hatch. Fur-
Harmonic Interference nature of the interfer- ther, it has been shown that a much stronger
ence caused by ama- signal is required to produce a discernible
teur signals on the TV screen, assuming that herringbone when the interfering harmonic is
blocking has been eliminated as described as far away as possible from the video car-
earlier in this chapter, have revealed the fol- rier, without running into the sound carrier.
lowing facts: Thus, as a last resort, or to eliminate the last
1. An unmodulated carrier, such as a c -w vestige of interference after all corrective
signal with the key down or an AM sig- measures have been taken, operate the trans-
nal without modulation, will give a mitter on a frequency such that the interfer-
HANDBOOK Harmonic Interference 375
VIDEO
V
N
N
I TV
1
I
1
I TV
'CHANNEL
1
I
/
I Tv I
2
LOW BAND
i
76
I
!CHANNEL
Tv
O
62
¡ Tv
CHANNEL
i\`
66
í\ toe
VIDEO SOIIND
t I I I 1 I I i T T i
I TV I I TV I I TV I I TV I I TV I TV TV
'CHANNEL 'CHANNEL 'CHANNEL !CHANNEL 'CHANNEL
I
!CHANNEL
I I
'CHANNEL'
I
0
1
1 I I
®
I
if
I
I I I I I 1 I CO I 1
I I I
I
I
I I I
I I I I I i I I I I I
66 192 198 204 210 216

HIGH BAND
Figure 5
FREQUENCIES OF THE V -H -F TV CHANNELS
Showing the frequency ranges of TV channels 2 through 13, with
the picture carrier and sound
carrier frequencies also shown.
ing harmonic will fall as far as possible from The first check can best be made with the
the picture carrier. The worst possible inter- neighbor who is receiving the most serious
ference to the picture from a continuous car- or the most general interference. Turn on the
rier will be obtained when the interfering sig- transmitter and check all channels to deter-
nal is very close in frequency to the video mine the extent of the interference and the
carrier. number of channels affected. Then disconnect
the antenna and substitute a group of 100 -watt
Isolating Throughout the testing proce- lamps as a dummy load for the transmitter. Ex-
the Source of dure it will be necessary to perience has shown that 8 100 -watt lamps con-
the Interference have some sort of indicating nected in two seriesed groups of four in par-
device as a means of deter- allel will take the output of a kilowatt trans-
miring harmonic field intensities. The best mitter on 28 Mc. if connections are made sym-
indicator for field intensities some distance metrically to the group of lamps. Then note
from the transmitting antenna will probably be the interference. Now remove plate voltage
the TV receiver of some neighbor with whom from the final amplifier and determine the ex-
friendly relations are still maintained. This tent of interference caused by the exciter
person will then be able to give a check, oc- stages.
casionally, on the relative nature of the inter- In the average case, when the final ampli-
ference. But it will probably be necessary to fier is a beam tetrode stage and the exciter is
go and check yourself periodically the results
obtained, since the neighbor probably will not
be able to give any sort of a quantitative anal-
ysis of the progress which has been made. 10 ICKU WIRE
An additional device for checking relative-
ly high field intensities in the vicinity of the sT ele
transmitter will be almost a necessity. A sim- 0.!D1A.E.,0.!LONG COVERAGE -!!-/IOMC.
ple crystal diode wavemeter, shown in figure 11.4 34

6 will accomplish this function. Also, it will
be very helpful to have a receiver, with an S
meter, capable of covering at least the 50 to
100 Mc. range and preferably the range to 216
Mc. This device may consist merely of the
station receiver and a simple converter using Figure 6
the two halves of a 6J6 as oscillator and Crystal -diode wavemeter suitable for check-
mixer. ing high- intensity harmonics in TV region.
relatively low powered and adequately shield- L2 L3 La L3 1
ed, it will
be found that the interference drops
materially when the antenna is removed and a L:e
dummy load substituted. It will also be found :1 C2 C3 Cu
in such an average case that the interference

T
will stop when the exciter only is operating.
Transmitter be made clear at this
It should
Power Level point that the I e v el of power
used at the transmitter is not of
great significance in the basic harmonic re-
duction problem. The difference in power level
between a 20 -watt transmitter and one rated
at a kilowatt is only a matter of about 17 db.
Yet the degree of harmonic attenuation re-
quired to eliminate interference caused by
harmonic radiation is from 80 to 120 db, de- Figure 7
pending upon the TV signal strength in the
LOW-PASS FILTER SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
vicinity. This is not to say that it is not a
simpler job to eliminate harmonic interference The filter illustrated at (A) uses m-
from a low -power transmitter than from a kilo- derived terminating half sections at each
watt equipment. It is simpler to suppress har- end, with three constant -k mid -sections.
monic radiation from a low -power transmitter The filter at (B) is essentially the same
simply because it is a much easier problem to except that the center section has been
changed to act as an m- derived section
shield a low -power unit, and the filters for the which can be designed to offer maximum
leads which enter the transmitter enclosure attenuation to channels 2, 4, S, or 6 in
may be constructed less expensively and accordance with the constants given be-
smaller for a low -power unit. low. Cutoff frequency is 45 Mc. in all
cases. All coils, except L4 in (B) above,
ore wound 1/2 "i.d. with 8 turns per Inch.
19 -3 Low -Pass Filters The (A) Filter

Ci,C5-41.5µµfd. (40 µµfd. will be found suit-
able.)
C4-136 µµfd. (130 to 140 µµfd. may be
After the transmitter has been shielded, and C2, C3,
used.)
all power leads have been filtered in such a Ls, L6-0.2 µh; 315 t. no. 14
manner that the transmitter shielding has not 1.2, Ls -0.3 µh; 5 t. no. 12
been rendered ineffective, the only remaining Ls, L4,-0.37 µh; 6)5 t. no. 12
available exit for harmonic energy lies in the
antenna transmission line. Hence the main The (B) Filter with Mid -Section tuned to Channel
burden of harmonic attenuation will fall on the 2 (58 Mc..)
Cs, Cs -41.5 Aid.
low -pass filter installed between the output C2, C4 -136 µµfd.
of the transmitter and the antenna system. C2 -87 µµfd. (50 µµfd. fixed and 75 µµid. vari-
Experience has shown that the low -pass able in parallel.)
filter can best be installed externally to the L,, L2-0.2 µh; 3S t. no. 14
main transmitter enclosure, and that the trans-

L2, Ls, Ls, L6 -0.3 µh; 5 t. no. 12
L4 -0.09 ¡A; 2 t. no. 14 SS" dia. by '4 " long
mission line from the transmitter to the low -
pass filter should be of the coaxial type. The (B) Filter with Mid-Section tuned to Channel
Hence the majority of low -pass filters are de- 4 (71 Mc.). All components same except that:
signed for a characteristic impedance of 52 C3 -106 µµfd.
ohms, so that RG -8 /U cable (or RG -58 /U for Ls, L3-0.33 µh; 6 t. no. 12
L4 -0.05 µh; 1/4 t. no. 14, 3'8" dia. by 3/8"
a small transmitter) may be used between the long.
output of the transmitter and the antenna trans-
mission line or the antenna tuner. The (B) Filter with Mid- Section tuned to Channel
Transmitting -type low -pass filters for ama- 5 (81 Mc.). Change the following:
teur use usually are designed in such a man- C2 -113 µµfd.
L3. Ls -0.34 µh; 6 t. no. 12
ner as to pass frequencies up to about 30 Mc. L4 -0.033 µh; 1 t. no. 14 3/8 " dio.
without attenuation. The nominal cutoff fre-
quency of the filters is usually between 38 The (B) Filter with Mid- Section tuned to Channel
and 45 Mc., and m- derived sections with maxi- 6 (86 Mc.). All components are essentially
mum attenuation in channel 2 usually are in- the same except that the theoretical value of
cluded. Well- designed filters capable of carry- L4 is changed to 0.03 µh., and the capacitance
ing any power level up to one kilowatt are of Cs is changed to 117 µµfd.
HANDBOOK Low Pass Filters 377
available commercially from several manufac-

turers. Alternatively, filters in kit form are
available from several manufacturers at a
somewhat lower price. Effective filters may
be home constructed, if the test equipment is
available and if sufficient care is taken in the
construction of the assembly.
Construction of Figures 7, 8 and 9 illustrate

Low -Pass Filters high- performance low-pass
filters which are suitable
for home construction. All are constructed in Figure 8
slip -cover aluminum boxes (ICA no. 29110) PHOTOGRAPH OF THE (B) FILTER WITH
with dimensions of 17 by 3 by 2% inches. Five THE COVER IN PLACE
aluminum baffle plates have been installed in
the chassis to make six shielded sections
within the enclosure. Feed-through bushings
between the shielded sections are Johnson no. most likely to cause interference to specific
135 -55. TV channels.
Both the (A) and (B) filter types are de- Either high -power or low -power components
signed for a nominal cut -off frequency of 45 may be used in the filters diagrammed in figure
Mc., with a frequency of maximum rejection 7. With the small Centralab TCZ zero- coeffi-
at about 57 Mc. as established by the termi- cient ceramic capacitors used in the f i l t e r
nating half- sections at each end. Characteris- units of figure 7A or figure 7B, power levels
tic impedance is 52 ohms in all cases. The up to 200 watts output may be used without
alternative filter designs diagrammed in figure danger of damage to the capacitors, provided
7B have provision for an additional rejection the filter is feeding a 52 -ohm resistive load.
trap in the center of the filter unit which may It may be practicable to use higher levels of
be designed to offer maximum rejection in power with this type of ceramic capacitor in
channel 2, 4, 5, or 6, depending upon which the filter, but at a power level of 200 watts on
channel is likely to be received in the area in the 28 -Mc. band the capacitors run just per-
question. The only components which must be ceptibly warm to the touch. As a point of in-
changed when changing the frequency of the terest, it is the current rating which is of sig-
maximum rejection notch in the center of the nificance to the capacitors used in filters
filter unit are inductors L,, L4, and Ls, and such as illustrated. Since current ratings for
capacitor C,. A trimmer capacitor has been in- small capacitors such as these are not readily
cluded as a portion of C, so that the frequency available, it is not possible to establish an
of maximum rejection can be tuned accurately accurate power rating for such a unit. The
to the desired value. Reference to figures 5 high-power unit illustrated in figure 9, which
and 6 will show the amateur bands which are uses Centralab type 850S and 854S capacitors,
Figure 9
PHOTOGRAPH OF THE (B) FILTER WITH COVER REMOVED
The mid -section in this filter is adjusted for maximum rejection of channel 4. Note that the main
coils of the filter are mounted at an angle of about 45 degrees so that there will be minimum
inductive coupling from one section to the next through the holes in the aluminum partitions.
Mounting the coils in this manner was found to give a measurable improvement in the attenua-
tion characteristics of the filter.
has proven quite suitable for power levels up

to one kilowatt.
Capacitors C1, C=, C4, and Cs can be stand-
ard manufactured units with normal 5 per cent
tolerance. The coils for the end sections can
be wound to the dimensions given (L L6, and
L7). Then the resonant frequency of the series
resonant end sections should be checked with Figure 10
a grid -dip meter, after the adjacent input or SCHEMATIC OF THE SINGLE -SECTION
output terminal has been shorted with a very HALF -WAVE FILTER
short lead. The coils should be squeezed or
The constants given below are for
spread until resonance occurs at 57 Mc. a char-
acteristic impedance of 52 ohms, for use with
The intermediate m- derived section in the RG -8; U and RG -58 U cable. Coil L1 should
filter of figure 7B may also be checked with a be checked for resonance at the operating
grid -dip meter for resonance at the correct re- frequency with C1, and the some with L2 and
C4. This check con be made by soldering o
jection frequency, after the hot end of L4 has low - inductance grounding strap to the lead
been temporarily grounded with a low- induct- between L1 and L2 where it passes through
ance lead. The variable capacitor portion of the shield. When the coils have been trimmed
C, can be tuned until resonance at the correct to resonance with a grid -dip meter, the
frequency has been obtained. Note that there grounding strap should of course be removed.
This filter type will give an attenuation of
is so little difference between the constants about 30 db to the second harmonic, about
of this intermediate section for channels 5 and 48 db to the third, about 60 db to the fourth,
6 that variation in the setting of C, will tune 67 to the fifth, and so on increasing at o
to either channel without materially changing rate of about 30 db per octave.
the operation of the filter. CC,,C,,C.,- Silver mica or small ceramic for low
The coils in the intermediate sections of power, transmitting type ceramic for high power.
the filter (L2,
L2,L LL and Ls in figure 7A, and
Ls , and L6 in figure 7B) may be checked
Capacitance for different bands is given below:
160 meters -1700 u.µfd.
80 meters -850 µµfd.
most conveniently outside the filter unit with 40 meters -440 µµfd.
the aid of a small ceramic capacitor of known 20 meters -220 µµfd.
10 meters -110 µµfd.
value and a grid -dip meter. The ceramic ca- 6 meters -60
µµfd.
pacitor is paralleled across the small coil L1,L2 -May be made up of sections of B&W Mini -
with the shortest possible leads. Then the as- ductor for power levels below 250 watts, or of
sembly is placed atop a cardboard box and the no. 12 enam. for power up to one kilowatt. Ap-
proximate dimensions for the coils are given
resonant frequency checked with a grid-dip below, but the coils should be trimmed to reso-
meter. A Shure reactance slide rule may be nate at the proper frequency with a grid -dip me-
used to ascertain the correct resonant frequen- ter as discussed above. All coils except the
cy for the desired L -C combination and the ones for 160 meters are wound 8 turns per inch.
160 meters -4.2 µh; 22 turns no. 16 snow., 1"
coil altered until the desired resonant frequen- die. 2" long
cy is attained. The coil may then be installed 80 meters -2.1 µh; 13 t. 1" die. (No. 3014 Minl-
in the filter unit, making sure that it is not ductor or no. 12)
squeezed or compressed as it is being in- 40 meters -1.1 µh; 8 t. 1" dio. (No. 3014 or no.
12 at 8 t.p.i.)
stalled. However, if the coils are wound ex- 20 meters -0.55 µh; 7 t.%" die. (No. 3010 or
actly as given under figure 10, the filter may no. 12 at 8 t.p.i.)
be assembled with reasonable assurance that 10 meters -0.3 µh; 6 t. Si" die. (No. 3002 or
it will operate as designed. no. 12 at 8 t.p.l)
6 meters -0.17 µh; 4 t. )5" die. (No. 3002 or
no. 12 at 8 t.p.i)
Using Low -Pass The low-pass filtercon -
Filters nected in the output trans-
mission line of the trans-
mitter is capable of affording an enormous de- have very low losses (usually less than 0.5
gree of harmonic attenuation. However, the db) when operated into its nominal value of re-
filter must be operated in the correct manner sistive load. But if the filter is mis- terminated
or the results obtained will not be up to ex- its losses will become excessive, and it will
pectations. not present the correct value of load imped-
In the first place, all direct radiation from ance to the transmitter.
the transmitter and its control and power leads If a filter, being fed from a high -power
must be suppressed. This subject has been transmitter, is operated into an incorrect ter-
discussed in the previous section. Secondly, mination it may be damaged; the coils may be
the filter must be operated into a load imped- overheated and the capacitors destroyed as a
ance approximately equal to its design char- result of excessive r -f currents. hence it is
acteristic impedance. The filter itself will wise, when first installing a low -pass filter,
HANDBOOK Broadcast Interference 379
Figure 11
HALF -WAVE FILTER
FOR THE 28 -MC. BAND
Showing one possible type
of construction of a 52 -ohm
half-wave filter for relative-
ly low power operation on
the 28 -Mc. band.
to check the standing -wave ratio of the load and is in good repair, the burden of rectifying
being presented to the output of the filter with the trouble rests with the owner of the inter-
a standing -wave meter of any of the conven- fering station. Phone and c -w stations both
tional types. Then the antenna termination or are capable of causing broadcast interference,
the antenna coupled should be adjusted, with key -click annoyance from the code transmitters
low power on the transmitter, until the s.w.r. being particularly objectionable.
of the load being presented to the filter is A knowledge of each of the several types
less than 2.0, and preferably below 1.5. of broadcast interference, their cause, and
methods of eliminating them is necessary for
loll -Wave Filters Half-wave filters ( "Har- the successful disposition of this trouble. An
monikers") have been dis- effective method of combating one variety of
cussed in various publications including the interference is often of no value whatever in
Nov. -Dec. 1949 GE Ham News. Such filters the correction of another type. Broadcast in-
are relatively simple and offer the advantage terference seldom can be cured by "rule of
chat they present the same value of impedance thumb" procedure.
at their input terminals as appears as load Broadcast interference, as covered in this
across their output terminals. Such filters nor- section refers primarily to standard (amplitude
mally are used as one -band affairs, and they modulated, 550 -1600 kc.) broadcast. Interfer-
offer high attenuation only to the third and ence with FM broadcast reception is much
higher harmonics. Design data on the half- less common, due to the wide separation in
wave filter is given in figure 10. Construction frequency between the FM broadcast band and
of half-wave filters is illustrated in figure 11. the more popular amateur bands, and due also
to the limiting action which exists in all types
of FM receivers. Occasional interference with
Broadcast FM broadcast by a harmonic of an amateur
19 -4
Interference transmitter has been reported; if this condi-
tion is encountered, it may be eliminated by
the procedures discussed in the first portion
Interference to the reception of signals in of this chapter under Television Interference.
the broadcast band (540 to 1600 kc.) or in the The use of frequency -modulation transmis-
FM broadcast band (88 to 108 Mc.) by amateur sion by an amateur station is likely to result
transmissions is a serious matter to those in much less interference to broadcast recep-
amateurs living in densely populated areas. tion than either amplitude-modulated telephony
Although broadcast interference has recently or straight keyed c.w. This is true because,
been overshadowed by the seriousness of tele- insofar as the broadcast receiver is concerned,
vision interference, the condition of BCI is the amateur FM transmission will consist of a
still present. plain unmodulated carrier. There will be no
In general, signals from a transmitter oper- key clicks or voice reception picked up by
ating properly are not picked up by receivers the b -c -1 set (unless it happens to be an FM
tuned to other frequencies unless the receiver receiver which might pick up a harmonic of
is of inferior design, or is in poor condition. the signal), although there might be a slight
Therefore, if the receiver is of good design click when the transmitter is put on or taken
Figure 13
HIGH- ATTENUATION WAVE -TRAP
CIRCUIT
The two circuits may be tuned to the same
frequency for highest attenuation of a strong
signal, or the two traps may be tuned sep-
arately for different bands of operation.
Figure 12
WAVE -TRAP CIRCUITS
The circuit at (A) is the most common ar- unintelligible. Keying of the carrier which
rangement, but the circuit at (B) may give produces the blanketing will cause an annoy-
improved results under certain conditions. ing fluctuation in the volume of the broadcast
Manufactured wave traps for the desired band
of operation may be purchased or the traps signals.
may be assembled from the data given in Blanketing generally occurs in the imme-
figure 14. diate neighborhood (inductive field) of a pow-
erful transmitter, the affected area being di-
rectly proportional to the power of the trans-
mitter. Also it is more prevalent with trans-
off the air. This is one reason why narrow- mitters which operate in the 160 -meter and
band FM has become so popular with phone 80 -meter bands, as compared to those on the
enthusiasts who reside in densely populated higher frequencies.
areas. The remedies are to (1) shorten the receiv-
ing antenna and thereby shift its resonant fre-
Interference Depending upon whether it is quency, or (2) remove it to the interior of the
Classifications traceable directly to causes building, (3) change the direction of either
within the station or within the receiving or transmitting antenna to mini-
the receiver, broadcast interference may be mize their mutual coupling, or (4) keep the
divided into two main classes. For example, interfering signal from entering the receiver
that type of interference due to transmitter input circuit by installing a wavetrap tuned
over -modulation is at once listed as being to the signal frequency (see figure 12) or a
caused by improper operation, while an inter- low-pass filter as shown in figure 21.
fering signal that tunes in and out with a A suitable wave -trap is quite simple in con-
broadcast station is probably an indication of struction, consisting only of a coil and midget
cross modulation or image response in the re- variable capacitor. When the trap circuit is
ceiver, and the poorly- designed input stage tuned to the frequency of the interfering sig-
of the receiver is held liable. The various nal, little of the interfering voltage reaches
types of interference and recommended cures the grid of the first tube. Commercially manu-
will be discussed in the following paragraphs. factured wave -traps are available from several
concerns, including the J. W. Miller Co. in
Blanketing This is not a tunable effect, but Los Angeles. However, the majority of ama-
a total blocking of the receiver. teurs prefer to construct the traps from spare
A more or less complete "washout" covers components selected from the "junk box."
the entire receiver range when the carrier is The circuit shown in figure 13 is particu-
switched on. This produces either a complete larly effective because it con s i s t s of two
blotting out of all broadcast stations, or else traps. The shunt trap blocks or rejects the
knocks down their volume several decibels - frequency to which it is tuned, while the
depending upon the severity of the interfer- series trap across the antenna and ground ter-
ence. Voice modulation of the carrier causing minals of the receiver provides a very low im-
the blanketing will be highly distorted or even pedance path to ground at the frequency to
HANDBOOK Wavetraps 381
BAND COIL, L CAPACITOR, C
1.8 Mc. 1 inch no. 30 enam. 75 -µµfd. vor.

closewound on 1" form
3.5 Mc. 42 turns no. 30 cram. 50 -µµfd. var.
7.0 Mc. 23 turns no. 24 enam. 50 -µµfd. var.
14 Mc. 10 tarns no. 24 cram. 50 -µofd. vor.
21 Mc. 7 turns no. 24 enom. 50 -µµfd. var.
28 Mc. 4 turns no. 24 *ram. 25 -µµfd. var.
50 Mc. 3 turns no. 24 enam. 25 -µµfd. var. Figure 15
spaced l/2" on 1" form
MODIFICATION OF THE FIGURE 13
CIRCUIT
Figure 14 In this circuit arrangement the parallel -tuned
tank is inductively coupled to the antenna
COIL AND CAPACITOR TABLE FOR lead with a 3 to 6 turn link instead of being
AMATEUR -BAND WAVETRAPS placed directly in series with the antenna
lead.
which it is tuned and bypasses the signal to Broadcast interference due to overmodula-
ground. In moderate interference cases, either tion is frequently encountered. The remedy is
the shunt or series trap may be used alone, to reduce the modulation percentage or to use
while similarly, one trap may be tuned to one a clipper -filter system or a high -level splatter
of the frequencies of the interfering trans- suppressor in the speech circuit of the trans-
mitter and the other trap to a different inter- mitter.
fering frequency. In either case, each trap is
effective over but a small frequency range Cross Cross modulation or cross talk is
and must be readjusted for other frequencies.
Modulation characterized by the amateur sig-
The wave -trap must be installed as close nal riding in on top of a strong
to the receiver antenna terminal as practic- broadcast signal. There is usually no hetero-
able, hence it should be as small in size as dyne note, the amateur signal being tuned in
possible. The variable capacitor may be a and out with the program carriers.
midget air -tuned trimmer type, and the coil
This effect is due frequently to a faulty in-
may be wound on a 1 -inch dia. form. The table
put stage in the affected receiver. Modulation
of figure 14 gives winding data for wave -traps
of the interfering carrier will swing the oper-
built around standard variable capacitors. For ating point of the input tube. This type of
best results, both a shunt and a series trap
trouble is seldom experienced when a varia-
should be employed as shown.
ble-ti tube is used in the input stage.
Figure 15 shows a two-circuit couple d
Where the receiver is too ancient to incor-
wave -trap that is somewhat sharper in tuning
porate such a tube, and is probably poorly
and more efficacious. The specifications for
the secondary coil L, may be obtained from
shielded at the same time, it will be better to
the table of figure 14. The primary coil of the attach a wave -trap of the type shown in figure
12 rather than to attempt rebuilding of the re-
shunt trap consists of 3 to 5 closewound turns
of the same size wire wound in the same di- ceiver. The addition of a good ground and a
rection on the same form as L, and separated shield can over the input tube often adds to
the effectiveness of the wave -trap.
from the latter by ',; of an inch.
Transmission via A small amount of ca-
Overmodulation A carrier modulated in excess Capacitive Coupling pacitive coupling is now
of 100 per cent acquires widely used in receiver
sharp cutoff periods which give rise to tran- r.f. and antenna transformers as a gain booster
sients. These transients create a broad signal at the high- frequency end of the tuning range.
and generate spurious responses. Transients The coupling capacitance is obtained by
caused by overmodulation of a radio -telephone means of a small loop of wire cemented close
signal may at the same time bring about im- to the grid end of the secondary winding, with
pact or shock excitation of nearby receiving one end directly connected to the plate or an-
antennas and power lines, generating inter- tenna end of the primary winding. (See figure
fering signals in that manner. 16.)
CAPACITIVE
COUPLING LOOP
As an example: an amateur signal on 3514
kc. might beat with a local 2414 -kc. police
carrier to produce a 1100 -kc. phantom. If the
two carriers are strong enough in the vicinity
of a circuit which can cause rectification, the
1100-kc. phantom will be heard in the broad-
cast band. A poor contact between two oxi-
dized wires can produce rectification.
Two stations must be transmitting simulta-
AVC
neously to produce a phantom signal; when
either station go e s off the air the phantom
Figure 16 disappears. Hence, this type of interference
CAPACITIVE BOOST COUPLING is apt to be reported as highly intermittent and
CIRCUIT might be difficult to duplicate unless a test
Such circuits, included within the broadcast oscillator is used "on location" to simulate
receiver to bring up the stage gain at the the missing station. Such interference cannot
high-frequency end of the tuning range, have be remedied at the transmitter, and often the
a tendency to increase the susceptibility of
the receiver to interference from amateur -
rectification takes place some distance from
band transmissions. the receivers. In such occurrences it is most
difficult to locate the source of the trouble.
It will also be apparent that a phantom
might fall on the intermediate frequency of a
simple superhet receiver and cause interfer-
It is easily seen that a small capacitor at ence of the untunable variety if the manufac-
this position will favor the coupling of the turer has not provided an i -f wave -trap in the
higher frequencies. This type of capacitive antenna circuit.
coupling in the receiver coils will tend to This particular type of phantom may, in
pass amateur high- frequency signals into a re- addition to causing i -f interference, generate
ceiver tuned to broadcast frequencies. harmonics which may be tuned in and out with
The amount of capacitive coupling may be
heterodyne whistles from one end of the re-
reduced to eliminate interference by moving
the coupling turn further away from the sec-
ceiver dial to the other. It is in this manner
ondary coil. However, a simple wave -trap of
that birdies often result from the operation of
nearby amateur stations.
the type shown in figure 12, inserted at the
antenna input terminal, will generally accom- When one component of a phantom is a
plish the same result and is more to be recom- steady, unmodulated carrier, only the intelli-
mended than reducing the amount of capaci- gence present on the other carrier is conveyed
tive coupling (which lowers the receiver gain to the broadcast receiver.
at the high- frequency end of the broadcast Phantom signals almost always may be
band). Should the wave -trap alone not suffice, identified by the suddenness with which they
it will be necessary to resort to a reduction are interrupted, signalizing withdrawal of one
in the coupling capacitance. party to the union. This is especially baffling
In some simple broadcast receivers, capaci- to the inexperienced interference -locater, who
tive coupling is obtained by closely coupled observes that the interference suddenly disap-
primary and secondary coils, or as a result of pears, even though his own transmitter re-
running a long primary or antenna lead close mains in operation.
to the secondary coil of an unshielded anten- If the mixing or rectification is taking place
na coupler. in the receiver itself, a phantom signal may
be eliminated by removing either one of the
Phantoms With twostrong local carriers ap- contributing signals from the receiver input
plied to a non -linear impedance, circuit. A wave -trap of the type shown in fig-
the beat note resulting from cross -modulation ure 12, tuned to either signal, will do t h e
between them may fall on some frequency trick. If the rectification is taking place out-
within the broadcast band and will be audible side the receiver, the wave -trap should be
at that point. If such a "phantom" signal falls tuned to the frequency of the phantom, instead
on a local broadcast frequency, there will be of to one of its components. I -f wave -traps
heterodyne interference as well. This is a may be built around a 2.5- millihenry r -f choke
common occurence with broadcast receivers in as the inductor, and a compression -type mica
the neighborhood of two amateur stations, or padding capacitor. The capacitor should have
an amateur and a police station. It also some- a capacitance range of 250 -525 µµfd. for the
times occurs when only one of the stations is 175- and 206 -kc. intermediate frequencies;
located in the immediate vicinity. 65 -175 µµfd. for 260 -kc. and other intermedi-
HANDBOOK Auto Rectification 383
ates lying between 250- and 400 -kc; and HIGH -MU TUBE
SUCH AS 12007
17 -80 µµfd. for 456 -, 465 -, 495 -, and 500 -kc.
RFC
Slightly more capacitance will be required for TO VOLUME
M
CONTROL
resonance with a 2.1 millihenry choke.
2 TO 10 MEG'''.
Spurious This sort of interference arises
Emissions from the transmitter itself. The
radiation of any signal (other than
the intended carrier frequency) by an amateur
station is prohibited by FCC regulations. Spu-
nous radiation may be traced to imperfect neu-
tralization, parasitic oscillations in the r -f or
modulator stage s, or to "broadcast- band"
variable- frequency oscillators or e.c.o.'s.
Low -frequency parasitics may actually oc-
cur on broadcast frequencies or their near sub -
harmonics, causing direct interference to pro-
grams. An all -wave monitor operated in the
vicinity of the transmitter will detect these Figure 17
spurious signals.
The remedy will be obvious in individual CIRCUITS FOR ELIMINATING AUDIO -
STAGE RECTIFICATION
cases. Elsewhere in this book are discussed
methods of complete neutralization and the
suppression of parasitic oscillations in r-f
and audio stages.
audio tube. The impedance may be an amateur
A -c /de Receivers Inexpensive table- model band r -f choke (such as a National R-100U)
a -c /d -c receivers are par- for best results, but for a majority of cases
ticularly susceptible to interference from ama- it will be found that a 47,000 -ohm -watt re-
teur transmissions. In fact, it may be said sistor in series with this lead will give satis-
with a fair degree of assurance that the major- factory operation. Suitable circuits for such
ity of BCI encountered by amateurs operating an operation on the receiver are given in fig-
in the 1.8 -Mc. to 29 -Mc. range is a result of ure 17.
these inexpensive receivers. In most cases In many a.c. -d.c. receivers there is no r -f
the receivers are at fault; but this does not by -pass included across the plate supply recti-
absolve the amateur of his responsibility in fier for the set. If there is an appreciable
attempting to eliminate the interference. level of r -f signal on the power line feeding
the receiver, r -f rectification in the power
Stray Receiver In most cases of interference rectifier of the receiver can cause a particu-
Rectification to inexpensive receivers, par- larly bad type of interference which may be
ticularly those of the a -c /d-c received on other broadcast receivers in the
type, it will be found that stray receiver recti- vicinity in addition to the one causing the
fication is causing the trouble. The offending rectification. The soldering of a 0.01 -µfd. disc
stage usually will be found to be a high -mu ceramic capacitor directly from anode to cath-
triode as the first audio stage following the ode of the power rectifier (whether it is of the
second detector. Tubes of this type are quite vacuum -tube or selenium- rectifier type) usual-
nonlinear in their grid characteristic, and ly will by -pass the r -f signal across the recti-
hence will readily rectify any r -f signal ap- fier and thus eliminate the difficulty.
pearing between grid and cathode. The r-f sig-
nal may get to the tube as a result of direct "Floating" Volume Several sets have been
signal pickup due to the lack of shielding, but Control Shafts encountered where there
more commonly will be fed to the tube from was only a slightly inter-
the power line as a result of the series heater fering signal; but, upon placing one's hand up
string. to the volume control, the signal would great-
The remedy for this condition is simply to ly increase. Investigation revealed that the
insure that the cathode and grid of the high -mu volume control was installed with its shaft
audio tube (usually a 12SQ7 of equivalent) are insulated from ground. The control itself was
at the same r -f potential. This is accomplished connected to a critical part of a circuit, in
by placing an r -f by -pass capacitor with the many instances to the grid of a high -gain au-
shortest possible leads directly from grid to dio stage. The cure is to install a volume con-
cathode, and then adding an impedance in the trol with all the terminals insulated from the
lead from the volume control to the grid of the shaft, and then to ground the shaft.
METAL BOX
BAND COIL, L CAPACITOR, C

I
LOr I
SHIELD BRAID
17 TO A.C. C TO TRANSMITTER
3.5 Mc. no. 14 enameled 100 -,:pfd. variable LINE C I OR RECEIVER
3 -inch diameter
221/4 -inch length
L___Jr
11 turns I
00_' SHIELD BRAID
no. 14 enameled
7.0 Mc. 21,2-inch 100- p,.fd. variable
diameter
11/2 -inch length
4 Figure 19
14 and no. 10 enameled 100- p,.fd. variable RESONANT POWER -LINE
21 Mc. 3 -inch diameter
11/2-inch length WAVE -TRAP CIRCUIT
3 turns The resonant type of power-line filter is
27 and 1/4 -inch o.d. more effective than the more conventional
28 Mc. copper tubing 100- N,,id. variable "brute force" type of line filter, but requires
2 -inch diameter
1 -inch length tuning to the operating frequency of the
transmitter.
Figure 18
apply, wave -traps must be installed in the
COIL AND CAPACITOR TABLE power lines at the transmitter to remove r-f
FOR A -C LINE TRAPS energy passing back into the lighting system.
The wave-traps used in the power lines at
transmitter or receiver must be c ap abl e of
passing relatively high current. The coils are
Power -Line When radio- frequency energy accordingly wound with heavy wire. Figure 18
Pickup from a radio transmitter enters a lists the specifications for power line wave -
broadcast receiver through the trap coils, while figure 19 illustrates the meth-
a -c power lines, it has either been fed back od of connecting these wave -traps. Observe
into the lighting system by the offending trans- that these traps are enclosed in a shield box
mitter, or picked up from the air by over-head of heavy iron or steel, well grounded.
power lines. Underground lines are seldom re-
sponsible for spreading this interference. All -Wave Each complete -coverage home re-
To check the path whereby the interfering Receivers ceiver is a potential source of an-
signals reach the line, it is only necessary to noyance to the transmitting ama-
replace the transmitting antenna with a dum- teur. The novice short-wave broadcast -listener
my antenna and adjust the transmitter for max- who tunes in an amateur station often con-
imum output. If the interference then ceases, siders it an interfering signal, and complains
overhead lines have been picking up the en- accordingly.
ergy. The trouble can be cleared up by install- Neither selectivity nor image rejection in
ing a wave -trap or a commercial line filter in most of these sets is comparable to those
the power lines at the receiver. If the receiver properties in a communication receiver. The
is reasonably close to the transmitter, it is result is that an amateur signal will occupy
very doubtful that changing the direction of too much dial space and appear at more than
the transmitting antenna to right angles with one point, giving rise to interference on ad-
the overhead lines will eliminate the trouble. jacent channels and distant channels as well.
If, on the contrary, the interference con- If carrier- frequency harmonics are present
tinues when the transmitter is connected to in the amateur transmission, serious interfer-
the dummy antenna, radio- frequency energy is ence will result at the all -wave receiver. The
being fed directly into the power line by the harmonics may, if the carrier frequency has
transmitter, and the station must be inspected been so unfortunately chosen, fall directly
to determine the cause. upon a favorite short -wave broadcast station
One of the following reasons for the trouble and arouse warranted objection.
will usually be found: (1) the r -f stages are The amateur is apt to be blamed, too, for
not sufficiently bypassed and /or choked, (2) transmissions for which he is not responsible,
the antenna coupling system is not performing so great is the public ignorance of short -wave
efficiently, (3) the power transformers have allocations and signals. Owners of all -wave
no electrostatic shields; or, if shields are pre- receivers have been quick to ascribe to ama-
sent, they are ungrounded, (4) power lines are teur stations all signals they hear from tape
running too close to an antenna or r -f circuits machines and V- wheels, as well as stray tones
carrying high currents. If none of these causes and heterodyne flutters.
HANDBOOK Image Interference 385
The amateur cannot be held responsible The second variety of superhet interference
when his carrier is deliberately tuned in on is the result of harmonics of the receiver h -f
an all -wave receiver. Neither is he account- oscillator beating with amateur carriers to pro-
able for the width of his signal on the receiver duce the intermediate frequency of the receiv-
dial, or for the strength of image repeat points, er. The amateur transmitter will always be
if it can be proven that the receiver design found to be on a frequency equal to some har-
does not afford good selectivity and image re- monic of the receiver h -f oscillator, plus or
j ection. minus the intermediate frequency.
If he so desires, the amateur (or the owner As an example: when a broadcast superhet
of the receiver) might sharpen up the received with 465 -kc. i.f. is tuned to 1000 kc., its high -
signal somewhat by shortening the receiving frequency oscillator operates on 1465 kc. The
antenna. Set retailers often supply quite a third harmonic of this oscillator frequency is
sizeable antenna with all -wave receivers, but 4395 kc., which will beat with an amateur sig-
most of the time these sets perform almost as nal on 3930 kc. to send a signal through the
well with a few feet of inside antenna. i -f amplifier. The 3930 kc. signal would be
The amateur is accountable for harmonics tuned in at the 1000 -kc. point on the dial.
of his carrier frequency. Such emissions are Some oscillator harmonics are so related to
unlawful in the first place, and he must take amateur frequencies that more than one point
all steps necessary to their suppression. Prac- of interference will occur on the receiver dial.
tical suggestions for the elimination of har- Thus, a 3500 -kc. signal may be tuned in at
monics have been given earlier in this chap- six points on the dial of a nearby broadcast
ter under Television Interference. superhet having 175 kc. i.f. and no r -f stage.
Insofar as remedies for image and harmonic
superhet interference are concerned, it is well
Imoge Interference In addition to those types to remember that i/ the amateur signal did not
of interference already in the first place reach the input stage of the
discussed, there are two more which are com- receiver, the annoyance would not have been
mon to superhet receivers. The prevalence of created. It is therefore good policy to try to
these types is of great concern to the ama- eliminate it by means of a wave -trap or low -
teur, although the responsibility for their ex- pass filter. Broadcast superhets are not al-
istence more properly rests with the broadcast ways the acme of good shielding, however,
receiver. and the amateur signal is apt to enter the cir-
The mechanism whereby image production cuit through channels other than the input cir-
takes place may be explained in the following cuit. If a wave-trap or filter will not cure the
manner: when the first detector is set to the trouble, the only alternative will be to attempt
frequency of an incoming signal, the high -fre-
quency oscillator is operating on another fre-
quency which differs from the signal by the
number of kilocycles of the intermediate fre-
quency. Now, with the setting of these two
stages undisturbed, there is another signal
which will beat with the high- frequency oscil-
lator to produce an i -f signal. This other sig- wr ou
nal is the so- called image, which is separated
from the desired signal by twice the inter- 0
mediate frequency. CONSTANT K TYPE
Thus, in a receiver with 175 -kc. i.f., tuned
to 1000 kc.: the h -f oscillator is operating on
1175 kc., and a signal on 1350 kc. (1000 kc.
plus 2 x 175 kc.) will beat with this 1175 kc.
oscillator frequency to produce the 175 -kc. i -f
signal. Similarly, when the same receiver is
tuned to 1400 kc., an amateur signal on 1750
kc. can come through.
If the image appears only a few cycles or
kilocycles from a broadcast carrier, heterodyne M- DERIVED TYPE FREQUENCY
interference will be present as well. Other-
wise, it will be tuned in and out in the manner Figure 20
of a station operating in the broadcast band. TYPES OF LOW -PASS FILTERS
Sharpness of tuning will be comparable to that Filters such as these may be used in the
of broadcast stations producing the same a -v-c circuit between the antenna and the input
voltage at the receiver. of the receiver.
386 TV and Broadcast Interference
ANT L, L2 Two types of low -pass filter sections are

TO RECEIVER ANT. POST
shown in figure 20. A composite arrangement
comprising a section of each type is m or e
effective than either type operating alone. A
() 1 O TO RECEIVER GNO. POST composite filter composed of one K- section
GND. and one shunt -derived M- section is shown in
figure 21, and is highly recommended. The
Figure 21 M- section is designed to have maximum atten-
COMPOSITE LOW-PASS FILTER

uation at 1700 kc., and for that reason C,
CIRCUIT
should be of the "close tolerance" variety.
Likewise, C, should not be stuffed down in-
This filter is highly effective in reducing side L2 in the interest of compactness, as
broadcast interference from all high frequen-
cy stations, and requires no tuning. Con- this will alter the inductance of the coil appre-
stants for 400 ohm terminal impedance and ciably, and likewise the resonant frequency.
1600 kc. cutoff ore as follows: L1, 65 turns If a fixed 150 µµEd. mica capacitor of 5 per
no. 22 d.c.c. closewound on 1%2 in. dia. form.
L2, 41 turns ditto, not coupled to L2. C2,
cent tolerance is not available for C a com-
250 µµfd. fixed mica capacitor. C2, 400 µtfd. pression trimmer covering the range of 125-
fixed mica capacitor. C3 and C4, 150 µµfd. 175 wad. may be substituted and adjusted to
fixed mica capacitors, former of 5% toler- give maximum attenuation at about 1700 kc.
ance. With some receivers, better results
will be obtained with a 200 ohm carbon re-
sistor inserted between the filter and an- 19 -5 HI -FI Interference
tenna post on the receiver. With other re-
ceivers the effectiveness will be improved The rapid growth of high -fidelity sound systems
with a 600 ohm carbon resistor placed from
the antenna post to the ground post on the in the home has brought about many cases of
receiver. The filter should be placed as interference from a nearby amateur transmitter.
close to the receiver terminals as possible. In most cases, the interference is caused by
stray pickup of the r -f signal by the interconnect-
ing leads of the hi -fi system and audio rectifi-
cation in the'low level stages of the amplifier.
to select a transmitter frequency such that The solution to this difficulty, in general, is to
neither image nor harmonic interference will be bypass and filter all speaker and power leads
set up on favorite stations in the susceptible to the hi -fi amplifier and preamplifier. A corn -
receivers. The equation given earlier may be bination of a VIIF choke and 500 wild ceramic
used to determine the proper frequencies.
disc capacitors in each power and speaker lead
Low Pass Filters The greatest drawback of will eliminate r -f pickup in the high level section
the wave -trap is the fact of the amplifier. A filter such as shown in figure
that it is a single- frequency device; i.e. -it 17A placed in the input circuit of the first audio
may be set to reject at one time only one fre- stage of the preamplifier will reduce the level of
quency (or, at best, an extremely narrow band the r -f signal reaching the input circuit of the
of frequencies). Each time the frequency of amplifier. To prevent loss of the higher audio
the interfering transmitter is changed, every frequencies it may be necessary to decrease the
wave -trap tuned to it must be retuned. A much value of the grid bypass capacitor to 50 wgfd
more satisfactory device is the wave filter or so.
which requires no tuning. One type, the low - Shielded leads should be employed between the
pass filter, passes all frequencies below one amplifier and the turntable or f-m tuner. The
critical frequency, and eliminates all higher shield should be. grounded at both ends of the
frequencies. It is this property that makes the line to the chassis of the equipment, and care
device ideal for the task of removing amateur should be taken to see that the line does not
frequencies from broadcast receivers. approach an electrical half -wavelength of the
A good low -pass filter designed for maxi-
mum attenuation around 1700 kc. will pass
radio signal causing the interference. In some
all broadcast carriers, but will reject signals instances, shielding the power cable to the hi -fi
originating in any amateur band. Naturally equipment will aid in reducing interference. The
such a device should be instal e d only in 1
framework of the phonograph turntable should be
standard broadcast receivers, never in all - grounded to the chassis of the amplifier to reduce
wave sets. stray r -f pickup in the turntable equipment.
CHAPTER TWENTY
Transmitter Keying and Control
23-1 Power Systems Since the usual home outlet is designed to

handle only about 600 watts maximum, the
transmitter, unless it is of relatively low power,
It is probable that the average amateur sta- should be powered from another source. This
tion that has been in operation for a number procedure is desirable in any event so that the
of years will have at least two transmitters voltage supplied to the receiver, frequency con-
available for operation on different frequency trol, and frequency monitor will be substan-
bands, at least two receivers or one receiver tially constant with the transmitter on or off
and a converter, at least one item of monitor- the air.
ing or frequency measuring equipment and So we come to two general alternative plans
probably two, a v.f.o., a speech amplifier, a with their variations. Plan (A) is the more de-
desk light, and a clock. In addition to the sirable and also the most expensive since it
above 8 or 10 items, there must be an outlet involves the installation of two separate lines
available for a soldering iron and there should from the meter box to the operating position
be one or two additional outlets available for either when the house is constructed or as an
plugging in one or two pieces of equipment alteration. One line, with its switch, is for the
which are being worked upon. transmitters and the other line and switch is
It thus becomes obvious that 10 or 12 out- for receivers and auxiliary equipment. Plan
lets connected to the 115 -volt a -c line should ( B) is the more practicable for the average ama-
be available at the operating desk. It may be teur, but its use requires that all cords be re-
practicable to have this number of outlets in- moved from the outlets whenever the station
stalled as an outlet strip along the baseboard is not in use in order to comply with the elec-
at the time a new home is being planned and trical codes.
constructed. Or it might be well to install Figure 1 shows a suggested arrangement for
the outlet strip on the operating desk so as carrying out Plan (A). In most cases an instal-
to have the flexibility of moving the operating lation such as this will require approval of the
desk from one position to another. Alterna- plans by the city or county electrical inspector.
tively, the outlet strip might be wall mounted Then the installation itself will also require
just below the desk top. inspection after it has been completed. It will
be necessary to use approved outlet boxes at
Power Drain When the power drain of all the the rear of the transmitter where the cable is
Per Outlet items of equipment, other than connected, and also at the operating bench
transmitters, used at the oper- where the other BX cable connects to the out-
ating position is totalled, you probably will let strip. Also, the connectors at the rear of
find that 350 to 600 watts will be required. the transmitter will have to be of an approved
387
388 Transmitter Keying and Control THE RADIO
_= TO OTHER SNORT CORDS FROM

_= MOUSE CIRCUITS RECEIVER V.E.O. CLOCK,
FRED. METER, TO
OUTLET STRIA.
FROM LINE PLAN OA PLAN 0
Figure 1
THE PLAN (A) POWER SYSTEM
A -c line power from the main fuse box in the
Figure 2
house is run separately to the receiving THE PLAN (B) POWER SYSTEM
equipment and to the transmitting equipment. This system is less convenient than the (A)
Separate switches and fuse blocks then are system, but does not require extensive re-
available for the transmitters and for the wiring of the electrical system within the
auxiliary equipment. Since the fuses in the house to accommodate the arrangement. Thus
boxes at the operating room will be in series it is better for a temporary or semi-permanent
with those at the main fuse box, those in the installation. In most cases it will be neces-
operating room should have a lower rating sary to run an extra conduit from the main
than those at the main fuse box. Then it will fuse box to the outlet from which the trans-
always be possible to replace blown fuses mitter is powered, since the standard arrange-
without leaving the operating room. The fuse ment ln most houses is to run all the outlets
boxes can conveniently be located alongside in one room (and sometimes all in the house)
one another on the wall of the operating room. from a single pair of fuses and leads.
type. It is possible also that the BX cable will to the transmitter. Control and keying wires
have to be permanently affixed to the trans- can best be grouped into a multiple -wire rubber -
mitter with the connector at the fuse -box end. covered cable between the desk and the trans-
These details may be worked out in advance mitter. Such an arrangement gives a good ap-
with the electrical inspector for your area. pearance, and is particularly practical if cable
The general aspects of Plan (B) are shown connectors are used at each end. High -level
in figure 2. The basic difference between the audio at a moderate impedance level (600 ohms
two plans is that (A) represents a permanent or below) may be run in the same control cable
installation even though a degree of mobility as the other leads. However, low -level audio
is allowed through the use of BX for power can best be run in a small coaxial cable. Small
leads, while plan (B) is definitely a temporary coaxial cable such as RG-58 /U or RG-59/U
type of installation as far as the electrical in- also is quite satisfactory and quite convenient
spector is concerned. While it will be permis- for the signal from the v.f.o. to the r -f stages
sible in most areas to leave the transmitter in the transmitter. Coaxial -cable connectors of
cord plugged into the outlet even though it is the UG series are quite satisfactory for the
turned off, the Fire Insurance Underwriters terminations both for the v -f -o lead and for any
codes will make it necessary that the cord low -level audio cables.
which runs to the group of outlets at the back
of the operating desk be removed whenever the Checking an To make sure that an outlet will
equipment is not actually in use. Outlet with a stand the full load of the entire
Whether the general aspects of plans (A) or Heavy Load transmitter, plug in an electric
(B) are used it will be necessary to run a num- heater rated at about 50 per cent
ber of control wires, keying and audio leads, greater wattage than the power you expect to
and an excitation cable from the operating desk draw from the line. If the line voltage does
HANDBOOK Transmitter Control 389
not drop more than 5 volts (assuming a 117 - to energize or cut the power from the outlet
volt line) under load and the wiring does not strip on the rear of the operating desk. Through
overheat, the wiring is adequate to supply the the use of such a switch it is not necessary to
transmitter. About 600 watts total drain is the remember to switch off a large number of sepa-
maximum that should be drawn from a 117 -volt rate switches on each of the items of equip-
lighting outlet or circuit. For greater power, ment on the operating desk. The alternative
a separate pair of heavy conductors should be arrangement, and that which is approved by the
run right from the meter box. For a 1 -kw. phone Underwriters, is to remove the plugs from the
transmitter the total drain is so great that a wall both for the transmitter and for the oper-
230 -volt "split" system ordinarily will be re- ating-desk outlet strip when a period of oper-
quired. Most of the newer homes are wired with ation has been completed.
this system, as are homes utilizing electricity While the insertion of plugs or operation of
for cooking and heating. switches usually will be found best for ap-
With a three -wire system, be sure there is plying the a -c line power to the equipment, the
no fuse in the neutral wire at the fuse box. A changing over between transmit and receive
neutral fuse is not required if both "hot" legs can best be accomplished through the use of
are fused, and, should a neutral fuse blow, relays. Such a system usually involves three
there is a chance that damage to the radio relays, or three groups of relays. The relays
transmitter will result. and their functions are: (1) power control relay
If you have a high power transmitter and do for the transmitter -applies 115-volt line to the
a lot of operating, it is a good idea to check primary of the high- voltage transformer and
on your local power rates if you are on a turns on the exciter; (2) control relay for the
straight lighting rate. In some cities a lower receiver -makes the receiver inoperative by
rate can be obtained (but with a higher "mini- any one of a number of methods when closed,
mum") if electrical equipment such as an also may apply power to the v.f.o. and to a
electric heater drawing a specified amount keying or a phone monitor; and (3) the antenna
of current is permanently wired in. It is not changeover relay- connects the antenna to the
required that you use this equipment, merely transmitter when the transmitter is energized
that it be permanently wired into the electrical and to the receiver when the transmitter is not
system. Naturally, however, there would be no operating. Several circuits illustrating the ap-
saving unless you expect to occupy the same plication of relays to such control arrangements
dwelling for a considerable length of time. are discussed in the paragraphs to follow in
this chapter.
Outlet Strips The outlet strips which have Controlling Transmitter It is necessary, in
been suggested for installation Power Output order to comply with
in the baseboard or for use on the rear of a desk FCC regulations, that
are obtainable from the large electrical supply transmitter power output be limited to the mini-
houses. If such a house is not in the vicinity mum amount necessary to sustain communica-
it is probable that a local electrical contractor tion. This requirement may be met in several
can order a suitable type of strip from one of
ways. Many amateurs have two transmitters;
the supply house catalogs. These strips are one is capable of relatively high power output
quite convenient in that they are available in for use when calling, or when interference is
varying lengths with provision for inserting
a -c line plugs throughout their length. The
severe, and the other is capable of consider-
ably less power output. In many cases the
a -c plugs from the various items of equipment lower powered transmitter acts as the exciter
on the operating desk then may be inserted
for the higher powered stage when full power
in the outlet strip throughout its length. In
many cases it will be desirable to reduce the
output is required. But the majority of the ama-
equipment cord lengths so that they will plug teurs using a high powered equipment have
some provision for reducing the plate voltage
neatly into the outlet strip without an excess on the high -level stages when reduced power
to dangle behind the desk.
output is desired.
Contactors and The use of power -control con - One of the most common arrangements for
Relays tactors and relays often will obtaining two levels of power output involves
add considerably to the oper- the use of a plate transformer having a double
ating convenience of the station installation. primary for the high -voltage power supply. The
The most practicable arrangement usually is majority of the high -power plate transformers
to have a main a -c line switch on the front of of standard manufacture have just such a dual -
the transmitter to apply power to the filament primary arrangement. The two primaries are
transformers and to the power control circuits. designed for use with either a 115-volt or 230 -
It also will be found quite convenient to have volt line. When such a transformer is to be
a single a -c line switch on the operating desk operated from a 115 -volt line, operation of both
TO EXCITER POWER SUPPL ES low- voltage power supplies from the other side,
and the primaries of the high -voltage trans-
former across the whole line for full power
output. Then when reduced power output is
required, the primary of the high -voltage plate
transformer is operated from one side to center
tap rather than across the whole line. This
procedure places 115 volts across the 230 -volt
winding the same as in the case discussed in
HI -LO
POWER RELAY the previous paragraph. Figure 3 illustrates
the two standard methods of power reduction
POWER CONTROL RELA
with a plate transformer having a double pri-
mary; (A) shows the connections for use with
a 115 -volt line and (B) shows the arrangement
TO FILAMENT TRANS FOR
for a 230 -volt a -c power line to the transmitter.
The full- voltage /half- voltage methods for
controlling the power input to the transmitter,
as just discussed, are subject to the limitation
that only two levels of power input (full power
o and quarter power) are obtainable. In many
cases this will be found to be a limitation to
s
flexibility. When tuning the transmitter, the
antenna coupling network, or the antenna sys-
tem itself it is desirable to be able to reduce
the power input to the final stage to a rela-
230 v A C HI -LO
tively low value. And it is further convenient
SINGLE PHASE K2 POWER
WITH GROUNDED
K,
RELAY to be able to vary the power input continuous-
NEUTRAL
ly from this relatively low input up to the full
POWER CONTROL RELAY power capabilities of the transmitter. The use
of a variable -ratio auto -transformer in the cir-
TRANSFORMERS cuit from the line to the primary of the plate
transformer will allow a continuous variation
in power input from zero to the full capability
Figure 3
of the transmitter.
FULL -VOLTAGE /HALF- VOLTAGE
POWER CONTROL SYSTEMS Variable -Ratio There are several types
The circuit at (A) is for use with o 115 -volt Auto -Transformers of variable -ratio auto- trans-
a -c line. Transformer T is of the standard formers available on the
type having two 115 -volt primaries; these market. Of these, the most common are the
primaries are connected in series for half - Variac manufactured by the General Radio
voltage output when the power control relay Company, and the Powerstat manufactured by
K1 is energized but the hi -lo relay K2 is not
the Superior Electric Company. Both these
operated. When both relays ore energized the types of variable -ratio transformers are excel-
full output voltage is obtained. At (8) is a lently constructed and are available in a wide
circuit for use with a standard 230 -volt resi- range of power capabilities. Each is capable
dence line with grounded neutral. The two of controlling the line voltage from zero to
relays control the output of the power sup- about 15 per cent above the nominal line volt-
plies the some os at (A).
age. Each manufacturer makes a single -phase
unit capable of handling an output power of
about 175 watts, one capable of about 750 to
800 watts, and a unit capable of about 1500 to
primaries in parallel will deliver full output 1800 watts. The maximum power- output capa-
from the plate supply. Then when the two pri- bility of these units is available only at ap-
maries are connected in series and still oper- proximately the nominal line voltage, and must
ated from the 115 -volt line the output voltage be reduced to a maximum current limitation
from the supply will be reduced approximately when the output voltage is somewhat above or
to one half. In the case of the normal class C below the input line voltage. This, however, is
amplifier, a reduction in plate voltage to one not an important limitation for this type of
half will reduce the power input to the stage application since the output voltage seldom
to one quarter. will be raised above the line voltage, and when
If the transmitter is to be operated from a the output voltage is reduced below the line
230 -volt line, the usual procedure is to operate voltage the input to the transmitter is reduced
the filaments from one side of the line, the accordingly.
HANDBOOK Transmitter Control 391
TO EXCITER POWER SUPPLJ E
}INTERLOCKS
TO M.V. LINE IN TRANSMITTER
PLUG
-o POWER SUPPLY I
r TRANSMITTER
1L1IN5 VE .A C. F GREEN FILAMENT
POWER CONTROL PILOT - RANSFORMERS
RELAY
LUG FOR
ABLE TO
ARIAC OR 115 V. TO EXCITER AND
POWERSTAT HIGH-VOLTAGE RELAYS,
DUMMY PLUG FOR RED
AND TO RECEIVER CON-
STRAIGHT OPERATION PILOT TROL AND ANTENNA
CHANGEOVER RELAYS
TOFILAMENT
TRANSFORMERS
EXTERNAL VARIAC
Figure 5
OR POWERSTAT
PROTECTIVE CONTROL CIRCUIT
Figure 4 With this circuit arrangement either switch
may be closed first to light the heaters of
CIRCUIT WITH VARIABLE -RATIO
all tubes and the filament pilot light. Then
AUTO -TRANSFORMER
when the second switch is closed the high
When the dummy plug is inserted into the re- voltage will be applied to the transmitter and
ceptacl on the equipment, closing of the the red pilot will light. With o 30- second de-
power control relay will apply full voltage lay between the closing of the first switch
to the primaries. With the cab e from the 1
and the closing of the second, the rectifier
Voriac or Powerstat plugged into the socket tubes will be adequately protected. Similarly,
the voltage output of the high- voltage power the opening of either switch will remove
supply may be varied from zero to about 15 plate voltage from the rectifiers while the
per cent above normal. heaters remain lighted.
One convenient arrangement for using a plate voltage, the conditions of impedance
Variac or Powerstat in conjunction with the match will not be seriously upset. In several
high -voltage transformer of a transmitter is high power transmitters using this system, and
illustrated in figure 4. In this circuit a heavy using beam -tetrode modulator tubes, it is pos-
three -wire cable is run from a plug on the trans- sible to vary the plate input from about 50
mitter to the Variac or Powerstat. The Variac watts to one kilowatt without a change other
or Powerstat then is installed so that it is ac- than a slight increase in audio distortion at
cessible from the operating desk so that the the adjustment which gives the lowest power
input power to the transmitter may be con- output from the transmitter.
trolled during operation. If desired, the cable With triode tubes as modulators it usually
to the Variac or Powerstat may be unplugged will be found necessary to vary the grid bias
from the transmitter and a dummy plug inserted at the same time that the plate voltage is
in its place. With the dummy plug in place the changed. This will allow the tubes to be op-
transmitter will operate at normal plate voltage. erated at approximately the same relative point
This arrangement allows the transmitter to be on their operating characteristic when the plate
wired in such a manner that an external Variac voltage is varied. When the modulator tubes are
or ? owerstat may be used if desired, even operated with zero bias at full plate voltage, it
though the unit is not available at the time will usually be possible to reduce the modu-
that the transmitter is constructed. lator voltage along with the voltage on the
modulated stage, with no apparent change in
Notes on the Use Plate voltage to the modula- the voice quality. However, it will be necessary
of the Voriac tors may be controlled at the to reduce the audio gain at the same time that
or Powerstat same time as the plate volt- the plate voltage is reduced.
age to the final amplifier is
varied if the modulator stage uses beam tetrode
tubes; variation in the plate voltage on such 20-2 Transmitter
tubes used as modulators causes only a mod- Control Methods
erate change in the standing plate current.
Since the final amplifier plate voltage is being
controlled simultaneously with the modulator Almost everyone, when getting a new trans-
115VOLT SUPPLY FOR

ENTIRE
FUSES
SAFETY SWITCH
(set FIG. )
ORECEIVER POWER
TRANSFORMER C.T.
4-----kS1 HUSKY TOGGLE SWITCH
ON TRANSMITTER
THERMAL PROTECTIVE
TIME-DELAY INTERLOCKS
RELAY O O
°TRANSMIT -
RECEIVE SWITCH
O
HIGH VOLT.
FI LS. STANDS (1I5 V.)
0113 V. ANTENNA
CHANGEOVER
O
TUNE-UP
INDICATOR LIGHTS SWITCH
si¡OOI OVV 12..QSl. YY0, OVO
f6.1
ALL FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS 0.3 V. EXCITER N.V. HIGH VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
Figure 6
TRANSMITTER CONTROL CIRCUIT
Closing S1 lights all filaments in the transmitter and starts the time -delay relay in its cycle.
When the time -delay relay has operated, closing the transmit -receive switch at the operating po-
sition will apply plate power to the transmitter and disable the receiver. A tune-up switch has
been provided so that the exciter stages may be tuned without plate voltage on the final
amplifier.
mister on the air, has had the experience of be incorporated into the circuit to give a con-
having to throw several switches and pull or trol circuit such as is shown in figure 6. This
insert a few plugs when changing from receive arrangement uses a 115 -volt thermal (or motor-
to transmit. This is one extreme in the direc- operated) time -delay relay and a d -p-d -t 115 -
tion of how not to control a transmitter. At the volt control relay. Note that the protective
other extreme we find systems where it is only interlocks are connected in series with the
necessary to speak into the microphone or coil of the relay which applies high voltage to
touch the key to change both transmitter and the transmitter. A tune -up switch has been in-
receiver over to the transmit condition. Most cluded so that the transmitter may be tuned up
amateur stations are intermediate between the as far as the grid circuit of the final stage is
two extremes in the control provisions and use concerned before application of high voltage
some relatively simple system for transmitter to the final amplifier. Provisions for operat-
control. ing an antenna- changeover relay and for cut-
In figure 5 is shown an arrangement which ting the plate voltage to the receiver when the
protects mercury -vapor rectifiers against pre- transmitter is operating have been included.
mature application of plate voltage without A circuit similar to that of figure 6 but in-
resorting to a time -delay relay. No matter which corporating push -button control of the trans-
switch is thrown first, the filaments will be mitter is shown in figure 7. The circuit features
turned on first and off last. However, double - a set of START -STOP and TRANSMIT-RE-
pole switches are required in place of the usual CEIVE buttons at the transmitter and a sepa-
single -pole switches. rate set at the operating position. The control
When assured time delay of the proper inter- push buttons operate independently so that
val and greater operating convenience are de- either set may be used to control the trans-
sired, a group of inexpensive a-c relays may mitter. It is only necessary to push the START
HANDBOOK Safety Precautions 393
113 VOLT SUPPLY FOR

ENTIRE TRANSMITTER E -- - AT OPERATING POSITION
FUSES I START STOP TRANSMIT RECEIVE I
SAFETY SWITCH
L_
(set FIG.12)
PROTECTIVE
NTER LOCKS
OVERLOAD"
CONTACTS
r RECCIVCR POWER
o TRANSFORMER C.T.
THERMAL
TIME-DELAY
HIGH VOLT.
PILS. ON STANDBY (11S V. )
13 V. ANTENNA
CHANGEOVER
RELAY
TUNE- UP
INDICATOR LIGHTS SWITCH
1_000 /
01,
ALL FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS EXCITER N.V. HIGH VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
Figure 7
PUSH -BUTTON TRANSMITT ER-CONTROL CIRCUIT
Pushing the START button either at the transmitter or at the operating position will light all
filaments and start the time -delay relay in its cycle. When the cycle has been completed, a
touch of the TRANSMIT button will put the transmitter on the air and disable the receiver. Push-
ing the RECEIVE button will disable the transmitter and restore the receiver. Pushing the STOP
button will instantly drop the entire transmitter from the a-c line. If desired, a switch may be
placed in series with the lead from the RECEIVE button to the protective interlocks; opening
the switch will make it impossible for any person accidentally to put the transmitter on the air.
Various other safety provisions, such as the protective- interlock arrangement described in the
text have been incorporated.
With the circuit arrangement shown for the overload -relay contacts, it is only necessary to use
a simple normally- closed d -c relay with a variable shunt across the coil of the relay.
When the
current through the coil becomes great enough to open the normally-closed contacts the hold -
circuit on the plate- voltage relay will be broken and the plate voltage will be removed. If the
overload is only momentary, such as a modulation peak or a tank flashover, merely pushing the
TRANSMIT button will again put the transmitter on the air. This simple circuit provision elimi-
nates the requirement for expensive overload relays of the mechanically -latching type, but still
gives excellent overload protection.
button momentarily to light the transmitter fila- transmit control system. Such systems are fre-
ments and start the time -delay relay in its cy- quently used in industrial electronic control.
cle. When the standby light comes on it is only
necessary to touch the TRANSMIT button to
put the transmitter on the air and disable the
receiver. Touching the RECEIVE button will
turn off the transmitter and restore the receiver. 20 -3 Safety Precautions
After a period of operation it is only necessary
to touch the STOP button at either the traAs- The best way for an operator to avoid ser-
mitter or the operating position to shut down ious accidents from the high voltage supplies
the transmitter. This type of control arrange- of a transmitter is for him to use his head, act
ment is called an electrically- locking push-to- only with deliberation, and not take unneces-
sary chances. However, no one is infallible, 0.3 V. TO GREEN PILOT LIGHTS ON

IRONT PANEL AND ON EACH CHASSIS
and chances of an accident are greatly less-
ened if certain factors are taken into consid-
eration in the design of a transmitter, in order FIL TRANS.
to protect the operator in the event of a lapse

of caution. If there are too many things one
must "watch out for" or keep in mind there is
a good chance that sooner or later there will MAIN 115 V. SUPPLY Q ---Q D.D.T. SWITCH
be a mishap; and it only takes one. When de-

signing or constructing a transmitter, the fol-
lowing safety considerations should be given 1115V.A.0 TO ENTIRE TRANSMITTER
attention.
Figure 8
Grounds For the utmost in protection, every-
thing of metal on the front panel of COMBINED MAIN SWITCH AND
a transmitter capable of being touched by the SAFETY SIGNAL
operator should be at ground potential. This When shutting down the transmitter, throw
includes dial set screws, meter zero adjuster the main switch to neutral. If work is to be
screws, meter cases if of metal, meter jacks, done on the transmitter, throw the switch all
everything of metal protruding through the front the way to "pilot," thus turning on the green
panel or capable of being touched or nearly pilot lights on the panel and on each chas-
touched by the operator. This applies whether sis, and insuring that no voltage can exist
or not the panel itself is of metal. Do not rely on the primary of any transformer, even by
upon the insulation of meter cases or tuning virtue of a short or accidental ground.
knobs for protection.
The B negative or chassis of all plate power
supplies should be connected together, and to
an external ground such as a waterpipe.
mean that the circuit is on but the lamp is
burned out or not making contact.
Exposed Wires It is not necessary to resort To enable you to touch the tank coils in
and Components to rack and panel construc-
your transmitter with absolute assurance that
tion in order to provide com- it is impossible for you to obtain a shock ex-
plete enclosure of all components and wiring
cept from possible undischarged filter conden-
of the transmitter. Even with metal- chassis
sers (see following topic for elimination of
construction it is possible to arrange things so this hazard), it is only necessary to incorpo-
as to incorporate a protective shielding hous-
rate a device similar to that of figure 8. It is
ing which will not interfere with ventilation
placed near the point where the main 110 -volt
yet will prevent contact with all wires and leads enter the room (preferably near the door)
components carrying high voltage d.c. or a.c.,
and in such a position as to be inaccessible
in addition to offering shielding action.
to small children. Notice that this switch breaks
If everything on the front panel is at ground both leads; switches that open just one lead
potential (with respect to external ground) and
do not afford complete protection, as it is
all units are effectively housed with protective
sometimes possible to complete a primary cir-
covers, then there is no danger except when
the operator must reach into the interior part
cuit through a short or accidental ground. Break-
ing just one side of the line may be all right
of the transmitter, as when changing coils,
neutralizing, adjusting coupling, or shooting for turning the transmitter on and off, but when
you are going to place an arm inside the trans-
trouble. The latter procedure can be made safe
by making it possible for the operator to be
mitter, both 110 -volt leads should be broken.
When you are all through working your trans-
absolutely certain that all voltages have been
turned off and that they cannot be turned on
mitter for the time being, simply throw the
main switch to neutral.
either by short circuit or accident. This can be
When you find it necessary to work on the
done by incorporation of the following system
of main primary switch and safety signal lights. transmitter or change coils, throw the switch
so that the green pilots light up. These can be
ordinary 6.3 -volt pilot lamps behind green
Combined Safety The common method of bezels or dipped in green lacquer. One should
Signal and Switch using red pilot lights to be placed on the front panel of the transmitter;
show when a circuit is on others should be placed so as to be easily
is useless except from an ornamental stand- visible when changing coils or making adjust-
point. When the red pilot is not lit it usually ments requiring the operator to reach inside
means that the circuit is turned off, but it can the transmitter.
HANDBOOK Transmitter Keying 395
For 100 per cent protection, just obey the to make certain adjustments, such as coupling
following rule: never work on the transmitter and neutralizing, unless the transmitter is run-
or reach inside any protective cover except ning. The best.thing to do is to make all neu-
when the green pilots are glowing. To avoid tralizing and coupling devices adjustable from
confusion, no other green pilots should be used the front panel by means of flexible control
on the transmitter; if you want an indicator shafts which are broken with insulated cou-
jewel to show when the filaments are lighted, plings to permit grounding of the panel bearing.
use amber instead of green. If your particular transmitter layout is such
that this is impracticable and you refuse to
Safety Bleeders Filter capacitors of good qual- throw the main switch to make an adjustment
ity hold their charge for some -throw the main switch -take a reading -throw
time, and when the voltage is more than 1000 the main switch -make an adjustment -and so
volts it is just about as dangerous to get across on, then protect yourself by making use of long
an undischarged 4 -.tfd. filter capacitor as it is adjusting rods made from t/ -inch dowel sticks
to get across a high- voltage supply that is which have been wiped with oil when perfectly
turned on. Most power supplies incorporate free from moisture.
bleeders to improve regulation, but as these If you are addicted to the use of pickup loop
are generally wire -wound resistors, and as and flashlight bulb as a resonance and neutral-
wire-wound resistors occasionally open up izing indicator, then fasten it to the end of a
without apparent cause, it is desirable to in- long dowel stick and use it in that manner.
corporate an auxiliary safety bleeder across With theincreasing ten-
each heavy-duty bleeder. Carbon resistors will Protective Interlocks
not stand much dissipation and sometimes
dency toward construc-
change in value slightly with age. However, tion of transmitters in enclosed steel cabinets
the chance of their opening up when run well a transmitter becomes a particularly lethal de-
within their dissipation rating is very small. vice unless adequate safety provisions have
To make sure that all capacitors are bled, it been incorporated. Even with a combined safety
is best to short each one with an insulated signal and switch as shown in figure 8 it is
screwdriver. However, this is sometimes awk- still conceivable that some person unfamiliar
ward and always inconvenient. One can be vir- with the transmitter could come in contact with
tually sure by connecting auxiliary carbon high voltage. It is therefore recommended that
bleeders across all wire -wound bleeders used the transmitter, wherever possible, be built
on supplies of 1000 volts or more. For every into a complete metal housing or cabinet and
that all doors or access covers be provided
500 volts, connect in series a 500,000 -ohm
with protective interlocks (all interlocks must
1 -watt carbon resistor. The drain will be neg-
ligible (1 ma.) and each resistor will have to be connected in series) to remove the high
dissipate only 0.5 watt. Under these condi- voltage whenever these doors or covers are
tions the resistors will last indefinitely with opened. The term "high voltage" should mean
little chance of opening up. For a 1500 -volt any voltage above approximately 150 volts,
supply, connect three 500,000-ohm resistors in although it is still possible to obtain a serious
series. If the voltage exceeds an integral num- burn from a 150 -volt circuit under certain cir-
ber of 500 volt divisions, assume it is the next cumstances. The 150 -volt limit usually will
higher integral value; for instance, assume mean that grid -bias packs as well as high -
1800 volts as 2000 volts and use four resistors. voltage packs should have their primary cir-
Do not attempt to use fewer resistors by cuits opened when any interlock is opened.
using a higher value for the resistors; not over
500 volts should appear across any single
1 -watt resistor.
In the event that the regular bleeder opens 20 -4 Transmitter Keying
up, it will take several seconds for the auxil-
iary bleeder to drain the capacitors down to a The carrier from a c -w telegraph transmitter
safe voltage, because of the very high resist- must be broken into dots and dashes for the
ance. Therefore, i t is best to allow 10 or 15 transmission of code characters. The carrier
seconds after turning off the plate supply be- signal is of constant amplitude while the key
fore attempting to work on the transmitter. is closed, and is entirely removed when the
If a 0 -1 d-c milliammeter is at hand, it may key is open. When code characters are being
be connected in series with t h e auxiliary transmitted, the carrier may be considered as
bleeder to act as a high voltage voltmeter. being modulated by the keying. If the change
from the no- output condition to full- output, or
vice versa, occurs too rapidly, the rectangular
"Hot" Adjustments Some amateurs contend pulses which form the keying characters con-
that it is almost impossible tain high- frequency components which take up
a wide frequency band as sidebands and are

heard as clicks. KEYED TUBE
The cure for transient key clicks is rela-
tively simple, although one would not believe
it, judging from the hordes of clicky, "snappy"
signals heard on the air.
To be capable of transmitting code charac- BIAS
RETURN 0.5 LIT
ters and at the same time not splitting the I NY
.004
eardrums of neighboring amateurs, the c -w 11000. (AT KEY)
transmitter MUST meet two important speci- O e
fications.
1- It must have no parasitic oscillations Figure 9
either in the stage being keyed or in any CENTER -TAP KEYING WITH CLICK
succeeding stage. FILTER
2- It must have some device in the keying The constants shown above are suggested as
circuit capable of shaping the leading starting values; considerable variation in
and trailing edge of the waveform. these values can be expected for optimum
Both these specifications must be met be- keying of amplifiers of different operating
fore the transmitter is capable o/ c -w opera- conditions. It is suggested that a keying re-
tion. Merely turning a transmitter on and off lay be substituted for the key in the circuit
by the haphazard insertion of a telegraph key above wherever practicable.
in some power lead is an invitation to trouble.
The two general methods of keying a trans-
mitter are those which control the excitation
to the keyed amplifier, and those which con-
true of all oscillators, whether electron coupled
trol the plate or screen voltage applied to the
or crystal controlled.
keyed amplifier.
The more amplifier or doubler stages that
follow the keyed stage, the more difficult it is
Key-Click Key -click elimination is accom- to hold control of the shape of the keyed wave-
Elimination plished by preventing a too-rapid form. A heavily excited doubler stage or class
make -and -break of power to the
C stage acts as a peak clipper, tending to
antenna circuit, rounding off the keying char-
acters so as to limit the sidebands to a value square up a rounded keying impulse, and the
which does not cause interference to adjacent cumulative effect of several such stages cas-
channels. Too much lag will prevent fast key- caded is sufficient to square up the keyed
waveform to the point where bad clicks are
ing, but fortunately key clicks can be prac-
tically eliminated without limiting the speed reimposed on a clean signal.
A good rule of thumb is to never key back
of manual (hand) keying. Some circuits which
eliminate key clicks introduce too much time - farther than one stage removed from the final
lag and thereby add tails to the dots. These amplifier stage, and never key closer than one
tails may cause the signals to be difficult to stage removed from the frequency controlling
copy at high speeds.
oscillator of the transmitter. Thus there will
always be one isolating stage between the
keyed stage and the oscillator, and one isolat-
Location of Considerable thought should be ing stage between the keyed stage and the
Keyed Stage given as to which stage in a antenna. At this point the waveform of the
transmitter is the proper one to keyed signal may be most easily controlled.
key. If the transmitter is keyed in a stage close
to the oscillator, the change in r -f loading of Keyer Circuit In thefirst place it may be es-
the oscillator will cause the oscillator to shift Requirements tablished that the majority of
frequency with keying. This will cause the new design transmitters, and
signal to have a distinct chirp. The chirp will many Mf those of older design as well, use a
be multiplied as many times as the frequency medium power beam tetrode tube either as the
of the oscillator is multiplied. A chirpy oscil- output stage or as the exciter for the output
lator that would be passable on 80 meters stage of a high power transmitter. Thus the
would be unusable on 28 Mc. c.w. transmitter usually will end up with a tube
Keying the oscillator itself is an excellent such as type 2E26, 807, 6146, 813, 4 -65A,
way to run into keying difficulties. If no key 4E27/25713, 4 -125A or similar, or one of these
click filter is used in the keying circuit, the tubes will be used as the stage just ahead of
transmitter will have bad key clicks. If a key the output stage.
click filter is used, the slow rise and decay Second, it may be established that it is un-
of oscillator voltage induced by the filter ac- desirable to key further down in the transmitter
tion will cause a keying chirp. This action is chain than the stage just ahead of the final
HANDBOOK Cathode Keying 397
TO
6Y6 CATMODEOF R F TUBE
SOMA SOLE- I M BREAK) I M(MAKE) EYED STAGE
NIUM RECTIFIER
47,IW 470,2W
L
T
STANCOR PAB421
45/2A3 45/2A3
2K,2W 4700,IW IM 4700,05
350.0 -350 :RFC

SOMA. 4700
IW
-4 p12.5 MM .00
teCOV
80
KEY 100 üMF M.V. SUPPLY
Ec.
Figure 10
VACUUM TUBE KEYERS FOR CENTER-TAP KEYING CIRCUITS
The type A keyer is suitable for keying stages running up to 1250
volts on the plate. Two 2A3
or 6A3 tubes can safely key 160 milliamperes of cathode current. The
simple 6Y6 keyer in fig-
ure 8 is for keying stages running up to 650 volts on the plate. A single 6Y6
can key 80 mill! -
amperes. Two in parallel may be used for plate currents
under 160 ma. If softer keying is de-
sired, the 500 -µµtd. mica condenser should be increased to .001
i'fd.
amplifier. If a low -level stage, which is fol- that placing the fingers across the key will
lowed by a series of class C amplifiers, is not result in an electrical shock. In other words,
keyed, serious transients will be generated the keying circuit should be inherently safe.
in the output of the transmitter even though All these requirements have been met in the
the keyed stage is being turned on and off very keying circuits to be described.
smoothly. This condition arises as a result of
pulse sharpening, which has been discussed
previously.
Third, the output from the stage should be 20 -5
completely cut off when the key is up, and the Cathode Keying
time constant of the rise and decay of the key-
ing wave should be easily controllable. The lead from the cathode or center -tap con-
Fourth, it should be possible to make the nection of the filament of an r -f amplifier can
rise period and the decay period of the keying be opened and closed for a keying circuit. Such
wave approximately equal. This type of keying a keying system opens the plate voltage cir-
envelope is the only one tolerable for commer- cuit and at the same time opens the grid bias
cial work, and is equally desirable for obtain- return lead. For this reason, the grid circuit
ing clean cut and easily readable signals in is blocked at the same time the plate circuit
amateur work. is opened. This helps to reduce the backwave
Fifth, it is desirable that the keying circuit that might otherwise leak through the keyed
be Usable without a keying relay, even when stage.
a high -power stage is being keyed. The simplest cathode keying circuit is il-
Last, for the sake of simplicity and safety, lustrated in figure 9, where a key -click filter
it should be possible to ground the frame of is employed, and a hand key is used to break
the key, and yet the circuit should be such the circuit. This simple keying circuit is not
3 98 Transmitter Keying and Control THE RADIO
HI -MU TRIODE
(811 -A Erc.)
EUT
-DLOGKIN6 +L. V. +N.V.

DIAS
Figure 11
SIMPLE BLOCKED -GRID KEYING
SYSTEM
The blocking bias must be sufficient to cut-
off plate current to the amplifier stage in the Figure 12
presence of the excitation voltage. RI is nor- SELF- BLOCKING KEYING SYSTEM FOR
mal bias resistor for the tube. R2 and C1 HIGH -MU TRIODE
should be adjusted for correct keying wave- R/ and C, adjusted for correct keying wave-
form. form. RI is bias resistor of tube.
recommended for general use, as considerable blocking bias is applied to them, and as a
voltage will be developed across the key when very low resistance when the bias is removed.
it is open. The desired amount of lag or cushioning a //ect
An electronic switch can take the place of can be obtained by employing suitable resist-
the hand key. This will remove the danger of ance and capacitance values in the grid of the
shock. At the same time, the opening and clos- keyer tube(s). Because very little spark is
ing characteristics of the electronic switch produced at the key, due to the small amount
may easily be altered to suit the particular of power in the key circuit, sparking clicks
need at hand. Such an electronic switch is are easily suppressed.
called a vacuum tube keyer. Low internal re- One type 45 tube should be used for every
sistance triode tubes such as the 45, 6A3, or 50 ma. of plate current. Type 6B4G or 2A3
6AS7 are used in the keyer. These tubes act tubes may also be used; allow one 6B4G tube
as a very high resistance when sufficient for every 80 ma. of plate current.
Because of the series resistance of the keyer
tubes, the plate voltage at the keyed tube will
807, 6146. ETC.
be from 30 to 60 volts less than the power
supply voltage. This voltage appears as cath-
100 LLF ode bias on the keyed tube, assuming the bias
ExC.i return is made to ground, and should be taken
LOW POWER DUFFER
RFC
(1407 ETC.) 2.5 ME into consideration when providing bias.
33K
Some typical cathode circuit vacuum tube
1006
2w keying units are shown in figure 10.
IW
+N. V.
1oK
W = +10 v.
VR-I50 5 6J543 RFC

2.5 MN
UKEY
20 -6 Grid Circuit Keying
4 70 K loo
W LL
Grid circuit, or blocked grid keying is an-
-40o V.
other effective method of keying a c -w trans-
1.3V. TO 1J!
mitter. A basic blocked grid keying circuit is
shown in figure 11. The time constant of the
keying is determined by the RC circuit, which
also forms part of the bias circuit of the tube.
Figure 13 11hen the key is closed, operating bias is de-
TWO -STAGEBLOCKED -GRID KEYER veloped by the flow of grid current through RI.
A separate filament transformer must be used When the key is open, sufficient fixed bias is
for the 6J5, as its filament is at a potential applied to the tube to block it, preventing the
of -400 volts. stage from functioning. If an unneutralized
HANDBOOK Screen Grid Keying 399
807, Erc. preventing any backwave emission. The first

keyed stage may be the oscillator, or a low
powered buffer. The last keyed stage may be
the driver stage to the power amplifier, or the
amplifier itself. Since the circuit is so pro-
portioned that the lower powered stage comes
on /first and goes off last, any keying chirp in
the oscillator is not emitted on the air. Keying
lag is applied to the high powered keyed stage
only.
20-7 Screen Grid Keying
Figure 14 The screen circuit of a tetrode tube may be

keyed for c -w operation. Unfortunately, when
SINGLE -STAGE SCREEN GRID KEYER the screen grid of a tetrode tube is brought to
FOR TETRODE TUBES
zero potential, the tube still delivers con-
siderable output. Thus it is necessary to place
a negative blocking voltage on the screen grid
to reduce the backwave through the tube. A
tetrode is keyed by this method, there is the suitable keyer circuit that will achieve this
possibility of a considerable backwave caused was developed by W6DTY, and was described
by r -f leakage through the grid -plate capacity in the February, 1953 issue of CQ magazine.
of the tube. This circuit is shown in figure 14. A 6L6 is
Certain hi -ir triode tubes, such as the 811 -A used as a combined clamper tube and keying
and the 805, automatically block themselves tube. When the key is closed, the 6L6 tube
when the grid return circuit is opened. It is has blocking bias applied to its control grid.
merely necessary to insert a key and associ- This bias is obtained from the rectified grid
ated key click filter in the grid return lead of bias of the keyed tube. Screen voltage is ap-
these tubes. No blocking bias supply is need- plied to the keyed stage through a screen drop-
ed. This circuit is shown in figure 12. ping resistor and a VR -105 regulator tube.
A more elaborate blocked -grid keying sys- ,then the key is open, the 6L6 is no longer
tem has been developed by W1DX, and was cut -off, and conducts heavily. The voltage
shown in the February, 1954 issue of QST drop across the dropping resistor caused by
magazine. This highly recommended circuit the heavy plate current of the 6L6 lowers the
is shown in figure 13. Two stages are keyed, voltage on the VR -105 tube until it is eatin-
Figure 15
TOP VIEW OF SCREEN
GRID KEYER SHOWN IN
FIGURE 16 0
4WF#011*
LOW POWER SURFER

6AG7
I Kt
100
r 0005
+M.v.
VOLTS
SLOCM/Ni GRID VOLTAGE
tp
T1ME
-\
-
NEYER UNIT
OUTPUT 7D SCREENOF 807
voLra o
TIME
\ / POINT
A
B
C
KEY UP
-35
-110
-110
375
KEY DOWN
360
0
0
375
D
61K6
E -275 -273
110K
21p W
70K,1 W 4' D+
ION, 50 MA.
5Y3
5L'13 2310/ aca ca
IOW OAKS aKa NTR.
430v. 450 v. 12AU7
6AX5-GT
6.3K
NV Iati
4.710,2 W
350-0-350
SO MA.
115V. ti
Figure 16
TWO -STAGE SCREEN GRID KEYER
UNIT
guished, removing the screen voltage from the the W'1DX keyer, this keyer turns on the ex-
tetrode r -f tube. At the same time, rectified citer a moment before the tetrode stage is
grid bias is applied to the screen of the tetrode turned on. The tetrode stage goes off an in-
through the 1 megohm resistor between screen stant before the exciter does. Thus any key-
and key. This voltage effectively cuts off the ing chirp of the oscillator is effectively re-
screen of the tetrode until the key is closed moved from the keyed signal.
again. The RC circuit in the grid of the 6L6 By listening in the receiver one can hear
tube determines the keying characteristic of the exciter stop operating a fraction of a sec-
the tetrode tube. ond after the tetrode stage goes off. In fact,
A more elaborate screen grid keyer is shown during rapid keying, the exciter may be heard
in figures 15 and 16. This keyer is designed as a steady signal in the receiver, as it has
to block -grid key the oscillator or a low pow- appreciable time lag in the keying circuit. The
ered buffer stage, and to screen key a medium clipping effect of following stages has a defi-
powered tetrode tube such as an 807, 2E26 or nite hardening effect on this, however.
6146. The unit described includes a simple
dual voltage power supply for the positive 20 -8 Differential Keying Circuits
screen voltage of the tetrode, and a negative
supply for the keyer stages. A 6K6 is used as Excellent waveshaping may be obtained by
the screen keyer, and a 12AU7 is used as a a differential keying system whereby the
cathode follower and grid block keyer. As in master oscillator of the transmitter is turned
HANDBOOK Differential Keying 401
6AL5 TO CATHODE
BLOCKING DIODES
CIRCUIT OF
KEYED STAGE
170 A
-250 V VACUUM
TUBE
REVER
(FIG. 10
KEY 001 - )
CUT OFF VALUE

AMPLIFIER
Figure 18
BLOCKING DIODES EMPLOYED

I.- KEY IS DEPRESSED
DURING THIS TIME I
TO VARY TIME CONSTANT OF
'MAKE" AND 'BREAK" CHARAC-
(FIINER
I
'ION THE -+1
IS
AIR DURING THIS TIME.
AIR'
I
TERISTICS OF VACUUM TUBE

KEY ER
Figure 17
TIME SEQUENCE OF A
DIFFERENTIAL KEY ER veloped by WIICP (Feb., 1956 QST) is shown
in figure 19. A 6AL5 switch tube turns the
oscillator on before the keying action starts,
and holds it on until after the keying se-
on a moment before the rest of the stages are quence is completed. Time constant of the
energized, and remains on a moment longer keying cycle is determined by values of C
than the other stages. The "chirp" or frequen- and R. When the key is open, a cut -off bias
cy shift associated with abrupt switching of of about -110 volts is applied to the screen
the oscillator is thus removed from the emitted grid circuits of the keyed stages. When the
signal. In addition, the differential keyer can key is closed, the screen grid voltage rises
apply waveshaping to the amplifier section to the normal value at a rate determined by
of the transmitter, eliminating the "click" the time constant R -C. Upon opening the key
caused by rapid keying of the latter stages. again, the screen voltage returns to cut -off
The ideal keying system would perform as value at the predetermined rate.
illustrated in figure 17. When the key is The potentiometer RI serves as an output
closed, the oscillator reaches maximum out- control, varying the minimum internal re-
put almost instantaneously. The following sistance of the 12BH7 keyer tube, and is a
stages reach maximum output in a fashion useful device to limit power input during tune -
determined by the waveshaping circuits of up periods. Excitation to the final amplifier
the keyer. When the key is released, the out- stage may be controlled by the screen po-
put of the amplifier stages starts to decay tentiometer R3 in the second buffer stage.
in a predetermined manner, followed shortly An external bias source of approximately -120
thereafter by cessation of the oscillator. The volts at 10 milliamperes is required for oper-
overall result of these actions is to provide ation of the keyer, in addition to the 300 -volt
relatively soft "make" and "break" to the screen supply.
keyed signal, meanwhile preventing oscilla- Blocking voltage may be removed from the
tor frequency shift during the keying se- oscillator for "zeroing" purposes by closing
quence. switch Si, rendering the diode switch in-
The rates of charge and decay in a typical operative.
R-C keying circuit may be varied independent- A second popular keying system is shown
ly of each other by the blocking diode system in figure 20, and is widely used in many
of figure 18. Each diode permits the charging Johnson transmitters. Grid block keying is
current of the timing capacitor to flow through used on tubes V2 and V3. A waveshaping
only one of the two variable potentiometers, filter consisting of R2, R3, and C1 is used
thus permitting independent adjustment of in the keying control circuit of V2 and V3.
the "make" and "break" characteristics of To avoid chirp when the oscillator (VI) is
the keying system. keyed, the keyer tube V4 allows the oscillator
A practical differential keying system de- --
to start quickly before V2 and V3 start
402
OSCILLATOR BUFFER * I BUFFER *2
+300v.
OUTPUT
CONTROL
R1
100 K
2w
-120v.
Figure 19
DIFFERENTIAL KEYING SYSTEM WITH

OSCILLATOR SWITCHING DIODE
V, V2 V3
OSCILLATOR BUFFER DRIVER
100 n +300 V.
500 V4
12AU7 OEYER TUBE
22 K
R2 R3
I004K CT05
100n 330n =
-50V.
Figure 20
DIFFERENTIAL KEYER EMPLOYED IN
"JOHNSON" TRANSMITTERS
conducting --and then continue operating This be adjusted to cut off the VFO
may
until alter V2 and V3 have stopped con - between marks of keyed characters, thus
ducting. Potentiometer R1 adjusts the "hold" allowing rapid break -in operation.
time for VFO operation after the key is opened.
CHAPTER TWENTY -ONE
Radiation, Propagation
and Transmission lines
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves possible change in the electrical constants
similar in nature but much lower in frequency of a line is that which occurs at the open end
than light waves or heat waves. Such waves of a wire. Therefore, a dipole has a great mis-
represent electric energy traveling through match at each end, producing a high degree of
space. Radio waves travel in free space with reflection. We say that the ends of a dipole
the velocity of light and can be reflected and are terminated in an infinite impedance.
refracted much the same as light waves. A returning wave which has been reflected
meets the next incident wave, and the voltage
and current at any point along the antenna are
the vector sum of the two waves. At the ends
of the dipole, the voltages add, while the cur-
21 -1 Radiation from an rents of the two waves cancel, thus producing
Antenna high voltage and low current at the ends of the
dipole or half wave section of wire. In the
Alternating current passing through a con- same manner, it is found that the currents add
ductor creates an alternating electromagnetic while the voltages cancel at the center of the
field around that conductor. Energy is alter- dipole. Thus, at the center there is high cur-
nately stored in the field, and then returned rent but low voltage.
to the conductor. As the frequency is raised, Inspection of figure 1 will show that the
more and more of the energy does not return current in a dipole decreases sinusoidally
to the conductor, but instead is radiated off towards either end, while the voltage similarly
into space in the form of electromagnetic increases. The voltages at the two ends of the
waves, called radio waves. Radiation from a antenna are 180° out of phase, which means
wire, or wires, is materially increased when- that the polarities are opposite, one being plus
ever there is a sudden change in the electrical while the other is minus at any instant. A
constants of the line. These sudden changes curve representing either the voltage or cur-
produce reflection, which places standing rent on a dipole represents a standing wave
waves on the line. on the wire.
When a wire in space is fed radio frequency
energy having a wavelength of approximately Radiation from Radiation can and does take
2.1 times the length of the wire in meters, the Sources other place from sources other than
wire resonates as a hall-wave dipole antenna than Ant antennas. Undesired radiation
at that wavelength or frequency. The greatest can take place from open -wire
403
404 Radiation, Propagation and Lines T H E R A D I O
` VOLTAGE Because the orientation of a simple linear

uNTOR radiator is the same as the polarization of the
- waves emitted by it, the radiator itself is re-
SuurcnT
ferred to as being either vertically or horizon-
I
. tally polarized. Thus, we say that a horizontal
.'
.\ antenna is horizontally polarized.
k--Hw-WAVE ANTENNA
I . Figure 2A illustrates the fact that the polar-
-1 ization of the electric field of the radiation
from a vertical dipole is vertical. Figure 2B,
MOWING NDW STANDING WAMS
EXIST ON A HORIZONTAL ANTENNA. .\ on the other hand, shows that the polarization
CURRENT IS MAMMON AT CENTER.
VOLTAGE IS WUUIRUM AT ENDS.
VOLTAGE
of electric -field radiation from a vertical slot
radiator is horizontal. This fact has been uti-
lized in certain commercial FM antennas where
Figure 1 it is desired to have horizontally polarized
STANDING WAVES ON A RESONANT radiation but where it is more convenient to
ANTENNA use an array of vertically stacked slot arrays.
If the metallic sheet is bent into a cylinder
with the slot on one side, substantially omni-
directional horizontal coverage is obtained
transmission lines, both from single -wire lines with horizontally -polarized radiation when the
and from lines comprised of more than one cylinder with the slot in one side is oriented
wire. In addition, radiation can be made to vertically. An arrangement of this type is shown
take place in a very efficient manner from elec- in figure 2C. Several such cylinders may be
tromagnetic horns, from plastic lenses or from stacked vertically to reduce high -angle radia-
electromagnetic lenses made up of spaced con- tion and to concentrate the radiated energy
ducting planes, from slots cut in a piece of at the useful low radiation angles.
metal, from dielectric wires, or from the open In any event the polarization of radiation
end of a wave guide. from a radiating system is parallel to the elec-
tric field as it is set up inside or in the vici-
nity of the radiating system.
Directivity of The radiation from any phys-
Radiation ically practicable radiating
system is directive to a certain
degree. The degree of directivity can be en-
hanced or altered when desirable through the 21 -2 General Character-
combination of radiating elements in a pre-
scribed manner, through the use of reflecting istics of Antennas
planes or curved surfaces, or through the use
of such systems as mentioned in the preceding All antennas have certain general character-
paragraph. The construction of directive an- istics to be enumerated. It is the result of
tenna arrays is covered in detail in the chap- differences in these general characteristics
ters which follow. which makes one type of antenna system most
suitable for one type of application and an-
Polarization Like light waves, radio waves other type best for a different application. Six
can have a definite polarization. of the more important characteristics are: (1)
In fact, while light waves ordinarily have to polarization, (2) radiation resistance, (3) hori-
be reflected or passed through a polarizing zontal directivity, (4) vertical directivity,
medium before they have a definite polariza- (5) bandwidth, and (6) effective power gain.
tion, a radio wave leaving a simple radiator The polarization of an antenna or radiating
will have a definite polarization, the polar- system is the direction of the electric field
ization being indicated by the orientation of and has been defined in Section 21 -1.
the electric -field component of the wave. This, The radiation resistance of an antenna sys-
in turn, is determined by the orientation of the tem is normally referred to the feed point in
radiator itself, as the magnetic -field component an antenna fed at a current loop, or it is re-
is always at right angles to a linear radiator, ferred to a current loop in an antenna system
and the electric-field component is always in fed at another point. The radiation resistance
the same plane as the radiator. Thus we see is that value of resistance which, if inserted
that an antenna that is vertical with respect in series with the antenna at a current loop,
to the earth will transmit a vertically polar- would dissipate the same energy as is actually
ized wave, as the electrostatic lines of force radiated by the antenna if the antenna current
will be vertical. Likewise, a simple horizontal at the feed point were to remain the same.
antenna will radiate horizontally polarized The horizontal and vertical directivity can
waves. best be expressed as a directive pattern which
HANDBOOK Antenna Characteristics 405
Figure 2
ANTENNA POLARIZATION
The polarization (electric field) of
the radiation from a resonant dipole
such as shown at (A) above is paral-
CLCCTRIC
lel to the length of the radiator. In FIELD
the case of a resonant slot cut in a (POLARIZATION)
VERTICAL
sheet of metal and used as a radia-
tor, the polarization (of the elec-
tric field) is perpendicular to the
length of the slot. In both cases,
however, the polarization of the
radiated field is parallel to the po-
tential gradient of the radiator; in
the case of the dipole the electric
lines of force are from end to end,
while in the case of the slot the
field is across the sides of the
slot. The metallic sheet containing
ELECTRIC FIELD
(POLARIZATION)
HORIZONTAL
IT
/CCOCR3 CONNECT
TO POINTS A &C
the slot may be formed into a cyl- INSIDE CTLINDER
inder to make up the radiator shown
at (C). With this type of radiator
the radiated field will be horizon-
tally polarized even though the
radiator is mounted vertically.
is a graph showing the relative radiated field wire resonates at a wavelength of about 2.1
intensity against azimuth angle for horizontal times its length in meters. If the diameter of
directivity and field intensity against elevation the conductor begins to be an appreciable frac-
angle for vertical directivity. tion of a wavelength, as when tubing is used
The bandwidth of an antenna is a measure as a v -h -f radiator, the factor becomes slightly
of its ability to operate within specified limits less than 0.95. For the use of wire and not
over a range of frequencies. Bandwidth can tubing on frequencies below 30 Mc., however,
be expressed either "operating frequency plus - the figure of 0.95 may be taken as accurate.
or -minus a specified per cent of operating fre- This assumes a radiator removed from sur-
quency" or "operating frequency plus -or -minus rounding objects, and with no bends.
a specified number of megacycles" for a cer- Simple conversion into feet can be obtained
tain standing- wave -ratio limit on the trans- by using the factor 1.56. To find the physical
mission line feeding the antenna system. length of a half-wave 80 -meter antenna, we
The effective power gain or directive gain multiply 80 times 1.56, and get 124.8 feet for
of an antenna is the ratio between the power the length of the radiator.
required in the specified antenna and the power
required in a reference antenna (usually a half - It is more common to use frequency than
wave dipole) to attain the same field strength wavelength when indicating a specific spot in
in the favored direction of the antenna under the radio spectrum. For this reason, the rela-
measurement. Directive gain may be expressed tionship between wavelength and frequency
either as an actual power ratio, or as is more must be kept in mind. As the velocity of radio
common, the power ratio may be expressed waves through space is constant at the speed
in decibels. of light, it will be seen that the more waves
that pass a point per second(higher frequency),
Physical Length If the cross section of the the closer together the peaks of those waves
of a Half -Wave conductor which makes up must be (shorter wavelength). Therefore, the
Antenna the antenna is kept very higher the frequency, the lower will be the
small with respect to the wavelength.
antenna length, an electrical half wave is a A radio wave in space can be compared to
fixed percentage shorter than a physical half - a wave in water. The wave, in either case, has
wavelength. This percentage is approximately peaks and troughs. One peak and one trough
5 per cent. Therefore, most linear half -wave an- constitute a full wave, or one wavelength.
tennas are close to 95 per cent of a half wave- Frequency describes the number of wave
length long physically. Thus, a half -wave an- cycles or peaks passing a point per second.
tenna resonant at exactly 80 meters would be Wavelength describes the distance the wave
one -half of 0.95 times 80 meters in length. An- travels through space during one cycle or
other way of saying the same thing is that a oscillation of the antenna current; it is the
406 Radiation, Propagation and Lines THE RADIO
distance in meters between adjacent peaks

or adjacent troughs of a wave train.
As a radio wave travels 300,000,000 meters
a second (speed of light), a frequency of 1
cycle per second corresponds to a wavelength
of 300,000,000 meters. So, if the frequency is
multiplied by a million, the wavelength must
be divided by a million, in order to maintain
their correct ratio.
A frequency of 1,000,000 cycles per second , 1~
(1,000 kc.) equals a wavelength of 300 meters.
Multiplying frequency by 10 and dividing wave- :0 10 - SO 100 200 100 400 100 100 WO 2000 1000
length by 10, we find: a frequency of 10,000 kc. RATIO OF LENGTH TO DIAMETER
equals a wavelength of 30 meters. Multiplying

and dividing by 10 again, we get: a frequency Figure 3
of 100,000 kc. equals 3 meters wavelength. CHART SHOWING SHORTENING OF A
Therefore, to change wavelength to frequency RESONANT ELEMENT IN TERMS OF
(in kilocycles), simply divide 300,000 by the RATIO OF LENGTH TO DIAMETER
wavelength in meters (A). The use of this chart is based on the basic
formula where radiator length in feet is
300,000 equal to 468 /frequency in Mc. This formula
Fkc applies to frequencies below perhaps 30 Mc.
A when the radiator is made from wire. On
higher frequencies, or on 14 and 28 Mc. when
300,000 the radiator is made of large- diameter tubing,
= the radiator is shortened from the value ob-
Fkc tained with the above formula by an amount
determined by the ratio of length to diameter
Now that we have a simple conversion for- of the radiator. The amount of this shorten-
ing is obtainable from the chart shown above.
mula for converting wavelength to frequency
and vice versa, we can combine it with our
wavelength versus antenna length formula, and
we have the following:
Length of a half-wave radiator made from shortening can be determined with the aid of
wire (no. 14 to no. 10): the chart of figure 3. In this chart the amount
of additional shortening over the values given
3.5 -Mc. to 30 -Mc. bands in the previous paragraph is plotted against
468 the ratio of the length to the diameter of the
Length in feet - half-wave radiator.
Freq. in Mc. The length of a wave in free space is some-
what longer than the length of an antenna for
the same frequency. The actual free -space
50 -Mc. band half-wavelength is given by the following
expressions:
460
Length in feet - 492
Freq. in Mc.
Half -wavelength in feet
5600 Freq. in Mc.
Length in inches
Freq. in Mc. 5905
Half-wavelength - in inches
Freq. in Mc.
Harmonic A wire in space can resonate at

144 -Mc. band Resonance more than one frequency. The low-
est frequency at which it resonates
5500
Length in inches = is called its fundamental frequency, and at
Freq. in Mc. that frequency it is approximately a half wave-
length long. A wire can have two, three, four,
Length -to- DiameterWhen a half-wave radiator five, or more standing waves on it, and thus
Ratio is constructed from tubing it resonates at approximately the integral har-
or rod whose diameter is monics of its fundamental frequency. However,
an appreciable fraction of the length of the the higher harmonics are not exactly integral
radiator, the resonant length of a half -wave multiples of the lowest resonant frequency as
antenna will be shortened. The amount of a result of end effects.
HANDBOOK Radiation Resistance 407
A harmonic operated antenna is somewhat o
longer than the corresponding integral number r

of dipoles, and for this reason, the dipole
length formula cannot be used simply by mul-
tiplying by the corresponding harmonic. The
intermediate half wave sections do not have
end effects. Also, the current distribution is
disturbed by the fact that power can reach
some of the half wave sections only by flowing
through other sections, the latter then acting oi
not only as radiators, but also as transmission
lines. For the latter reason, the resonant length Figure 4
will be dependent to an extent upon the method
of feed, as there will be less attenuation of EFFECT OF SERIES INDUCTANCE AND
the current along the antenna if it is fed at or CAPACITANCE ON THE LENGTH OF A
near the center than if fed towards or at one HALF -WAVE RADIATOR
end. Thus, the antenna would have to be some- The top antenna has been electrically length-
what longer if fed near one end than if fed near ened by placing a coil in serles with the cen-
ter. In other words, an antenna with a lumped
the center. The difference would be small, inductance in its center can be made shorter
however, unless the antenna were many wave- for a given frequency than a plain wire radia-
lengths long. tor. The bottom antenna has been capacitive-
The length of a center fed harmonically oper- ly shortened electrically. In other words, an
antenna with a capacitor in series with it
ated doublet may be found from the formula: must be made longer for a given frequency
since its effective electrical length as com-
(K -.05) x 492 pared to plain wire is shorter.
L -
Freq. in Mc.
where K = number of 2 waves on
antenna
L = length in feet If an antenna is slightly too long, it can be
resonated by series insertion of a variable
Under conditions of severe current attenua- capacitor at a high current point. If it is slight-
tion, it is possible for some of the nodes, or ly too short, it can be resonated by means of
loops, actually to be slightly greater than a a variable inductance. These two methods,
physical half wavelength apart. Practice has illustrated schematically in figure 4, are gen-
shown that the most practical method of reson- erally employed when part of the antenna is
ating a harmonically operated antenna accu- brought into the operating room.
rately is by cut and try, or by using a feed With an antenna array, or an antenna fed by
system in which both the feed line and antenna means of a transmission line, it is more com-
are resonated at the station end as an integral mon to cut the elements to exact resonant
system. length by "cut and try" procedure. Exact an-
A dipole or half -wave antenna is said to
tenna resonance is more important when the
operate on its fundamental or first harmonic. antenna system has low radiation resistance;
A full wave antenna, I wavelength long, oper-
an antenna with low radiation resistance has
ates on its second harmonic. An antenna with higher Q (tunes sharper) than an antenna with
five half- wavelengths on it would be operating high radiation resistance. The higher Q does
on its fifth harmonic. Observe that the fifth not indicate greater efficiency; it simply indi-
harmonic antenna is 2tii wavelengths long, not cates a sharper resonance curve.
5 wavelengths.
Antenna Most types of antennas operate 21 -3 Radiation Resistance

Resonance most efficiently when tuned or and Feed -Point Impedance
resonated to the frequency of
operation. This consideration of course does
not apply to the rhombic antenna and to the In many ways, a half -wave antenna is like a
parasitic elements of arrays employing para- tuned tank circuit. The main difference lies in
sitically excited elements. However, in practi- the fact that the elements of inductance, capac-
cally every other case it will be found that in- itance, and resistance are lumped in the tank
creased efficiency results when the entire an- circuit, and are distributed throughout the
tenna system is resonant, whether it be a sim- length of an antenna. The center of a half -wave
ple dipole or an elaborate array. The radiation radiator is effectively at ground potential as
efficiency of a resonant wire is many times far as r -f voltage is concerned, although the
that of a wire which is not resonant. current is highest at that point.
10000 + 6000
I DIAMETER. Toh55
6000 +5000
6000 a +4000
7000 +3000
6000 +2
5000 +1000
4000
DIAMETER= Rkz- i
3000 1000
2000 2000
1000 3000
0
4000
015A 0.5A LOA 1.31. 2.0 A 2.5A
OVERALL LENGTH OF RADIATOR
3000
Figure 5
O ISO 0A5. 1.0A 1.5A 2.05. 2.5A
FEED POINT RESISTANCE OF A CENTER
OVERALL LENGTH OF RADIATOR
DRIVEN RADIATOR AS A FUNCTION OF
PHYSICAL LENGTH IN TERMS OF FREE
SPACE WAVELENGTH
Figure 6
REACTIVE COMPONENT OF THE FEED
POINT IMPEDANCE OF A CENTER
When the antenna is resonant, and it always DRIVEN RADIATOR AS A FUNCTION OF
should be for best results, the impedance at PHYSICAL LENGTH IN TERMS OF FREE
the center is substantially resistive, and is SPACE WAVELENGTH
termed the radiation resistance. Radiation re-
sistance is a fictitious term; it is that value
of resistance (referred to the current loop)
which would dissipate the same amount of tenna is simply one -half of a dipole. For that
power as being radiated by the antenna, when reason, the radiation resistance is roughly
fed with the current flowing at the current loop. half the 73 -ohm impedance of the dipole or
The radiation resistance depends on the 36.5 ohms. The radiation resistance of a Mar-
antenna length and its proximity to nearby coni antenna such as a mobile whip will be
objects which either absorb or re- radiate pow- lowered by the proximity of the automobile
er, such as the ground, other wires, etc. body.
The Marconi Before going too far with the Antenna Because the power throughout the
Antenna discussion of radiation resist- Impedance antenna is the same, the imped-
ance, an explanation of the Mar- ance of a resonant antenna at any
coni (grounded quarter wave) antenna is in point along its length merely expresses the
order. The Marconi antenna is a special type ratio between voltage and current at that point.
of Hertz antenna in which the earth acts as the Thus, the lowest impedance occurs where the
"other half" of the dipole. In other words, the current is highest, namely, at the center of a
current flows into the earth instead of into a dipole, or a quarter wave from the end of a
similar quarter -wave section. Thus, the current Marconi. The impedance rises uniformly toward
loop of a Marconi antenna is at the base rather each end, where it is about 2000 ohms for a
than in the center. In either case it is a quarter dipole remote from ground, and about twice as
wavelength from the end. high for a vertical Marconi.
A half -wave dipole far from ground and other If a vertical half -wave antenna is set up so
reflecting objects has a radiation resistance that its lower end is at the ground level, the
at the center of about 73 ohms. A Marconi an- effect of the ground reflection is to increase
HANDBOOK Antenna Impedance 409
HEIGHT IN WAVELENGTHS OF CENTER OF VERTICAL and the feed point reactance change more slow-
HALF -WAVE ANTENNA ABOVE PERFECT GROUND ly with overall radiator length (or with fre-
.23 .3 .4 .5 .e .7 .75
quency with a fixed length) as the conductor
diameter is increased, indicating that the ef-
fective "Q" is lowered as the diameter is in-
creased. However, in view of the fact that the
damping resistance is nearly all "radiation
resistance" rather than loss resistance, the
lower Q does not represent lower efficiency.
Therefore, the lower Q is desirable, because
it permits use of the radiator over a wider fre-
quency range without resorting to means for
eliminating the reactive component. Thus, the
use of a large diameter conductor makes the
overall system less frequency sensitive. If the
diameter is made sufficiently large in terms of
.4 .e .7 .e .e 1.0
wavelengths, the Q will be low enough to qual-
0 .1 .2 .3 .S
ify the radiator as a "broadband" antenna.
HEIGHT IN WAVELENGTHS OF HORIZONTAL HALF -
WAVE ANTENNA ABOVE PERFECT GROUND The curves of figure 7 indicate the theoreti-
cal center -point radiation resistance of a half -
Figure 7
wave antenna for various heights above perfect
ground. These values are of importance in
EFFECT OF HEIGHT ON THE RADIATION matching untuned radio- frequency feeders to
RESISTANCE OF A DIPOLE SUSPENDED the antenna, in order to obtain a good imped-
ABOVE PERFECT GROUND ance match and an absence of standing waves
on the feeders.
Ground L Above average ground, the

the radiation resistance to approximately 100 actual radiation resistance
ohms. When a horizontal half-wave antenna is of a dipole will vary from the exact value of
used, the radiation resistance (and, of course, figure 7 since the latter assumes a hypothet-
the amount of energy radiated for a given anical, perfect ground having no loss and perfect
tenna current) depends on the height of the reflection. Fortunately, the curves for the radi-
antenna above ground, since the height deter- ation resistance over most types of earth will
mines the phase and amplitude of the wave correspond rather closely with those of the
reflected from the ground back to the antenna. chart, except that the radiation resistance for
Thus the resultant current in the antenna for a horizontal dipole does not fall off as rapidly
a given power is a function of antenna height. as is indicated for heights below an eighth
wavelength. However, with the antenna so
Center -fed When a linear radiator is series fed close to the ground and the soil in a strong
Feed Point at the center, the resistive and field, much of the radiation resistance is ac-
Impedance reactive components of the driving tually represented by ground loss; this means
point impedance are dependent up- that a good portion of the antenna power is
on both the length and diameter of the radiator being dissipated in the earth, which, unlike
in wavelengths. The manner in which the resis- the hypothetical perfect ground, has resistance.
tive component varies with the physical dimen- In this case, an appreciable portion of the
sions of the radiator is illustrated in figure 5. radiation resistance actually is loss resist-
The manner in which the reactive component ance. The type of soil also has an effect upon
varies is illustrated in figure 6. the radiation pattern, especially in the vertical
Several interesting things will be noted with plane, as will be seen later.
respect to these curves. The reactive com- The radiation resistance of an antenna gen-
ponent disappears when the overall physical erally increases with length, although this in-
length is slightly less than any number of half crease varies up and down about a constantly
waves long, the differential increasing with increasing average. The peaks and dips are
conductor diameter. For overall lengths in the caused by the reactance of the antenna, when
vicinity of an odd number of half wavelengths, its length does not allow it to resonate at the
the center feed point looks to the generator or operating frequency.
transmission line like a series -resonant lumped
circuit, while for overall lengths in the vici- Antenna Antennas have a certain loss re-
nity of an even number of half wavelengths, it Efficiency sistance as well as a radiation re-
looks like a parallel- resonant or anti- resonant sistance. The loss resistance de-
lumped circuit. Both the feed point resistance fines the power lost in the antenna due to ohm-
41 0 Radiation, Propagation and Lines THE RADIO
is resistance of the wire, ground resistance direction with respect to an antenna in free
(in the case of a Marconi), corona discharge, space as a result of inherent directivity is
and insulator losses. called the free space directivity power gain
The approximate effective radiation effi- or just space directivity gain of the antenna
ciency (expressed as a decimal) is equal to: (referred to a hypothetical isotropic radiator
Nr = Ra /(Ra+ RI) where R. is equal to the which is assumed to radiate equally well in
radiation resistance and Rt is equal to the all directions). Because the fictitious isotropic
effective loss resistance of the antenna. The radiator is a purely academic antenna, not phy-
loss resistance will be of the order of 0.25 sically realizable, it is common practice to use
ohm for large- diameter tubing conductors such as a reference antenna the simplest unground-
as are most commonly used in multi-element ed resonant radiator, the half -wave Hertz, or
parasitic arrays, and will be of the order of resonant doublet. As a half-wave doublet has
0.5 to 2.0 ohms for arrays of normal construc- a space directivity gain of 2.15 db over an iso-
tion using copper wire. tropic radiator, the use of a resonant dipole
When the radiation resistance of an antenna as the comparison antenna reduces the gain
or array is very low, the current at a voltage figure of an array by 2.15 db. However, it should
node will be quite high for a given power. Like- be understood that power gain can be expressed
wise, the voltage at a current node will be very with regard to any antenna, just so long as it
high. Even with a heavy conductor and excel- is specified.
lent insulation, the losses due to the high volt- As a matter of interest, the directivity of
age and current will be appreciable if the radian infinitesimal dipole provides a free space
ation resistance is sufficiently low. directivity power gain of 1.5 (or 1.76 db) over
Usually, it is not considered desirable to an isotropic radiator. This means that in the
use an antenna or array with a radiation resist- direction of maximum radiation the infinitesi-
ance of less than approximately 5 ohms unless mal dipole will produce the same field of
there is sufficient directivity, compactness, strength as an isotropic radiator which is radi-
or other advantage to offset the losses result- ating 1.5 times as much total power.
ing from the low radiation resistance. A half -wave resonant doublet, because of
its different current distribution and signifi-
Ground The radiation resistance of a Mar - cant length, exhibits slightly more free space
Resistance coni antenna, especially, should power gain as a result of directivity than does
be kept as high as possible. This the infinitesimal dipole, for reasons which will
will reduce the antenna current for a given be explained in a later section. The space
power, thus minimizing loss resulting from the directivity power gain of a half -wave resonant
series resistance offered by the earth connec- doublet is 1.63 (or 2.15 db) referred to an iso-
tion. The radiation resistance can be kept high tropic radiator.
by making the Marconi radiator somewhat longer
than a quarter wave, and shortening it by series Horizontal When choosing and orienting an
capacitance to an electrical quarter wave. This Directivity antenna system, the radiation pat-
reduces the current flowing in the earth con- terns of the various common types
nection. It also should be removed from ground of antennas should be given careful considera-
as much as possible (vertical being ideal). tion. The directional characteristics are of
Methods of minimizing the resistance of the still greater importance when a directive an-
earth connection will be found in the discus- tenna array is used.
sion of the Marconi antenna. Horizontal directivity is always desirable
on any frequency for point -to-point work. How-
21 -4 Antenna Directivity ever, it is not always attainable with reason-
able antenna dimensions on the lower fre-
quencies. Further, when it is attainable, as
All practical antennas radiate better in some on the frequencies above perhaps 7 Mc., with
directions than others. This characteristic is reasonable antenna dimensions, operating con-
called directivity. The more directive an an- venience is greatly furthered if the maximum
tenna is, the more it concentrates the radiation lobe of the horizontal directivity is control-
in a certain direction, or directions. The more lable. It is for this reason that rotatable an-
the radiation is concentrated in a certain direc- tenna arrays have come into such common
tion, the greater will be the field strength pro- usage.
duced in that direction for a given amount of Considerable horizontal directivity can be
total radiated power. Thus the use of a direc- used to advantage when: (1) only point-to-
tional antenna or array produces the same re- point work is necessary, (2) several arrays are
sult in the favored direction as an increase in available so that directivity may be changed
the power of the transmitter. by selecting or reversing antennas, (3) a single
The increase in radiated power in a certain rotatable array is in use. Signals follow the
HANDBOOK Antenna Directivity 411
gy radiated at other elevation angles is lost

and performs no useful function.
Optims.n Angle The optimum angle of radiation

of Radiation for propagation of signals be-
tween two points is dependent
upon a number of variables. Among these sig-
nificant variables are: (1) height of the iono-
sphere layer which is providing the reflection,
(2) distance between the two stations, (3) num-
ber of hops for propagation between the two
stations. For communication on the 14-Mc.
1.0
band it is often possible for different modes
.3 of propagation to provide signals between two
. points. This means, of course, that more than
.7 one angle of radiation can be used. If no eleva-
. tion directivity is being used under this con-
dition of propagation, selective fading will
.3
take place because of interference between the
.4 waves arriving over the different paths.
.3 On the 28 -Mc. band it is by far the most com-
.2 mon condition that only one mode of propagation
.1 will be possible between two points at any
0
one time. This explains, of course, the reason
30 23 20 24 22 20 M M 14 12 10 2 0 why rapid fading in general and selective fad-
WAVE ANGLE IN DEGREES
ing in particular are almost absent from sig-
nals heard on the 28 -Mc. band (except for fad-
Figure 8 ing caused by local effects).
VERTICAL -PLANE DIRECTIONAL CHAR- Measurements have shown that the angles
ACTERISTICS OF HORIZONTAL AND VER- useful for communication on the 14-Mc. band
TICAL DOUBLETS ELEVATED 0.6 WAVE- are from 3° to about 30 °; angles above about
LENGTH AND ABOVE TWO TYPES OF 15° being useful only for local work. On the
GROUND 28 -Mc. band measurements have shown that
the useful angles range from about 3° to 18 °;
HI represents o horizontal doublet over typi-
cal farmland. H2 over salt water. V1 is a angles above about 12° being useful only for
vertical pattern of radiation from a vertical local (less than 3000 miles) work. These fig-
doublet over typical farmland, V2 over salt ures assume normal propagation by virtue of
water. A salt water ground is the closest
approach to an extensive ideally perfect the F layer.
ground that will be met in actual practice.
Angle of Radiation It now becomes of inter -

of Typical Antennas est to determine the s-
and Arrays mount of radiation avail-
great -circle path, or within 2 or 3 degrees of
that path under all normal propagation condi- able at these useful low-
er angles of radiation from commonly used an-
tions. However, under turbulent ionosphere
tennas and antenna arrays. Figure 8 shows
conditions, or when unusual propagation con-
ditions exist, the deviation from the great- circle relative output voltage plotted against eleva-
path for greatest signal intensity may be as tion angle (wave angle) in degrees above the
great as 90 °. Making the array rotatable over- horizontal, for horizontal and vertical doublets
comes these difficulties, but arrays having ex- elevated 0.6 wavelength above two types of
tremely high horizontal directivity become too ground. It is obvious by inspection of the
cumbersome to be rotated, except perhaps curves that a horizontal dipole mounted at this
when designed for operation on frequencies height above ground (20 feet on the 28 -Mc.
above 50 Mc. band) is radiating only a small amount of ener-
gy at angles useful for communication on the
Vertical Vertical directivity is of the great - 28 -Mc. band. Most of the energy is being radi-
Directivity est importance in obtaining satis- ated uselessly upward. The vertical antenna
factory communication above 14 above a good reflecting surface appears much
Mc. whether or not horizontal directivity is better in this respect -and this fact has been
used. This is true simply because only the proven many times by actual installations.
energy radiated between certain definite eleva- It might immediately be thought that the a-
tion angles is useful for communication. Ener- mount of radiation from a horizontal or vertical
Figure 9
VERTICAL RADIATION
PATTERNS
Showing the vertical radiation
patterns for half-wave antennas
(or colinear half-wave or ex-
tended half -wave antennas) at
different heights above average
ground and perfect ground. Note
that such antennas one -quarter
wave above ground concentrate
most radiation at the very high
angles which are useful for com-
munication only on the lower fre-
quency bands. Antennas one-half
wave above ground are not
shown, but the elevation pattern
5 5 7 e 0 a 2 1 a 1
shows one lobe on each side at
POWER OUTPUT an angle of 30o above hori-
zontal.
dipole could be increased by raising the an- additional means for suppressing high -angle
tenna higher above the ground. This is true to radiation.
an extent in the case of the horizontal dipole;
the low-angle radiation does increase slowly Suppression of High -angle
radiation can be
after a height of 0.6 wavelength is reached High -angle suppressed, and this radiation
but at the expense of greatly increased high - Radiation can be added to that going out
angle radiation and the formation of a number at low angles, only through the
of nulls in the elevation pattern. No signal use of some sort of directive antenna system.
can be transmitted or received at the elevation There are three general types of antenna ar-
angles where these nulls have been formed. rays composed of dipole elements commonly
Tests have shown that a center height of 0.6 used which concentrate radiation at the lower
wavelength for a vertical dipole (0.35 wave- more effective angles for high -frequency com-
length to the bottom end) is about optimum for munication. These types are: (1) The close -
this type of array. spaced out -of-phase system as exemplified by
Figure 9 shows the effect of placing a hori- the "flat -top" beam or W8JK array. Such con-
zontal dipole at various heights above ground. figurations are classified as end lire arrays.
It is easily seen by reference to figure 9 (and (2) The wide - spaced in -phase arrays, as exem-
figure 10 which shows the radiation from a di- plified by the "Lazy H" antenna. These con-
pole at 3/, wave height) that a large percentage figurations are classified as broadside arrays.
of the total radiation from the dipole is being (3) The close- spaced parasitic systems, as
radiated at relatively high angles which are exemplified by the three element rotary beam.
useless for communication on the 14 -Mc. and A comparison between the radiation from a
28 -Mc. bands. Thus we see that in order to ob- dipole, a "flat -top beam" and a pair of dipoles
tain a worthwhile increase in the ratio of low - stacked one above the other (half of a "lazy
angle radiation to high -angle radiation it is H "), in each case with the top of the antenna
necessary to place the antenna high above at a height of ?4 wavelength is shown in figure
ground, and in addition it is necessary to use 11. The improvement in the amplitude of low-
Figure 10
VERTICAL RADIATION
PATTERNS
N..753
Showing vertical -plane radiation
patterns of a horizontal single -
section flat-top beam with one-
eighth wave spacing (solid
curves) and a horizontal half-
1a wav antenna (dashed curves)
when both are 0.5 wavelength
(A) and 0.75 wavelength (B) a-
bove ground.
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 7.0 .5 1.a 1.5 2.0 2.5 ao
GAIN IN FIELD STRENGTH
HANDBOOK Antenna Bandwidth 413
Figure 11
COMPARATIVE VERTICAL
RADIATION PATTERNS
Showing the vertical radiation
patterns of a horizontal single -
section flat -top beam (A), an
in -phase half -wave elements
half of o "Lazy H "-(B), and
-
array of two stacked horizontal
a horizontal dipole (C). In each

case the top of the antenna sys-
tem Is 0.75 wavelength above
ground, as shown to the left of
the curves.
1.0 1.3 o a.s
angle radiation at the expense of the useless 21 -6 Propagation of

high -angle radiation with these simple arrays
as contrasted to the dipole is quite marked.
Radio Waves
Figure 12 compares the patterns of a 3 ele-
ment beam and a dipole radiator at a height of
The preceding sections have discussed the
0.75 wavelength. It will be noticed that al-
manner in which an electromagnetic -wave or
though there is more energy in the lobe of the
radio -wave field may be set up by a radiating
beam as compared to the dipole, the axis of
system. However, for this field to be useful
the beam is at the same angle above the hori-
for communication it must be propagated to
zontal. Thus, although more radiated energy some distant point where it may be received,
is provided by the beam at low angles, the or where it may be reflected so that it may be
average angle of radiation of the beam is no
received at some other point. Radio waves
lower than the average angle of radiation of may be propagated to a remote point by either
the dipole.
or both of two general methods. Propagation
21 -5 Bandwidth
504
The bandwidth of an antenna or an antenna

Áof POLE
array is a function primarily of the radiation B- 3- ELEMENT
resistance and of the shape of the conductors TIC ARRAY
which make up the antenna system. For arrays

of essentially similar construction the band-
width (or the deviation in frequency which the
system can handle without mismatch) is in-
creased with increasing radiation resistance,
and the bandwidth is increased with the use
of conductors of larger diameter (smaller ratio
of length to diameter). This is to say that if
an array of any type is constructed of large
diameter tubing or spaced wires, its bandwidth 1.0 1.3 20 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
will be greater than that of a similar array GAIN IN FIELD STRENGTH
constructed of single wires.
The radiation resistance of antenna arrays Figure 12
of the types mentioned in the previous para- VERTICAL RADIATION PATTERNS
graphs may be increased through the use of
Showing vertical radiation patterns of a hori-
wider spacing between elements. With increased zontal dipole (A) and a horizontal 3- element
radiation resistance in such arrays the radi- parasitic array (B) at a height above ground
ation efficiency increases since the ohmic of 0.75 wavelength. Note that the axis of the
losses within the conductors become a smaller main radiation lobes are at the same angle
above the horizontal. Note also the suppres-
percentage of the radiation resistance, and the sion of high angle radiation by the parasitic
bandwidth is increased proportionately. array.
bination of the two. The three waves which

O DIRECT WAVE may combine to make up the ground wave are
illustrated in figure 13.
The Surface Wove The surface wave is that
L-- '-
°GROUND-
REFLECTED - -
WAVE
wave which we normally
OsuRFACE WAVE
receive from a standard broadcast station. It
travels directly along the ground and termin-
ates on the earth's surface. Since the earth is
Figure 13 a relatively poor conductor, the surface wave
GROUND -WAVE SIGNAL PROPAGATION is attenuated quite rapidly. The surface wave
The illustration above shows the three com- is attenuated less rapidly as it passes over
ponents of the ground wave: (A), the surface sea water, and the attenuation decreases for
wave; (B), the direct wave; and (C), the a specific distance as the frequency is de-
ground -reflected wave. The direct wave and creased. The rate of attenuation with distance
the ground-reflected wave combine at the
receiving antenna to make up the space becomes so large as the frequency is increased
wave. above about 3 Mc. that the surface wave be-
comes of little value for communication.
The Space Wave The resultant wave or space

may take place as a result of the ground wave, wave is illustrated in figure
or as a result of the sky wave or ionospheric 13 by the combination of (B) and (C). It is this
wave. wave path, which consists of the combination
of the direct wave and the ground-reflected
The Ground Wave The term ground wave actu- wave at the receiving antenna, which is the
ally includes several dif- normal path of signal propagation for line -of-
ferent types of waves which usually are called: sight or near line -of-sight communication or
(1) the surface wave, (2) the direct wave, and FM and TV reception on frequencies above
(3) the ground -reflected wave. The latter two about 40 Mc.
waves combine at the receiving antenna to Below line -of-sight over plane earth or
form the resultant wave or the space wave. water, when the signal source is effectively
The distinguishing characteristic of the com- at the horizon, the ground-reflected wave does
ponents of the ground wave is that all travel not exist, so that the direct wave is the only
along or over the surface of the earth, so that component which goes to make up the space
they are affected by the conductivity and ter- wave. But when both the signal source and the
rain of the earth's surface. receiving antenna are elevated with respect to
the intervening terrain, the ground -reflected
The Ionospheric Wove Intense bombardment of wave is present and adds vectorially to the
or Sky Wave the upper regions of direct wave at the receiving antenna. The vec-
the atmosphere by radi- torial addition of the two waves, which travel
ations from the sun results in the formation over different path lengths (since one of the
of ionized layers. These ionized layers, which waves has been reflected from the ground) re-
form the ionosphere, have the capability of sults in an interference pattern. The interfer-
reflecting or refracting radio waves which im- ence between the two waves brings about a
pinge upon them. A radio wave which has been cyclic variation in signal strength as the re-
propagated as a result of one or more reflec- ceiving antenna is raised above the ground.
tions from the ionosphere is known as an This effect is illustrated in figure 14. From
ionospheric wave or a sky wave. Such waves this figure it can be seen that best space -
make possible long distance radio communica- wave reception of a v -h -f signal often will be
tion. Propagation of radio signals by iono- obtained with the receiving antenna quite close
spheric waves is discussed in detail in Sec- to the ground. This subject, along with other
tion 21 -8. aspects of v -h -f signal propagation and recep-
tion, are discussed in considerable detail in
a book on fringe -area TV reception.*
21 -7 Ground -Wave
Communication The distance from an elevated point to the
geometrical horizon is teen by the approxi-
As stated in the preceding paragraph, the mate equation: d = 1.22 1i where'the distance
term ground wave applies both to the surface
wave and to the space wave (the resultant "Better TV Reception," by W. W. Smith and R. L. Dow-
wave from the combination of the direct wave ley, published by Editors and Engi , Ltd., Summer -
and the ground -reflected wave) or to a com- land, Calif.
HANDBOOK Ground Wave Communication 415
TRANSMITTING
ANTENNA D1 /DIRECT WAVES the combined effects of a decrease in temper-
ature, pressure, and water -vapor content with
height.
This gradual decrease in refractive index
with height causes waves radiated at very low
angles with respect to the horizontal to be
GROUND-REFLECTED D2
--/ --RECEIVING
ANTENNA bent downward slightly in a curved path. The
WAVES AT DIFFERENT
HEIGHTS result of this effect is that such waves will be
propagated beyond the true or geometrical
horizon. In a so- called standard atmosphere
Figure 14 the effect of the curved path is the same as
WAVE INTERFERENCE WITH HEIGHT though the radius of the earth were increased
When the source of a horizontally -polarized by approximately one third. This condition ex-
space -wave signal is above the horizon, the tends the horizon by approximately 30 per cent
received signal at o distant location will go for normal propagation, and the extended-hori-
through a cyclic variation os the antenna
height is progressively raised. This is due zon is known as the radio path horizon, men-
to the difference in total path length between tioned before.
the direct wave and the ground -reflected
wave, and to the fact that this path length
Conditions Leading to When the temperature,
difference changes with antenna height.
When the path length difference is such that Tropospheric pressure, or water-vapor
the two waves arrive at the receiving anten- Stratification content of the atmos-
na with a phase difference of 3600 or some phere does not change
multiple of 360 °, the two waves will appear smoothly with rising altitude, the discontinuity
to be in phase as far as the antenna is con-
cerned and maximum signal will be obtained. or stratification will result in the reflection
On the other hand, when the antenna height or refraction of incident v -h -f signals. Ordi-
is such that the path length difference for narily this condition is more prevalent at night
the two waves causes the waves to arrive and in the summer. In certain areas, such as
with a phase difference of an odd multiple
of 180° the two waves will substantially can- along the west coast of North America, it is
cel, and a null will be obtained at that an- frequent enough to be considered normal. Sig-
tenna height. The difference between Di nal strength decreases slowly with distance
and 02 plus D, is the path -length difference. and, if the favorable condition in the lower
Note also that there is an additional 180° atmosphere covers sufficient area, the range
phase shift in the ground-reflected wave at
the point where it is reflected from the is limited only by the transmitter power, an-
ground. It is this latter phase shift which tenna gain, receiver sensitivity, and signal -to-
causes the space -wave field intensity of a noise ratio. There is no skip distance. Usually,
horizontally polarized wove to be zero with transmission due to this condition is accom-
the receiving antenna at ground level.
panied by slow fading, although fading can be
violent at a point where direct waves of about
the same strength are also received.
Bending in the troposphere, which refers to
d is in miles and the antenna height if is in the region from the earth's surface up to about
feet. This equation must be applied separately 10 kilometers, is more likely to occur on days
to the transmitting and receiving antennas and when there are stratus clouds than on clear,
the results added. However, refraction and cool days with a deep blue sky. The tempera-
diffraction of the signal around the spherical ture or humidity discontinuities may be broken
earth cause a smaller reduction in field strength up by vertical convection currents over land
than would occur in the absence of such bend- in the daytime but are more likely to continue
ing, so that the average radio horizon is some- during the day over water. This condition is
what beyond the geometrical horizon. The in some degree predictable from weather infor-
equation d = 1.4 NrE is sometimes used for mation several days in advance. It does not
determining the radio horizon. depend on the sunspot cycle. Like direct com-
munication, best results require similar an-
Tropospheric Propagation by signal bending tenna polarization or orientation at both the
Propagation in the lower atmosphere, called transmitting and receiving ends, whereas in
tropospheric propagation, can transmission via reflection in the ionosphere
result in the reception of signals over a much (that part of the atmosphere between about 50
greater distance than would be the case if the and 500 kilometers high) it makes little dif-
lower atmosphere were homogeneous. In a ference whether antennas are similarly polar-
homogeneous or well -mixed lower atmosphere, ized.
called a normal or standard atmosphere, there
is a gradual and uniform decrease in index of Duct Formation When bending conditions are
refraction with height. This effect is due to particularly favorable they
and during magnetic storms has been called

aurora -type dx. These conditions reach a max-
imum somewhat after the sunspot cycle peak,
possibly because the spots on the sun are
nearer to its equator (and more directly in tine
I-
x
0 DUCT
s_
INVERSION
with the earth) in the latter part of the cycle.
I
17, Ionospheric storms generally accompany mag-
T netic storms. The normal layers of the iono-
INVERSION AND DUCT sphere may be churned or broken up, making
f radio transmission over long distances diffi-
REFRACTIVE INDEX cult or impossible on high frequencies. Un-
usual conditions in the ionosphere sometimes
modulate v -h -f waves so that a definite tone or
Figure 15
noise modulation is noticed even on transmit-
ILLUSTRATING DUCT TYPES ters located only a few miles away.
Showing two types of variation in refractive A pecularity of this type of auroral propaga-
index with height which will give rise to the tion of v -h -f signals in the northern hemisphere
formation of a duct. An elevated duct is
shown at (A), and a ground -based duct is is that directional antennas usually must be
shown at (B). Such ducts can propagate pointed in a northerly direction for best results
ground-wave signals far beyond their normal for transmission or reception, regardless of
range. the direction of the other station being con-
tacted. Distances out to 700 or 800 miles have
been covered during magnetic storms, using
30 and 50 Mc. transmitters, with little evi-
may give rise to the formation of a duct which dence of any silent zone between the stations
can propagate waves with very little attenu- communicating with each other. Generally,
ation over great distances in a manner similar voice -modulated transmissions are difficult or
to the propagation of waves through a wave impossible due to the tone or noise modulation
guide. Guided propagation through a duct in on the signal. Most of the communication of
the atmosphere can give quite remarkable this type has taken place by c.w. or by tone
transmission conditions (figure 15). However, modulated waves with a keyed carrier.
such ducts usually are formed only on an over-
water path. The depth of the duct over the
water's surface may be only 20 to 50 feet, or
it may be 1000 feet deep or more. Ducts ex- 21-8
hibit a low -frequency cutoff characteristic Ionospheric
similar to a wave guide. The cutoff frequency Propagation
is determined by depth of the duct and by the
strength of the discontinuity in refractive in- Propagation of radio waves for communica-
dex at the upper surface of the duct. The low - tion on frequencies between perhaps 3 and
est 'frequency that can be propagated by such 30 Mc. is normally carried out by virtue of
a duct seldom goes below 50 Mc., and usually ionospheric reflection or refraction. Under con-
will be greater than 100 Mc. even along the ditions of abnormally high ionization in the
Pacific Coast. ionosphere, communication has been known
to have taken place by ionospheric reflection
Stratospheric Communication by virtue of on frequencies higher than 50 Mc.
Reflection stratospheric reflection can be The ionosphere consists of layers of ionized
brought about during magnetic gas located above the stratosphere, and ex-
storms, aurora borealis displays, and during tending up to possibly 300 miles above the
meteor showers. Dx communication during ex- earth. Thus we see that high -frequency radio
tensive meteor showers is characterized by waves may travel over short distances in a
frequent bursts of great signal strength fol- direct line from the transmitter to the receiver,
lowed by a rapid decline in strength of the or they can be radiated upward into the iono-
received signal. The motion of the meteor sphere to be bent downward in an indirect ray,
forms an ionized trail of considerable extent returning to earth at considerable distance
which can bring about effective reflection of from the transmitter. The wave reaching a re-
signals. However, the ionized region persists ceiver via the ionosphere route is termed a
only for a matter of seconds so that a shower sky wave. The wave reaching a receiver by
of meteors is necessary before communication traveling in a direct line from the transmitting
becomes possible. antenna to the receiving antenna is commonly
The type of communication which is possible called a ground wave.
during visible displays of the aurora borealis The amount of bending at the ionosphere
HANDBOOK Ionospheric Propagation 417
200 a virtual height of approximately 175 miles at

F2
night, and in the daytime it splits up into two
170 layers, the upper one being called the F, layer
Fi and the lower being called the F, layer. The
MIDDAY
t00 height of the F2 layer during daylight hours is
E normally about 250 miles on the average and
W !0 the F, layer often has a height of as low as
J
D 140 miles. It is the F, layer which supports
all nighttime dx communication and nearly all
F2 daytime dx propagation.
The E LayerBelow the F, layer is another

MIDNIGHT layer, called the E layer, which
wo
is of importance in daytime communication
E
over moderate distances in the frequency range
-
50
between 3 and 8 Mc. This layer has an almost
o
constant height at about 70 miles. Since the
recombination time of the ions at this height
IONIZATION DENSITY
is rather short, the E layer disappears almost
completely a short time after local sunset.
Figure 16
IONIZATION DENSITY IN THE IONO- The D Layer Below the E layer at a height of
SPHERE about 35 miles is an absorbing
Showing typical ionization density of the layer, called the D layer, which exists in the
Ionosphere in mid -summer. Note that the F1 middle of the day in the summertime. The layer
and D layers disappear at night, and that the also exists during midday in the winter time
density of the E layer falls to such a low
value that It Is ineffective. during periods of high solar activity, but the
layer disappears completely at night. It is this
layer which causes high absorption of signals
in the medium and high- frequency range during
the middle of the day.
which the sky wave can undergo depends up-
on its frequency, and the amount of ionization Critical Frequency The critical frequency of
in the ionosphere, which is in turn dependent an ionospheric layer is the
upon radiation from the sun. The sun increases highest frequency which will be reflected when
the density of the ionosphere layers (figure 16) the wave strikes the layer at vertical inci-
and lowers their effective height. For this dence. The critical frequency of the most high-
reason, the ionosphere acts very differently ly ionized layer of the ionosphere may be as
at different times of day, and at different times low as 2 Mc. at night and as high as 12 to 13
of the year. Mc. in the middle of the day. The critical fre-
The higher the frequency of a radio wave, quency is directly of interest in that a skip -
the farther it penetrates the ionosphere, and distance zone will exist on all frequencies
the less it tends to be bent back toward the greater than the highest critical frequency at
earth. The lower the frequency, the more easily that time. The critical frequency is a measure
the waves are bent, and the less they pene- of the density of ionization of the reflecting
trate the ionosphere. 160 -meter and 80 -meter layers. The higher the critical frequency the
signals will usually be bent back to earth greater the density of ionization.
even when sent straight up, and may be con-
sidered as being reflected rather than refract-
ed. As the frequency is raised beyond about
Maximum Usable The maximum usable /re-
Frequency quency or m.u. /. is of great
5,000 kc. (dependent upon the critical frequen-
importance in long-distance
cy of the ionosphere at the moment), it is
communication since this frequency is the high-
found that waves transmitted at angles higher
est that can be used for communication be-
than a certain critical angle never return to
tween any two specified areas. The m.u.f. is
earth. Thus, on the higher frequencies, it is
the highest frequency at which a wave pro-
necessary to confine radiation to low angles,
jected into space in a certain direction will
since the high angle waves simply penetrate
be returned to earth in a specified region by
the ionosphere and are lost.
ionospheric reflection. The m.u.f. is highest
at noon or in the early afternoon and is high-
The F2 Layer The higher of the two major est in periods of greatest sunspot activity,
reflection regions of the iono- often going to frequencies higher than 50 Mc.
sphere is called the F, layer. This layer has (figure 17).
most highly ionized layer of the ionosphere

34
at the time of transmission. However, the skip
32
30
distance is always present on the 14 -Mc. band
26 WINTER and is almost always present on the 3.5-Mc.
SUNSPOT
26 MAXIMUM and 7 -Mc. bands at night. The actual measure
24 of the skip distance is the distance between
22 the point where the ground wave falls to zero
20 and the point where the sky wave begins to
la return to earth. This distance may vary from
i
SUMMER
SUNSPOT-
MINIMUM 40 to 50 miles on the 3.5 -Mc. band to thou-
14
sands of miles on the 28 -Mc. band.
12
0 -.N.
11
The Sporadic -E Occasional patches of ex-
liki_a
Layer tremely high ionization den-
sity appear at intervals
..2 throughout the year at a height approximately
0 2 4 6 s
equal to that of the E layer. These patches,
10 12 14 16 16 20 22 24
LOCAL TIME called the sporadic -E layer may be very small
or may be up to several hundred miles in ex-
tent. The critical frequency of the sporadic -E
Figure 17
layer may be greater than twice that of the
TYPICAL CURVES SHOWING CHANGE IN normal ionosphere layers which exist at the
M.U.F. AT MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM same time.
POINTS IN SUNSPOT CYCLE It is this sporadic -E condition which pro-
vides "short- skip" contacts from 400 to per-
haps 1200 miles on the 28 -Mc. band in the
evening. It is also the sporadic -E condition
which provides the more common type of "band
The m.u.f. often drops to frequencies below
opening" experienced on the 50 -Mc. band when
10 Mc. in the early morning hours. The high very loud signals are received from stations
m.u.f. in the middle of the day is brought about
from 400 to 1200 miles distant.
by reflection from the F2 layer. M.u.f. data is
published periodically in the magazines de- Cycles in The ionization density of
voted to amateur work, and the m.u.f. can be Ionosphere Activity the ionosphere is deter-
calculated with the aid of Basic Radio Propa- mined by the amount of
gation Predictions, CRPL -D, published month- radiation (probably ultra violet) which is be-
ly by the Government Printing Office, Wash- ing received from the sun. Consequently, iono-
ington, D.C. sphere activity is a function of the amount of
radiation of the proper character being emitted
Absorption and The optimum working fre- by the sun and is also a function of the rela-
Optimum Working quency for any particular tive aspect of the regions in the vicinity of
Frequency direction and distance is the location under discussion to the sun. There
usually about 15 per cent are four main cycles in ionosphere activity.
less than the m.u.f. for contact with that par- These cycles are: the daily cycle which is
ticular location. The absorption by the iono- brought about by the rotation of the earth, the
sphere becomes greater and greater as the 27 -day cycle which is caused by the rotation
operating frequency is progressively lowered of the sun, the seasonal cycle which is caused
below the m.u.f. It is this condition which by the movement of the earth in its orbit, and
causes signals to increase tremendously in the 11 -year cycle which is a cycle in sunspot
strength on the 14 -Mc. and 28 -Mc. bands just activity. The effects of these cycles are super-
before the signals drop completely out. At the imposed insofar as ionosphere activity is con-
time when the signals are greatest in ampli- cerned. Also, the cycles are subject to short
tude the operating frequency is equal to the term variations as a result of magnetic storms
m.u.f. Then as the signals drop out the m.u.f. and similar terrestrial disturbances.
has become lower than the operating frequency. The most recent minimum of the 11 -year
sunspot cycle occured during the winter of
Skip Distance The shortest distance from a 1954-1955, and we are currently moving up
transmitting location at which the slope of a new cycle, the maximum of
signals reflected from the ionosphere can be which will probably occur during the year
returned to the earth is called the skip dis- 1958. The current cycle is pictured in figure 18.
tance. As was mentioned above under Critical
Frequency there is no skip distance for a fre- Fading The lower the angle of radiation of
quency below the critical frequency of the the wave, with respect to the hori-
HANDBOOK
m 140
I-
á
D 10
11)
o
110
160
'Sc
'1,1130
î1
-
o
100
90
eo
90
30
IIEM
M.IIIII,
IMAnMMMIMMI
IMEMMiIMMI
lMMMMMI
MMMIEOMMi
IMUMMIMM
MIUMMIDIMMIIMIMM
MMIMI MMMIIMMMMMIIM
MIN
1M
MEMMLIMIEMMEMI
MMMMMMMIIIMMIEMMI/M
M
MMI\
" Y
A
11 -Year Sunspot Cycle
TRANSMITTER
419
yj 20
40
O 30 III
~O
'IMIEI\
II
Mi /MEMM MMMO
MM
MM
Figure 19
IONOSPHERE- REFLECTION WAVE PATHS
INIMMIMMMINI MINIM`MMIM Showing typical Ionosphere -reflection wave
42 50 52 4 paths during daylight hours when ionization
YEAR density is such that frequencies as high as
28 Mc. will be returned to earth. The dis-
tance between ground-wave range and that
Figure 18 range where the Ionosphere- reflected wave of
THE YEARLY TREND OF THE 11 -YEAR a specific frequency first will be returned to
earth is called the skip distance.
SUNSPOT CYCLE. RADIO CONDITIONS IN
GENERAL WILL IMPROVE DURING 1955-
1958 AS THE CYCLE ADVANCES
sponsible for reception within the skip zone,

and for reception of signals from directions
zon, the farther away will the wave return to off the great circle path.
earth, and the greater the skip distance. The In a heavy fog or mist, it is difficult to see
wave can be reflected back up into the iono- the road at night because of the_bright glare
sphere by the earth, and then be reflected back caused by scattered reflection of the head-
down again, causing a second skip distance light beam by the minute droplets. In fact, the
area. The drawing of figure 19 shows the mul- road directly to the side of the car will be
tiple reflections possible. When the receiver weakly illuminated under these conditions,
receives signals which have traveled over whereas it would not on a clear night (assum-
more than one path between transmitter and ing flat, open country). This is a good example
receiver, the signal impulses will not all arrive of propagation of waves by scattered reflec-
at the same instant, as they do not all travel tions into a zone which otherwise would not
the same distance. When two or more signals be illuminated.
arrive in the same phase at the receiving an- Scattering occurs in the ionosphere at all
tenna, the resulting signal in the receiver will times, because of irregularities in the medi-
be quite strong. On the other hand, if the sig- um (which result in "patches" corresponding
nals arrive 180° out of phase, so they tend to to the water droplets) and because of random -
cancel each other, the received signal will phase radiation due to the collision or recom-
drop-perhaps to zero if perfect cancellation bination of free electrons. However, the nature
occurs. This explains why high- frequency of the scattering varies widely with time, in
signals are subject to fading. a random fashion. Scattering is particularly
Fading can be greatly reduced on the high prevalent in the E region, but scattered re-
frequencies by using a transmitting antenna flections may occur at any height, even well
with sharp vertical directivity, thus cutting out beyond the virtual height of the F2 layer.
down the number of possible paths of signal There is no "critical frequency" or "low-
arrival. A receiving antenna with similar char- est perforating frequency" involved in the
acteristics (sharp vertical directivity) will scattering mechanism, though the intensity
further reduce fading. It is desirable, when of the scattered reflections due to typical
using antennas with sharp vertical directivity, scattering in the F. region of the ionosphere
to use the lowest vertical angle consistent decreases with frequency.
with good signal strength for the frequency When the received signal is due primarily
used. to scattered reflections, as is the case in the
skip zone or where the great circle path does
Scattered Scattered reflections are random, not provide a direct sky wave (due to low crit-
Reflections diffused, substantially isotropic ical or perforation frequency, or to an iono-
reflections which are partly re- sphere storm) very bad distortion will be evi-
dent, particularly a "flutter fade" and a char- considered specular or mirror reflection. But
acteristic "hollow" or echo effect. upon striking a mountain range, for instance,
Deviations from a great circle path are es- the reradiation or reflected energy is scattered,
pecially noticeable in the case of great circle some of it being directed back towards the
paths which cross or pass near the auroral transmitter, thus providing another mechanism
zones, because in such cases there often is for producing a signal within the skip zone.
complete or nearly complete absorption of the
direct sky wave, leaving off-path scattered Metbors and When a meteor strikes the earth's
reflections the only mechanism of propagation. "Bursts" atmosphere, a cylindrical region
Under such conditions the predominant wave of free electrons is formed at
will appear to arrive from a direction closer approximately the height of the E layer. This
to the equator, and the signal will be notice- slender ionized column is quite long, and when
ably if not considerably weaker than a direct first formed is sufficiently dense to reflect
sky wave which is received under favorable radio waves back to earth most readily, in-
conditions. cluding v -h-f waves which are not ordinarily
Irregular reflection of radio waves from returned by the F2 layer.
"scattering patches" is divided into two cate- The effect of a single meteor, of normal size,
gories: "short scatter" and "long scatter ". shows up as a sudden "burst" of signal of
Short scatter is the scattering that occurs short duration at points not ordinarily reached
when a radio wave first reaches the scattering by the transmitter. After a period of from 10
patches or media. Ordinarily it is of no parti- to 40 seconds, recombination and diffusion
cular benefit, as in most cases it only serves have progressed to the point where the effect
to fill in the inner portion of the skip zone of a single fairly large meteor is not percep-
with a weak, distorted signal. tible. However, there are many small meteors
Long scatter occurs when a wave has been impinging upon earth's atmosphere every min-
refracted from the F2 layer and strikes scatter- ute, and the aggregate effect of their transient
ing patches or media on the way down. When ionized trails, including the small amount of
the skip distance exceeds several hundred residual ionization that exists for several
miles, long scatter is primarily responsible minutes after the original flash but is too weak
for reception within the skip zone, particu- and dispersed to prolong a "burst ", is be-
larly the outer portion of the skip zone. Dis- lieved to contribute to the existence of the
tortion is much less severe than in the case "nighttime E" layer, and perhaps also to
of short scatter, and while the signal is like- sporadic E patches.
wise weak, i t sometimes can be utilized for While there are many of these very small
satisfactory communication. meteors striking the earth's atmosphere every
During a severe ionosphere disturbance in minute, meteors of normal size (sufficiently
the north auroral zone, it sometimes is possible large to produce individual "bursts ") do not
to maintain communication between the Eastern strike nearly so frequently except during some
United States and Northern Europe by the fol- of the comparatively rare meteor "showers ".
lowing mechanism: That portion of the energy During one of these displays a "quivering"
which is radiated in the direction of the great ionized layer is produced which is intense
circle path is completely absorbed upon reach- enough to return signals in the lower v -h -f
ing the auroral zone. However, the portion of range with good strength, but with a type of
the wave leaving the United States in a south- "flutter" distortion which is characteristic
easterly direction is refracted downward from of this type of propagation.
the Fl layer and encounters scattering patches
or media on its downward trip at a distance
of approximately 2000 miles from the trans-
mitter. There it is reflected by "long scatter" 21 -9 Transmission Lines
in all directions, this scattering region acting
like an isotropic radiator fed with a very small
fraction of the original transmitter power. The For many reasons it is desirable to place
great circle path from this southerly point to an antenna or radiating system as high and in
northern Europe does not encounter unfavor- the clear as is physically possible, utilizing
able ionosphere conditions, and the wave is some form of nonradiating transmission line
propagated the rest of the trip as though it had to carry energy with as little loss as possible
from the transmitter to the radiating antenna,
been radiated from the scattering region.
and conversely from the antenna to the re-
Another type of scatter is produced when ceiver.
a sky wave strikes certain areas of the earth. There are many different types of transmis-
Upon striking a comparatively smooth surface sion lines and, generally speaking, practically
such as the sea, there is little scattering, the any type of transmission line or feeder system
wave being shot up again by what could be may be used with any type of antenna. How-
HANDBOOK Transmission Lines 421
;i
ever, mechanical or electrical considerations
often make one type of transmission line better
adapted for use to feed a particular type of
700
'nrií;S
.
%11
antenna than any other type. 1100
Transmission lines for carrying r -f energy

are of two general types: non -resonant and
resonant. A non -resonant transmission line
is one on which a successful effort has been
/./..5dI
made to eliminate reflections from the termi-
N/iii_M%r1111111II1
nation (the antenna in the transmitting case
and the receiver for a receiving antenna) and
hence one on which standing waves do not
exist or are relatively small in magnitude. A
I/''M,. i ii IN°ROICwRr
111111111
s .1 ..I.0 . 10 li
resonant line, on the other hand, is a trans- INCHES. CENTER TO CENTER
mission line on which standing waves of ap-
preciable magnitude do appear, either through Figure 20
inability to match the characteristic impedance
of the line to the termination or through in- CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF TYPI-
tentional design. CAL TWO -WIRE OPEN LINES
The principal types of transmission line in
use or available at this time include the open -
wire line (two -wire and four-wire types), two -
wire solid -dielectric line ( "Twin- Lead" and that the inductance and capacitance per unit
similar ribbon or tubular types), two -wire poly- length determine the characteristic or surge
ethylene- filled shielded line, coaxial line of impedance of the line. Thus, the surge im-
the solid -dielectric, beaded, stub - supported, pedance depends upon the nature and spacing
or pressurized type, rectangular and cylindrical of the conductors, and the dielectric sepa-
wave guide, and the single -wire feeder oper- rating them.
ated against ground. The significant charac- Speaking in electrical terms, the charac-
teristics of the more popular types of trans- teristic impedance of a transmission line is
mission line available at this time are given simply the ratio of the voltage across the line
in the chart of figure 21. to the current which is flowing, the same as
is the case with a simple resistor: Z. = E /I.
Also, in a substantially loss -less line (one
whose attenuation per wavelength is small)
21 -10 Non -Resonant
the energy stored in the line will be equally
Transmission Lines divided between the capacitive field and the
inductive field which serve to propagate the
A non -resonant or untuned transmission line energy along the line. Hence the character-
is a line with negligible standing waves. istic impedance of a line may be expressed as:
Hence, a non -resonant line is a line carrying
r -f power only in one direction -from the source Z. = N/ L/C.
of energy to the load.
Physically, the line itself should be iden-
tical throughout its length. There will be a Two -Wire two -wire transmission system
A
smooth distribution of voltage and current Open Line is easy to construct. Its surge im-
throughout its length, both tapering off very pedance can be calculated quite
slightly towards the load end of the line as a easily, and when properly adjusted and bal-
result of line losses. The attenuation (loss) anced to ground, with a conductor spacing
in certain types of untuned lines can be kept which is negligible in terms of the wave-
very low for line lengths up to several thou- length of the signal carried, undesirable feeder
sand feet. In other types, particularly where radiation is minimized; the current flow in
the dielectric is not air (such as in the twisted - the adjacent wires is in opposite directions,
pair line), the losses may become excessive and the magnetic fields of the two wires are
at the higher frequencies, unless the line is in opposition to each other. When a two -wire
relatively short. line is terminated with the equivalent of a
pure resistance equal to the characteristic
Transmission -Line All transmission lines have impedance of the line, the line becomes a non -
Impedance distributed inductance, resonant line.
capacitance and resist - Expressed in physical terms, the character-
ance. Neglecting the resistance, as it is of istic impedance of a two -wire open line is
minor importance in short lines, it is found equal to:
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON TRANSMISSION LINES
ATTENUATION
db /00 FEET VELO-
VSWR=I.O CITYLUFD
`FACTOR PER REMARKS
30 MC 100 MC 300 MC V FT
OPEN WIPE
COPPER
L. N. 12
015 0 0.6 096-099 _ BASED UPON 4
SPACING BELOW 50 MC., 20 SPACING ABOVE 50 MC RADIATION
LOSSES INCLUDED. CLEAN. LOW LOSS CERAMIC INSULATION ASSUMED RADIATION
HIGH ABOVE 150 MC
RIBBON LINE. REC TYPE-
300 OHMS. 066 2 2 5 3 0.82 ,, 6
, FOR CLEAN, DRY LINE. WET WEATHER PERFORMANCE RATHER POOR BEST LINE IS
SLIGHTLY CONVEX. AVOID LINE THAT HAS CONCAVE DIELECTRIC SUITABLE FOR
(7/26 CONDUCTORS) LOW POWER TRANSMITTING APPLICATIONS. LOSSES INCREASE AS LINE WEATHERS.
HANDLES 400 WATTS AT 30 MC IF VSWR IS LOW.
TUBULAR "TWIN -LEAD-
REC. TYPE. 300 OHMS.
5/16.O.0, (AMPHENOL
- - - - - CHARACTERISTICS SIMILAR TO RECEIVING TYPE RIBBON LINE EXCEPT FOR MUCH
BETTER WET WEATHER PERFORMANCE.
TYPE 14-271)
RIBBON LINE, TRANS.
TYPE, 300 OHMS - - - - - CHARACTERISTICS VARY SOMEWHAT WITH MANUFACTURER, BUT APPROXIMATE
THOSE OF RECEIVING TYPE RIBBON EXCEPT FOR GREATER POWER HANDLING
CAPABILITY AND SLIGHTLY BETTER WET WEATHER PERFORMANCE.
TUBULAR .TWIN-LEAD. FOR USE WHERE RECEIVING TYPE TUBULAR -TWIN-LEAD. DOES NOT HAVE SUFFI-
TRANS. TYPE, 7/160.0. 0.65 2 3 5.4 0 79 6.1 CIENT POWER HANDLING CAPABILITY. WILL HANDLE KW AT 30 MC IF VSWR
(AMPHENOL 14 -076) IS LOW.
1
RIBBON LINE, RECEIVE

TYPE, 150 OHMS. 1 1 2 7 60 . 0.77 5 10NY
USEFUL FOR QUARTER WAVE MATCHING SECTIONS. NO LONGER WIDELY USED
AS A LINE.
RIBBON LINE, RECEIVE.
TYPE, 75 OHMS. 2.0 5.0 11.0 0.661 19 USEFUL MAINLY IN THE H -F RANGE BECAUSE OF EXCESSIVE LOSSES AT V -H -F
AND U-H-F. LESS AFFECTED BY WEATHER THAN 300 OHM - RIBBON.
RIBBON LINE, TRANS.
TYRE, 75 OHMS. 1 5 3.9 6.0 0.71 16 VERY SATISFACTORY FOR TRANSMITTING APPLICATIONS BELOW 30 MC. AT
POWERS UP TO KW. NOT SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECTED BY WET WEATHER
1
RG -6/1./ COAX (52011MS) 1.0 4.2

2.1 0.66 29.5 WILL HANDLE 2 KW AT 40 MC IF VSWR IS LOW. 0.4.0D. 7/21 CONDUCTOR.
RG- 11 /UCOAX(75 OHMS) 0.94 1 9 3 6 0 66 20 5 WILL HANDLE 1.4 KW AT 30 MC IF VSWR IS LOW. 0."O.D 7/26 CONDUCTOR
RG -17/U COAX (520HM5) 0.36 0.65 1.6 0.66 29.5 WILL HANDLE 76 KW AT 30 MC. IF VSWR IS LOW. 0.67" OD 019' DIA CONDUCTOR
RG -58/U COAX (53 OHMS) 1.95 4.1 6.0 0.66 26.5 WILL HANDLE 430 WATTS AT 30 MC IF VSWR IS LOW 0.2.0.D. N 20 CONDUCTOR.
RG -59 /U COAX (73 OHMS) 1.9 3.B 7.0 0.66 21 WILL HANDLE 660 WATTS AT 30 MC IF VSWR IS LOW. 0.24 "O.D. N22 CONDUCTOR.
TV -59 COAX (720HM5) 2.0 4.0 7 0 0.66 22 'COMMERCIAL. VERSION OF RG -59 /U FOR LESS EXACTING APPLICATIONS. LESS
EXPENSIVE.
RG22 /U SHIELDED 17
PAIR (95 OHMS) 3 0 5.5 0.66 16 -FOR SHIELDED, BALANCED-TO- GROUND APPLICATIONS. VERY LOW NOISE
PICK UP. 0.4" 0.D.
K -111 SHIELDED PAIR
(300 OHMS) 2.0 3.5 6.1 - 4
DESIGNED FOR TV LEAD -IN IN NOISY LOCATIONS. LOSSES HIGHER THAN
REGULAR 300 OHM RIBBON, BUT DO NOT INCREASE AS MUCH FROM WEATHERING
APPROXIMATE. EXACT FIGURE VARIES SLIGHTLY WITH MANUFACTURER
FIGURE 21
2S Surge impedance values of less than 200

Z. = 276 loglp- ohms are seldom used in the open -type two -
d wire line, and, even at this rather high value
of Z. the wire spacing S is uncomfortably
Where: close, being only 5.3 times the wire diameter d.
S is the exact distance between wire centers Figure 20 gives in graphical form the surge
in some convenient unit of measurement, and impedance of practicable two -wire lines. The
d is the diameter of the wire measured in the chart is self-explanatory, and is sufficiently
same units as the wire spacing, S. accurate for practical purposes.
Since -
2S
d
expresses a ratio only, the units
Ribbon and
Tubular Trans-
mission Line
Instead of using spacer in-
sulators placed periodically
along the transmission line
of measurement may be centimeters, milli- it is possible to mold the
meters, or inches. This makes no difference line conductors into a ribbon or tube of flex-
in the answer, so long as the substituted ible low -loss dielectric material. Such line,
values for S and d are in the same units. with polyethylene dielectric, is used in enor-
The equation is accurate so long as the mous quantities as the lead -in transmission
wire spacing is relatively large as compared line for FM and TV receivers. The line is
to the wire diameter. available from several manufacturers in the
THE RADIO Transmission Lines 423
ribbon and tubular configuration, with char-

acteristic impedance values from 75 to 300 204
1111 ZO no
1111
M=MIIIIIMMINF
ohms. Receiving types, and transmitting types L.06p
for power levels up to one kilowatt in the h -f 170 Mi11INEPr D
range, are listed with their pertinent char-

acteristics, in the table of figure 21. us 1111I
1111i1111I
iiiiH;
COAXIAL OR
CONCENTRIC LINO
Coaxial Line Several types of coaxial cable

have come into wide use for loo
feeding power to an antenna system. A cross - 11111110 DI INSIDE DIAMETER Or
sectional view of a coaxial cable (sometimes 70 OUTER CONDUCTOR
called concentric cable or line) is shown in e2
DOUTSIDE DIAMETER OF
figure 22. INNER CONDUCTOR
As in the parallel -wire line, the power lost 30
in a properly terminated coaxial line is the

sum of the effective resistance losses along o
2.311 7 10 IS 30
3.21
the length of the cable and the dielectric RATIO OF DIAMETERS kit
losses between the two conductors.
Of the two losses, the effective resistance
loss is the greater; since it is largely due to Figure 22
the skin effect, the line loss (all other condi-
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF AIR -
tions the same) will increase directly as the
square root of the frequency. FILLED COAXIAL LINES
Figure 22 shows that, instead of having two If the filling of the line is o dielectric ma-
conductors running side by side, one of the terial other than air, the characteristic im-
pedance of the line will be reduced by a
conductors is placed inside of the other. Since factor proportional to the square-root of the
the outside conductor completely shields the dielectric constant of the material used as a
inner one, no radiation takes place. The con- dielectric within the line.
ductors may both be tubes, one within the
other; the line may consist of a solid wire
within a tube, or it may consist of a stranded
or solid inner conductor with the outer con- vator shafts, inside walls, or through metal
ductor made up of one or two wraps of copper conduit. Insulation troubles can be forgotten.
shielding braid. The coaxial cable may be buried in the ground
In the type of cable most popular for mili- or suspended above ground.
tary and non -commercial use the inner con-
ductor consists of a heavy stranded wire, the Standing Waves Standing waves on a trans-
outer conductor consists of a braid of copper mission line always are the
wire, and the inner conductor is supported result of the reflection of energy. The only
within the outer by means of a semi -solid significant reflection which takes place in a
dielectric of exceedingly low loss character- normal installation is that at the load end of
istics called polyethylene. The Army -Navy the line. But reflection can take place from
designation on one size of this cable suitable discontinuities in the line, such as caused by
for power levels up to one kilowatt at fre- insulators, bends, or metallic objects adjacent
quencies as high as 30 Mc. is AN /RG -8 /U. to an unshielded line.
The outside diameter of this type of cable is When a uniform transmission line is termi-
approximately one -half inch. The character- nated in an impedance equal to its surge im-
istic impedance of this cable type is 52 ohms, pedance, reflection of energy does not occur,
but other similar types of greater and smaller and no standing waves are present. When the
power -handling capacity are available in im- load termination is exactly the same as the
pedances of 52, 75, and 95 ohms. line impedance, it simply means that the load
When using solid dielectric coaxial cable takes energy from the line just as fast as the
it is necessary that precautions be taken to line delivers it, no slower and no faster.
insure that moisture cannot enter the line. If Thus, for proper operation of an untuned
the better grade of connectors manufactured line (with standing waves eliminated), some
for the line are employed as terminations, this form of impedance- matching arrangement must
condition is automatically satisfied. If con- be used between the transmission line and
nectors are not used, it is necessary that the antenna, so that the radiation resistance
some type of moisture -proof sealing compound of the antenna is reflected back into the line
be applied to the end of the cable where it as a nonreactive impedance equal to the line
will be exposed to the weather. impedance.
Nearby metallic objects cause no loss, and The termination at the antenna end is the
coaxial cable may be run up air ducts or ele- only critical characteristic about the untuned
424 Radiation, Propagation and Lines T H E R A D I O
line fed by a transmitter. It is the reflection

from the antenna end which starts waves mov- Zo ZL
ing back toward the transmitter end. When
waves moving in both directions along a con- 1.0
ductor meet, standing waves are set up.
o
Semi- Resonant Awell- constructed open - SWR1.o ZLZo
Parallel -Wire Lines wire line has acceptably
low losses when its length
is less than about two wavelengths even when
the voltage standing -wave ratio is as high as
10 to 1. A transmission line constructed of
SWR ..s Z1.0 1.3 OR o.7
ribbon or tubular line, however, should have ZO
the standing -wave ratio kept down to not more

than about 3 to 1 both to reduce power loss
and because the energy dissipation on the line
will be localized, causing overheating of the
line at the points of maximum current.
Because moderate standing waves can be SWR3.o ZL 3.0 OR 0.33 ZO
tolerated on open -wire lines without much loss,
a standing-wave ratio of 2/1 or 3/1 is con-
sidered acceptable with this type of line, even
when used in an untuned system. Strictly
speaking, a line is untuned, or non -resonant,
only when it is perfectly flat, with a standing -
wave ratio of 1 (no standing waves). However, SWRo ZLo oft m
some mismatch can be tolerated with open-wire
untuned lines, so long as the reactance is not Figure 23
objectionable, or is eliminated by cutting the STANDING WAVES ON A TRANS-
line to approximately resonant length.
MISSION LINE
As shown at (A), the voltage and current are
constant on a transmission line which is
terminated in its characteristic impedance,
21 -11 Tuned or assuming that losses are small enough so
Resonant Lines that they may be neglected. (8) shows the
variation in current or in voltage on a line
terminated in a load with a reflection co-
If a transmission line is terminated in its efficient of 0.2 so that a standing wave ratio
characteristic surge impedance, there will be of 1.5 to 1 is set up. At (C) the reflection
no reflection at the end of the line, and the coefficient hos been increased to 0.5, with
the formation of a 3 to 1 standing -wave ratio
current and voltage distribution will be union the line. At (D) the line has been termi-
form along the line. If the end of the line is nated in a load which has a reflection co-
either open- circuited or short-circuited, the efficient of 1.0 (short, open circuit, or a pure
reflection at the end of the line will be 100 reactance) so that all the energy is reflected
per cent, and standing waves of very great am- with the formation of an infinite standing.
wave ratio.
plitude will appear on the line. There will still
be practically no radiation from the line if it is
closely spaced, but voltage nodes will be
found every half wavelength, the voltage loops
corresponding to current nodes (figure 23). rent and voltage along the line will become
If the line is terminated in some value of more uniform. The foregoing assumes, of
resistance other than the characteristic surge course, a purely resistive (nonreactive) load.
impedance, there will be some reflection, the If the load is reactive, standing waves also
amount being determined by the amount of mis- will be formed. But with a reactive load the
match. With reflection, there will be standing nodes will occur at different locations from
waves (excursions of current and voltage) the node locations encountered with wrong -
along the line, though not to the same extent value resistive termination.
as with an open- circuited or short-circuited A well built 500- to 600 -ohm transmission
line. The current and voltage loops will occur line may be used as a resonant feeder for
at the same points along the line as with the lengths up to several hundred feet with very
open or short-circuited line, and as the ter- low loss, so long as the amplitude of the
minating impedance is made to approach the standing waves (ratio of maximum to minimum
characteristic impedance of the line, the cur- voltage along the line) is not too great. The
HANDBOOK Tuned Lines 425
amplitude, in turn, depends upon the mismatch presence of the resonant tank circuit formed
at the line termination. A line of no. 12 wire, by parallel tuning of the antenna' coil.
spaced 6 inches with good ceramic or plastic
spreaders, has a surge impedance of approx-
imately 600 ohms, and makes an excellent
tuned feeder for feeding anything between 60 21 -12 Line Discontinuities
and 6000 ohms (at frequencies below 30 Mc.).
If used to feed a load of higher or lower imped- In the previous discussion we have assumed
ance than this, the standing waves become a transmission line which was uniform through-
great enough in amplitude that some loss will out its length. In actual practice, this is
occur unless the feeder is kept short. At fre- usually not the case.
quencies above 30 Mc., the spacing becomes Whenever there is any sudden change in the
an appreciable fraction of a wavelength, and characteristic impedance of the line, partial
radiation from the line no longer is negligible. reflection will occur at the point of discon-
Hence, coaxial line or close- spaced parallel - tinuity. Some of the energy will be transmitted
wire line is recommended for v -h -f work. and some reflected, which is essentially the
If a transmission line is not perfectly match- same as having some of the energy absorbed
ed, it should be made resonant, even though and some reflected in so far as the effect upon
the amplitude of the standing waves (voltage the line from the generator to that point is
variation) is not particularly great. This pre- concerned. The discontinuity can by ascribed
vents reactance from being coupled into the a reflection coefficient just as in the case of
final amplifier. A feed system having moderate an unmatched load.
standing waves may be made to present a non - In a simple case, such as a finite length of
reactive load to the amplifier either by tuning
uniform line having a characteristic impedance
or by pruning the feeders to approximate reso-
of 500 ohms feeding into an infinite length of
nance.
uniform line having a characteristic impedance
Usually it is preferable with tuned feeders
to have a current loop (voltage minimum) at the of 100 ohms, the behavior is easily predicted.
transmitter end of the line. This means that The infinite 100 ohm liné will have no standing
when voltage- feeding an antenna, the tuned waves and will accept the same power from the
feeders should be made an odd number of quar- 500 ohm line as would a 100 ohm resistor,
ter wavelengths long, and when current -feeding and the rest of the energy will be reflected at
an antenna, the feeders should be made an the discontinuity to produce standing waves
even number of quarter wavelengths long. Actu- from there back to the generator. However, in
ally, the feeders are made about 10 per cent of the case of a complex discontinuity placed at
a quarter wave longer than the calculated an odd distance down a line terminated in a
value (the value given in the tables) when complex impedance, the picture becomes com-
they are to be series tuned to resonance by plicated, especially when the discontinuity is
means of a capacitor, instead of being trimmed neither sudden nor gradual, but intermediate
and pruned to resonance. between the two. This is the usual case with
When tuned feeders are used to feed an an- amateur lines that must be erected around
tenna on more than one band, it is necessary buildings and trees.
to compromise and make provision for both In any case, when a discontinuity exists
series and parallel tuning, inasmuch as it is somewhere on a line and is not a smooth,
impossible to cut a feeder to a length that gradual change embracing several wavelengths,
will be optimum for several bands. If a voltage
loop appears at the transmitter end of the line it is not possible to avoid standing waves
on certain bands, parallel tuning of the feed- throughout the entire length of the line. If the
ers will be required in order to get a transfer discontinuity is sharp enough and is great
of energy. It is impossible to transfer energy enough to be significant, standing waves must
by inductive coupling unless current is flow- exist on one side of the discontinuity, and
ing. This is effected at a voltage loop by the may exist on both sides in many cases.
CHAPTER TWENTY -TWO
Antennas and Antenna Matching
Antennas for the lower frequency portion of Usually a high- frequency doublet is mounted
the h -f spectrum (perhaps from 1.8 to 7.0 Mc.), as high and as much in the clear as possible,
and temporary or limited use antennas for the for obvious reasons. However, it is sometimes
upper portion of the h -f range, usually are of justifiable to bring part of the radiating sys-
a relatively simple type in which directivity tem directly to the transmitter, feeding the an-
is not a prime consideration. Also, it often is tenna without benefit of a transmission line.
desirable, in amateur work, that a single an- This is permissible when (1) there is insuffi-
tenna system be capable of operation at least cient room to erect a 75- or 80 -meter horizon-
on the 3.5-Mc. and 7.0 -Mc. range, and prefer- tal dipole and feed line, (2) when a long wire
ably on other frequency ranges. Consequently, is also to be operated on one of the higher
the first portion of this chapter will be de- frequency bands on a harmonic. In either case,
voted to a discussion of such antenna sys- it is usually possible to get the main portion
tems. The latter portion of the chapter is de- of the antenna in the clear because of its
voted to the general problem of matching the length. This means that the power lost by
antenna transmission line to antenna systems bringing the antenna directly to the transmitter
of the fixed type. Matching the antenna transis relatively small.
mission line to the rotatable directive array Even so, it is not best practice to bring the
is discussed in Chapter Twenty -five. high -voltage end of an antenna into the oper-
ating room because of the increased difficulty
in eliminating BCI and TVI. For this reason
one should dispense with a feed line in con-
22 -1 End -Fed Half -Wave junction with a Hertz antenna only as a last
resort.
Horizontal Antennas
End -Fed The end -fed antenna has no form
The half -wave horizontal dipole is the most Antennas of transmission line to couple it
common and the most practical antenna for the to the transmitter, but brings the
3.5 -Mc. and 7 -Mc. amateur bands. The form of radiating portion of the antenna right down to
the dipole, and the manner in which it is fed the transmitter, where some form of coupling
are capable of a large number of variations. system is used to transfer energy to the an-
Figure 2 shows a number of practicable forms tenna.
of the simple dipole antenna along with meth- Figure 1 shows two common methods of
ods of feed. feeding the Fuchs antenna or end-fed Hertz.
426
Center -Fed Antennas 427
retuning the feeders. The overall efficiency of

NUMBER OF HALF -WAVES-+
the zepp antenna system is not quite as high
for long feeder lengths as for some of the an-
tenna systems which employ non -resonant
transmission lines, but where space is limited
0 and where operation on more than one band
is desired, the zepp has some decided ad-
vantages.
FROM TRANSMITTER
As the radiating portion of the zepp antenna
system must always be some multiple of a
half wave long, there is always high voltage
RSV EVEN NUMBER OF QUARTER -WAVES
present at the point where the live zepp feed-
TVI
FILTER
\ er attaches to the end of the radiating portion
of the antenna. Thus, this type of zepp an-
HIGH -E-
CAPACITANCE /I
LOW
ICAPACITANCE tenna system is voltage fed.
I
Stub -Fed Zepp- Figure 2C shows a modifica-

Type Radiator tion of the zepp -type antenna
Figure 1
system to allow the use of
THE END -FED HERTZ ANTENNA a non -resonant transmission line between the
Showing the manner in which an end -fed Hertz radiating portion of the antenna and the trans-
antenna may be fed through a low- impedance mitter. The zepp portion of the antenna is
line and low-pass filter by using a resonant resonated as a quarter-wave stub and the non -
tank circuit as at (A), or through the use of
a reverse -connected pi network as at (B).
resonant feeders are connected to the stub at
a point where standing waves on the feeder
are minimized. The procedure for making these
adjustments is described in detail in Section
22 -8 This type of antenna system is quite
Some harmonic -attenuating provision (in addi- satisfactory when it is necessary physically
tion to the usual low -pass TVI filter) must be to end feed the antenna, but where it is neces-
included in the coupling system, as an end - sary also to use non -resonant feeder between
fed antenna itself offers no discrimination the transmitter and the radiating system.
against harmonics, either odd or even.
The end -fed Hertz antenna has rather high
losses unless at least three -quarters of the
radiator can be placed outside the operating Center -Fed Half -
room and in the clear. As there is r -f voltage 22 -2
at the point where the antenna enters the Wave Horizontal Antennas
operating room, the insulation at that point
should be several times as effective as the The center feeding of a half -wave antenna
insulation commonly used with low- voltage system is usually to be desired over an end -
feeder systems. This antenna can be operated fed system since the center -fed system is in-
on all of its higher harmonics with good effi- herently balanced to ground and is therefore
ciency, and can be operated at half frequency less likely to be troubled by feeder radiation.
against ground as a quarter -wave Marconi. A number of center -fed systems are illustrated
As the frequency of an antenna is raised in figure 2.
slightly when it is bent anywhere except at a
voltage or current loop, an end -fed Hertz an- The Tuned The current -fed doublet with
tenna usually is a few per cent longer than a Doublet spaced feeders, sometimes
straight half -wave doublet for the same fre- called a center-fed zepp, is an
quency, because, ordinarily, it is impractical inherently balanced system if the two legs of
to bring a wire in to the transmitter without the radiator are electrically equal. This fact
making several bends. holds true regardless of the frequency, or of
the harmonic, on which the system is oper-
The Zepp Antenna The zeppelin or zepp an- ated. The system can successfully be oper-
System terma system, illustrated ated over a wide range of frequencies if the
in figure 2A is very con- system as a whole (both tuned feeders and the
venient when it is desired to operate a single center -fed flat top) can be resonated to the
radiating wire on a number of harmonically re- operating frequency. It is usually possible to
lated frequencies. tune such an antenna system to resonance
The zepp antenna system is easy to tune, with the aid of a tapped coil and a tuning ca-
and can be used on several bands by merely pacitor that can optionally be placed either
428 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO
I-3 ---« -
IEPP END -FED HERTZ STUB -FED
O
I 300-600
IL LINE
END -FED TYPES
r----0.95 A/2 0.95 A/2 - -0.95 A/2--
O TUNED DOUBLET O
HALF -WAVE
STUB- FED
I
300-600 OHM
LINE OPEN
QUARTER -WAVE
1 STUB -FED
SHORTED
300 -6000. LINE
10--0.95A/2-el 0.95A/2-
15011 TWINLEAD
0 -FED
O
FOUR-WIRE
d4 0.193 OF FREE
SPACE WAVE- TWIN LEAD
I LENGTH OR FED
LINE -FED 0.77 OF A/4
Figure 2
ALTERNATIVE
6000. LINE 600 11 LINE 300 A TWINLEAD METHODS OF
ANY LENGTH
FEEDING A
HALF -WAVE DIPOLE
M-0.94 A/2 0.94 A/2 0.95 A/2 - AN
2EOR6'
O 300A TWINLEAD
LOW SIDE OPENED
IN CENTER O FEEDER
SPREADERS © -
FOR DELTA
DIMENSIONS
SEE CHAPn9
TWINLEAD 2 - WIRE DOUBLET DELTA MATCHED
FOLDEDDIPOLE' OR `FOLDED DIPOLE DOUBLET
300 OHM TWINLEAD 300 OHM TWINLEAD 600 OHM LINE

ANY LENGTH ANY LENGTH ANY LENGTH
ho--0.95A/2--j 0.95 A/2 --el r --0.95 A/2---

D.14.16 OF
TOTAL LENGTH
STANDARD CO -A% FED

DOUBLET DOUBLET
75 A TWINLEAD N'14 WIRE

ANY LENGTH
CENTER -FED TYPES
THE RADIO Multi -wire Doublets 429
in series with the antenna coil or in parallel ance transmission line may be used is shown
with it. A series tuning c ap a c i t o r can be in figures 2J and 2K. This system utilizes
placed in series with one feeder leg without more than one wire in parallel for the radiating
unbalancing the system. element, but only one of the wires is broken
The tuned-doublet antenna is shown in fig- for attachment of the feeder. The most com-
ure 2D. The antenna is a current-fed system mon arrangement uses two wires in the flat
when the radiating wire is a half wave long top of the antenna so that an impedance multi-
electrically, or when the system is operated plication of four is obtained.
on its odd harmonics, but becomes a voltage - The antenna shown in figure 2J is the so-
fed radiator when operated on its even har- called Twin-Lead folded dipole which is a
monics. commonly used antenna system on the medium -
The antenna has a different radiation pat- frequency amateur bands. In this arrangement
tern when operated on its harmonics, as would both the antenna and the transmission line to
be expected. The arrangement used on the the transmitter are constructed of 300 -ohm
second harmonic is better known as the Frank- Twin -Lead. The flat top of the antenna is
lin colinear array and is described in Chapter made slightly less than the conventional
Twenty- three. The pattern is similar toa !-wave length (462 /FMC, instead of 468 /FMC, for a
dipole except that it is sharper in the broad- single -wire flat top) and the two ends of the
side direction. On higher harmonics of oper- Twin-Lead are joined together at each end.
The center of one of the conductors of the
ation there will be multiple lobes of radiation Twin -Lead flat top is broken and the two ends
from the system.
of the Twin -Lead feeder are spliced into the
Figures 2E and 2F show alternative arrange- flat top leads. As a protection against mois-
ments for using an untuned transmission line ture pieces of flat polyethylene taken from
between the transmitter and the tuned-doublet another piece of 300 -ohm Twin -Lead may be
radiator. In figure 2E a half -wave shorted line molded over the joint between conductors with
is used to resonate the radiating system, the aid of an electric iron or soldering iron.
while in figure 2F a quarter -wave open line is
Better bandwidth characteristics can be ob-
utilized. The adjustment of quarter-wave and tained with a folded dipole made of ribbon line
half -wave stubs is discussed in Section 19 -8. if the two conductors of the ribbon line are
Doublets with The average value of feed im- shorted a distance of 0.82 (the velocity factor
Quarter -Wave pedance for a center -fed half - of ribbon line) of a free -space quarter wave-
Transformers wave doublet is 75 ohms. The length from the center or feed point. This pro-
actual value varies with height cedure is illustrated in figure 3A. An alter-
and is shown in Chapter Twenty -one. Other native arrangement for a Twin -Lead folded
methods of matching this rather low value of dipole is illustrated in figure 3B. This type of
impedance to a medium -impedance transmis- half -wave antenna system is convenient for
sion line are shown in (G), (H), and (f) of fig- use on the 3.5 -Mc. band when the 116 to 132
ure 2. Each of these three systems uses a foot distance required for a full half-wave is
quarter -wave transformer to accomplish the not quite available in a straight line, since the
impedance transformation. The only difference single -wire end pieces may be bent away or
between the three systems lies in the type of downward from the direction of the main sec-
transmission line used in the quarter-wave tion of the antenna.
transformer. (G) shows the Johnson Q system Figure 2K shows the basic type of 2 -wire
whereby a line made up of % -inch dural tubing doublet or folded dipole wherein the radiating
is used for the low- impedance linear trans- section of the system is made up of standard
former. A line made up in this manner is fre- antenna wire spaced by means of feeder
quently called a set of Q bars. Illustration spreaders. The feeder again is made of 300 -
(H) shows the use of a four -wire line as the ohm Twin -Lead since the feed -point imped-
linear transformer, and (I) shows the use of a ance is approximately 300 ohms, the same as
piece of 150 -ohm Twin -Lead electrically %- that of the Twin -Lead folded dipole.
wave in length as the transformer between the The folded -dipole type of antenna has the
center of the dipole and a piece of 300 -ohm broadest response characteristic (greatest
Twin-Lead. In any case the impedance of the bandwidth) of any of the conventional half-
quarter -wave transformer will be of the order wave antenna systems constructed of small
of 150 to 200 ohms. The use of sections of wires or conductors. Hence such an antenna
transmission line as linear transformers is may be operated over the greatest frequency
discussed in detail in Section 22 -8. range without serious standing waves of any
common half -wave antenna type.
Multi -Wire An alternative method for increas- The increased bandwidth of the multi -wire
Doublets ing the feed -point impedance of a doublet type of radiator, and the fact that the
dipole so that a medium -imped- feed -point resistance is increased several
1
FMC.
T
O 94 Ait 0.94 A,
O
..1. FED STUB-FED L-C FED
300-ONM RIBBON
VERTICAL VERTKAL VERTICAL
4SnOnT
IAINILATOR
300 -400 A LIN(
Figure 4
HALF -WAVE VERTICAL ANTENNA SHOW-
ING ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF FEED
will give a somewhat better impedance match

Figure 3 at normal antenna heights. Due to the asym-
metry of the coaxial feed system difficulty
FOLDED DIPOLE WITH SHORTING
may be encountered with waves traveling on
STRAPS
the outside of the coaxial cable. For this rea-
The impedance match and bandwidth char- son the use of Twin -Lead is normally to be
acteristics ofa folded dipole may be improved
by shorting the two wires of the ribbon a dis- preferred over the use of coaxial c a b l e for
tance out from the center equal to the veloci- feeding the center of a half -wave dipole.
ty factor of the ribbon times the half -length
of the dipole as shown at (A). An alternative Off- Center The system shown in figure
arrangement with bent down ends for space
conservation is illustrated at (8).
Fed Doublet 2(0) is sometimes used to
feed a half-wave dipole, espe-
cially when it is desired to use the same an-
tenna on a number of harmonically-related fre-
quencies. The feeder wire (no. 14 enamelled
times over the radiation resistance of the ele- wire should be used) is tapped a distance of
ment, have both contributed to the frequent 14 per cent of the total length of the antenna
use of the multi -wire radiator as the driven either side of center. The feeder wire, operat-
element in a parasitic antenna array. ing against ground for the return current, has
an impedance of approximately 600 ohms. The
Delta- Matched These two types of radiat- system works well over highly conducting
Doublet and ing elements are shown in ground, but will introduce rather high losses
Standard Doublet figure 2L and figure 2M. The when the antenna is located above rocky or
delta- matched do u h l et is poorly conducting soil. The off-center fed an-
described in detail in Section 22 -8 of this tenna has a further disadvantage that it is
chapter. The standard doublet, shown in fig- highly responsive to harmonics fed to it from
ure 2M, is fed in the center by means of 75- the transmitter.
ohm Twin -Lead, either the transmitting or the The effectiveness of the antenna system in
receiving type, or it may be fed by means of radiating harmonics is of course an advantage
twisted -pair feeder or by means of parallel - when operation of the antenna on a number of
wire lamp -cord. Any of these types of feed frequency bands is desired. But it is neces-
line will give an approximate match to the sary to use a harmonic filter to insure that
center impedance of the dipole, but the 75- only the desired frequency is fed from the
ohm Twin -Lead is far to be preferred over the transmitter to the antenna.
other types of low- impedance feeder due to
the much lower losses of the polyethylene -
dielectric transmission line.
The coaxial- cable -fed doublet shown in fig- 22 -3 The Half -Wave
ure 2N is a variation on the system shown in Vertical Antenna
figure 2M. Either 52 -ohm coaxial cable or 75-
ohm coaxial cable may be used to feed the The half-wave vertical antenna with its bot-
center of the dipole, although the 75 -ohm type tom end from 0.1 to 0.2 wavelength a b o v e
HANDBOOK Vertical Antennas 431
LOADING COIL
APPROXIMATELY 3$ TURNS
ell WIRE 4.5' DIAMETER
AND ROOTI LONG
0 RADIALS EACH
i
4 RADIALS EACH
fa
52 OHM COAXIAL LINE. 32 OHM COAXIAL LINE

CENTER CONDUCTOR CONNECTS 45 PEET LONG
TO VERTICAL WHI
Figure 5 Figure 6
THE LOW- FREQUENCY GROUND PLANE 80 METER LOADED GROUND PLANE
ANTENNA ANTENNA
The radials o f the ground plane antenna Number of turns in loading coil to be adjusted
should lie in a horizontal plane, although until antenna system resonates at desired
slight departures from this caused by nearby frequency in 80 meter band.
objects is o l towable. The whip may be
mounted on a short post, or on the roof of a
building. The wire radials may slope down-
wards towards their tips, acting as guy
wires for the installation.
teur band is the ground-plane antenna, shown
in figure 5. So called because of the radial
ground wires, the ground -plane antenna is not
ground is an effective transmitting antenna for affected by soil conditions in its vicinity due
low -angle radiation, where ground conditions to the creation of an artificial ground system
in the vicinity of the antenna are good. Such by the radial wires. The base impedance of
an antenna is not good for short-range sky - the ground plane is of the order of 30 to 35
wave communication, such as is the normal ohms, and it may be fed with 52 -ohm coaxial
usage of the 3.5 -Mc. amateur band, but is ex- line with only a slight impedance mis -match.
cellent for short-range ground-wave communi- For a more exact match, the ground-plane an-
cation such as on the standard broadcast band tenna may be fed with a 72 -ohm coaxial line
and on the amateur 1.8 -Mc. band. The vertical and a quarter -wave matching section made of
antenna normally will cause greater BCI than 52 -ohm coaxial line.
an equivalent horizontal antenna, due to the The angle of radiation of the ground -plane
much greater ground -wave field intensity. Al- antenna is quite low, and the antenna will be
so, the vertical antenna is poor for receiving found less effective for contacts under 1000
under conditions where man -made interference miles or so on the 80 and 40 meter bands than
is severe, since such interference is predomi- a high angle radiator, such as a dipole. How-
nantly vertically polarized. ever, for DX contacts of 1000 miles or more,
Three ways of feeding a half -wave vertical the ground-plane antenna will prove to be
antenna from an untuned transmission line are highly effective.
illustrated in figure 4. The J -fed system shown
in figure 4A is obviously not practicable ex- The 80 -Meter A vertical antenna of 66 feet
cept on the higher frequencies where the ex- Loaded in height presents quite a prob-
tra length for the stub may easily be obtained. Ground -Plane lem on a small lot, as the sup-
However, in the normal case the ground -plane porting guy wires will tend to
vertical antenna is to be recommended over take up quite a large portion of the lot. Under
the J -fed system for high frequency work. such conditions, it is possible to shorten the
length of the vertical radiator of the ground -
plane by the inclusion of a loading coil in the
22 -4 The Ground Plane Antenna vertical whip section. The ground -plane an-
tenna may be artificially loaded in this man-
An effective low angle radiator for any ama- ner so that a 25 -foot vertical whip may be
used for the radiator. Such an antenna is

shown in figure 6. The loaded ground -plane
tends to have a rather high operating Q and
operates only over a narrow band of frequen-
1 i
cies. An operating range of about 100 kilo-
cycles with a low SWR is possible on 80 me-
ters. Operation over a larger frequency range
L
is possible if a.higher standing wave ratio is C
tolerated on the transmission line. The radia-

tion resistance of a loaded 80 -meter ground- LIN[ MOM TRANS. COAX. rROM TRANS.
plane is about 15 ohms. A quarter wavelength
(45 feet) of 52 -ohm coaxial line will act as an
efficient feed line, presenting a load of ap-
proximately 180 ohms to the transmitter.
Figure 7
FEEDING A QUARTER -WAVE MARCONI
22 -5 The Marconi ANTENNA
Antenna When an open -wire line is to be used, it may
be link coupled to a series- resonant circuit
between the bottom end of the Marconi and
A grounded quarter-wave Marconi antenna, ground, as at (A). Alternatively, a reason-
widely used on frequencies below 3 Mc., is ably good impedance match may be obtained
sometimes used on the 3.5 ,Mc. band, and is between 52 -ohm coaxial line and the bottom
also used in v -h -f mobile services where a of a resonant quarter -wave antenna, as illus-
trated at (B) above.
compact antenna is required. The Marconi type
antenna allows the use of half the length of
wire that would be required for a half -wave
Hertz radiator. The ground acts as a mirror,
in effect, and takes the place of the additional
quarter -wave of wire that would be required sible above ground. Raising the maximum -cur-
to reach resonance if the end of the wire were rent point in the radiator above ground has
not returned to ground. two desirable results: The percentage of low -
The fundamental practical form of the Mar- angle radiation is increased and the amount of
coni antenna system is shown in figure 7. ground current at the base of the radiator is
Other Marconi antennas differ from this type reduced, thus reducing the ground losses.
primarily in regard to the method of feeding To estimate whether a loading coil will
the energy to the radiator. The feed method probably be required, it is necessary only to
shown in figure 7B can often be used to advan- note if the length of the antenna wire and
ground lead is over a quarter wavelength; if
tage, particularly in mobile work.
Variations on the basic Marconi antenna so, no loading coil is needed, provided the
are shown in the illustrations of figure 8. Fig- series tuning capacitor has a high maximum
ures 813 and 8C show the "L" -type and "T"- capacitance.
type Marconi antennas. These arrangements Amateurs primarily interested in the higher
have been more or less superseded by the top - frequency bands, but who like to work 80 me-
loaded forms of the Marconi antenna shown in ters occasionally, can usually manage to reso-
figures 8D, 8E, and 8F. In each of these lat- nate one of their antennas as a Marconi by
ter three figures an antenna somewhat less working the whole system, feeders and all,
than one quarter wave in l e n g t h has been against a water pipe ground, and resorting to
loaded to increase its effective length by the a loading coil if necessary. A high- frequency-
insertion of a loading coil at or near the top rotary, zepp, doublet, or single- wire-fed an-
of the radiator. The arrangement shown at fig- tenna will make quite a good 80 -meter Marconi
ure 8D gives the least loading but is the most if high and in the clear, with a rather long
practical mechanically. The system shown at feed line to act as a radiator on 80 meters.
figure 8E gives an intermediate amount of Where two-wire feeders are used, the feeders
loading, while that shown at figure 8F, utiliz- should be tied together for Marconi operation.
ing a "hat" just above the loading coil, gives
the greatest amount of loading. The object of Importance of With aquarter-wave anten-
all the top -loading methods shown is to pro- Ground Connection na and a ground, the an-
duce an increase in the effective length of tenna current generally is
the radiator, and thus to raise the point of measured with a meter placed in the antenna
maximum current in the radiator as far as pos- circuit close to the ground connection. If this
HANDBOOK Marconi Antenna 433
LOADING
COILS -NAT
Figure 8
LOADING THE
MARCONI ANTENNA
The various loading systems
are discussed in the accom-
panying text.
e © © @ © 0
current flows through a re s i s t o r, or if the is the possibility of high resistance joints in

ground itself presents some resistance, there the pipe, due to the "dope" put on the cou-
will be a power loss in the form of heat. Im- pling threads. By attaching the ground wire
proving the ground connection, therefore, pro- to a junction with three or more legs, the pos-
vides a definite means of reducing this power sibility of requiring the main portion of the
loss, and thus increasing the radiated power. r -f current to flow through a high resistance
The best possible ground consists of as connection is greatly reduced.
many wires as possible, each at least a quar- The presence of water in the pipe adds
ter wave long, buried just below the surface nothing to the conductivity; therefore it does
of the earth, and extending out from a common not relieve the problem of high resistance
point in the form of radials. Copper wire of joints. Bonding the joints is the best insur-
any size larger than no. 16 is satisfactory, ance, but this is, of course, impracticable
though the larger sizes will take longer to dis- where the pipe is buried. Bonding together
integrate. In fact, the radials need not even with copper wire the various water faucets
be buried; they may be supported just above above the surface of the ground will improve
the earth, and insulated from it. This arrange- the effectiveness of a water -pipe ground sys-
ment is called a counterpoise, and operates tem hampered by high -resistance pipe cou-
by virtue of its high capacitance to ground. plings.
If the antenna is physically shorter than a
quarter wavelength, the antenna current is
higher, due to lower radiation resistance. Con- Marconi A Marconi antenna is an odd
sequently, the power lost in resistive soil is Dimensions number of electrical quarter
greater. The importance of a good ground with waves long (usually only one
short, inductive -loaded Marconi radiators is, quarter wave in length), and is always reso-
therefore, quite obvious. With a good ground nated to the operating frequency. The correct
system, even very short (one- eighth wave- loading of the final amplifier is accomplished
length) antennas can be expected to give a by varying the coupling, rather than by detun-
high percentage of the efficiency of a quarter- ing the antenna from resonance.
wave antenna used with the same ground sys- Physically, a quarter -wave Marconi may be
tem. This is especially true when the short made anywhere from one -eighth to three- eighths
radiator is top loaded with a high Q (low loss) wavelength overall, meaning the total length of
coil. the antenna wire and ground lead from the end
of the antenna to the point where the ground
Water-Pipe Water pipe, because of its com- lead attaches to the junction of the radials or
Grounds paratively large surface and cross counterpoise wires, or where the water pipe
section, has a relatively low r -f enters the ground. The longer the antenna
resistance. If it is possible to attach to a is made physically, the lower will be the cur-
junction of several water pipes (where they rent flowing in the ground connection, and the
branch in several directions and run for some greater will be the overall radiation efficiency.
distance under ground), a satisfactory ground However, when the antenna length exceeds
connection will be obtained. If one of the three -eighths wavelength, the antenna be-
pipes attaches to a lawn or garden sprinkler comes difficult to resonate by means of a
system in the immediate vicinity of the anten- series capacitor, and it begins to take shape
na, the effectiveness of the system will ap- as an end -fed Hertz, requiring a method of
proach that of buried copper radials. feed such as a pi network.
The main objection to water -pipe grounds A radiator physically much shorter than a
4 34 Antennas and Antenna Matching THE RADIO
WIRES SHORTED TO-

GETHER AT END
ROSOMAN? ON SOMANT lint

MON -ROOONMMT LINO
52A COAXIAL
FEED LIME
Figure 10
TWIN -LEAD MARCONI ANTENNA FOR THE

80 AND 160 METER BANDS
Essentially, the problem in producing an

antenna for lower frequency operation in re-
Figure 9 stricted space is to erect a short radiator
THREE EFFECTIVE SPACE CONSERVING which is balanced with respect to ground and
ANTENNAS which is therefore independent of ground for
The arrangements shown al (A) and (8) are its operation. Several antenna types meeting
satisfactory where resonant feed line can be this set of conditions are shown in figure 9.
used. However, non -resonant 75 -ohm feed
line may be used in the arrangement at (A)
Figure 9A shows a conventional center -fed
when the dimensions in wavelengths are as doublet with bent -down ends. This type of an-
shown. In the arrangement shown at (8) low tenna can be fed with 75 -ohm Twin -Lead in the
standing waves will be obtained on the feed center, or it may be fed with a resonant line
line when the overall length of the antenna for operation on several bands. The overall
is a half wave. The arrangement shown at
(C) may be tuned for any reasonable length length of the radiating wire will be a few per
of flat top to give a minimum of standing cent greater than the normal length for such
waves on the transmission line. an antenna since the wire is bent at a posi-
tion intermediate between a current loop and
a voltage loop. The actual length will have to
be determined by the cut -and-try process be-
quarter wavelength can be lengthened elec- cause of the increased effect of interfering ob-
trically by means of a series loading coil, and jects on the effective electrical length of an
used as a quarter -wave Marconi. However, if antenna of this type.
the wire is made shorter than approximately Figure 9B shows a method for using a two -
one -eighth wavelength, the radiation resist- wire doublet on one half of its normal operat-
ance will be quite low. This is a special prob- ing frequency. It is recommended that spaced
lem in mobile work below about 20 -Mc. open conductor be used both for the radiating
portion of the folded dipole and for the feed
line. The reason for this recommendation lies
in the fact that the two wires of the flat top
are not at the same potential throughout their
length when the antenna is operated on one -
22 -6 Space- Conserving half frequency. Twin -Lead may be used for
Antennas the feed line if operation on the frequency
where the flat top is one -half wave in length
In many cases it is desired to undertake a is most common, and operation on one -half fre-
considerable amount of operation on the 80- quency is infrequent. However, if the antenna
meter or 40 -meter band, but sufficient space is to be used primarily on one -half frequency
is simply not available for the installation of as shown, it should be fed by mean s of an
a half -wave radiator for the desired frequency open -wire line. If it is desired to feed the an-
of operation. This is a common experience of tenna with a non -resonant line, a quarter -wave
apartment dwellers. The shortened Marconi stub may be connected to the antenna at the
antenna operated against a good ground can points X, X in figure 9B. The stub should be
be used under certain conditions, but the short- tuned and the transmission line connected to
ened Marconi is notorious for the production it in the normal manner.
of broadcast interference, and a good ground The antenna system shown in figure 9C may
connection is usually completely unobtainable be used when not quite enough length is avail-
in an apartment house. able for a full half -wave radiator. The dimen-
HANDBOOK Space Conserving Antennas 435
64.5 ID'
-.411111.41111110
POR DETAIL SEE FIG. A
PHENOLIC BLOCK 2
X 1.5.X
r FOR DETAIL SEE FIGA
ENOLIC BLOCK
WRAP CABLES AND BLOCK
2X I.S'X0.S
THE TWO WIRES MAY SE
SPREAD EITHER HORIZ-
ONTALLY OR VERTICALLY.
.
WRAP CABLES ANO BLOCK

WITH SCOTCH ELECTRICALTAPE
SPACE BLOCKS B' APART
/////
///i/
.
ITN SCOTCH ELECTRICAL
SPACE BLOCKS B'
ALONG BALUN ALONG BALUN
i
0.3
I.
FIGURE A I FIGURE B FIGURE A FIGURE B

CUTOFF SHIELD AND OUTER REMOVE OUTER JACKET CUT OFF SHIELD AND OUTER REMOVE OUTER JACKET
JACKET AS SHOWN. ALLOW FROM A SHORT LENGTH OF JACKET AS SHOWN. ALLOW FROM A SHORT LENGTH OF
DIELECTRIC TO EXTEND PART CABLE AS SHOWN HERE. DIELECTRIC TO EXTEND PART CABLE AS SHOWN HERE.
WAY TO OTHER CABLE. COVER UNBRAID THE SHIELD Of WAY TO OTHER CABLE. COVER UNBRAID THE SHIELD OF
ALL EXPOSED SHIELD AND COAX C. CUTOFF THE DI- ALL EXPOSED SHIELD AND COAX C CUTOFF THE DI-
W
DIELECTRIC ON BOTH CABLES ELECTRIC AND INNER CON- DIELECTRIC ON BOTH CABLES ELECTRIC AND INNER CON-
WITH A CONTINUOUS WRAP- DUCTOR FLUSH WITH THE WITH A CONTINUOUS WRAP - DUCTOR FLUSH WITH THE
ING Of SCOTCH ELECTRICAL OUTER JACKET. DO NOT CUT PI NG OF SCOTCH ELECTRICAL OUTER JACKET. DO NOT CUT
TAPE TO EXCLUDE MOISTURE. THE SHIELD. WRAPSHIELD TAPE TO EXCLUDE MOISTURE. THE SHIELD. WRAP SHIELD
OF COAX C AROUND SHIELD OF COAX C AROUND SHIELD
OF COAX D. SOLDER THE OF COAX D. SOLDER THE
KEEP BALUN AT LEAST B
CLEAR
OF GROUND AND OTHER OBJECTS.
CONNECTION, BEING VERY
CAREFUL NOT TO DAMAGE
KEEP BALUN AT LEAST G. LEAR
OF GROUND AND OTHER OBJECTS.
CONNECTION. BEING VERY
CAREFUL NOT TO DAMAGE
THE DIELECTRIC MATERIAL THE DIELECTRIC MATERIAL.
HOLD CABLE D STRAIGHT HOLD CABLE D STRAIGHT
FOR DETAIL SEE FIGURE B WHILE SOLDERING. COVER
FOR DETAIL SEE FIGURE B WHILE SOLDERING. COVER
THE AREA WITH A CONTIN- THE AREA mill ACONTIN-
32 010M RE -I /U, ANY LENGTH UOUS WRAPPING OF SCOTCH
ELECTRICAL TAPE. NO CON-
S2 OHM RG -S /U, ANY LENGTH 0005 WRAPPING OF SCOTCH
ELECTRICAL TAPE. NO CON-
NECTION TO INNER CONDUC- NECTION TO INNER m IDUC-
TORS. TORS.
DIMENSIONS SHOWN HERE ARE POR THE 40 METER SAND. THIS ANT- DIMENS IONS SHOWN MERE ARE POR THE SO METER SANO. THIS ANT-
ENNA MAY SE SU/LT POR OTHER SANDS SY USING DIMENS IONS THAT ENNA MAY SE Iv
/LT POR OTHER SANDS Dr US /NG DIMENSIONS THAT
ARE MULTIPLES OR SUSMULT/PLES OF THE DIMENS IONS SHOWN.
ARE MULTIPLES OR SUSMUL TIPLES OF THE DIMENSIONS SHOWN.
SALON SPACING /S IS' ON ALL SANDS. SALON SPACINE IS 1.5 OPI ALL SANDS.
Figure 11 Figure 12
HALF -WAVE ANTENNA WITH QUARTER - BROADBAND ANTENNA WITH QUARTER -
WAVE UNBALANCED TO BALANCED WAVE UNBALANCED TO BALANCED
TRANSFORMER (BALUN) FEED SYSTEM TRANSFORMER (BALUN) FEED SYSTEM
FOR 40 -METER OPERATION FOR 80 -METER OPERATION
sions in terms of frequency are given on the antenna had been made full length it would
drawing. An antenna of this type is 93 feet be possible to cover about half again as much
long for operation on 3600 kc. and 86 feet long frequency range for the same amount of mis-
for operation on 3900 kc. This type of antenna match on the extremes of the frequency range.
has the additional advantage that it may be
operated on the 7 -Mc. and 14 -Mc. bands, when The Twin -Lead Much of the power loss in
the flat top has been cut for the 3.5 -Mc. band, Marconi Antenna the Marconi antenna is a re-
simply by changing the position of the short- sult of low radiation resist-
ing bar and the feeder line on the stub. ance and high ground resistance. In some
A sacrifice which must be made when using cases, the ground resistance may even be
a shortened radiating system, as for example be higher than the radiation resistance, caus-
the types shown in figure 9, is in the band- ing a loss of 50 per cent or more of the trans-
width of the radiating system. The frequency mitter power output. If the radiation resistance
range which may be covered by a shortened of the Marconi antenna is raised, the amount
antenna system is approximately in proportion of power lost in the ground resistance is pro-
to the amount of shortening which has been portionately less. If a Marconi antenna is made
employed. For example, the antenna system out of 300 ohm TV -type ribbon line, as shown
shown in figure 9C may be operated over the in figure 10, the radiation resistance of the
range from 3800 kc. to 4000 kc. without ser- antenna is raised from a low value of 10 or 15
ious standing waves on the feed line. If the ohms to a more reasonable value of 40 to 60
436
3
Antennas and Antenna Matching THE
ANTENNA - C
RADIO
1011Lt
L' 13'0.
' 400 LUF
FNENOUC [R.00K!
ME rIC.12 40 METERS
3 5 34 3.7 3.5 3! 4.0 L' 7' 3-
FREQUENCY (Mc) C'200LLF
INNER CONDUCTOR NOT USED

Figure 13 SEE FIG.12 FOR CONNECTION
SWR CURVE OF 80 -METER BROAD-BAND
DIPOLE 52 OHM COAXIAL LINE
Figure 14
SHORT BALUN FOR 40 AND 80 METERS
ohms. The ground losses are now reduced by
a factor of 4. In addition, the antenna may be
directly fed from a 50 -ohm coaxial line, or di-
rectly from the unbalanced output of a pi- net- available operating time, and then to have an
work transmitter. additional multi-band antenna which may be
Since a certain amount of power may still pressed into service for operation on another
be lost in the ground connection, it is still of
band when propagation conditions on the most
greatest importance that a good, low resist- frequently used band are not suitable. Most
ance ground be used with this antenna. amateurs use, or plan to install, at least one
directive array for one of the higher- frequency
The Collins Shown in figures 11 and 12 bands, but find that an additional antenna
Broad -band are broad-band dipoles for which may be used on the 3.5-Mc. and 7.0 -Mc.
Dipole System the 40 and 80 meter amateur band, or even up through the 28 -Mc. band is
bands, designed by Collins almost indispensable.
Radio Co. for use with the Collins 32V -3 and The choice of a multi -band antenna depends
KW -1 transmitters. These fan -type dipoles upon a number of factors such as the amount
have excellent broad -band response, and are of space available, the band which is to be
designed to be fed with a 52 -ohm unbalanced used for the majority of operating with the an-
coaxial line, making them suitable for use with tenna, the radiation efficiency which is de-
many of the other modern transmitters, such sired, and the type of antenna tuning network
as the Barker and Williamson 5100, Johnson to be used at the transmitter. A number of
Ranger, and Viking. The antenna system con- recommended types are shown in the next
sists of a fan -type dipole, a balun matching pages.
section, and a suitable coaxial feedline. The
Q of the half -wave 80 meter doublet is low- The 34-Wave Figure 15 shows an antenna
ered by decreasing the effective length -to- Folded Doublet type which will be found to
diameter ratio. The frequency range of opera- be very effective when a
tion of the doublet is increased considerably moderate amount of space is available, when
by this change. A typical SWR curve for the most of the operating will be done on one band
80 meter doublet is shown in figure 13. with occasional operation on the second har-
The balanced doublet is matched to the un- monic. The system is quite satisfactory for
balanced coaxial line by the one -quarter wave use with high -power transmitters since a 600 -
balun. If desired, a shortened balun may be ohm non -resonant line is used from the anten-
used (figure 14). The short balun is capacity na to the transmitter and since the antenna
loaded at the junction between the balun and system is balanced with respect to ground.
the broad -band dipole. With operation on the fundamental frequency
of the antenna where the flat top is wave %%
long the switch SW is left open. The system

affords a very close match between the 600 -
22 -7 Multi -Band Antennas ohm line and the feed point of the antenna.
Kraus has reported a standing -wave ratio of
The availability of a multi -band antenna is approximately 1.2 to 1 over the 14 -Mc. band
a great operating convenience to an amateur when the antenna was located approximately
station. In most cases it will be found best to one -half wave above ground.
install an antenna which is optimum for the For operation on the second harmonic the
band which is used for the majority of the switch SW is closed. The antenna is still an
HANDBOOK Multi -band Antennas 437
60 FEEDER SPREADERS
LNM ION 3050.0 ND 7150 AC

L it Fpll 7100 AC. AND 14 050 C
L at FOR =0E RC AND t$ 04<
$000004 LINE
TO ?TEA
600 11 LINE
Figure 15
THE THREE -QUARTER WAVE FOLDED SHORTED END W 800 OHM LINE
TO TRANSMITTER
DOUBLET
L. 67 FT WHEN ANTENNA i$ INS FT
This antenna arrangement will give very L=33FT. ' '
98 FT
satisfactory operation with a 600 -ohm feed L=16.5FT "d96FT
line for operation with the switch open on
the fundamental frequency and with the
switch closed on twice frequency.
Figure 16
AUTOMATIC BANDSWITCHING STUB FOR
THE THREE-QUARTER WAVE FOLDED
effective radiator on the second harmonic but DOUBLET
the pattern of radiation will be different from
that on the fundamental, and the standing -wave The antenna of Figure IS may be used with
a shorted stub line in place of the switch
ratio on the feed line will be greater. The flat normally used for second harmonic operation.
top of the antenna must be made of open wire
rather than ribbon or tubular line.
For greater operating convenience, the short-
ing switch may be replaced with a section of many other antenna types, but it is particular-
transmission line. If this transmission line is ly convenient when it is desired to install an
made one - quarter wavelength long for the fun- antenna in a hurry for a test, or for field -day
damental frequency, and the free end of the work. The flat top of the radiator should be
line is shorted, it will act as an open circuit as high and in the clear as possible. In any
across the center insulator. At the second har- event at least three quarters of the total wire
monic, the transmission line is one -half wavelength should be in the clear. Dimensions for
length long, and reflects the low impedance optimum operation on various amateur bands
of the shorted end across the center insulator. are given in addition in figure 17.
Thus the switching action is automatic as the
frequency of operation is changed. Such an The End -Fed The end -fed Zepp has long
installation is shown in figure 16. Zepp been a favorite for multi -band
operation. It is shown in fig-
The End -Fed The end -fed Hertz antenna ure 18 along with recommended dimensions
Hertz shown in figure 17 is not as for operation on various amateur band groups.
effective a radiating system as
L SEE BELOW
3.5, 7.14 AND 28 MC. L = 36'

i
3.5, 7 AND 14 MC. L. 137'

3.5 AND 7 MC. L. 13e
3.4 MC. AND 23 MC. L 20'
LINK
FROM
AMTS.
Figure 17 END -FED ZEPP
RECOMMENDED LENGTHS FOR THE END -

FED HERTZ FIGURE 18
- IRO '
LI
IP 300 A T11400MI134001 LINE IS

BANDS LI La TTn DP rSED rom La TOE IMnd1NCE AT
TDr1NE TIIE TAArSrNTT[R [11D oE,-t¡jL-
LOIE IS A222021 . La
3.SrC Ica W PARALLEL 1200 OHMS 3D
PODO[
L = DO' FOR D0-40 METER OPERATION
3.5 MC PARALLEL 1200 OOMS
T 11C PARALLEL 1200 OOS
IA NC
ISO SE
1200 OBUS S2
2D0LLF U rC MRALLEL 1200 *ma
3
14
M
K LIE 10 SERIES
SERIES
7s
TS
Own
apra n
Figure 19
S 11C
11C loa 63
PARALLEL
PARALLEL
1200 070023
1200 0IIMS
T ST
IL MC PARALLEL 1200 OHMS
A TWO -BAND MARCONI ANTENNA FOR T, MC SERIES ONMS
14 1C SS St PARALLEL 1200 ONUS M
160 -80 METER OPERATION H MC PARALLEL 1200 OOPS
11C PA1ALLLL 1E00 OHMS
IA MC M 100 PARALLEL MSS OOrf Y
211 MC 1200 OOHS
Since this antenna type is an unbalanced radi-

ating system, its use is not recommended with CENTER -FED ANTENNA
high -power transmitters where interference to
broadcast listeners is likely to be encountered. Figure 20
The r-f voltages encountered at the end of DIMENSIONS FOR CENTER -FED MULTI-
zepp feeders and at points an electrical half BAND ANTENNA
wave from the end are likely to be quite high.
Hence the feeders should be supported an ade-
quate distance from surrounding objects and
sufficiently in the clear so that a chance en-
counter between a passerby and the feeder is type antenna, the use of a good ground is es-
unlikely. sential. This antenna works well with trans-
The coupling coil at the transmitter end of mitters employing coaxial antenna feed, since
the feeder system should be link coupled to its transmitting impedance on both bands is in
the output of the low -pass TVI filter in order the neighborhood of 40 to 60 ohms. It may be
to reduce harmonic radiation. attached directly to the output terminal of such
transmitters as the Collins 32V and the Viking
The Two -Band A three-eighths wavelength II. The use of a low -pass TVI filter is of
Marconi Antenna Marconi an t e n n a may be course recommended.
operated on its harmonic
frequency, providing good two band perform- The Center -Fed For multi -band operation,
ance from a simple wire. Such an arrangement Multi -Band Antenna the center fed antenna is
for operation on 160-80 meters, and 80 -40 me- without doubt the best
ters is shown in figure 19. On the fundamental compromise. It is a balanced system on all
(lowest) frequency, the an t e n n a acts as a bands, it requires no ground return, and when
three -eighths wavelength series -tuned Marconi. properly tuned has good rejection properties
On the second harmonic, the antenna is a cur- for the higher harmonics generated in the trans-
rent -fed three-quarter wavelength antenna oper- mitter. It is well suited for use with the various
ating against ground. For proper operation, multi -band 150 -watt transmitters that are cur-
the antenna should be resonated on its second rently so popular. For proper operation with
harmonic by means of a grid -dip oscillator to these transmitters, an antenna tuning unit
the operating frequency most used on this par- must be used with the center -fed antenna. In
ticular band. The Q of the antenna is relatively fact, some sort of tuning unit is necessary for
low, and the antenna will perform well over a any type of efficient, multi -band antenna. The
frequency range of several hundred kilocycles. use of such questionable antennas as the "off -
The overall length of the antenna may be center fed" doublet is an invitation to TVI
varied slightly to place its self- resonant fre- troubles and improper operation of the trans-
quency in the desired region. Bends or turns mitter. A properly balanced antenna is the
in the antenna tend to make it resonate higher best solution to multi -band operation. When
in frequency, and it may be necessary to used in conjunction with an antenna tuning
lengthen it a bit to resonate it at the chosen unit, it will perform with top efficiency on all
frequency. For fundamental operation, the of the major amateur bands.
series condenser is inserted in the circuit, and Several types of center -fed antenna systems
the antenna may be resonated to any point in are shown in figure 20. If the feed line is made
the lower frequency band. As with any Marconi up in the conventional manner of no. 12 or no.
HANDBOOK Multi -band Antennas 439
134'
»' OR GO' LONG- 300 OW OPEN -WIRE

TV TYPE LINE
ANTENNA TUNER
OR
MATCH SO% VIAL
LINE
Figure 21 Figure 22
MULTI -BAND ANTENNA USING FAN - FOLDED -TOP DUAL -BAND ANTENNA
DIPOLE TO LIMIT IMPEDANCE EXCUR-
SIONS ON HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
Even when a 300 -ohm transmission line is

used, the end-of- feeder impedance may reach
14 wire spaced 4 to 6 inches the antenna sys- a high value, particularly on the second har-
tem is sometimes called a center -fed zepp. monic of the antenna. To limit the impedance
With this type of feeder the impedance at the excursions, a two -wire flat-top may be em-
transmitter end of the feeder varies from about ployed for the radiator, as shown in figure 21.
70 ohms to approximately 5000 ohms, the same
The use of such a radiator will limit the im-
as is encountered in an end -fed zepp antenna. pedance excursions on the harmonic frequen-
This great impedance ratio requires provision cies of the antenna and make the operation of
for either series or parallel tuning of the feed- the antenna matching unit much less critical.
ers at the transmitter, and involves quite high The use of a two -wire radiator is highly recom-
r -f voltages at various points along the feed
mended for any center -fed multi -band antenna.
line.
If the feed line between the transmitter and Folded Flot -Top As has been mentioned
the antenna is made to have a characteristic
impedance of approximately 300 ohms the ex-
Dual -Band Antenna earlier, there is an increas-
cursions in end -of- feeder impedance are great- ing tendency among ama-
ly reduced. In fact the impedance then varies
teur operators to utilize rotary or fixed arrays
for the 14 -Mc. band and those higher in fre-
from approximately 75 ohms to 1200 ohms.
With this much lowered impedance variation quency. In order to afford complete coverage
it is usually possible to use series tuning on of the amateur bands it is then desirable to
all bands, or merely to couple the antenna di- have an additional system which will operate
rectly to the output tank circuit or the har- with equal effectiveness on the 3.5 -Mc. and
monic reduction circuit without any separate 7 -Mc. bands, but this low- frequency antenna
feeder tuning provision. system will not be required to operate on any
There are several practicable types of trans- bands higher in frequency than the 7 -Mc. band.
mission line which can give an impedance of The antenna system shown in figure 22 has
approximately 300 ohms. The first is, obvious- been developed to fill this need.
ly, 300 -ohm Twin-Lead. Twin -Lead of the re- This system consists essentially of an
ceiving type may be used as a resonant feed open -line folded dipole for the 7 -Mc. band with
line in this case, but its use is not recom- a special feed system which allows the an-
mended with power levels greater than perhaps tenna to be fed with minimum standing waves
150 watts, and it should not be used when on the feed line on both the 7 -Mc. and 3.5 -Mc.
lowest loss in the transmission line is desired. bands. The feed -point impedance of a folded
For power levels up to 250 watts or so, the dipole on its fundamental frequency is approxi-
transmitting type tubular 300 -ohm line may be mately 300 ohms. Hence the 300 -ohm Twin -
used, or the open -wire 300 -ohm TV line may Lead shown in figure 22 can be connected di-
be employed. For power levels higher than rectly into the center of the system for opera-
this, a 4- wire transmission line, or a line tion only on the 7 -Mc. band and standing waves
built of one -quarter inch tubing should be on the feeder will be very small. However, it
used. is possible to insert an electrical half -wave
of transmission line of any characteristic im- L

pedance into a feeder system such as this and
the impedance at the far end of the line will
100 -00 METERS
be exactly the same value of impedance which L. 70'
300 OHM OVEN -WIRE
the half -wave line sees at its termination. TV TYPE LINE V°52'
Hence this has been done in the antenna sys-
00 -40 METERS
tem shown in figure 22; an electrical half
L =35'
wave of line has been inserted between the V.26'
feed point of the antenna and the 300-ohm
transmission line to the transmitter.
The characteristic impedance of this addi- RADIALS
/ --- -
tional half-wave section of transmission line
has been made about 715 ohms (no. 20 wire
spaced 6 inches), but since it is an electrical
S
-----i_
OHM COAXIAL NE
half wave long at 7 Mc. and operates into a

load of 300 ohms at the antenna the 300 -ohm
Twin -Lead at the bottom of the half-wave sec-
tion still sees an impedance of 300 ohms. The
// \\
additional half-wave section of transmission
line introduces a negligible amount of loss Figure 23
since the current flowing in the section of line THE MULTEE TWO -BAND ANTENNA
is the same which would flow in a 300 -ohm
This compact antenna can be used with ex-
line at each end of the half -wave section, and cellent results on 160/80 and 80/40 meters.
at all other points it is less than the current The feedline should be held as vertical as
which would flow in a 300 -ohm line since the possible, since it radiates when the antenna
effective impedance is greater than 300 ohms is operated on its fundamental frequency.
in the center of the half -wave section. This
means that the loss is less than it would be in
an equivalent length of 300-ohm Twin -Lead
since this type of manufactured transmission
line is made up of conductors which are equiv- The "Multee" An antenna that works well
alent to no. 20 wire. Antenna on 160 and 80 meters, or 80
and 40 meters and is suffi-
So we see that the added section of 715-ohm ciently compact to permit erection on the aver-
line has substantially no effect on the opera- age city lot is the W6BCX Multee antenna,
tion of the antenna system on the 7 -Mc. band. illustrated in figure 23. The antenna evolves
However, when the flat top of the antenna is from a vertical two wire radiator, fed on one
operated on the 3.5 -Mc. band the feed-point leg only. On the low frequency band the top
impedance of the flat top is approximately portion does little radiating, so it is folded
3500 ohms. Since the section of 715-ohm trans- down to form a radiator for the higher frequen-
mission line is an electrical quarter -wave in cy band. On the lower frequency band, the an-
length on the 3.5 -Mc. band, this section of tenna acts as a top loaded vertical radiator,
line will have the effect of transforming the while on the higher frequency band, the flat-
approximately 3500 ohms feed -point imped- top does the radiating rather than the vertical
ance of the antenna down to an impedance of portion. The vertical portion acts as a quarter -
about 150 ohms which will result in a 2:1 wave linear transformer, matching the 6000
standing -wave ratio on the 300-ohm Twin -Lead ohm antenna impedance to the 50 ohm imped-
transmission line from the transmitter to the ance of the coaxial transmission line.
antenna system. The earth below a vertical radiator must be
The antenna system of figure 22 operates of good conductivity not only to provide a low
with very low standing waves over the entire resistance ground connection, but also to pro-
7 -Mc. band, and it will operate with moderate vide a good reflecting surface for the waves
standing waves from 3500 to 3800 kc. in the radiated downward towards the ground. For
3.5 -Mc. band and with sufficiently low stand- best results, a radial system should be in-
ing -wave ratio so that it is quite usable over stalled beneath the antenna. For 160 -80 me-
the entire 3.5-Mc. band. ter operation, six radials 50 feet in length,
This antenna system, as well as all other made of no. 16 copper wire should be buried
types of multi -band antenna systems, must be just below the surface of the ground. While an
used in conjunction with some type of har- ordinary water pipe ground system with no
monic- reducing antenna tuning network even radials may be used, a system of radials will
though the system does present a convenient provide a worthwhile increase in signal
impedance value on both bands. strength. For 80-40 meter operation, the length
HANDBOOK Low Frequency Discone 441
p 4.0
á33
<
a
z
:
Val
I.s
..m
mnumN
&Onumminom
25..1........
n
U167.
1 2 6 30 377:72
FREQUENCY (MC)
Figure 25
m e
SWR CURVE FOR A 13.2 MC. DISCONE

ANTENNA. SWR IS BELOW 1.5 TO 1 FROM
13.0 MC. TO 58 MC.
R
52 OHM COAXIAL 6 meters with excellent results. It affords a
FEED LINE
good match to a 50 ohm coaxial feed system
DIMENSIONS on all of these bands. A practical discone an-
20,15,11, 10, e METERS 15,11,10.8 METERS I1,10,8,2METERS tenna is shown in figure 24, with a SWR curve
0=12' L=1e' D=e' L=12' D. e' L=e'e" for its operation over the frequency range of
S= 10' R= 1e' S. 8. R=12' S=4 R=9, e. 13 -55 Mc. shown in figure 25. The discone
H=15'T' H=10's' 3"
15'
antenna radiates a vertically polarized wave
and has a very low angle of radiation. For
Figure 24
v -h -f work the discone is constructed of sheet
DIMENSIONS OF LOW- FREQUENCY DIS- metal, but for low frequency work it may be
CONE ANTENNA FOR LOW FREQUENCY made of copper wire and aluminum angle
CUTOFF AT 13.2 MC., 20.1 MC., AND stock. A suitable mechanical layout for a low
26 MC. frequency discone is shown in figure 26.
The Discone is a vertically polarized radio. Smaller versions of this antenna may be con-
tor, producing an omnidirectional pattern structed for 15, 11, 10 and 6 meters, or for 11,
similar to a ground plane. Operation on sev-
eral amateur bands with low SWR on the co- 10, 6 and 2 meters as shown in the chart of
axial feed line is possible. Additional in- figure 24.
formation on L -F Discone by W2RY1 in July, For minimum wind resistance, the top "hat"
1950 CQ magazine. of the discone is constructed from three -quar-
ter inch aluminum angle stock, the rods being
bolted to an aluminum plate at the center of
the structure. The tips of the rods are all con-
of the radials may be reduced to 25 feet. As nected together by lengths of no. 12 enamelled
with all multi -band antennas that employ no copper wire. The cone elements are made of
lumped tuned circuits, this antenna offers no no. 12 copper wire and act as guy wires for
attenuation to harmonics of the transmitter. the discone structure. A very rigid arrange-
When operating on the lower frequency band, ment may be made from this design; one that
it would be wise to check the transmitter for will give no trouble in high winds. A 4" x 4"
second harmonic emission, since this antenna post can be used to support the discone struc-
will effectively radiate this harmonic. ture.
The discone antenna may be fed by a length
The Low- Frequency The discone antenna is of 50 -ohm coaxial cable directly from the trans-
Discone widely used on the v -h -f mitter, with a very low SWR on all bands.
bands, but until recently
it has not been put to any great use on the
lower frequency bands. Since the discone is a The Single -Wire- The old favorite single -wire-
broad -band device, it may be used on several Fed Antenna fed antenna system is quite
harmonically related amateur bands. Size is satisfactory for an impromp-
the limiting factor in the use of a discone, and tu all band antenna system. It is widely used
the 20 meter band is about the lowest practi- for portable installations and "Field Day"
cal frequency for a discone of reasonable di- contests where a simple, multi -band antenna
mensions. A discone designed for 20 meter is required. A single wire feeder has a char-
operation may be used on 20, 15, 11, 10 and acteristic impedance of some 500 ohms, de-
VOLTAGE CURVES
N 2aMEiENS f/
o METERS
\
\`
e e 4
AN
TOOOVI -Tor VIEW
- , r NiON
-ss.s FT. 6767.
uDC CENTER
.NN wLuwT
CONDUCTO! W
NNW ANTENNA WIRE OF
t OIN CAKI T0 TOO
I' WV: t:?I

rLATTOAN Or
..r
i1lllr
DISC OLA!!
I fOM
METAL
JO NINO
ro 4I. roar
rLAIrM
FEEDER
Figure 27
SINGLE -WIRE -FED ANTENNA FOR ALL -
BAND OPERATION
An antenna of this type for 40 -, 20- and 10-
meter operation would have o radiator 67
feet long, with the feeder tapped 11 feet off
center. The feeder con be 33, 66 or 99 feet
long. The some type of antenna for 80 -, 40 -,
20- and 10 -meter operation would have a
radiator 134 feet long, with the feeder tapped
22 feet off center. The feeder can be either
66 or 132 feet long. This system should be
used only with those coupling methods which
provide gcod harmonic suppression.
JmN ALL NiI(f AT DAU NAT

ft ON COAXIAL LINI
must be made in antenna length and point of

feeder connection to enable the single -wire-
Figure 26 fed antenna to operate on more than one band.
MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION OF 20- Such a compromise introduces additional re-
METER DISCONE actance into the single wire feeder, and might
cause loading difficulties with pi- network
transmitters. To minimize this trouble, the
single wire feeder should be made a multiple
pending upon the wire size and the point of of 33 feet long.
attachment to the antenna. The earth losses Two typical single -wire -fed antenna sys-
are comparatively low over ground of good con- tems are shown in figure 27 with dimensions
ductivity. Since the single wire feeder radiates, for multi -band operation.
it is necessary to bring it away from the an-
tenna at right angles to the antenna wire
for at least one -half the length of the an-
tenna.
The correct point for best impedance match 22 -8 Matching Non -Resonant
on the fundamental frequency is not suitable Lines to the Antenna
for harmonic operation of the antenna. In addi-
tion, the correct length of the antenna for Present practice in regard to the use of
fundamental operation is not correct for har- transmission lines for feeding antenna systems
monic operation. Consequently, a compromise on the amateur bands is about equally divided
HANDBOOK Matching Systems 443
L transmitter end of the feed line which will

D change the magnitude of the standing waves
on the antenna transmission line.
MATCN iNG SECTION
Delta -Matched The delta type matched -im-
Antenna System pedance antenna system is
shown in figure 28. The im-
pedance of th e transmission line is trans-
formed gradually into a higher value by the
fanned -out Y portion of the feeders, and the
Y portion is tapped on the antenna at points
where the antenna impedance is a compromise
between the impedance at the ends of the Y
and the impedance of the unfanned portion of
the line.
NON-RESONANT
LINE The constants of the system are rather criti-
cal, and the antenna must resonate at the
Figure 28 operating frequency in order to minimize stand-
THE DELTA -MATCHED DIPOLE ing waves on the line. Some slight readjust-
ment of the taps on the antenna is desirable,
ANTENNA
The dimensions for the portions of the an-
if appreciable standing waves persist in ap-
tenna are given in the text. pearing on the line.
The constants for a doublet are determined
by the following formulas:
between three types of transmission line: (1)

467.4
Ribbon or tubular molded 300-ohm line is I-feet =
widely used up to moderate power levels (the F megacycles
"transmitting" type is useable up to the kilo-
watt level). (2) Open -wire 400 to 600 ohm line
is most commonly used when the antenna is
some distance from the transmitter, because of
El/feet - 175
F megacycles
the low attenuation of this type of line. (3) Co-
axial line (u s u al 1 y RG -8 /U with a 52 -ohm
characteristic impedance) is widely used in 147.6
v -h -f work and also on the lower frequencies Efeet -
where the feed line must run underground or F megacycles
through the walls of a building. Coaxial line
also is of assistance in TVI reduction since
the r-f fie l d is entirely enclosed within the Where L is antenna length; D is the distance in
line. Molded 75 -ohm line is sometimes used /rom each end at which the Y taps on; E is the
to feed a doublet antenna, but the doublet has height of the Y section.
been largely superseded by the folded -dipole Since these constants are correct only for a
antenna fed by 300 -ohm ribbon or tubular line 600 -ohm transmission line, the spacing S of
when an antenna for a single band is required. the line must be approximately 75 times the
diameter of the wire used in the transmission
Standing Waves As was discussed earlier, line. For no. 14 B & S wire, the spacing will
standing waves on the anten- be slightly less than 5 inches. This system
na transmission line, in the transmitting case, should never be used on either its even or odd
are a result of reflection from the point where harmonics, as entirely different constants are
the feed line joins the antenna system. The required when more than a single half wave-
magnitude of the standing waves is deter- length appears on the radiating portion of the
mined by the degree of mismatch between the system.
characteristic impedance of the transmission
line and the input impedance of the antenna Multi -Wire Doublets When a doublet antenna
system. then the feed -point impedance of the or the driven element in
antenna is resistive and of the same value as an array consists of more than one wire or
the characteristic impedance of the feed line, tubing conductor the radiation resistance of
standing waves will not exist on the feeder. the antenna or array is increased slightly as a
It may be well to repeat at this time that there result of the increase in the effective diameter
is no adjustment which can be made at the of the element. Further, if we split just one
DRIVEN ELEMENT
MOVEABLE CLAMP
GAMMA ROD
RESONATING CONDENSER
I
-7wiM-LEAD- EAT-TOV DR
COMOUCiORf fRAC[D I-TO ,3 50 -70 OHM COAXIAL FEED LINE
T LEAD-
300 01.033
AMvLEMG3M
Figure 30
THE GAMMA MATCH FOR CONNECTING
© U
euufMr AN UNBALANCED COAXIAL LINE
DRIVEN TO A
BALANCED DRIVEN ELEMENT
300 -GOO
OMM rccuR3
of the conventional foldeddipole as shown in

figure 29B.
If three wires are used in the driven radia-
tor the feed -point resistance is increased by
a factor of 9; if four wires are used the im-
300 -R00
pedance is increased by a factor of 16, and
OMM 1,33KM so on. In certain cases when feeding a para-
sitic array it is desirable to have an imped-
ance step up different from the value of 4:1
Figure 29 obtained with two elements of the same dia-
FOLDED -ELEMENT MATCHING SYSTEMS meter and 9:1 with three elements of the same
Drawing (A) above shows o half -wave made diameter. Intermediate values of impedance
up to two parallel wires. If one of the wires step up may be obtained by using two elements
is broken as in (B) and the feeder connected, of different diameter for the complete driven
the feed-point impedance is multiplied by
four; such on antenna Is commonly called o element as shown in figure 29C. If the con-
"folded doublet." The feed -point impedance ductor that is broken for the feeder is of small-
for o simple half-wave doublet fed in this er diameter than the other conductor of the
manner is approximately 300 ohms, depend- radiator, the impedance step up will be greater
ing upon antenna height. Drawing (C) shows
how the feed -point impedance can be multi- than 4:1. On the other hand if the larger of the
plied by o factor greater than four by making two elements is broken for the feeder the im-
the half of the element that is broken smaller pedance step up will be less than 4:1.
in diameter than the unbroken half. An ex-
tension of the principles of (B) and (C) is The "T" Match A method of matching a bal-
the arrangement shown at (D) where the sec-
tion into which the feeders are connected is anced low- impedance trans-
considerably shorter than the driven element. mission line to the driven element of a para-
This system is most convenient when the sitic array is the T match illustrated in figure
driven element is too long (such as for a 29D. This method is an adaptation of the
28-Mc. or 14 -Mc. array) for a convenient multi -wire doublet principle which is more
mechanical arrangement of the system shown
at (C). practicable for lower -frequency parasitic ar-
rays such as those for use on the 14 -Mc. and
28 -Mc. bands. In the system a section of tub-
ing of approximately one -half the diameter of
the driven element is spaced about four in-
wire of such a radiator, as shown in figure 29, ches below the driven element by means of
the effective feed-point resistance of the an- clamps which hold the T- section mechanically
tenna or array will be increased by a factor and which make electrical connection to the
of N2 where N is equal to the number of con- driven element. The length of the T- section
ductors, all in parallel, of the same diameter is normally between 15 and 30 inches each
in the array. Thus if there are two conductors side of the center of the dipole for transmis-
of the same diameter in the driven element or sion lines of 300 to 600 ohms impedance, as-
the antenna the feed -point resistance will be suming 28 -Mc. operation. In series with each
multiplied by 22 or 4. If the antenna has a ra- leg of the T- section and the transmission line
diation resistance of 75 ohms its feed -point is a series resonating capacitor. These two
resistance will be 300 ohms, this is the case capacitors tune out the reactance of the T-
section. If they are not used, the T- section

will detune the dipole when the T- section is
attached to it. The two capacitors may be
ganged together, and once adjusted for mini-
mum detuning action, they may be locked. A
suitable housing should be devised to protect
these capacitors from the weather. Additional
information on the adjustment of the T-match
is given in the chapter covering rotary beam SHORTINT. BAR
antennas.
*ANTENNA
The "Gamma" Match An unbalanced version of
the T-match may be used
to feed a dipole from an unbalanced coaxial
line. Such a device is called a Gamma Matcb, STUB
and is illustrated in figure 30.

The length of the Gamma rod and the spac-
ing of it from the dipole determine the imped-
ance level at the transmission line end of the
rod. The series capacitor is used to tune out
the reactance introduced into the system by
the Gamma rod. The adjustment of the Gamma
Match is discussed in the chapter covering
rotary beam antennas.
Matching Stubs By connecting a resonant

section of transmission line
(called a matching stub) to either a voltage or SHORTING BAR I! NON -RESONANT
FEEDERS
current loop and attaching parallel -wire non -
resonant feeders to the resonant stub at a
suitable voltage (impedance) point, standing ANTENNA
waves on the line may be virtually eliminated.

The stub is made to serve as an auto- trans- FEEDER TAPS NEAR
END OF STUB
former. Stubs are particularly adapted to
matching an open line to certain directional NON-RESONANT
RE
FEEDERS T 4 crue
arrays, as will be described later.
Voltage Feed When the stub attaches to the
OPEN
antenna at a voltage loop, the
stub should be a quarter wavelength long
electrically, and be shorted at the bottom end.
The stub can be resonated by sliding the r ß
shorting bar up and down before the non -reso-
nant feeders are attached to the stub, the an- STUB
tenna being shock-excited from a separate
radiator during the process. Slight errors in NON- RESONANT
FEEDERS
SHORTING BAR
the length of the radiator can be compensated

for by adjustment of the stub if both sides of
the stub are connected to the radiator in a Figure 31
symmetrical manner. Where only one side of
the stub connects to the radiating system, as MATCHING -STUB APPLICATIONS
in the Zepp and in certain antenna arrays, the An end -fed half-wave antenna with a quarter -
radiator length must be exactly right in order wave shorted stub is shown at (A). (B) shows
the use of a half -wave shorted stub to feed
to prevent excessive unbalance in the untuned a relatively low impedance point such as the
line. center of the driven element of a parasitic
A dial lamp may be placed in the center of array, or the center of a half-wave dipole.
the shorting stub to act as an r -f indicator. The use of an open -ended quarter -wave stub
to feed a low impedance is illustrated at
(C). (D) shows the conventional use of a
Current Feed When a stub is used to current - shorted quarter -wave stub to voltage feed
feed a radiator, the stub should two half-wave antennas with a 1800 phase
either be left open at the bottom end instead difference.
of shorted, or else made a hal/ wave long.
The open stub should be resonated in the half, to 300 ohms. If the resistance at the far
same manner as the shorted stub before at- end is made half the original value of 600
taching the transmission i n e; however, in
1 ohms or 300 ohms, the impedance at the near
this case, it is necessary to prune the stub end doubles the original value of 600 ohms,
to resonance, as there is no shorting bar. and becomes 1200 ohms. As one resistance
Sometimes it is handy to have a stub hang goes up, the other goes down proportionately.
from the radiator to a point that can be reached It will always be found that the character-
from the ground, in order to facilitate adjust- istic surge impedance of the quarter -wave
ment of the position of the transmission -line matching line is the geometric mean between
attachment. For this reason, a quarter -wave the impedance at both ends. This relationship
stub is sometimes made three -quarters wave- is shown by the following formula:
length long at the higher frequencies, in order
to bring the bottom nearer the ground. Opera-
tion with any odd number of quarter waves is ZMS = ZA ZL
the same as for a quarter -wave stub. where
Any number of half waves can be added to ZMS = Impedance of matching section.
either a quarter -wave stub or a half -wave stub ZA = Antenna resistance.
without disturbing the operation, though losses ZL = Line impedance.
and frequency sensitivity will be lowest if
the shortest usable stub is employed. See fig- Quarter -Wave The impedance inverting char -
ure 31. Matching acteristic of a quarter -wave
Transformers section of transmission line is
widely used by making such a
Stub Length Current -Fed Voltage -Fed section of line act as a quarter-wave trans-
(Electrical) Radiator Radiator former. The Johnson Q feed system is a wide-
14-V4-1 Vi-etc. Open Shorted ly known application of the quarter -wave trans-
wavelengths Stub Stub former to the feeding of a dipole antenna and
55 -1 -1 54.2 -etc. Shorted Open
wavelengths Stub Stub
array consisting of two dipoles. However, the
quarter -wave transformer may be u s e d in a
wide number of applications wherever a trans-
former is required to match two impedances
whose geometric mean is somewhere between
Linear R -F A resonant quarter -wave line perhaps 25 and 750 ohms when transmission
Transformers has the unusual property of line sections can be used. Paralleled coaxial
acting much as a transformer. lines may be used to obtain the lowest im-
Let us take, for example, a section consisting pedance mentioned, and open -wire lines com-
of no. wire spaced 6 inches, which happens
12 posed of small conductors spaced a moderate
to have a surge impedance of 600 ohms. Let distance may be used to obtain the higher im-
the far end be terminated with a pure resist- pedance. A short list of impedances, which
ance, and let the near end be fed with radio - may be matched by quarter -wave sections of
frequency energy at the frequency for which transmission line having specified imped-
the line is a quarter wavelength long. If an ances, is given below.
impedance measuring set is used to measure
the impedance at the near end while the im-
pedance at the far end is varied, an interest-
ing relationship between the 600 -ohm charac-
teristic surge impedance of this particular
Load or Ant.
Impedance
20
300
77
480
98
600
110
r Feed-Line
Impedance
Quarter -
quarter -wave matching line, and the imped- 30 95 120 134 Wave
ance at the ends will be discovered. 50 110 139 155 Transformer
When the impedance at the far end of the 75 150 190 212 Impedance
line is the same as the characteristic surge 100 173 220 245
impedance of the line itself (600 ohms), the
impedance measured at the near end of the
quarter -wave line will also be found to be
600 ohms. Johnson -Q The standard form of Johnson -
Under these conditions, the line would not Feed System n feed to a doublet is shown
have any standing waves on it, since it is in figure 32. An impedance
terminated in its characteristic impedance. match is obtained by utilizing a matching sec-
Now, let the resistance at the far end of the tion, the surge impedance of which is the geo-
line be doubled, or changed to 1200 ohms. metric mean between the transmission line
The impedance measured at the near end of surge impedance and the radiation resistance
the line will be found to have been cut in of the radiator. A sufficiently good match usu-
L FEET
MC Center to Impedance Impedance
Center in Ohms in Ohms
Spacing for 14" for'/
in Inches Diameters Diameters
L
_ z34
FIMCI
2-
TUBING
ZD= z
Q MATCHING SECTION 1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
170
188
207
225
248
250
277
298
318
335
PARALLEL TUBING SURGE IMPEDANCE FOR

Zz MATCHING SECTIONS
The Collins The advantage of unbal-

UNTUNED LINE Transmission Line arced output networks
ANT LENGTH
Matching System for transmitters are nu-
merous; however this out-
Figure 32
put system becomes awkward when it is de-
HALF -WAVE RADIATOR FED sired to feed an antenna system utilizing a
BY "Q BARS" balanced input. For some time the Collins
The Q matching section is simply a quarter - Radio Co. has been experimenting with a bal-
wave transformer whose impedance is equal un and tapered line system for matching a co-
to the geometric mean between the imped-
ance at the center of the antenna and the axial output transmitter to an open -wire bal-
impedance of the transmission line to be anced transmission line. Considerable success
used to feed the bottom of the transformer. has been obtained and matching systems good
The transformer may be made up of parallel
tubing, a four -wire line, or any other type over a frequency range as great as four to one
of transmission line which has the correct have been developed. Illustrated in figure 33
value of impedance. is one type of matching system which is prov-
ing satisfactory over this range. Z, is the
transmitter end of the system and may be any
length of 52 -ohm coaxial cable. Z, is one -
ally can be obtained by either designing or quarter wavelength long at the mid -frequency
adjusting the matching section for a dipole to of the range to be covered and is made of 75
have a surge impedance that is the geometric ohm coaxial cable. ZA is a quarter -wavelength
mean between the line impedance and 72 ohms, shorted section of cable at the mid -frequency.
the latter being the theoretical radiation re- ZD (ZA and Z,) forms a 200-ohm quarter -wave
sistance of a half -wave doublet either infi- section. The ZA section is formed of a con-
nitely high or a half wave above a perfect ductor of the same diameter as Z,. The differ-
ground. ence in length between ZA and Z, is accounted
Though the radiation resistance may depart for by the fact that Z, is a coaxial conductor
somewhat from 72 ohms under actual condi- with a solid dielectric, whereas the dielectric
tions, satisfactory results will be obtained for ZD is air. Z, is one -quarter wavelength
with this assumed value, so long as the dipole long at the mid-frequency and has an imped-
radiator is more than a quarter wave above
effective earth, and reasonably in the clear.
The small degree of standing waves intro-
duced by a slight mismatch will not increase Zo Z3 Z4
the line losses appreciably, and any small I__n___ Zs
amount of reactance present can be tuned out
at the transmitter termination with no bad ef-
---
Z
_
ZZ
_2,,,,f1 Z3-12311 Z4=224D.
r
l ANTLENGTH 1
fects. If the reactance is objectionable, it may -ZA

INNER{ OUTER CONDUCTORS
be minimized by making the untuned line an SHORTED AT EACH END
integral number of quarter waves long.

A Q-matched system can be adjusted pre- Figure 33
cisely, if desired, by constructing a matching COLLINS TRANSMISSION LINE MATCHING
section to the calculated dimensions with pro- SYSTEM
vision for varying the spacing of the Q sec- A wide -band system for matching a 52-ohm
tion conductors slightly, after the untuned coaxial line to a balanced 300 -ohm line over
line has been checked for standing waves. a 4:1 wide frequency range.
ance of 123 ohms. Z, is one -quarter wavelength been concerned primarily with the electrical
long at the mid-frequency and has an imped- characteristics and considerations of anten-
ance of 224 ohms. 4
is the balanced line to nas. Some of the physical aspects and mech-
be matched(in this case 300 ohms) and may be anical problems incident to the actual erec-
any length. tion of antennas and arrays will be discussed
Other system parameters for different output in the following section.
and input impedances may be calculated from Up to 60 feet, there is little point in using
the following: mast -type antenna supports unless guy wires
Transformation ratio (r) for each section is: either must be eliminated or kept to a mini-
mum. While a little more difficult to erect, be-
Zout cause of their floppy nature, fabricated wood
r= poles of the type to be described will be just
Zin as satisfactory as more rigid types, provided
many guy wires are used.
Rather expensive when purchased through
Where N is the number of sections. In the the regular channels, 40- and 50 -foot tele-
above case, phone poles sometimes can be obtained quite
reasonably. In the latter case, they are hard
to beat, inasmuch as they require no guying
Z5 if set in the ground six feet (standard depth),
U-
1E
r= and the resultant pull in any lateral direction
Zt is not in excess of a hundred pounds or so.
For heights of 80 to 100 feet, either three -
Impedance between sections, as Z2- is r sided or four -sided lattice type masts are most
times the preceding section. Z2.3 = r x
Z, -, = r
and Z practicable. They can be made self- support-
ing, but a few guys will enable one to use a
Mid- frequency (m): smaller cross section without danger from
high winds. The torque exerted on the base
F, + F2 of a high self- supporting mast is terrific dur-
m=
2 ing a strong wind.
7 +30 The "A- Frame" Figures 34A and 34B show

For 40 -20 -10 meters = - 18.5 Mc. Most the standard method of con-
2
struction of the A -frame
and one -quarter wavelength = 12 feet. type of mast. This type of mast is quite fre-
quently used since there is only a moderate
14 + 54
amount of work involved in the construction
For 20 -10 -6 meters -- - 34 Mc. of the assembly and since the material cost is
2 relatively small. The three pieces of selected
and one -quarter wavelength = 5.5 feet. 2 by 2 are first set up on three sawhorses or
boxes and the holes drilled for the three 1/4-
inch bolts through the center of the assembly.
The impedances of the sections are:
Then the base legs are spread out to about 6
feet and the bottom braces installed. Then the
Z2 = Z, Z2.3 upper braces and the cross pieces are in-
stalled and the assembly given several coats
Z2 = J Z2.3 X Z3-4 of good- quality paint as a protection against
weathering.
Z4 = Figure 34C shows another common type of
mast which is made up of sections of 2 by 4
Zo= /xZe
2
placed end -to -end with stiffening sections of
1 by 6 bolted to the edge of the 2 by 4 sec-
tions. Both types of masts will require a set

Generally, the larger number of taper sec- of top guys and another set of guys about one -
tions the greater will be the bandwidth of the third of the way down from the top. Two guys
system. spaced about 90 to 100 degrees and pulling
against the load of the antenna will normally
22-9 Antenna be adequate for the top guys. Three guys are
usually used at the lower level, with one di-
Construction rectly behind the load of the antenna and two
more spaced 120 degrees from the rear guy.
The foregoing portion of this chapter has The raising of the mast is made much easier
HANDBOOK Antenna Construction 449
ax
Figure 34
TWO SIMPLE WOOD MASTS
Shown at (A) is the method of as-
sembly, and at (B) is the completed
structure, of the conventional "A-
frame" antenna mast. At (C) is
shown a structure which is heavier SAWHORSES /[(i\\ axa
CROSSPIECES
but more stable than the A -frame
for heights above about 40 feet. GROUND LEVEL .Ilö J^
CONCRETE' 41 S'
a, °
.
*Otte
if a gin pole about 20 feet high is installed than seems sufficient for the job, should be
about 30 or 40 feet to the rear of the direction used. The heavier wire is a little harder to
in which the antenna is to be raised. A line handle, but costs only a little more and takes
from a pulley on the top of the gin pole is then longer to rust through. Care should be taken
run to the top of the pole to be raised. The to make sure that no kinks exist when the pole
gin pole comes into play when the center of or tower is ready for erection, as the wire will
the mast has been raised 10 to 20 feet above be greatly weakened at such points if a kink
the ground and an additional elevated pull is is pulled tight, even if it is later straightened.
required to keep the top of the mast coming If "dead men" are used for the guy wire
up as the center is raised further above terminations, the wire or rod reaching from the
ground. dead men to the surface should be of non -rust-
ing material, such as brass, or given a heavy
Using TV Masts Steel tubing masts of the coating of asphalt or other protective sub-
telescoping variety are wide- stance to prevent destructive action by the
ly available at a moderate price for use in sup- damp soil. Galvanized iron wire will last only
porting television antenna arrays. These masts a short time when buried in moist soil.
usually consist of several 10 -foot lengths of Only strain -type (compression) insulators
electrical metal tubing (EMT) of sizes such should be used for guy wires. Regular ones
that the sections will telescope. The 30 -foot might be sufficiently strong for the job, but it
and 40 -foot lengths are well suited as masts is not worth taking chances, and egg -type
for supporting antennas and arrays of the strain halyard insulators are no more ex-
types used on the amateur bands. The masts pensive.
are constructed in such a manner that the bot- Only a brass or bronze pulley should be
tom 10-foot length may be guyed permanently used for the halyard, as a high pole with a
before the other sections are raised. Then the rusted pulley is truly a sad affair. The bear-
upper sections may be extended, beginning ing of the pulley should be given a few drops
with the top -mast section, until the mast is at of heavy machine oil before the pole or tower
full length (provided a strong wind is not blow- is raised. The halyard itself should be of good
ing) following which all the guys may be an- material, preferably water -proofed. Hemp rope
chored. It is important that there be no load of good quality is better than window sash
on the top of the mast when the "vertical" cord from several standpoints, and is less ex-
raising method is to be employed. pensive. Soaking it thoroughly in engine oil of
medium viscosity, and then wiping it off with
a rag, will not only extend its life but minim-
Guy Wires Guy wires should never be pulled ize shrinkage in wet weather. Because of the
taut; a small amount of slack is difficulty of replacing a broken halyard it is
desirable. Galvanized wire, somewhat heavier a good idea to replace it periodically, without
waiting for it to show excessive wear or de- so strong initially, redwood will deteriorate
terioration. much more slowly when buried than will the
It is an excellent idea to tie both ends of white woods, such as pine.
the halyard line together in the manner of a
flag -pole line. Then the antenna is tied onto Antenna Wire antenna or array itself
The
the place where the two ends of the halyard presents no especial problem.
are joined. This procedure of making the hal- A few considerations should be borne in mind,
yard into a loop prevents losing the top end however. For instance, soft -drawn copper
of the halyard should the antenna break near should not be used, as even a short span will
the end, and it also prevents losing the hal- stretch several per cent after whipping around
yard completely should the end of the halyard in the wind a few weeks, thus affecting the
carelessly be allowed to go free and be pulled resonant frequency. Enameled -copper wire,
through the pulley at the top of the mast by as ordinarily available at radio stores, is us-
the antenna load. A somewhat longer piece ally soft drawn, but by tying one end to some
of line is required but the insurance is well object such as a telephone pole and the other
worth the cost of the additional length of rope. to the frame of an auto, a few husky tugs can
be given and the wire, after stretching a bit,
Trees as Often a tall tree can be called up- is equivalent to hard drawn.
Supports on to support one end of an anten- Where a long span of wire is required, or
na, but one should not attempt to
where heavy insulators in the center of the
attach anything to the top, as the swaying of
the top of the tree during a heavy wind will span result in considerable tension, copper-
complicate matters. clad steel wire is somewhat better than hard -
drawn copper. It is a bit more expensive,
If a tree is utilized for support, provision
though the cost is far from prohibitive. The
should be made for keeping the antenna taut use of such wire, in conjunction with strain
without submitting it to the possibility of be- insulators, is advisable, where the antenna
ing severed during a heavy wind. This can be would endanger persons or property should it
done by the simple expedient of using a pul- break.
ley and halyard, with weights attached to the For transmission lines and tuning stubs
lower end of the halyard to keep the antenna steel -core or hard -drawn wire will prove awk-
taut. Only enough weight to avoid excessive ward to handle, and soft -drawn copper should,
sag in the antenna should be tied to the hal- therefore, be used. If the line is tong, the
yard, as the continual swaying of the tree sub- strain can be eased by supporting it at several
mits the pulley and halyard to considerable points.
wear. More important from an electrical standpoint
Galvanized iron pipe, or steel -tube conduit, than the actual size of wire used is the sol-
is often used as a vertical radiator, and is dering of joints, especially at current loops
quite satisfactory for the purpose. However, in an antenna of low radiation resistance. In
when used for supporting antennas, it should fact, it is good practice to solder all joints,
be remembered that the grounded supporting thus insuring quiet operation when the anten-
poles will distort the field pattern of a verti- na is used for receiving.
cally polarized antenna unless spaced some
distance from the radiating portion. Insulation Aquestion that often arises is
that of insulation. It depends, of
Painting The life of a wood mast or pole can course, upon the r -f voltage at the point at
be increased several hundred per which the insulator is placed. The r -f voltage,
cent by protecting it from the elements with a in turn, depends upon the distance from a cur-
coat or two of paint. And, of course, the ap- rent node, and the radiation resistance of the
pearance is greatly enhanced. The wood should antenna. Radiators having low radiation re-
first be given a primer coat of flat white out- sistance have very high voltage at the voltage
side house paint, which can be thinned down loops; consequently, better than usual insula-
a bit to advantage with second -grade linseed tion is advisable at those points.
oil. For the second coat, which should not be Open -wire lines operated as non -resonant
applied until the first is thoroughly dry, alumi- lines have little voltage across them; hence
num paint is not only the best from a preserva- the most inexpensive ceramic types are suffi-
tive standpoint, but looks very well. This type ciently good electrically. With tuned lines, the
of paint, when purchased in quantities, is con- voltage depends upon the amplitude of the
siderably cheaper than might be gathered from standing waves. If they are very great, the
the price asked for quarter-pint cans. voltage will reach high values at the voltage
Portions of posts or poles below the surface loops, and the best spacers available are none
of the soil can be protected from termites and too good. At the current loops the voltage is
moisture by painting with creosote. While not quite low, and almost anything will suffice.
HANDBOOK Antenna Coupling Systems 451
When insulators are subject to very high r -f tween the output of the transmitter and the an-
voltages, they should be cleaned occasionally tenna system.
if in the vicinity of sea water or smoke. Salt Although TVI may be eliminated through in-
scum and soot are not readily dislodged by clusion of a filter between the output of a
rain, and when the coating becomes heavy shielded transmitter and the antenna system,
enough, the efficiency of the insulators is the fact that such a filter must be included in
greatly impaired. the link between transmitter and antenna makes
If a very pretentious installation is to be it necessary that the transmitter -loading prob-
made, it is wise to check up on both under- lem be re- evaluated in terms of the necessity
writer's rules and local ordinances which for inclusion of such a filter.
might be applicable. If you live anywhere near Harmonic- attenuating filters must be oper-
an airport, and are contemplating a tall pole, ated at an impedance level which is close to
it is best to investigate possible regulations their design value; therefore they must operate
and ordinances pertaining to towers in the dis- into a resistive termination substantially equal
trict, before starting construction. to the characteristic impedance of the filter.
If such filters are operated into an impedance
which is not resistive and approximately equal
to their characteristic impedance: (1) the ca-
pacitors used in the filter sections will be
Coupling to the subjected to high peak voltages and may be
22 -10 damaged, (2) the harmonic- attenuating proper-
Antenna System ties of the filter will be decreased, and (3) the
impedance at the input end of the filter will
When coupling an antenna feed system to a be different from that seen by the filter at the
transmitter the most important considerations load end (except in the case of the half-wave
are as follows: (1) means should be provided type of filter). It is therefore important that
for varying the load on the amplifier; (2) the the filter be included in the transmitter- to-an-
two tubes in a push -pull amplifier should be tenna circuit at a point where the impedance
equally loaded; (3) the load presented to the is close to the nominal value of the filter, and
final amplifier should be resistive (non -reac- at a point where this impedance is likely to
tive) in character; and (4) means should be remain fairly constant with variations in fre-
provided to reduce harmonic coupling between quency.
the final amplifier plate tank circuit and the
antenna or antenna transmission line to an ex- Block Diagrams of There are two basic
tremely low value. Transmitter -to- Antenna arrangements which
Coupling Systems include all the provi-
The Transmitter- The problem of coupling the sions required in the
Loading Problem power output of a high -fre- transmitter -toantenna coupling system, and
quency or v -h -f transmitter which permit the harmonic- attenuating filter to
to the radiating portion of the antenna system be placed at a position in the coupling system
has been materially complicated by the virtual where it can be operated at an impedance
necessity for eliminating interference to TV re- level close to its nominal value. These ar-
ception. However, the TVI- elimination portion rangements are illustrated in block -diagram
of the problem may always be accomplished form in figures 35 and 36.
by adequate shielding of the transmitter, by The arrangement of figure 35 is recommend-
filtering of the control and power leads which ed for use with a single -band antenna system,
enter the transmitter enclosure, and by the in- such as a dipole or a rotatable array, wherein
clusion of a harmonic -attenuating filter be- an impedance matching system is included
3NIj}D _ AT TRANSMITTER AT ANTENNA

I
I EXCITER
PORTION A AL
MFIPLtiIER QOL lUSTNT
ACUPMEING --
I
HARMONIC
SYSTEM TRALINE
NSMISSION
J MATCHING
IMPEDANC[
T ANTENNA
Figure 35
ANTENNA COUPLING SYSTEM
The harmonic suppressing antenna coupling system illustrated above is for use when the anten-
na transmission line has a low standing -wave ratio, and when the characteristic impedance of
the antenna transmission line is the same as the nominal Impedance of the low -pass harmonic -
attenuating filter.
--- 3 1,11 AT TRANSMITTER AT ANTENNA
EXCITER FINAL COUPLING HARMONIC ANTENER

NA IMPEDANCE RADIATING
PORTION AMPLIFIER USTMENT ATTENUATIMi
COUPL MATCHING SYSTEM
SYSTEM TRANSMISSION AT ANTENNA
L J
Figure 36
ANTENNA COUPLING SYSTEM
The antenna coupling system illustrated above is for use when the antenna transmission line
does not have the same characteristic impedance as the TVI filter, and when the standing -wave
ratio on the antenna transmission line may or may not be low.
within or adjacent to the antenna. The feed coupler, if used. In any event the impedance
line coming down from the antenna system at the input terminal of the harmonic filter
should have a characteristic impedance equal should be very close to the nominal impedance
to the nominal impedance of the harmonic fil- of the filter. Then the Coupling Adjustment
ter, and the impedance matching at the anten- provides means for transforming this imped-
na should be such that the standing -wave ratio ance value to the correct operating value of
on the antenna feed line is less than 2 to 1 load impedance which should be presented to
over the range of frequency to be fed to the the final amplifier stage.
antenna. Such an arrangement may be used There are two common ways for accomplish-
with open -wire line, ribbon or tubular line, or ing the antenna coupling adjustment, as illus-
with coaxial cable. The use of coaxial cable trated in figures 37 and 38. Figure 37 shows
is to be recommended, but in any event the the variable -link arrangement most commonly
impedance of the antenna transmission line used in home- constructed equipment, while the
should be the same as the nominal impedance pi- netowrk coupling arrangement commonly
of the harmonic filter. The arrangement of fig- used in commercial equipment is illustrated in
ure 35 is more or less standard for commercial- figure 38. Either method may be used, and each
ly manufactured equipment for amateur and has its advantages.
commercial use in the h -f and v -h -f range.
The arrangement of figure 36 merely adds Variable -Link The variable -link method il-
an antenna coupler between the output of the Coupling lustrated in figure 37 has the
harmonic attenuating filter and the antenna advantage that standard man-
transmission line. The antenna coupler will ufactured components m ay be used with no
have some harmonic- attenuating action, but its changes. However, for greatest bandwidth of
main function is to transform the impedance operation of the coupling circuit, the reactance
at the station end of the antenna transmission of the link coil, L, and the reactance of the
line to the nominal value of the harmonic filter. link tuning capacitor, C, should both be be-
Hence the arrangement of figure 36 is more tween 3 and 4 times the nominal load imped-
general than the figure 35 system, since the ance of the harmonic filter. This is to say that
inclusion of the antenna coupler allows the
the inductive reactance of the coupling link L
system to feed an antenna transmission line
of any reasonable impedance value, and also
should be tuned out or resonated by capacitor
C, and the operating Q of the L -C link circuit
without regard to the standing -wave ratio
which might exist on the antenna transmission
should be between 3 and 4. If the link coil is
line. Antenna couplers are discussed in a fol- not variable with respect to the tank coil of
the final amplifier, capacitor C may be used
lowing section.
as a loading control; however, this system is
not recommended since its use will require
adjustment of C whenever a frequency change
Output Coupling It will be noticed by refer- is made at the transmitter. If L and C are made
Adjustment ence to both figure 35 and resonant at the center of a band, with a link
figure 36 that a box labeled circuit Q of 3 to 4, and coupling adjustment is
Coupling Adjustment is included in the block made by physical adjustment of L with respect
diagram. Such an element is necessary in the to the final amplifier tank coil, it usually will
complete system to afford an adjustment in the be possible to operate over an entire amateur
value of load impedance presented to the tubes band without change in the coupling system.
in the final amplifier stage of the transmitter. Capacitor C normally may have a low voltage
The impedance at the input terminal of the rating, even with a high power transmitter, due
harmonic filter is established by the antenna, to the low Q and low impedance of the coupling
through its matching system and the antenna circuit.
HANDBOOK Pi- Network Coupling Systems 453
COAX
RECEIVETOR
TO ANTENNA
- - ATTENUATING
HARMONIC
FILTER
COAX ANT.
CHANGEOVER
RELAY
FEEOLINE OR
TO ANTENNA
COUPLER
Figure 37
TUNED -LINK OUTPUT CIRCUIT
Capacitor C should be adjusted so as to tune out the inductive reactance of the coupling link,
L. Loading of the amplifier then is varied by physically varying the coupling between the plate
tank of the final amplifier and the antenna coupling link,
Pi- Network The pi- network coupling system pacitance by switch S if operation is to be on
Coupling offers two advantages: (1) a me- one of the lower frequency bands. Apply re-
chanical coupling variation is duced plate voltage to the stage and dip to
not required to vary the loading of the final am- resonance with C1. It may be necessary to vary
plifier, and (2) the pi network (if used with an the inductance in coil L, but in any event reso-
operating Q of about 15) offers within itself a nance should be reached with a setting of C1
harmonic attenuation of 40 db or more, in ad- which is approximately correct for the desired
dition to the harmonic attenuation provided by value of operating Q of the pi network.
the additional harmonic attenuating filter. Some Next, couple the load to the amplifier
commercial equipments (such as the Collins (through the harmonic filter), apply reduced
amateur transmitters) incorporate an L network plate voltage again and dip to resonance with
in addition to the pi network, for accomplish- C,. If the plate current dip with load is too low
ing the impedance transformation in two steps (taking into consideration the reduced plate
and to provide additional harmonic attenuation. voltage), decrease the capacitance of C2 and
again dip to resonance, repeating the proce-
dure until the correct value of plate current is
Tuning the Tuning of a pi- network obtained with full plate voltage on the stage.
PI- Section Coupler coupling circuit such as There should be a relatively small change re-
illustrated in figure 38 is quired in the setting of C1 (from the original
accomplished in the following manner: First setting of C1 without load) if the operating Q
remove the connection between the output of of the network is correct and if a large value
the amplifier and the harmonic filter (load). of impedance transformation is being em-
Tune C2 to a capacitance which is large for ployed-as would be the case when transform-
the band in use, adding suitable additional ca- ing from the plate impedance of a single-
COAX TO
RECEIVER
COAXIAL TO FEEDLINE
HARMONIC ANTENNA
ATTENUATING
FILTER
CHANGEOVER - OR ANTENNA
COUPLER
RELAY
Figure 38
PI- NETWORK ANTENNA COUPLER
The design of pi- network output circuits is discussed in Chapter Thirteen. The additional output-
end shunting capacitors selected by switch S are for use on the lower frequency ranges. Induc-
tor L may be selected by a tap switch, it may be continuously variable, or plug -in inductors
may be used.
COAX. TO
i
RECEIVER
HARMONIC COAX ANT.

TRANSMITTER FILTER - CHANGEOVER
RELAY
SINGLE-WIRE
ZERR HERTZ ANTENNA
FEEDERS OR FEEDER
SINGLE -WIRE
ANTENNA OR
-
COAX. LINE
FEEL/LINE j TO ANTENNA
O
Figure 39
ALTERNATIVE ANTENNA -COUPLER CIRCUITS
Plug -in coils, one or two v a r i a b l e capacitors of t h e split- stator variety, and a system of
switches or plugs and jocks may be used in the antenna coupler to accomplish the feeding of
different types of antennas and antenna transmission lines from the coaxial input line from the
transmitter or from the antenna changeover relay. Link L should be resonated with capacitor
C at the operating frequency of the transmitter so that the harmonic filter will operate into a
resistive load impedance of the correct nominal value.
ended output stage down to the 50 -ohm imped- of capacitance is required at (-2, assuming; that
ance of the usual harmonic filter and its sub - the values of C, and L are correct.
sequent load.
In a pi network of this type the harmonic
attenuation of the section will be adequate 22 -11 Antenna Couplers
when the correct value of C, and L are being
used and when the resonant dip in C, is As stated in the previous section, an anten-
sharp. If the dip in C, is broad, or if the plate na coupler is not required when the impedance
current persists in being too high with Cr at of the antenna transmission line is the same
maximum setting, it means that a greater value as the nominal impedance of the harmonic fil-
HANDBOOK Antenna Couplers 455
ter, assuming that the antenna feed line is be- COAX TO

RECEIVER
SINGLE WIRE
ANTENNA
ing operated with a low standing -wave ratio.
However, there are many cases where it is de- COAX ANT.
HARMONIC
sirable to feed a multi -band antenna from the TRANSMITTER iILTER CHANGEOVER
RELAY
output of the harmonic filter, where a tuned
line is being used to feed the antenna, or
where a long wire without a separate feed line
is to be fed from the output of the harmonic
filter. In such cases an antenna coupler is re-
Figure 40
quired.
Some harmonic attenuation will be provided PI-NETWORK
by the antenna coupler, particularly if it is ANTENNA COUPLER
well shielded. In certain cases when a pi net- An arrangement such as illustrated
work is being used at the output of the trans- above is convenient for feeding an
end-fed Hertz antenna, or a random
mitter, the addition of a shielded antenna cou- length of wire for portable or emer-
pler will provide sufficient harmonic attenua- gency operation, from the nominal
tion. But in all normal cases it will be neces- value of impedance of the harmonic
sary to include a harmonic filter between the filter.
output of the transmitter and the antenna cou-
pler. When an adequate harmonic filter is be-
ing used, it will not be necessary in normal Several general methods for using the induc-
cases to shield the antenna coupler, except tively- coupled resonant type of antenna cou-
from the standpoint of safety or convenience. pler are illustrated in figure 39. The coupling
between the link coil L and the main tuned cir-
Function of an The function of the antenna cuit need not be variable; in fact it is prefer-
Antenna Coupler coupler is, basically, to able that the correct link size and placement
transform the impedance of be determined for the tank coil which will be
the antenna system being used to the correct used for each band, and then that the link be
value of resistive impedance for the harmonic made a portion of the plug -in coil. Capacitor
filter, and hence for the transmitter. Thus the C then can be adjusted to a predetermined
antenna coupler may be used to resonate the value for each band such that it will resonate
feeders or the radiating portion of the antenna with the link coil for that band. The reactance
system, in addition to its function of imped- of the link coil (and hence the reactance of the
ance transformation. capacitor setting which will resonate the coil)
It is important to remember that there is should be about 3 or 4 times the impedance of
nothing that can be done at the antenna cou- the transmission line between the antenna cou-
pler which will eliminate standing waves on pler and the harmonic filter, so that the link
the antenna transmission line. Standing waves coupling circuit will have an operating Q of
are the result of reflection from the antenna, 3 or 4. The use of capacitor C to resonate with
and the coupler can do nothing about this con- the inductance of the link coil L will make it
dition. However, the antenna coupler can reso- easier to provide a low standing -wave ratio
nate the feed line (by introducing a conjugate to the output of the harmonic filter, simply by
impedance) in addition to providing an imped- adjustment of the antenna- coupler tank circuit
ance transformation. Thus, a resistive imped- to resonance. If this capacitor is not included,
ance of the correct value can be presented to the system still will operate satisfactorily, but
the harmonic filter, as in figure 36, regardless the tank circuit will have to be detuned slight-
of any reasonable value of standing -wave ratio ly from resonance so as to cancel the induc-
on the antenna transmission line. tive reactance of the coupling link and thus
provide a resistive load to the output of the
Types of All usual types of antenna harmonic filter. Variations in the loading of
Antenna Couplers couplers fall into two clas- the final amplifier should be made by the cou-
sifications: (1) inductively pling adjustment at the final amplifier, not at
coupled resonant systems as exemplified by the antenna coupler.
those shown in figure 39, and (2) conductively The pi- network type of antenna coupler, as
coupled pi- network systems such as shown in shown in figure 40 is useful for certain appli-
figure 40. The inductively -coupled system is cations, but is primarily useful in feeding a
much more commonly used, since it is conven- single-wire antenna from a low- impedance
ient for feeding a balanced line from the co- transmission line. In such an application the
axial output of the usual harmonic filter. The operating Q of the pi network may be somewhat
pi- network system is most useful for feeding lower than that of a pi network in the plate cir-
a length of wire from the output of a trans- cuit of the final amplifier of a transmitter, as
mitter. shown in figure 38. An operating Q of 3 or 4
PARALLEL -WIRE TO TO COAX. LINES TO SINGLE WIRE

ANTENNA
40 AO M. ANTENNA RECEIVER IOM. ANT 20M. ANT
r 52 .
COAXIAL SWR
FROM INDICATOR
XMTR
COAX. TYPE ANT

CHANGEOVER
RELAY
Figure 42
ANTENNA TUNER AND SWR

ro INDICATOR FOR RANDOM
TRANSMITTER THROUGH
HARMONIC FILTER LENGTH HERTZ ANTENNA
Figure 41
ALTERNATIVE COAXIAL ANTENNA
COUPLER
rise to several thousand ohms (near half-wave
This circuit is recommended not only as be- resonance) and the reactive component of the
ing most desirable when coaxial lines with
low s.w.r. are being used to feed antenna load can rapidly change from positive to nega-
systems such as rotatable beams, but when tive values, or vice -versa.
it also is desired to feed through open -wire It is possible to match a 52 -ohm trans-
line to some sort of multi -band antenna for
the lower frequency ranges. The tuned cir- mission line to such an antenna at almost any
cuit of the antenna coupler is operative only frequency between 1.8 me and 30 me with the
when using the open -wire feed, and then it use of a simple tuner of the type shown in
is in operation both for transmit and receive.
figure 42. A variable series inductor L, and a
variable shunt capacitor Cl permit circuit
resonance and impedance transformation to
in such an application will be found to be ade- be established for most antenna lengths.
quate, since harmonic attenuation has been Switch S1 permits the selection of series
accomplished ahead of the antenna coupler. capacitor C for those instances when the
However, the circuit will be easier to tune, single wire antenna exhibits large values of
although it will not have as great a bandwidth, positive reactance.
if the operating Q is made higher. To provide indication for the tuning of the
An alternative arrangement shown in figure network, a radio frequency bridge (SWR meter)
41 utilizes the antenna coupling tank circuit is included to indicate the degree of mis-
only when feeding the coaxial output of the match (standing wave ratio) existing at the
transmitter to the open -wire feed line (or simi- input to the tuner. All adjustments to the
lar multi -band antenna) of the 40- 80 meter an- tuner are made with the purpose of reaching
tenna. The coaxial lines to the 10 -meter beam unity standing wave ratio on the coaxial feed
and to the 20 -meter beam would be fed directly system between the tuner and the transmitter.
from the output of the coaxial antenna change-
over relay through switch S. A Practical A simple antenna tuner for
Antenna Tuner use with transmitters of
250 watts power or less
22 -12 A Single -Wire Antenna Tuner is shown in figures 43 through 46. A SWR
bridge circuit is used to indicate tuner re-
One of the simplest and least expensive sonance. The resistive arm of the bridge con-
antennas for transmission and reception is sists of ten 10 -ohm, 1 -watt carbon resistors
the single wire, end -fed Hertz antenna. When connected in parallel to form a 1 -ohm resistor
used over a wide range of frequencies, this (R1). The other pair of bridge arms are ca-
type of antenna exhibits a very great range of pacitive rather than resistive. The bridge
input impedance. At the low frequency end of detector is a simple r -f voltmeter employing a
the spectrum such an antenna may present a 1N56 crystal diode and a 0 -1 d.c. milliammeter.
resistive load of less than one ohm to the A sensitivity control is incorporated to prevent
transmitter, combined with a large positive or overloading the meter when power is first
negative value of reactance. As the frequency applied to the tuner. Final adjustments are
of operation is raised, the resistive load may made with the sensitivity control at its maxi-
HANDBOOK Single -wire Antenna Tuner 457
52 a INPUT
FROM XMTR Rltn L1
250 SINGLE
WIRE
fÎ- s, L2 ANT
C2 ;q
257
MICA
SENSITIVITY
TUNE1
5
230
HV.
-
0 -1
L1- 35 TURNS RIB, 2" DIA., C1- JOHNSON 350E20

Figure 43 3.5" LONG (A /R -OUA) C2- CENTRALA8 TYPE 822
TAP AT IS T., 27 T.,
ANTENNA TUNER IS HOUSED FROM POINT A J I -TYPE 50 -239 RECEPTACLE
IN METAL CABINET 7' x 8" IN L2- JOHNSON 229 -207 VARIABLE R1 -TEN 10 -OHM 1- WATTCAR-
INDUCTOR ( /0UH) BON RESISTORS IN PARA-
SIZE. LLEL. /RC TYPE BTA
Inductance switch SI and sensi-

tivity control are at left with Figure 44
counter dial for L2 at center. SCHEMATIC, SINGLE -WIRE
Output tuning capacitor Cl is at ANTENNA TUNER
right. SWR meter is mounted
above SI.
mum (clockwise) position. The bridge is Bridge The SWR bridge must be
Calibration calibrated for 52 ohm ser-
balanced when the input impedance of the vice. This can be done by
tuner is 52 ohms resistive. This is the con-
temporarily disconnecting the lead between the
dition for maximum energy transfer between
bridge and the antenna tuner and connecting a
transmission line and antenna. The meter is
2-watt, 52 ohm carbon resistor to the junction
graduated in arbitrary units, since actual SWR of Rl and the negative terminal of the 1N56
value is not required. diode. The opposite lead of the carbon resistor
is grounded to the chassis of the bridge. A
small amount of r -f energy is fed to the input
Tuner Major parts placement in of the bridge until a reading is obtained on
Construction the tuner is shown in the r -f voltmeter. The 25 mmfd bridge balancing
figures 43 and 45. Tapped capacitor C2 (see figure 46) is then adjusted
coil L1 is mounted upon %-inch ceramic in- with a fibre -blade screwdriver until a zero
sulators, and all major components are mounted reading is obtained on the meter. The sensi-
above deck with the exception of the SWR tivity control is advanced as the meter null
bridge (figure 46). The components of the grows, in order to obtain the exact point of
bridge are placed below deck, adjacent to bridge balance. When this point is found, the
the coaxial input plug mounted on the rear carbon resistor should be removed and the
apron of the chassis. The ten 10 -ohm resistors bridge attached to the antenna tuner. The
are soldered to two 1 -inch rings made of copper bridge capacitor is sealed with a drop of nail
wire as shown in the photograph. The bridge polish to prevent misadjustment.
capacitors are attached to this assembly with
extremely short leads.The 1N56 crystal mounts
at right angles to the resistors to insure mini- Tuner All tuning adjustments are
mum amount of capacitive coupling between the Adjustments made to obtain proper
resistors and the detector. The output lead transmitter loading with a
from the bridge passes through a ceramic feed - balanced (zero meter reading) bridge condition.
thru insulator to the top side of the chassis. The tuner is connected to the transmitter
Connection to the antenna is made by means through a random length of 52 ohm coaxial
of a large feedthru insulator mounted on the line, and the single wire antenna is attached
back of the tuner cabinet. This insulator is to the output terminal of the tuner. Transmitter
not visible in the photographs. loading controls are set to approximate a 52
\ Figure 45
REAR VIEW OF
C4¡i1n,;944; 41.494,44114111110 TUNER SHOWING
PLACEMENT OF
MAJOR COMPON-
ENTS.
Rotary inductor is drly-

n by Johnson 116-208-
1 counter dial. Coaxial
input receptacle JI
is mounted directly be-
low rotary inductor.
`.-........w.Lw4w- .:u.s...-....w...r....-
ohm termination. The transmitter is turned on

(preferably at reduced input) and resonance is
established in the amplifier tank circuit. The
sensitivity control of the tuner is adjusted to
provide near full scale deflection on the bridge
meter. Various settings of SI, L2, and Cl
should be tried CO obtain a reduction of bridge
reading. As tuner resonance is approached,
the meter reading will decrease and the sensi-
tivity control should be advanced. When the
system is in resonance, the meter will read
zero. All loading adjustments may then be
made with the transmitter controls. The tuner
should be readjusted whenever the frequency
of the transmitter is varied by an appreciable
amount.
Figure 46
CLOSE -UP OF SWR BRIDGE
Simple SWR bridge is mounted
below the chassis of the tuner.
Carbon resistors are mounted to
two copper rings to form low
inductance one -ohm resistor.
Bridge capacitors form triangular
configuration for lowest lead
inductance. Balancing capacitor
C2 is at lower right.
CHAPTER TWENTY -THREE
High Frequency Antenna Arrays
It is becoming of increasing importance in justed. They all are dipoles, and the feeder
most types of radio communication to be cap- system, if it does not radiate in itself, will
able of concentrating the radiated signal from have no effect on the radiation pattern.
the transmitter in a certain desired direction
and to be able to discriminate at the receiver
against reception from directions other than
the desired one. Such capabilities involve the 23 -1 Directive Antennas
use of directive antenna arrays.
Few simple antennas, except the single ver- When a multiplicity of radiating elements is
tical element, radiate energy equally well in located and phased so as to reinforce the radi-
all azimuth (horizontal or compass) directions. ation in certain desired directions and to neu-
All horizontal antennas, except those specifi- tralize radiation in other directions, a direc-
cally designed to give an omnidirectional azi- tive antenna array is formed.
muth radiation pattern such as the turnstile, The function of a directive antenna when
have some directive properties. These proper- used for transmitting is to give an increase in
ties depend upon the length of the antenna in signal strength in some direction at the ex-
wavelengths, the height above ground, and the pense of radiation in other directions. For re-
slope of the radiator. ception, one might find useful an antenna giv-
The various forms of the half -wave horizon- ing little or no gain in the direction from which
tal antenna produce maximum radiation at right it is desired to receive signals if the antenna
angles to the wire, but the directional effect is able to discriminate against interfering sig-
is not great. Nearby objects also minimize the nals and static arriving from other directions.
directivity of a dipole radiator, so that it hard- A good directive transmitting antenna, however,
ly seems worth while to go to the trouble to can also be used to good advantage for recep-
rotate a simple half -wave dipole in an attempt tion.
to improve transmission and reception in any If radiation can be confined to a narrow
direction. beam, the signal intensity can be increased a
The half-wave doublet, folded dipole, zepp, great many times in the desired direction of
single-wire -fed, matched impedance, and John- transmission. This is equivalent to increasing
son Q antennas all have practically the same the power output of the transmitter. On the
radiation pattern when properly built and ad- higher frequencies, it is more economical to
459
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O
460
eo
so-
20
10
0.
_
High Frequency Directive Antennas
SINGLE HOP
30 30
_
100
- -
300
OPTIMUM ANGLE OF RADIATION

WITH RESPECT TO DISTANCES
SOO
GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCE IN MILES
Figure 1
,.e
1000
Shown above is a plot of the optimum angle

of radiation for one-hop and two -hop com-
munication. An operating frequency close to
the optimum working frequency for the com-
munication distance is assumed.
use a directive antenna than to increase trans-

mitter power, if more than a few watts of power
is being used.
Directive antennas for the high- frequency
i
,"4A
,.u,
III '.Ia-;0
-
,
DOUBLE HOP
,.i..
NI
:
,0
1IIIh,.
3000
.
-
10000
isi
.ca
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1W,0
.-4
0 !py/4,
0014010 '04/
#JAM&%
-
'
HALF WAVE ANT.

'
-y
Figure 2
THE
PULL WAVE AMT.

HORIZONTAL ANTENNAS IN FREE SPACE
FREE -SPACE FIELD PATTERNS OF

LONG-WIRE ANTENNAS
RADIO
- --...
The presence of the earth distorts the field

pattern in such a manner that the azimuth
pattern becomes a function of the elevation
angle.
-1
2 WAVES ANT.
range have been designed and used commer-

cially with gains as high as 23 db over a sim- higher than this optimum angle oftentimes is
ple dipole radiator. Gains as high as 35 db are not nearly so effective.
common in direct -ray microwave communication For this reason, the horizontal directivity
and radar systems. A gain of 23 db represents pattern as measured on the ground is of no im-
a power gain of 200 times and a gain of 35 db port when dealing with frequencies and dis-
represents a power gain of almost 3500 times. tances dependent upon sky -wave propagation.
However, an antenna with a gain of only 15 to It is the horizontal directivity (or gain or dis-
20 db is so sharp in its radiation pattern that crimination) measured at the most use/al ver-
it is usable to full advantage only for point - tical angles o/ radiation that is of conse-
to -point work. quence. The horizontal radiation pattern, as
The increase in radiated power in the de- measured on the ground, is considerably differ-
sired direction is obtained at the expense of ent from the pattern obtained at a vertical
radiation in the undesired directions. Power angle of 15 °, and still more different from a
gains of 3 to 12 db seem to be most practi- pattern obtained at a vertical angle of 30 °.
cable for amateur communication, since the In general, the energy which is radiated at
width of a beam with this order of power gain angles higher than approximately 30° above
is wide enough to sweep a fairly large area. the earth is effective at any frequency only for
Gains of 3 to 12 db represent effective trans- local work.
mitter power increases from 2 to 16 times. For operation at frequencies in the vicinity
of 14 Mc., the most effective angle of radiation
Horizontal Pattern There is a certain optimum is usually about 15° above the horizon, from
vs. Vertical Angle vertical angle of radiation any kind of antenna. The most effective angles
for sky -wave communica- for 10 -meter operation are those in the vicinity
tion, this angle being dependent upon distance, of 10 °. Figure 1 is a chart giving the optimum
frequency, time of day, etc. Energy radiated at vertical angle of radiation for sky-wave propa-
an angle much lower than this optimum angle gation in terms of the great -circle distance be-
is largely lost, while radiation at angles much tween the transmitting and receiving antennas.
HANDBOOK Long Wire Radiators 461
is
LONG STRAIGHT WIRE ANTENNAS
Figure 3
DIRECTIVE GAIN OF
LONG -WIRE ANTENNAS
0
o 2 2 4 S 7 10
DB POWER RATIO OF MAIN LOBE TOA DIPOLE
Types of There is an enormous vari- The horizontal radiation pattern of such an-
Directive Arrays ety of directive antenna ar- tennas depends upon the vertical angle of radi-
rays that can give a substan- ation being considered. If the wire is more
tial power gain in the desired direction of trans- than 4 wavelengths long, the maximum radia-
mission or reception. However, some are more tion at vertical angles of 15° to 20° (useful
effective than others requiring the same space. for dx) is in line with the wire, being slightly
In general it may be stated that long -wire an- greater a few degrees either side of the wire
tennas of various types, such as the single than directly off the ends. The directivity of
long wire, the V beam, and the rhombic, are the main lobes of radiation is not particularly
less effective for a given space than arrays sharp, and the minor lobes fill in between the
composed of resonant elements, but the long - main lobes to permit working stations in near-
wire arrays have the significant advantage ly all directions, though the power radiated
that they may be used over a relatively large broadside to the radiator will not be great if
frequency range while resonant arrays are usa- the radiator is more than a few wavelengths
ble only over a quite narrow frequency band. long. The directive gain of long -wire antennas,
in terms of the wire length in wavelengths is
given in figure 3.
To maintain the out -of-phase condition in
23 -2 Long Wire Radiators adjoining half-wave elements throughout the
length of the radiator, it is necessary that a
Harmonically operated long wires radiate harmonic antenna be fed either at one end or
better in certain directions than others, but at a current loop. If fed at a voltage loop, the
cannot be considered as having appreciable adjacent sections will be fed in phase, and a
directivity unless several wavelengths long. different radiation pattern will result.
The current in adjoining half-wave elements The directivity of a long wire does not in-
flows in opposite directions at any instant, crease very much as the length is increased
and thus, the radiation from the various ele- beyond about 15 wavelengths. This is due to
ments adds in certain directions and cancels the fact that all long-wire antennas are ad-
in others. versely affected by the r -f resistance of the
A half-wave doublet in free space has a wire, and because the current amplitude be-
"doughnut" of radiation surrounding it. A full gins to become unequal at different current
wave has 2 lobes, 3 half waves 3, etc. When loops, as a result of attenuation along the wire
the radiator is made more than 4 half wave- caused by radiation and losses. As the length
lengths long, the end lobes (cones of radia- is increased, the tuning of the antenna be-
tion) begin to show noticeable power gain over comes quite broad. In fact, a long wire about
a half -wave doublet, while the broadside lobes 15 waves long is practically aperiodic, and
get smaller and smaller in amplitude, even works almost equally well over a wide range
though numerous (figure 2). of frequencies.
462 High Frequency Directive Antennas THE RADIO
LONG- ANTENNA DESIGN TABLE

APPROXIMATE LENGTH IN FEET-END-FED ANTENNAS
FREQUENCY 1A l -X 2X 2+X 3X 3f X 4 X 4 -k X
29 33 SO 67 64 101 116 135 152
26 34 52 69 67 104 122 140 157
21. 45 66 911/2 114 1/2 136 1/2 160 1/2 1631/2 2091/2
21.2 5 1/4 66 1/4 91 3/4 114 3/4 136 3.4 160 3A4 165 301 209 3/4
21.0 43 1/2 66 1/2 92 1 1 S 137 161 166 210
14.2 6712 102 137 171 200 240 275 310
14.0 66 1/2 103 1/2 139 174 209 244 279 314
7.3 136 206 276 346 16 466 555 625
7.15 130 1/2 207 277 347 417 467 557 627
7.0 137 207 1/2 277 1/2 346 416 466 556 626
4.0 240 362 465 616 730 53 977 1100
3.6 252 301 511 640 770 900 1030 1160
3.6 266 403 340 676 612 950 1090 1220
3.5 274 414 555 696 035 977 1120
2.0 90 725 72 1230 1473
1.9 304 763 1020 1260
1.9 532 605 1060
One of the most practical methods of feed- form of a V, itis possible to make two of the
ing a long -wire antenna is to bring one end of maximum lobes of one leg shoot in the same
it into the radio room for direct connection to direction as two of the maximum lobes of the
a tuned antenna circuit which is link -coupled other leg of the V. The resulting antenna is
through a harmonic -attenuating filter to the bidirectional (two opposite directions) for the
transmitter. The antenna can be tuned effec- main lobes of radiation. Each side of the V
tively to resonance for operation on any har- can be made any odd or even number of quarter
monic by means of the tuned circuit which is wavelengths, depending on the method of feed-
connected to the end of the antenna. A ground ing the apex of the V. The complete system
is sometimes connected to the center of the must be a multiple of half waves. If each leg
tuned coil. is an even number of quarter waves long, the
If desired, the antenna can be opened and antenna must be voltage-fed at the apex; if an
current -fed at a point of maximum current by odd number of quarter waves long, current feed
means of low- impedance ribbon line, or by a must be used.
quarter -wave matching section and open line.
By choosing the proper apex angle, figure
23 -3 The V Antenna 4 and figure 5, the lobes of radiation from the
two long -wire antennas aid each other to form
a bidirectional beam. Each wire by itself
If two long -wire antennas are built in the would have a radiation pattern similar to that
ISO
140
120
Figure 4
INCLUDED ANGLE FOR A
N
100 "V"BEAM
2 Showing the included angle be-
0
G 60
tween the legs of a V beam for
2 various leg lengths. For opti-
60 mum alignment of the radiation
lobe at the correct vertical
40 angle with leg lengths less than
three wavelengths, the optimum
20 included angle is shown by the
dashed curve.
o
0
2 6 10 12
LENGTH IN "L- WAVELENGTHS
HANDBOOK
Figure
f%
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gd
,1
KP
Mill
"V'
11
MA
The
Nomramommemnum
M11
V Antenna
BEAM GAIN....
463
TYPICAL "V" BEAM ANTENNA

R
'
0
0 2 3 3 7 6 9 10 11 12
LENGTH OF SIDE "L'
Figure 6
for a long wire. The reaction of one upon the DIRECTIVE GAIN OF A "V" BEAM
other removes two of the four main lobes, and This curve shows the approximate directive
increases the other two in such a way as to gain of a V beam with respect to a half -wave
form two lobes of still greater magnitude. antenna located the same distance above
The correct wire lengths and the degree of ground, in terms of the side length L.
the angle b are listed in the V- Antenna Design
Table for various frequencies in the 10 -, 20-
and 40 -meter amateur bands. Apex angles for
all side lengths are given in figure 4. The rather than 180 °, as determined by the ground
gain of a "V" beam in terms of the side length pattern alone.
when optimum apex angle is used is given in If very long wires are used in the V, the
figure 6. angle between the wires is almost unchanged
The legs of a very long V antenna are usual- when the length of the wires in wavelengths
ly so arranged that the included angle is twice is altered. However, an error of a few degrees
the angle of the major lobe from a single wire causes a much larger loss in directivity and
if used alone. This arrangement concentrates gain in the case of the longer V than in the
the radiation of each wire along the bisector shorter one.
of the angle, and permits part of the other The vertical angle at which the wave is
lobes to cancel each other. best transmitted or received from a horizontal
With legs shorter than 3 wavelengths, the V antenna depends largely upon the included
best directivity and gain are obtained with a angle. The sides of the V antenna should be
somewhat smaller angle than that determined at least a half wavelength above ground; com-
by the lobes. Optimum directivity for a one - mercial practice dictates a height of approxi-
wave V is obtained when the angle is 90° mately a full wavelength above ground.
V- ANTENNA DESIGN TABLE

FREQUENCY L =A L =2a L =4). L =8),
IN KILOCYCLES 6'9o 6.70 6 °52 6'39
26000 34'6' 69'6' 140' 260'
29000 33'6' 67'3" 135' 271'
21100 45'9' 91'9 163' 366'

21300 43.4 91'4" 162'6' 365'
14050 69' 139' 279' 556'

14150 66'6' 136' 277' 555'
14250 66'2' 137' 273' 552'
7020 136'2 276' 556' 1120'

7100 136'6 275' 552' 1106'
7200 134'10' 271' 545' 1090'
2
23 -4 The Rhombic 1.9
..=i
.... N M[IGMT IAV[LEMGTMa
Antenna w IM
1
The terminated rhombic or diamond is prob- Z1.2
a..c.i
ably the most effective directional antenna
that is practical for amateur communication.
This antenna is non -resonant, with the result
o.
%lb
that it can be used on three amateur bands, rw e TILT ANGLE
such as 10, 20, and 40 meters. When the an- . -1 ai. 0 a COS
ea0-A
tenna is non -resonant, i.e., properly termi- a 1
nated, the system is undirectional, and the

I
wire dimensions are not critical.

211
Rhombic When the free end is terminated
Termination with
23
24 1 LENS'S iN
NT PON SAS. OUTPUT
a resistance of a value 22 !'LONG,. IN
a
POR ALIGNY[NT
between 700 and 800 ohms the
backwave is eliminated, the forward gain is al]0
increased, and the antenna can be used on o,
O ,
several bands without changes. The terminat-

ing resistance should be capable of dissipat-
ing one -third the power output of the trans-
mitter, and should have very little reactance.
For medium or low power transmitters, the
non -inductive plaque resistors will serve as
a satisfactory termination. Several manufactur-
ers offer special resistors suitable for termi-
r Ir Ir N n Ir
WAVE ANGLE
r r 24 W 2
nating a rhombic antenna. The terminating de-
vice should, for technical reasons, present a
small amount of inductive reactance at the Figure 7
point of termination. RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN TABLE

A compromise terminating device commonly Design data is given in terms of the wave
used consists of a terminated 250-foot or angle (vertical ongle of transmission and re-
longer length of line, made of resistance wire ception) of the antenna. The lengths 1 are
for the "maximum output" design; the shorter
which does not have too much resistance per lengths l'
are for the "alignment" method
unit length. If the latter qualification is not which gives approximately 1.5 db less gain
met, the reactance of the line will be exces- with a considerable reduction in the space
required for the antenna. The values of side
sive. A 250 -foot line con s i sting of no. 25 length, tilt angle, and height for a given
nichrome wire, spaced 6 inches and terminated wave angle are obtained by drawing a ver-
with 800 ohms, will serve satisfactorily. Be- tical line upward from the desired wave
angle.
cause of the attenuation of the line, the
lumped resistance at the end of the line need
dissipate but a few watts even when high pow-
er is used. A half -dozen 5000 -ohm 2 -watt car-
bon resistors in parallel will serve for all ex- The antenna should be fed with a non -reso-
cept very high power. The attenuating line nant line having a characteristic impedance
may be folded back on itself to take up less of 650 to 700 ohms. The four corners of the
room. rhombic should be at least one -half wave-
The determination of the best value of termi- length above ground for the lowest frequency
nating resistor may be made while receiving, of operation. For three -band operation the
if the input impedance of the receiver is ap- proper tilt angle 0 for the center band should
proximately 800 ohms. The value of resistor be observed.
which gives the best directivity on reception The rhombic antenna transmits a horizon-
will not give the most gain when transmitting, tally- polarized wave at a relatively low angle
but there will be little difference between the above the horizon. The angle of radiation
two conditions. (wave angle) decreases as the height above
The input resistance of the rhombic which ground is increased in the same manner as
is reflected into the transmission line that with a dipole antenna. The rhombic should
feeds it is always somewhat less than the not be tilted in any plane. In other words, the
terminating resistance, and is around 700 to poles should all be of the same height and
750 ohms when the terminating resistor is 800 the plane of the antenna should be parallel
ohms. with the ground.
HANDBOOK The Rhombic Antenna 465
4,
Figure 8
TYPICAL RHOMBIC
ANTENNA DESIGN
The antenna system illus-
trated above may be used
over the frequency range from LINE TOTS
7 to 29 Mc. without change. N 14 SPACED 6'
The directivity of the system SPACING BETWEEN SIDES 5, 214 FEET TERMINATING LINO
may be reversed by the sys- TOTAL LENGTH Peer
562 OF 250' OP N 26
NICHROME SPACED 6"
tem discussed in the text. AND 600-OHM 16 -WATT
Hso' CARBON RESISTOR AT
END. 2-WATT 100-OHM
RESISTORS IN SERIES
A considerable amount of directivity is lost bands. This antenna will give about 11 db
when the terminating resistor is left off the gain in the 14.0 -Mc. band. The approximate
end and the system is operated as a resonant gain of a rhombic antenna over a dipole, both
antenna. If it is desired to reverse the direc- above normal soil, is given in figure 9.
tion of the antenna it is much better practice
to run transmission lines to both ends of the
antenna, and then run the terminating line to
the operating position. Then with the aid of
two d -p -d -t switches it will be possible to con-
23 -5 Stacked -Dipole
nect either feeder to the antenna changeover Arrays
switch and the other feeder to the terminating
line, thus reversing the direction of the array The characteristics of a half -wave dipole
and maintaining the same termination for already have been described. When another
either direction of operation. dipole is placed in the vicinity and excited
Figure 7 gives curves for optimum- design either directly or parasitically, the resultant
rhombic antennas by both the maximum -out- radiation pattern will depend upon the spacing
put method and the alignment method. The and phase differential, as well as the relative
alignment method is about 1.5 db down from magnitude of the currents. With spacings less
the maximum output method but requires only than 0.65 wavelength, the radiation is mainly
about 0.74 as much leg length. The height and broadside to the two wires (bidirectional) when
tilt angle is the same in either case. Figure there is no phase difference, and through the
8 gives construction data for a recommended wires (end fire) when the wires are 180° out
rhombic antenna for the 7.0 through 29.7 Mc. of phase. With phase differences between 0°
17
W 16
J
is
a 14
61 13
Figure 9 312
RHOMBIC ANTENNA GAIN LL
11
Showing the theoretical gain of a rhombic 10

antenna, in terms of the side length, over a
half -wave antenna mounted at the same
height above the same type of soil.
2 3 4 5 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IC II 20
L' = LENGTH OF EACH LEG OF RHOMBIC IN WAVELENGTHS
i-s- LI
-----e-- L
-1P--ea- --re-P
LI
+ f
-\ PLANE OF WIRES
ENO VIEW
y
La s ' Ls
UAIITER-WAVE STUBS
NON-RESONANT
FEED LIN
GAIN APPROL. 4.3 DR
O
Figure 11
s ° -j} s =+ THE FRANKLIN OR COLINEAR
ISO. OUT OF NASE I IN PHASE
ANTENNA ARRAY
(PLAT -TOP SEAM, ETC.) / (LAZY H, STERBA CURTAIN)
An antenna of this type, regardless of the
number of elements, attains oll of its direc-
Figure 10 tivity through sharpening of the horizontal
or azimuth radiation pattern; no vertical di-
RADIATION PATTERNS OF A PAIR OF rectivity is provided. Hence a long antenna
DIPOLES OPERATING WITH IN -PHASE of this type has an extremely sharp azimuth
EXCITATION, AND WITH EXCITATION pattern, but no vertical directivity.
180° OUT OF PHASE
If the dipoles are oriented horizontally most
of the directivity will be in the vertical
plane; if they are oriented vertically most
of the directivity will be in the horizontal
plane. In the three foregoing examples, most of the
directivity provided is in a plane at a right
angle to the wires, though when out of phase,
the directivity is in a line through the wires,
and when in phase, the directivity is broadside
and 180° (45 °, 90 °, and 135° for instance), to them. Thus, if the wires are oriented verti-
the pattern is unsymmetrical, the radiation be- cally, mostly horizontal directivity will be
ing greater in one direction than in the oppo- provided.1f the wires are oriented horizontally,
site direction. most of the directivity obtained will be verti-
With spacings of more than 0.8 wavelength, cal directivity.
more than two main lobes appear for all phas- To increase the sharpness of the directivity
ing combinations; hence, such spacings are in all planes that include one of the wires,
seldom used. additional identical elements are added in the
line of the wires, and fed so as to be in phase.
In -Phase With the dipoles driven so as to The familiar H array is one array utilizing
Spacing be in phase, the most effective both types of directivity in the manner pre-
spacing is between 0.5 and 0.7 scribed. The two- section Kraus flat -top beam
wavelength. The latter provides greater gain, is another.
but minor lobes are present which do not ap- These two antennas in their various forms
pear at 0.5- wavelength spacing. The radiation are directional in a horizontal plane, in addi-
is broadside to the plane of the wires, and the tion to being low -angle radiators, and are per-
gain is slightly greater than can be obtained haps the most practicable of the bidirectional
from two dipoles out of phase. The gain falls stacked -dipole arrays for amateur use. More
off rapidly for spacings less than 0.375 wave- phased elements can be used to provide great-
length, and there is little point in using spacer directivity in planes including one of the
ing of 0.25 wavelength or less with in -phase radiating elements. The H then becomes a
dipoles, except where it is desirable to in- Sterba-curtain array.
crease the radiation resistance. (See Multi - For unidirectional work the most practicable
Wire Doublet.) stacked -dipole arrays for amateur-band use
are parasitically- excited systems using rela-
Out of Phase dipoles are fed 180°
When the tively close spacing between the reflectors
Spacing out of phase, the directivity is and the directors. Antennas of this type are
through the plane of the wires, described in detail in a later chapter. The
and is greatest with close spacing, though next most practicable unidirectional array is
there is but little
difference in the pattern an H or a Sterba curtain with a similar system
after the spacing is made less than 0.125 placed approximately one -quarter wave behind.
wavelength. The radiation resistance becomes The use of a reflector system in conjunction
so low for spacings of less than 0.1 wave- with any type of stacked -dipole broadside ar-
length that such spacings are not practicable. ray will increase the gain by 3 db.
HANDBOOK Colinear Arrays 467
eoo
COLINEAR ANTENNA DESIGN CHART F MC) r
FREQUENCY
IN MC. L1 La La F(Mt)
A B
28.5 10'8' 17' 8'6'
21.2 22'8" 23.3 11'8' A- B. ISOA FEED POINT GAIN APPRO* 3DB
14.2 33.8 34'7 17'3'

7.15 e7' 88'S" 34'4 Figure 12
4.0 120' 123' el'S DOUBLE EXTENDED ZEPP ANTENNA
3.8 133' 138.5' 68'2' For best results, amenna should be tuned to
operating frequency by means of grid -dip
oscillator.
Colinear The simple colinear antenna array

Arrays is a very effective radiating system
the terminal radiation resistance in ohms at
for the 3.5 -Mc. and 7.0 -Mc. bands,
any current loop is approximately 100 times
but its use is not recommended on higher fre-
the number of elements.
quencies since such arrays do not possess
any vertical directivity. The elevation radia-
It should be borne in mind that the gain from
a colinear antenna depends upon the sharpness
tion pattern for such an array is essentially
of the horizontal directivity since no vertical
the same as for a half -wave dipole. This con-
sideration applies whether the elements are of
directivity is provided. An array with several
colinear elements will give considerable gain,
normal length or are extended.
but will have a sharp horizontal radiation
The colinear antenna consists of two or
pattern.
more radiating sections from 0.5 to 0.65 wave-
lengths long, with the current in phase in each Double Extended The gain of a conventional
section. The necessary phase reversal between Zepp two -element Franklin colin-
sections is obtained through the use of reso- ear antenna can be increased
nant tuning stubs as illustrated in figure 11. to a value approaching that obtained from a
The gain of a colinear array using half -wave three-element Franklin, simply by making the
elements (in decibels) is approximately equal
two radiating elements 230° long instead of
to the number of elements in the array. The 180° long. The phasing stub is shortened cor-
exact figures are as follows: respondingly to maintain the whole array in
Number of Elements 2 3 4 5 6
resonance. Thus, instead of having 0.5 -wave-
Gain in Decibels 1.8 3.3 4.5 5.3 6.2 length elements and 0.25- wavelength stub, the
As additional in -phase colinear elements elements are made 0.64 wavelength long and
are added to a doublet, the radiation resistance the stub is approximately 0.11 wavelength
goes up much faster than when additional half long.
waves are added out of phase (harmonic oper- Dimensions for the double extended Zepp
ated antenna). are given in figure 12.
For a colinear array of from 2 to 6 elements, The vertical directivity of a colinear anten-
na having 230° elements is the same as for
one having 180° elements. There is little ad-
vantage in using extended sections when the
total length of the array is to be greater than
about 1.5 wavelength overall since the gain
---41 14-e5 e---.{ .- e5 e -PI
PHASE -REVERSING SWITCH

FOR CLOVERLEAF PATTERN
MANE STUBS OF* 4 E. 30011 R COON TO
WIRE. SPACED 4'TOe TRANSMITTER. ANY LENGTH
GAIN APPROX. 3DR
Figure 13
TWO COLINEAR HALF -WAVE ANTENNAS Figure 14
IN PHASE PRODUCE A 3 DB GAIN WHEN PRE -CUT LINEAR ARRAY FOR 40 -METER
SEPARATED ONE -HALF WAVELENGTH OPERATION
of a colinear antenna is proportional to the I LI
overall length, whether the individual radiating

elements are % wave, % wave or 3% wave in
length.
Spaced Half The gain of two colinear half L
Wave Antennas waves may be increased by
increasing the physical spac-
ing between the elements, up to a maximum of
about one half wavelength. If the half wave
elements are fed with equal lengths of trans-
mission line, poled correctly, a gain of about
3.3 db is produced. Such an antenna is shown QUARTER -WAVE STUB
in figure 13. By means of a phase reversing
switch, the two elements may be operated out
NON -RESONANT
of phase, producing a cloverleaf pattern with FEED LIN GAIN APPROX. 3.5 De
slightly less maximum gain.
A three element "precut" array for 40 meter
operation is shown in figure 14. It is fed di-
rectly with 300 ohm "ribbon line," and may
be matched to a 52 ohm coaxial output trans-
mitter by means of a Balun, such as the Barker
& Williamson 3975. The antenna has a gain of
about 3.2 db, and a beam width at half-power
points of 40 degrees.
23 -6 Broadside Arrays
Colinear elements may be stacked above or

below another string of colinear elements to
produce what is commonly called a broadside RESONANT TEED LINE
array. Such an array, when horizontal elements
are used, possesses vertical directivity in
proportion to the number of broadsided (ver-
tically stacked) sections which have been Figure 15
used. Since broadside arrays do have good ver- THE "LAZY H" ANTENNA SYSTEM
tical directivity their use is recommended on
the 14 -Mc. band and on those higher in fre- Stacking the colinear pairs gives both hori-
zontal and vertical directivity. As shown, the
quency. One of the most popular of simple array will give about S.S db gain. Note that
broadside arrays is the "Lazy H" array of fig- the array may be fed either at the center of
ure 15. Horizontal colinear elements stacked the phasing section or at the bottom; if fed
two above two make up this antenna system at the bottom the phasing section must be
which is highly recommended for work on fre- twisted through 180 °.
quencies above perhaps 14 -Mc. when moderate
gain without too much directivity is desired.
It has high radiation resistance and a gain of
approximately 5.5 db. The high radiation re- a similar bent quarter wave from the opposite
sistance results in low voltages and a broad end radiator. This provides better balance and
resonance curve, which permits use of inex- better coupling between the upper and lower
pensive insulators and enables the array to be elements when the array is current -fed. Arrays
used over a fairly wide range in frequency. of this type are shown in figure 16, and are
For dimensions, see the stacked dipole design commonly known as curtain arrays.
table.
Correct length for the elements and stubs
Stocked Vertical stacking may be applied can be determined for any stacked dipole array
Dipoles to strings of colinear elements from the Stacked -Dipole Design Table.
longer than two half waves. In In the sketches of figure 16 the arrowheads
such arrays, the end quarter wave of each represent the direction of current flow at any
string of radiators usually is bent in to meet given instant. The dots on the radiators repre-
HANDBOOK Broadside Arrays 469
NON -RESONANT REEDER
GAIN APPROX. 6 DB GAIN APPROX. 8 DB
LS 2 L3
Figure 16
THE STERBA CURTAIN ARRAY
Approximate directive gains along with alter-
L3 2 L3 native feed methods are shown.
300 -0NM
TWIN LEAD
GAIN APPROX. 6 DB
sent points of maximum current. All arrows as a Sterba curtain or a "Lazy 11." Parasitic
should point in the same direction in each por- elements may be used as reflectors or direc-
tion of the radiating sections of an antenna in tors, but parasitic elements have the disadvan-
order to provide a field in phase for broadside tage that their operation is selective with re-
radiation. This condition is satisfied for the spect to relatively small changes in frequency.
arrays illustrated in figure 16. Figures 16A Nevertheless, parasitic reflectors for such ar-
and 16C show simple methods of feeding rays are quite widely used.
a short Sterba curtain, while an alternative
method of feed is shown in the higher gain an- The X -Array In section 23 -5 it was shown
tenna of figure 1613. how two dipoles may be arranged
In the case of each of the arrays of figure in phase to provide a power gain of (some) 3
16, and also the "Lazy H" of figure 15, the db. If two such pairs of dipoles are stacked
array may be made unidirectional and the gain
increased by 3 db if an exactly similar array
is constructed and placed approximately 1/4
wave behind the driven array. A screen or mesh LAZY -H AND STERBA
of wires slightly greater in area than the an- (STACKED DIPOLE) DESIGN TABLE
tenna array may be used instead of an addi-
tional array as a reflector to obtain a unidirec- FREQUENCY
tional system. The spacing between the re- IN MC. L L, L:
flecting wires may vary from 0.05 to 0.1 wave- 7.0 68'2" 70' 35'
7.3 65'10" 67'6" 33'9"
length with the spacing between the reflecting 14.0 34'1" 35' 17'6"
wires the smallest directly behind the driven 14.2 33'8" 34'7" 17'3"
14.4 33'4" 34'2" 17'
elements. The wires in the untuned reflecting 21.0 22'9" 23'3" 11'8"
system should be parallel to the radiating ele- 21.5 22'3" 22'9" 11'5"
27.3 17'7" 17'10" 8'11"
ments of the array, and the spacing of the com- 28.0 17' 17'7" 8'9"
plete reflector system should be approximately 29.0 16'6" 17' 8'6"
50.0 9'7" 9'10" 4'11"
0.2 to 0.25 wavelength behind the driven ele- 52.0 9'3" 9'5" 4'8"
ments. 54.0 8'10" 9'1" 4'6"
144.0 39.8" 40.5" 20.3"
On frequencies below perhaps 100 Mc. it 146.0 39" 40" 20"
normally will be impracticable to use a wire - 148.0 38.4" 39.5" 19.8"
screen reflector behind an antenna array such
-L - L - !- - L - L -
ME MI 6000. LINE GAIN APPROX. S Oe
DIMENSION L
10M 13 M. 20/10 M. ANTENNA TRANSMITTER
6'9- 13' 17'6' TUNER
DIMENSIONS
10m. 10 M. 20M.
L w3 22' 32'10. Figure 18
S 20' 30' 40' THE DOUBLE -BRUCE ARRAY FOR 10,
p 14'2 21'3 26'4
15, AND 20 METERS
D 3'6' 7'0- 7311 TRANSMISSION LINE
If a 600-ohm feed line is used, the 20 -meter
array will also perform on 10 meters as a
Figure 17 Sterba curtain, with an approximate gain of
9 db.
THE X -ARRAY FOR 28 MC., 21 MC.,
OR 14 MC.
The entire array (with the exception of the
75 -ohm feed line) is constructed of 300 -ohm
ribbon line. Be sure phasing lines (P) are dipole, and is a very simple beam to construct.
poled correctly, as shown. This antenna, like other so- called "broadside"
arrays, radiates maximum power at right angles
to the plane of the array.
The feed impedance of the Double Bruce is
in a vertical plane and properly phased, a about 750 ohms. The array may be fed with a
simplified form of in -phase curtain is formed, one -quarter wave stub made of 300 -ohm ribbon
providing an overall gain of about 6 db. Such line and a feedline made of 150 -ohm ribbon
an array is shown in figure 17. In this X- array, line. Alternatively, the array may be fed di-
the four dipoles are all in phase, and are fed rectly with a wide -spaced 600 -ohm transmis-
by four sections of 300 -ohm line, each one - sion line (figure 18). The feedline should
half wavelength long, the free ends of all four be brought away from the Double Bruce for a
lines being connected in parallel. The feed short distance before it drops downward, to
impedance at the junction of these four lines prevent interaction between the feedline and
is about 75 ohms, and a length of 75 -ohm the lower part of the center phasing section of
Twin -Lead may be used for the feedline to the array. For best results, the bottom sec-
the array. tions of the array should be one -half wave-
An array of this type is quite small for the length above ground.
28 -Mc. band, and is not out of the question Arrays such as the X -array and the Double
for the 21 -Mc. band. For best results, the bot- Bruce are essentially high impedance devices,
tom section of the array should be one -half and exhibit relatively broad -band characteris-
wavelength above ground. tics. They are less critical of adjustment than
a parasitic array, and they work well over a
The Double -Bruce The Bruce Beam consists wide frequency range such as is encountered
Array of a long wire folded so on the 28 -29.7 Mc. band.
that vertical elements
carry in -phase currents while the horizontal The "Bi- Square" 19 is a
Illustrated in figure
elements carry out of phase currents. Radia- Broadside Array simple method of feeding a
tion from the horizontal sections is low since small broadside array first
only a small current flows in this part of the described by W6BCX several years ago as a
wire, and it is largely phased -out. Since the practical method of suspending an effective
height of the Bruce Beam is only one -quarter array from a single pole. As two arrays of this
wavelength, the gain per linear foot of array type can be supported at right angles from a
is quite low. Two Bruce Beams may be com- single pole without interaction, it offers a
bined as shown in figure 18 to produce the solution to the problem of suspending two ar-
Double Bruce array. A four section Double rays in a restricted space with a minimum of
Bruce will give a vertically polarized emis- erection work. The free space directivity gain
sion, with a power gain of 5 db over a simple is slightly less than that of a Lazy II, but is
HANDBOOK Broadside Arrays 471
r 90 '
e
F GAIN
DI
Tv
e1
I
EACH
SIDE
REFLECTOR RADIATOR
--
C. 50 UUF
TUNE FOR MIN MUM ISO 014M BALANCED LINE
PICKUP OFF REAR STUB =10' TOTUNING UNIT OR
OF BEAM. I4 E. TRANSMITTER.
SPACED S'
NOTE: S /OE warm= Il' I FOR 21 MC.

17'7 FOR 44 MC.
ELEMENT SPACING PI FOR EACH BAND.
STUD LENGTH APPROX. 1S' FOR 21 MC.
20 FOR 74 MC_
DIMENSIONS
IOM. ISM. 20M.
L Ie'B ave SS' O SECTION
B'3 12v Ie'e - *14E.WIRE
SPACED 4-
GAIN APPROX. De
15041 LINE TO TRANSMITTER

Figure 20
THE CUBICAL -QUAD ANTENNA FOR
THE 10 -METER BAND
Figure 19
THE "BI- SQUARE" BROADSIDE ARRAY

This bidirectional array is related to the
"Lazy H," and in spite of the oblique ele- When tuned feeders are employed, the Bi-
ments, is horizontally polarized. It has slight-
ly less gain and directivity than the Lazy Square array can be used on half frequency as
H, the free space directivity gain being ap- an end -fire vertically polarized array, giving
proximately 4 db. Its chief advantage is the a slight practical dx signal gain over a verti-
fact that only a single pole is required for cal half-wave dipole at the same height.
support, and two such arrays may be sup-
ported from a single pole without interaction A second Bi -Square serving as a reflector
if the planes of the elements are at right may be placed 0.15 wavelength behind this an-
angles. A 600 -ohm line may be substituted tenna to provide an overall gain of 8.5 db. The
for the Twin -Lead, and either operated as a reflector may be tuned by means of a quarter-
resonant line, or made non -resonant by the
incorporation of a matching stub. wave stub which has a moveable shorting bar
at the bottom end. The stub is used as a sub-
stitute for the Q- section, since the reflector
employs no feed line.
still worthwhile, being approximately 4 db over
a half -wave horizontal dipole at the same aver- The "Cubical- smaller version of the Bi-
A
age elevation. Quad" Antenna Square antenna is the Cubi-
When two Bi -Square arrays are suspended cal -Quad antenna. Two half -
at right angles to each other (for general cov- waves of wire are folded into a square that is
erage) from a single pole, the Q sections one -quarter wavelength on a side, as shown in
should be well separated or else symmetrically figure 20. The arraÿ radiates a horizontally
arranged in the form of a square (the diagonal polarized signal. A reflector placed 0.15 wave-
conductors forming one Q section) in order to length behind the antenna provides an overall
minimize coupling between them. The same gain of some 6 db. A shorted stub with a paral-
applies to the line if open construction is used leled tuning capacitor is used to resonate the
instead of Twin -Lead, but if Twin -Lead is reflector.
used the coupling can be made negligible sim- The Cubical -Quad is fed with a 150 -ohm
ply by separating the two Twin -Lead lines by line, and should employ some sort of antenna
at least two inches and twisting one Twin- tuner at the transmitter end of the line if a pi-
Lead so as to effect a transposition every foot network type transmitter is used. There is a
or so. small standing wave on the line, and an open
L DI DI
2 3 Dz
L SAW END -LINE COIL

TO TUNE FREQUENCY
C100 ULF
DIMENSIONS
DIMENSIONS 4- 300 RIBBON LINE 40M. 60M.
11 5211
IOM. ISM. 20M. COAXIAL LINE DI 66' e- 12e'
17' 22'3 33'6' GAIN APPROX. 7.5 DB Dz 33' 60'
D rr'6- 22'r 34'6 D3 30' 703e' 54' 7066'
Figure 21 Figure 22
THE "SIX- SHOOTER" BROADSIDE ARRAY "BOBTAIL" BIDIRECTIONAL
BROAD-
SIDE CURTAIN FOR THE 7 -MC. OR THE
4.0 -MC. AMATEUR BANDS
wire line should be employed if the antenna is This simple vertically polarized array pro-
used with a high power transmitter. vides low ongle radiation and response with
comparatively low pole heights, and is very
To tune the reflector, the back of the an- effective for dx work on the 7 -Mc. bond or
tenna is aimed at a nearby field- strength meter the 4.0 -Mc. phone bond. Because of the
and the reflector stub capacitor is adjusted phase relationships, radiation from the hori-
for minimum received signal at the operating zontal portion of the antenna is effectively
frequency. supp d. Very little current flows in the
ground lead to the coupling tank; so an elab-
This antenna provides high gain for its small orate ground system is not required, and the
size, and is recommended for 28 -Mc. work. length of the ground lead is not critical so
The elements may be made of number 14 en- long as It uses heavy wire and is reason-
amel wire, and the array may be built on a light ably short.
bamboo or wood framework.
The "Six- Shooter" As a good compromise be-

Broadside Array tween
gain, directivity, gain averaging from 7 to 10 db over a horizon-
compactness, mechanical tal half -wave dipole utilizing the same pole
simplicity, ease of adjustment, and band width height when the path length exceeds 2500
the array of figure 21 is recommended for the miles.
10 to 30 Mc. range when the additional array
The horizontal directivity is only moderate,
width and greater directivity are not obtain- the beam width at the half power points being
able. The free space directivity gain is ap- slightly greater than that obtained from three
proximately 7.5 db over one element, and the cophased vertical radiators fed with equal cur-
practical dx signal gain over one element at rents. This is explained by the fact that the
the same average elevation is of about the current in each of the two outer radiators of
same magnitude when the array is sufficiently this array carries only about half as much cur-
elevated. To show up to best advantage the rent as the center, driven element. While this
array should be elevated sufficiently to put "binomial" current distribution suppresses
the lower elements well in the clear, and pre- the end -fire lobe that occurs when an odd num-
ferably at least 0.5 wavelength above ground. ber of parallel radiators with half -wave spac-
ing are fed equal currents, the array still ex-
The "Bobtail" Another application of ver- hibits some high -angle radiation and response
Bidirectional tical orientation of the ra- off the ends as a result of imperfect cancella-
Broadside Curtain dieting elements of an ar- tion in the flat top portion. This is not suffi-
ray in order to obtain low - cient to affect the power gain appreciably, but
angle radiation at the lower end of the h -f does degrade the discrimination somewhat.
range with low pole heights is illustrated in A moderate amount of sag can be tolerated
figure 22. When precut to the specified dimen- at the center of the flat top, where it connects
sions this single pattern array will perform to the driven vertical element. The poles and
well over the 7 -Mc. amateur band or the 4 -Mc. antenna tank should be so located with respect
amateur phone band. For the 4 -Mc. band the to each other that the driven vertical element
required two poles need be only 70 feet high, drops approximately straight down from the
and the array will provide a practical signal flat top.
HANDBOOK Endfire Arrays 473
Normally the antenna tank will be located proper phase relationships in multisection
in the same room as the transmitter, to facil- flat tops by crossing the wires at the voltage
itate adjustment when changing frequency. In loops, rather than by resorting to phasing
this case it is recommended that the link cow stubs. This greatly simplifies the array. (See
pled tank be located across the room from the figure 23.) Any number of sections may be
transmitter if much power is used, in order to used, though the one- and two -section arrange-
minimize r -f feedback difficulties which might ments are the most popular. Little extra gain
occur as a result of the asymmetrical high im- is obtained by using more than four sections,
pedance feed. If tuning of the antenna tank and trouble from phase shift may appear.
from the transmitter position is desired, flex- A center -fed single -section flat -top beam
ible shafting can be run from the antenna tank cut according to the table, can be used quite
condenser to a control knob at the transmitter. successfully on its second harmonic, the pat-
The lower end of the driven element is quite tern being similar except that it is a little
"hot" if much power is used, and the lead -in sharper. The single- section array can also be
insulator should be chosen with this in mind. used on its fourth harmonic with some success,
The ground connection need not have very low though there then will be four cloverleaf lobes,
resistance, as the current flowing in the much the same as with a full -wave antenna.
ground connection is comparatively small. A If a flat -top beam is to be used on more than
stake or pipe driven a few feet in the ground one band, tuned feeders are necessary.
will suffice. However, the ground lead should The radiation resistance of a flat -top beam
be of heavy wire and preferably the length is rather low, especially when only one sec-
should 'not exceed about 10 feet at 7 Mc. or tion is used. This means that the voltage will
about 20 feet at 4 Mc. in order to minimize be high at the voltage loops. For this reason,
reactive effects due to its inductance. If it is especially good insulators should be used for
impossible to obtain this short a ground lead, best results in wet weather.
a piece of screen or metal sheet about four The exact lengths for the radiating elements
feet square may be placed parallel to the earth are not especially critical, because slight de-
in a convenient location and used as an arti- viations from the correct lengths can be com-
ficial ground. A fairly high C/L ratio ordinari- pensated in the stub or tuned feeders. Proper
ly will be required in the antenna tank in order stub adjustment is covered in Chapter Twenty -
to obtain adequate coupling and loading. five. Suitable radiator lengths and approximate
stub dimensions are given in the accompany-
ing design table.
Figure 23 shows top views of eight types
23 -7 End -Fire Directivity of flat -top beam antennas. The dimensions for
using these antennas on different bands are
given in the design table. The 7- and 28 -Mc.
By spacing two half-wave dipoles, or colin- bands are divided into two parts, but the di-
ear arrays, at a distance of from 0.1 to 0.25 mensions for either the low- or high- frequency
wavelength and driving the two 180° out of ends of these bands will be satisfactory for
phase, directivity is obtained through the two use over the entire band.
mires at right angles to them. Hence, this type
In any case, the antennas are tuned to the
of bidirectional array is called end fire. A bet-
frequency used, by adjusting the shorting wire
ter idea of end -fire directivity can be obtained
on the stub, or tuning the feeders, if no stub
by referring to figure 10.
is used. The data in the table may be extended
Remember that end-fire refers to the radia-
to other bands or frequencies by applying the
tion with respect to the two wires in the array
proper factor. Thus, for 50 to 52 Mc. operation,
rather than with respect to the array as a
whole. the values for 28 to 29 Mc. are divided by 1.8.
The vertical directivity of an end-fire bi- All of the antennas have a bidirectional hori-
directional array which is oriented horizontal- zontal pattern on their fundamental frequency.
ly can be increased by placing a similar end - The maximum signal is broadside to the flat
fire array a half wave below it, and excited in top. The single- section type has this pattern
the same phase. Such an array is a combina- on both its fundamental frequency and second
tion broadside and end -fire affair. harmonic. The other types have four main lobes
of radiation on the second and higher harmon-
Kraus Flat -Top A very effective bidirectional ics. The nominal gains of the different types
Beam end -fire array is the Kraus or over a half-wave comparison antenna are as
8JK Flat-Top Beam. Essen- follows: single -section, 4 db; two -section, 6
tially, this antenna consists of two close - db; four -section, 8 db.
spaced dipoles or colinear arrays. Because of The maximum spacings given make the
the close spacing, it is possible to obtain the beams less critical in their adjustments. Up
'
CENTER FED TO CENTER END FED
Or rLAT TOP
FRA-
S r 1-SECTION T 1- SECTION
M MATCHING STU
---Lt -p4 L1I -IT IA
L2
-IX
--IL
i
r T 2- SECTION S
M t2u
---L2 Ip - L2-1 'cái.°,
Of rums I-L3 L3i
1,
S u r 3- SECTION S
II
h..-L3 Li L3 FOI L2-1 1--L3 oI L4 --1-61---L3-.-1
I
r
M
4-SECTION ,S II
IM $
k.--L3-47.1.-L3-4»- L3 I L3- F..-L3-471.".-L4 -46.1..- L4 3-1
FIGURE 23
FLAT-TOP BEAM (8JK ARRAY) DESIGN DATA.

Spam. A 0%) A ('y) A (M) X
FREQUENCY ion S L, L, L. L. M D approx. approx. approx. approx.
7.0-7.2 Mc. X/8 17'4' 34' 60' 52'8' 44' 8'10' 4' 26 60' 96' 4'
7.2.7.3 X/8 17'0' 33'6' 59' 51'8' 43'1' 8'8' 4' 26' 59' 94' 4'
14.0-14.4 X/8 8'8' 17' 30' 26'4' 22' 4'5' 2' 13' 30' 48' 2'
14.0-14.4 .15X 10'5' 17' 30' 25'3' 20' S'4' 2' 12' 29' 47' 2'
14.0-14.4 .20X 13'l1' 17' 30' 22'10' 7'2' 2' 10' 27' 45' 3'
14.0-14.4 X/4 17'4' 17' 30' 20'8' 8'l0' 2' 8' 25' 43' 4'
28.0.29.0 .15X 5'2' 8'6' 15' 12'7' 10' 2'8' 1'6'
T
7' 15' 24' 1'
28.0-29.0 X/4 8'8' 8'6' 15' 10'4' 4'S' 1'6' 5' 13' 22' 2'
29.0-30.0 .15X 5'0' 8'3' 14'6' 12'2' 9'8' 2'7' 7' 15' 23' 1'
29.0 -30.0 X/4 8'4' 8'3' 14'6' 10'0' 4'4' 1'6' 5' 13' 21' 2'
Dimension chart for flat -top beam antennas. The mean ngs of the symbols are as fo lows:
L,, L. L. and L,, the lengths of the sides of the flat -top sections as shown. L, is length
of the sides of single -section center-fed, L, single -section end -fed and 2- section center -fed, L, 4- section
center -fed and end -sections of 4- section end -fed; and L, middle sections of 4- section end -fed.
S, the spacing between the flat-top wires.
M, the wire length from the outside to the center of each cross-over.
D, the spacing lengthwise between sections.
A ('h), the approximate length for a quarter -wave stub.
A ('Y:), the approximate length for a half -wave stub.
A (síß), the approximate length for a three -quarter wave stub.
X, the approximate distance above the shorting wire of the stub for the connection of a 600 -ohm
line. This distance, as given in the table, is approximately correct only for 2- section flat -tops.
For single -section types it will be smaller and for 3- and 4- section types it will be larger.
The lengths given for a half -wave stub are applicable only to single -section center -fed flat -tops. To
be certain of sufficient stub length, it is advisable to make the stub a foot or so longer than shown in
the table, especially with the end -fed types. The lengths, A, are measured from the point where the
stub connects to the flat-top.
Both the center and end -fed types may be used horizontally. However, where a vertical antenna is
desired, the flat -tops can be turned on end. In this case, the end -fed types may be more convenient,
feeding from the lower end.
HANDBOOK Triplex Beam 475
Figure 24 RO/E
t ,'
`
THE TRIPLEX FLAT -TOP BEAM

S
ANTENNA FOR 10, 15 AND 20
METERS
RADIATION MAR IMOM

MAX RADIATION
4.5 DB 4.5 DS
SDOL LINE TO
TRANSMITTER
ANY LENGTH
DIMENSIONS
WM ISM. 20M MATERIAL
L Ip'r 21S az'z [[
WIRES. talAtib S
S S'r 7B '
i D 7't 10.7 I44" 300 OHM RIBBON
to one -quarter wave spacing may be used on used for the two phasing sections. A recom-
the fundamental for the one -section types and mended assembly for Triplex beams for 28 Mc.,
also the two-section center -fed, but it is not 21 Mc., and 14 Mc. is shown in figure 24. The
desirable to use more than 0.15 wavelength gain of a Triplex beam is about 4.5 db over a
spacing for the other types. dipole.
Although the center -fed type of flat -top gen-
erally is to be preferred because of its sym-
metry, the end -fed type often is convenient or
desirable. For example, when a flat -top beam
is used vertically, feeding from the lower end 23 -8 Combination End -Fire and
is in most cases more convenient. Broadside Arrays
If a multisection flat -top array is end -fed
instead of center-fed, and tuned feeders are
used, stations off the ends of the array can be Any of the end -fire arrays previously de-
worked by tying the feeders together and work- scribed may be stacked one above the other or
ing the whole affair, feeders and all, as a long - placed end to end (side by side) to give great-
wire harmonic antenna. A single -pole double - er directivity gain while maintaining a bidi-
throw switch can be used for changing the rectional characteristic. However, it must be
feeders and directivity. kept in mind that to realize a worthwhile in-
crease in directivity and gain while maintain-
The Triplex The Triplex beam is a modified ing a bidirectional pattern the individual ar-
Beam version of the W8JK antenna rays must be spaced sufficiently to reduce the
which uses folded dipoles for mutual impedances to a negligible value.
the half wave elements of the array. The use When two flat top beams, for instance, are
of folded dipoles results in higher radiation placed one above the other or end to end, a
resistance of the array, and a high overall sys- center spacing on the order of one wavelength
tem performance. Three wire dipoles are used is required in order to achieve a worthwhile
for the elements, and 300 -ohm Twin -Lead is increase in gain, or approximately 3 db.
476 High Frequency Directive Antennas
Thus it is seen that, while maximum gain an identical array must be spaced from it in
occurs with two stacked dipoles at a spacing end -fire relationship to obtain optimum per-
of about 0.7 wavelength and the space direc- formance and retain the bidirectional charac-
tivity gain is approximately 5 db over one ele- teristic.
ment under these conditions; the case of two It is important to note that while a bidirec-
flat top or parasitic arrays stacked one above tional end -fire pattern is obtained with two
the other is another story. Maximum gain will driven dipoles when spaced anything under a
occur at a greater spacing, and the gain over half wavelength, and while the proper phase
one array will not appreciably exceed 3 db. relationship is 180 degrees regardless of the
When two broadside curtains are placed one spacing for all spacings not exceeding one
ahead of the other in end -fire relationship, the half wavelength, the situation is different in
aggregate mutual impedance between the two the case of two curtains placed in end -fire re-
curtains is such that considerable spacing is lationship to give a bidirectional pattern. For
required in order to realize a gain approaching maximum gain at zero wave angle, the curtains
3 db (the required spacing being a function of should be spaced an odd multiple of one half
the size of the curtains). While it is true that wavelength and driven so as to be 180 degrees
a space directivity gain of approximately 4 db out of phase, or spaced an even multiple of
can be obtained by placing one, half-wave di- one half wavelength and driven in the same
pole an eighth wavelength ahead of another phase. The optimum spacing and phase rela-
and feeding them 180 degrees out of phase, a tionship will depend upon the directivity pat-
gain of less than 1 db is obtained when the tern of the individual curtains used alone, and
same procedure is applied to two large broad- as previously noted the optimum spacing in-
side curtains. To obtain a gain of approximate- creases with the size and directivity of the
ly 3 db and retain a bidirectional pattern, a component arrays.
spacing of many wavelengths is required be- A concrete example of a combination broad-
tween two large curtains placed one ahead of side and end -fire array is two Lazy H arrays
the other. spaced along the direction of maximum radia-
A different situation exists, however, when tion by a distance of four wavelengths and fed
one driven curtain is placed ahead of an iden- in phase. The space directivity gain of such
tical one and the two are phased so as to give an arrangement is slightly less than 9 db. How-
a unidirectional pattern. When a unidirectional ever, approximately the same gain can be ob-
pattern is obtained, the gain over one curtain tained by juxtaposing the two arrays side by
will be approximately 3 db regardless of the side or one over the other in the same plane,
spacing. For instance, two large curtains so that the two combine to produce, in effect,
placed one a quarter wavelength ahead of the one broadside curtain of twice the area. It is
other may have a space directivity gain of only obvious that in most cases it will be more ex-
0.5 db over one curtain when the two are driv- pedient to increase the area of a broadside
en 180 degrees out of phase to give a bidirec- array than to resort to a combination of end -
tional pattern (the type of pattern obtained fire and broadside directivity. One exception,
with a single curtain). However, if they are of course, is where two curtains are fed in
driven in phase quadrature (and with equal cur- phase quadrature to obtain a unidirectional
rents) the gain is approximately 3 db. pattern and space directivity gain of approxi-
The directivity gain of a composite array mately 3 db with a spacing between curtains
also can be explained upon the basis of the as small as one quarter wavelength. Another
directivity patterns of the component arrays exception is where very low angle radiation is
alone, but it entails a rather complicated pic- desired and the maximum pole height is strict-
ture. It is sufficient for the purpose of this ly limited. The two aforementioned Lazy H
discussion to generalize and simplify by say- arrays when placed in end -fire relationship
ing that the greater the directivity of an end - will have a considerably lower radiation angle
fire array, the farther an identical array must than when placed side by side if the array ele-
be spaced from it in broadside relationship to vation is low, and therefore may under some
obtain optimum performance; and the greater conditions exhibit appreciably more practical
the directivity of a broadside array, the farther signal gain.
CHAPTER TWENTY -FOUR
V -H -F and U-H-F Antennas
The very - high -frequency or v -h -f frequency station. Even a much simpler and smaller three-
range is defined as that range falling between or four-element parasitic array having a gain
30 and 300 Mc. The ultra- high -frequency or of 7 to 10 db will produce a marked improve-
u -b- f range is defined as falling between 300 ment in the received signal at the other sta-
and 3000 Mc. This chapter will be devoted to tion.
the design and construction of antenna sys- However, as all v -h-f and u -h-f workers
tems for operation on the amateur 50 -Mc., 144 - know, the most important contribution of a
Mc., 235 -Mc., and 420 -Mc. bands. Although the high -gain antenna array is in reception. If a
basic principles of antenna operation are the remote station cannot be heard it obviously is
same for all frequencies, the shorter physical impossible to make contact. The limiting fac-
length of a wave in this frequency range and tor in v -h -f and u -h -f reception is in almost
the differing modes of signal propagation make every case the noise generated within the re-
it possible and expedient to use antenna sys- ceiver itself. Atmospheric noise is almost non-
tems different in design from those used on existent and ignition interference can almost
the range from 3 to 30 Mc. invariably be reduced to a satisfactory level
through the use of an effective noise limiter.
Even with a grounded -grid or neutralized triode
first stage in the receiver the noise contribu-
Y4 -1 Antenna Requirements tion of the first tuned circuit in the receiver
will be relatively large. Hence it is desirable
to use an antenna system which will deliver
Any type of antenna system useable on the the greatest signal voltage to the first tuned
lower frequencies may be used in the v -h-f and circuit for a given field strength at the receiv-
u -h -f bands. In fact, simple non -directive half - ing location.
wave or quarter-wave vertical antennas are Since the field intensity being produced at
very popular for general transmission and re- the receiving location by a remote transmitting
ception from all directions, especially for station may be assumed to be constant, the re-
short-range work. But for serious v -h -f or u -h -f ceiving antenna which intercepts the greatest
work the use of some sort of directional an- amount of wave front, assuming that the polari-
tenna array is a necessity. In the first place, zation and directivity of the receiving antenna
when the transmitter power is concentrated in- is proper, will be the antenna which gives the
to a narrow beam the apparent transmitter pow- best received signal -to -noise ratio. An antenna
er at the receiving station is increased many which has two square wavelengths effective
times. A "billboard" array or a Sterba curtain area will pick up twice as much signal power
having a gain of 16 db will make a 25 -watt as one which has one square wavelength area,
transmitter sound like a kilowatt at the other assuming the same general type of antenna and
477
478 V -H -F and U -H -F Antennas THE RADIO
that both are directed at the station being re- of about 50 feet or less. For longer runs, either
ceived. Many instances have been reported the u -h -f or v -h -f TV open -wire lines may be
where a frequency band sounded completely used with good overall efficiency. The v -h -f
dead with a simple dipole receiving antenna line is satisfactory for use on the amateur
but when the receiver was switched to a three- 420 -Mc. band.
element or larger array a considerable amount
of activity from 80 to 160 miles distant was Antenna It is recommended that the same
heard. Changeover antenna be used for transmitting
and receiving in the v -h -f and
u -h -f range. An ever -present problem in this
Angle of The useful portion of the signal connection, however, is the antenna change-
Radiation in the v -h -f and u -h -f range for over relay. Reflections at the antenna change-
short or medium distance communi- over relay become of increasing importance
cation is that which is radiated at a very low as the frequency of transmission is increased.
angle with respect to the surface of the earth; When coaxial cable is used as the antenna
essentially it is that signal which is radiated transmission line, satisfactory coaxial anten-
parallel to the surface of the earth. A vertical na changeover relays with low reflection can
antenna transmits a portion of its radiation at be used. One type manufactured by Advance
a very low angle and is effective for this rea- Electric & Relay Co., Los Angeles 26, Calif.,
son; its radiation is not necessarily effective will give a satisfactorily low value of re-
simply because it is vertically polarized. A flection.
simple horizontal dipole radiates very little On the 235-Mc. and 420 -Mc. amateur bands,
low -angle energy and hence is not a satisfac- the size of the antenna array becomes quite
tory v -h -f or u -h -f radiator. Directive arrays small, and it is practical to mount two identi-
which concentrate a major portion of the radical antennas side by side. One of these an-
ated signal at a low radiation angle will prove tennas is used for the transmitter, and the
to be effective radiators whether their signal other antenna for the receiver. Separate trans-
is horizontally or vertically polarized. mission lines are used, and the antenna relay
In all cases, the radiating system for v -h -f may be eliminated.
and u -h -f work should be as high and in the
clear as possible. Increasing the height of the Effect of Feed A vertical radiator for
antenna system will produce a very marked System on Radiation general coverage u -h-f
improvement in the number and strength of the Angle use should be made
signals heard, regardless of the actual type either % or % wavelength
of antenna used. long. Longer vertical antennas do not have
their maximum radiation at right angles to the
Transmission Transmission lines to v -h -f and line of the radiator (unless cophased), and,
Lines u -h -f antenna systems may be therefore, are not practicable for use where
either of the parallel- conductor greatest possible radiation parallel to the
or coaxial conductor type. Coaxial line is rec- earth is desired.
ommended for short runs and closely spaced Unfortunately, a feed system which is not
open -wire line for longer runs. Wave guides perfectly balanced and does some radiating,
may be used under certain conditions for fre- not only robs the antenna itself of that much
quencies greater than perhaps 1500 Mc. but power, but distorts the radiation pattern o/ the
their dimensions become excessively great for antenna. As a result, the pattern of a vertical
frequencies much below this value. Non- reson- radiator may be so altered that the radiation
ant transmission lines will be found to be con- is bent upwards slightly, and the amount of
siderably more efficient on these frequencies power leaving the antenna parallel to the
than those of the resonant type. It is wise to earth is greatly reduced. A vertical half -wave
to use the very minimum length of transmission radiator fed at the bottom by a quarter -wave
line possible since transmission line losses stub is a good example of this; the slight
at frequencies above about 100 Mc. mount very radiation from the matching section decreases
rapidly. the power radiated parallel to the earth by
Open lines should preferably be spaced nearly 10 db.
closer than is common for longer wavelengths, The only cure is a feed system which does
as 6 inches is an appreciable fraction of a not disturb the radiation pattern of the antenna
wavelength at 2 meters. Radiation from the itself. This means that if a 2 -wire line is used,
line will be greatly reduced if 1 -inch or 11/2- the current and voltages must be exactly the
inch spacing is used, rather than the more com- same (though 180° out of phase) at any point
mon 6-inch spacing. on the feed line. It means that if a concentric
Ordinary TV-type 300 -ohm ribbon may be feed line is used, there should be no current
used on the 2 -meter band for feeder lengths flowing on the outside of the outer conductor.
HANDBOOK Antenna Polarization 479
Radiator Cross There is no point in using

Section copper tubing for an antenna TABLE OF WAVELENGTHS
on the medium frequencies. Fre- H/g Wav lí Wava 1/9 Woos l'1 Way
The reason is that considerable tubing would gwncy
in Mc. Space
free An-
tenno
Free
Space
An-
Hanna
be required, and the cross section still would
not be a sufficiently large fraction of a wave- 50.0
50.5
59.1
58.5
55.5
55.0
118.1
116.9
111.0
109.9
length to improve the antenna bandwidth char- 51.0 S7.9 54.4 115.9 108.8
51.5 57.4 53.9 114.7 107.8
acteristics. At very high and ultra high fre- 52.0 56.8 53.4 113.5 106.7
quencies, however, the radiator length is so 52.5
53.0
56.3
55.7
52.8
52.4
112.5
111.5
105.7
104.7
short that the expense of large diameter con- 54.0 54.7 51.4 109.5 102.8
ductor is relatively small, even though copper 144 20.5 19.2 41.0 38.5
pipe of 1 inch cross section is used. With such 145
146
20.4
20.2
19.1
18.9
40.8
40.4
38.3
38.0
conductors, the antenna will tune much more 147 20.0 18.8 40.0 37.6
148 19.9 18.6 39.9 37.2
broadly, and often a broad resonance charac-
teristic is desirable. This is particularly true 235
236
12.6
12.5
11.8
11.8
25.2
25.1
23.6
23.5
when an antenna or array is to be used over 237 12.5 11.7 25.0 23.S
238 12.4 11.7 24.9 23.4
an entire amateur band. 239 12.4 11.6 24.8 23.3
It should be kept in mind that with such 240 12.3 11.6 24.6 23.2
large cross section radiators, the resonant 420 7.05 6.63 14.1 13.25
425 6.95 6.55 13.9 13.1
length of the radiator will be somewhat shorter, 430 6.88 6.48 13.8 12.95
being only slightly greater than 0.90 of a half All dimensions are Lengths have in
in inches.
wavelength for a dipole when heavy copper most cases been rounded off to three significant
pipe is used above 100 Mc. figures. "I 2-Wave Free- Space' column shown
above should be used with Lecher wires for fre-
quency measurement.
Insulation .The matter of insulation is of
prime importance at very high fre-
quencies. Many insulators that have very low stations doing serious work and striving for
losses as high as 30 Mc. show up rather poor- maximum -range contacts on the 50 -Mc. and
ly at frequencies above 100 Mc. Even the low 144 -Mc. bands almost invariably use horizon-
loss ceramics are none too good where the r-f tal polarization.
voltage is high. One of the best and most prac- Experience has shown that there is a great
tical insulators for use at this frequency is attenuation in signal strength when using
polystyrene. It has one disadvantage, however, crossed polarization (transmitting antenna
in that it is subject to fracture and to deforma- with one polarization and receiving antenna
tion in the presence of heat. with the other) for all normal ground -wave con-
It is common practice to design v -h -f and tacts on these bands. When contacts are be-
u -h -f antenna systems so that the various rad- ing made through sporadic -F reflection, how-
iators are supported only at points of relatively ever, the use of crossed polarization seems to
low voltage; the best insulation, obviously, is make no discernible difference in signal
air. The voltages on properly operated untuned strength. So the operator of a station doing
feed lines are not high, and the question of v -h -f work (particularly on the 50 -Mc. band)
insulation is not quite so important, though in- is faced with a problem: If contacts are to be
sulation still should be of good grade. made with all stations doing work on the same
band, provision must be made for operation on
both horizontal and vertical polarization. This
Antenna Commercial broadcasting in the problem has been solved in many cases through
Polarization U.S.A. for both FM and tele- the construction of an antenna array that may
vision in the v -h -f range has be revolved in the plane of polarization in ad-
been standarized on horizontal polarization. dition to being capable of rotation in the azi-
One of the main reasons for this standardiza- muth plane.
tion is the fact that ignition interference is An alternate solution to the problem which
reduced through the use of a horizontally po- involves less mechanical construction is sim-
larized receiving antenna. Amateur practice, ply to install a good ground -plane vertical an-
however, is divided between horizontal and tenna for all vertically -polarized work, and
vertical polarization in the v -h -f and u -h-f then to use a multi- element horizontally- polar-
range. Mobile stations are invariably vertical - ized array for dx work.
cally polarized due to the physical limitations
imposed by the automobile antenna installa-
tion. Most of the stations doing intermittent 24 -2 Simple Horizontally -
or occasional work on these frequencies use a Polarized Antennas
simple ground-plane vertical antenna for both
transmission and reception. However, those Antenna systems which do not concentrate
I-- -.I
> T i
TRANSFORMER
I
VECTOR SUM OF
2 PATTERNS
2.35
COAXIAL LINE LOW 2
TO TRANSMITTER TRANSMISSION LINE
TO XMTR
O © ©
Figure 1
THREE NONDIRECTIONAL, HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED ANTENNAS
radiation at the very low elevation angles are A third nondirectional antenna is shown
not recommended for v -h-f and u -h-f work. It is in
figure 1C. This simple antenna is made of two
for this reason that the horizontal dipole and half -wave elements, of which the end quarter-
horizontally- disposed colinear arrays are gen- wavelength of each is bent back 90 degrees.
erally unsuitable for work on these frequen- The pattern from this antenna is very much
cies. Arrays using broadside or end -fire ele- like that of the turnstile antenna. The field
ments do concentrate radiation at low eleva- from the two quarter-wave sections that are
tion an g l e s and are recommended for v -h -f
work. Arrays such as the lazy -H, Sterba cur- bent back are additive because they are 180
tain, flat -top beam, and arrays with parasiti- degrees out of phase and are a half wave-
cally excited elements are recommended for length apart. The advantage of this antenna is
this work. Dimensions for the first three types the simplicity of its feed system and con-
of arrays may be determined from the data struction.
given in the previous chapter, and reference
may be made to the Table of Wavelengths given 24 -3 Simple Vertical- Polarized
in this chapter. Antennas
Arrays using vertically- stacked horizontal
dipoles, such as are used by commercial tele-
vision and FM stations, are capable of giving For general coverage with a single antenna,
high gain without a sharp horizontal radiation a single vertical radiator is commonly em-
pattern. If sets of crossed dipoles, as shown ployed. A two -wire open transmission line is
in figure 1A, are fed 90° out of phase the re- not suitable for use with this type antenna,
sulting system is called a turnstile antenna. and coaxial polyethylene feed line such as
The 90° phase difference between sets of di- RG-8 /U is to be recommended. Three practical
poles may be obtained by feeding one set of methods of feeding the radiator with concen-
dipoles with a feed line which is one -quarter tric line, with a minimum of current induced
wave longer than the feed line to the other in the outside of the line, are shown in figure
set of dipoles. The field strength broadside to 2. Antenna (A) is known as the sleeve anten-
one of the dipoles is equal to the field from na, the lower half of the radiator being a large
that dipole alone. The field strength at a point piece of pipe up through which the concentric
at any other angle is equal to the vector sum feed line is run. At (B) is shown the ground -
of the fields from the two dipoles at that an- plane vertical, and at (C) a modification of
gle. A nearly circular horizontal pattern is this latter antenna.
produced by this antenna. The radiation resistance of the ground -
A second antenna producing a uniform, hori- plane vertical is approximately 30 ohms, which
zontally polarized pattern is shown in figure is not a standard impedance for coaxial line.
1B. This antenna employs three dipoles bent To obtain a good match, the first quarter wave-
to form a circle. All dipoles are excited in length of feeder may be of 52 ohms surge im-
phase, and are center fed. A bazooka is in- pedance, and the remainder of the line of ap-
cluded in the system to prevent unbalance in proximately 75 ohms impedance. Thus, the
the coaxial feed system. first quarter-wave section of line is used as a
HANDBOOK Vertically Polarized Arrays 481
rather closely, the feed -point impedance is

about 70 ohms. If they are bent out to form an
angle of about 30° with the support pipe the
impedance is about 50 ohms.
1 The number of radial legs used in a ground -
,CLOSED
plane antenna of either type has an important
II effect on the feed -point impedance and upon
II
I the radiation characteristics of the antenna
(I system. Experiment has shown that three radi-
als is the minimum number that should be
used, and that increasing the number of radi-
als above six adds substantially nothing to the
effectiveness of the antenna and has no effect
on the feed -point impedance. Experiment has
shown, however, that the radials should be
slightly longer than one-quarter wave for best
results. A length of 0.28 wavelength has been
Figure 2 shown to be the optimum value. This means
THREE VERTICALLY -POLARIZED that the radials for a 50 -Mc. ground -plane ver-
LOW -ANGLE RADIATORS
tical antenna should be 65" in length.
Shown at (A) is the "sleeve" or "hypoder-
Double Skeleton The bandwidth of the anten-
mic" type of radiator. At (8) is shown the Cone Antenna na of figure 2C can be in-
ground-plane vertical, and (C) shows a modi- creased considerably by sub-
fication of this antenna system which in-
stituting several space-tapered rods for the
creases the feed -point impedance to a value
single radiating element, so that the "radia-
such that the system may he fed directly
tor" and skirt are similar. If a sufficient num-
from a coaxial line with no standing waves
ber of roas are used in the skeleton cones and
on the feed line.
the angle of revolution is optimized for the
particular type of feed line used, this antenna
exhibits a very low SWR over a 2 to 1 frequen-
cy range. Such an arrangement is illustrated
matching transformer, and a good match is
obtained. schematically in figure 3.
In actual practice the antenna would con-
sist of a quarter-wave rod, mounted by means A Nondirectionol Half -wave elements may be
of insulators atop a pole or pipe mast. Elab- Vertical Array stacked in the vertical plane
orate insulation is not required, as the voltage to provide a non -directional
at the lower end of the quarter -wave radiator pattern with good horizontal gain. An array
is very low. Self- supporting rods from 0.25 to made up of four half-wave vertical elements
0.28 wavelength would be extended out, as in is shown in figure 4A. This antenna provides
the illustration, and connected together. As a circular pattern with a gain of about 4.5 db
the point of connection is effectively at ground over a vertical dipole. It may be fed with
potential, no insulation is required; the hori- 300 -ohm TV-type line. The feedline should be
zontal rods may be bolted directly to the sup- conducted in such a way that the vertical por-
porting pole or mast, even if of metal. The co- tion of the line is at least one -half wavelength
axial line should be of the low loss type es- away from the vertical antenna elements. A
pecially designed for v -h -f use. The outside suitable mechanical assembly is shown in fig-
connects to the junction of the radials, and ure 4B for the 144 -Mc. and 235 -Mc. amateur
the inside to the bottom end of the vertical bands.
radiator. An antenna of this type is moderately
simple to construct and will give a good ac-
count of itself when fed at the lower end of the 24 -4 The Discone Antenna
radiator directly by the 52 -ohm RG -8/U co-
axial cable. Theoretically the standing-wave The Discone antenna is a vertically polar-
ratio will be approximately 1.5 -to -1 but in ized omnidirectional radiator which has very
practice this moderate s-w -r produces no broad band characteristics and permits a sim-
deleterious effects, even on coaxial cable. ple, rugged structure. This antenna presents a
The modification shown in figure 2C permits substantially uniform feed-point impedance,
matching to a standard 50- or 70 -ohm flexible suitable for direct connection of a coaxial
coaxial cable without a linear transformer. If line, over a range of several octaves. Alsg,
the lower rods hug the line and supporting mast the vertical pattern is suitable for ground -wave
-T- .ALUMINUM TUBING

TYP.
TYP.
3B
2'
=20 MC. (s.
300-0HM
FEEDLIN
tO
TOP APEX CONNECTS TO
INNER CONNECTOR
LOWER APEX CONNECTS APICES FORMED
TO OUTER CONDUCTOR - OF SHEET METAL 2'X 2'
144 MC.
2'X
300 -OHM 20'
TUBULAR
TWINLEAD 300-OHM
FEEDLINE'
[iiRG-6/u CABLE
Figure 3
THE DOUBLE SKELETON CONE

ANTENN A Guys
A skeleton cone has been substituted for the
single element radiator of figure 2C. This 20'
greatly increases the bandwidth. If at least
10 elements are used for each skeleton cone 2.54.
and the cog! e of revolution and element
length are optimized, a low SWR can be ob-
tained over o frequency ronge of at least two
octaves. To obtain this order of bandwidth,
the element length L should be approximate-
ly 0.2 wavelength at the lower frequency end
of the band, and the angle of revolution opti- Figure 4
mized for the lowest maximum VSWR within NONDIRECTIONAL ARRAYS FOR 144 MC.
the frequency range to be covered. A greater AND 235 MC.
improvement in the impedance- frequency On right is shown two band installation. The
characteristic can be achieved by adding whole system may easily be dissembled and
elements than by increasing the diameter of carried on o ski -rack atop a car for portable
the elements. With only 3 elements per use.
"cone" and a much smaller angle of revo-
lution a low SWR can be obtained over a fre-
quency range of approximately 1.3 to 1.0
when the element lengths are optimized. acing frequency. The antenna then will per-
form well over a frequency range of at least
8 to 1. At certain frequencies within this
range the vertical pattern will tend to "lift"
work over several octaves, the gain varying slightly, causing slight reduction in gain at
a
only slightly over a very wide frequency range. zero angular elevation, but the reduction is
Commercial versions of the Discone anten- very slight.
na for various applications are manufactured Below the frequency at which the slant
by the Federal Telephone and Radio Corpora- height of the conical skirt is equal to a free -
tion. A Discone type antenna for amateur work space quarter wavelength the standing -wave
can be fabricated from inexpensive materials ratio starts to climb, and below a frequency
with ordinary hand tools. approximately 20 per cent lower than this the
A Discone antenna suitable for multi -band standing -wave ratio climbs very rapidly. This
amateur work in the v- h /u -h -f range is shown is termed the cut off frequency of the antenna.
schematically in figure 5A. The distance D By making the slant height approximately equal
should be made approximately equal to a free - to a free -space quarter wavelength at the low-
space quarter wavelength at the lowest oper- est frequency employed (refer to chart), a
HANDBOOK Discone Antenna 483
li
"III'
4
00 I11
-
W
CO
60
40
2o .,
10
00 imm
__-.,.,
90
f,o
al II
_..M1,
70
60
se
Figure 5A 0.3 1 0 1 3 2 2.5 3 4 3
THE "DISCONE" BROAD -BAND D IN MT
RADIATOR
This antenna system radiates a vertically Figure SB
polarized wave over a very wide frequency DESIGN CHART FOR THE "DISCONE"
range. The "disc" may be made of solid ANTENNA
metal sheet, a group of radials, or wire
screen; the "cone" may best be constructed
by forming o sheet of thin aluminum. A sin-
gle antenna may be used for operation on the of the skirt directly to an effective ground
50, 144, and 220 Mc. amdteur bands. The plane such as the top of an automobile.
dimension D is determined by the lowest fre-
quency to be employed, and is given in the
chart of figure 58.
24 -5 Helical Beam
Antennas
VSü R of less than 1.5 will be obtained through- Most v -h -f and u -h -f antennas are either ver-
out the operating range of the antenna. tically polarized or horizontally polarized
The Discone antenna may be considered (plane polarization). However, circularly po-
as a cross between an electromagnetic horn larized antennas have interesting characteris-
and an inverted ground plane unipole antenna. tics which may be useful for certain applica-
It looks to the feed line like a properly termi- tions. The installation of such an antenna can
nated high -pass filter. effectively solve the problem of horizontal vs.
vertical polarization.
Construction Details The top disk and the A circularly polarized wave has its energy
conical skirt may be divided equally between a vertically polarized
fabricated either from sheet metal, screen (such component and a horizontally polarized com-
as "hardware cloth"), or 12 or more "spine" ponent, the two being 90 degrees out of phase.
radials. If screen is used a supporting frame- The circularly polarized wave may be either
work of rod or tubing will be necessary for "left handed" or "right handed," depending
mechanical strength except at the higher fre- upon whether the vertically polarized compo-
quencies., If spines are used, they should be nent leads or lags the horizontal component.
terminated on a stiff ring for mechanical A circularly polarized antenna will respond
strength except at the higher frequencies. to any plane polarized wave whether horizon-
The top disk is supported by means of three tally polarized, vertically polarized, or diag-
insulating pillars fastened to the skirt. Either onally polarized. Also, a circular polarized
polystyrene or low -loss ceramic is suitable for wave can be received on a plane polarized an-
the purpose. The apex of the conical skirt is tenna, regardless of the polarization of the
grounded to the supporting mast and to the latter. When using circularly polarized anten-
outer conductor of the coaxial line. The line nas at both ends of the circuit, however, both
is run down through the supporting mast. An must be left handed o r both must b e right
alternative arrangement, one suitable for cer- handed. This offers some interesting possi-
tain mobile applications, is to fasten the base bilities with regard to reduction of QRM. At
484 V-H -F and U -H -F Antennas THE RADIO
_-ROUND OR SQUARE TRANSMIT used at a single frequency or over a narrow

GROUND SCREEN RECEIVE band of frequencies, such as an amateur band.
L At the design frequency the beam width is
I 1R-- 5- -+1 about 50 degrees and the power gain about 12
db,referred to a non -directional circularly po-
G
\MAAAC
COAX FEED POINT (RO -63/U)
larized antenna.
The Ground Screen For the frequency range
100 to 500 Mc. a suitable
AT CENTER OF
GROUND SCREEN ground screen can be made from "chicken
D =-. S =-- G =o.eA L'1.44s wire" poultry netting of 1 -inch mesh, fastened
to a round or square frame of either metal or
CONDUCTOR DIA. = APPROX 0.17 A
I.'WAVELENGTH IN FREE SPACE
wood. The netting should be of the type that
is galvanized after weaving. A small, sheet
metal ground plate of diameter equal to ap-
Figure 6 proximately D/2 should be centered on the
THE "HELICAL BEAM" ANTENNA screen and soldered to it. Tin, galvanized
This type of directional antenna system iron, or sheet copper. is suitable. The outer
gives excellent performance over a frequency conductor of the RG-63/U (125 ohm) coax is
range of 1.7 to 1.8 to 1. Its dimensions are connected to this plate, and the inner conduc-
such that it ordinarily is not practicable, tor contacts the helix through a hole in the
however, for use as a rotatable array on fre- center of the plate. The end of the coax should
quencies below about 100 Mc. The center be taped with Scotch electrical tape to keep
conductor of the feed line should pass water out.
through the ground screen for connection to
the feed point. The outer conductor of the The Helix It should be noted that the beam
coaxial line should be grounded to the proper consists of six full turns.
ground screen. The start of the helix is spaced a distance of
S/2 from the ground screen, and the conductor
goes directly from the center of the ground
screen to the start of the helix.
Aluminum tubing in the "SO" (soft) grade
the time of writing, there has been no stand- is suitable for the helix. Alternatively, lengths
ardization of the "twist" for general amateur of the relatively soft aluminum electrical con-
work. duit may be used. In the v -h -f range it will be
Perhaps the simplest antenna configuration necessary to support the helix on either two
for a directional beam antenna having circular or four wooden longerons in order to achieve
polarization is the helical beam popularized sufficient strength. The longerons should be
by Dr. John Kraus, W8JK. The antenna con- of as small cross section as will provide suf-
sists simply of a helix working against a ficient rigidity, and should be given several
ground plane and fed with coaxial line. In the coats of varnish. The ground plane butts
u -h -f and the upper v -h -f range the physical against the longerons and the whole assembly
dimensions are sufficiently small to permit is supported from the balance point if it is to
construction of a rotatable structure without be rotated.
much difficulty. Aluminum tubing in the larger diameters ordi-
When the dimensions are optimized, the narily is not readily available in lengths great-
characteristics of the helical beam antenna er than 12 feet. In this case several lengths
are such as to qualify it as a broad band an- can be spliced by means of short telescoping
tenna. An optimized helical beam shows little sections and sheet metal screws.
variation in the pattern of the main lobe and The tubing is close wound on a drum and
a fairly uniform feed point impedance averag- then spaced to give the specified pitch. Note
ing approximately 125 ohms over a frequency that the length of one complete turn when
range of as much as 1.7 to 1. The direction of spaced is somewhat greater than the circumfer-
"electrical twist" (right or left handed) de- ence of a circle having the diameter D.
pends upon the direction in which the helix is
wound. Broad -Band A highly useful v -h -f helical
A six -turn helical beam is shown schemati- 144 to 225 Mc. beam which will receive sig-
cally in figure 6. The dimensions shown will Helical Beam nals with good gain over the
give good performance over a frequency range complete frequency range from
of plus or minus 20 per cent of the design fre- 144 through 225 Mc. may be constructed by
quency. This means that the dimensions are using the following dimensions (180 Mc. de-
not especially critical when the array is to be sign center):
HANDBOOK Helical Beam Antenna 485
D 22 in.
S .161/2 in.
G 53 in.
Tubing o.d 1 in.
The D and S dimensions are to the center of ORIVSN DIPOLE
the tubing. These dimensions must be held
rather closely, since the range from 144 through
225 Mc. represents just about the practical
limit of coverage of this type of antenna sys-
tem. SUPPORTING
MEMBER
High -Band Note that an array constructed
TV Coverage with the above dimensions will
give unusually good high -band
TV reception in addition to covering the 144 -
Mc. and 220 -Mc. amateur bands and the taxi
and police services.
On the 144 -Mc. band the beam width is ap-
proximately 60 degrees to the half-power Figure 7
points, while the power gain is approximately CONSTRUCTION OF THE "CORNER
11 db over a non -directional circularly polar- REFLECTOR" ANTENNA
ized antenna. For high -band TV coverage the Such an antenna is capable of giving high
gain will be 12 to 14 db, with a beam width gain with a minimum of complexity in the
of about 50 degrees, and on the 220 -Mc. ama- radiating system. It may be used either with
teur band the beam width will be about 40 de- horizontal or vertical polarization. Design
grees with a power gain of approximately 15 db. data for the antenna is given in the Corner-
The antenna system will receive vertically Reflector Design Table.
polarized or horizontally polarized signals
with equal gain over its entire frequency range.
Conversely, it will transmit signals over the
same range, which then can be received with
equal strength on either horizontally polarized horizontal in which case the radiation is hori-
or vertically polarized receiving antennas. zontally polarized and most of the directivity
The standing -wave ratio will be very low over is in the vertical plane. With the antenna used
the complete frequency range if RG -63/U co- as a horizontally polarized radiating system
axial feed line is used. the array is a very good low-angle beam array
although the nose of the horizontal pattern is
still quite sharp. When the radiator is oriented
vertically the corner reflector operates very
24 -6 The Corner -Reflector satisfactorily as a direction -finding antenna.
and Horn -Type Antennas Design data for the corner-reflector antenna
is given in figure 7 and in the chart Corner -
The corner -reflector antenna is a good direc- Re /lector Design Data. The planes which make
tional radiator for the v -h -f and u -h -f region. up the reflecting corner may be made of solid
The antenna may be used with the radiating sheets of copper or aluminum for the u -h -f
element vertical, in which case the directivity bands, although spaced wires with the ends
is in the horizontal or azimuth plane, or the soldered together at top and bottom may be
system may be used with the driven element used as the reflector on the lower frequencies.
CORNER- REFLECTOR DESIGN DATA
Corner Freq. Feed Approx.

Angle Band, Mc. R S H A L G !wiped. Gain, db
90 50 110" 82" 140" 200" 230" 18" 72 10
60 50 110" 115" 140" 230" 230" 18" 70 12
60 144 38" 40" 48" 100" 100" 5" 70 12
60 220 24.5" 25" 30" 72" 72" 3" 70 12
60 420 13" 14" 18" 36" 36" 70 12
NOTE: Refer fo figure 7 for construction of corner -reflector
450-OHM TV LINE
DA UHF HORN ANTENNA
ANGLE BETWEEN
SIDES OF HORN =60
D ZA-A GAIN (DB)

400 3
A 420 TWO SIDES MADE
OF WIRE MESH
2A 390 15
VHF HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED HORN Figure 9
THE 60° HORN ANTENNA FOR USE ON

Figure 8 FREQUENCIES ABOVE 144 MC.
TWO TYPES OF HORN ANTENNAS
The "two sided horn" of Figure 88 may be
fed by means of on open -wire transmission
line. of the horn are employed. In either case, the
system is unidirectional, away from the apex
of the horn. A typical horn of this type is shown
in figure 8B. The two metallic sides of the
Copper screen may also be used for the re- horn are insulated from each other, and the
flecting planes. sides of the horn are made of small mesh
The values of spacing given in the corner - "chicken wire" or copper window screening.
reflector chart have been chosen such that the A pyramidal horn is essentially a high -pass
center impedance of the driven element would device whose low frequency cut -off is reached
be approximately 70 ohms. This means that when a side of the horn is 2 wavelength. It
the element may be fed directly with 70 -ohm will work up to infinitely high frequencies,
coaxial line, or a quarter -wave matching trans- the gain of the horn increasing by 6 db every
former such as a "Q" section may be used to time the operating frequency is doubled. The
provide an impedance match between the cen- power gain of such a horn compared to a
ter- impedance of the element and a 460 -ohm wave dipole at frequencies higher than cut-
line constructed of no. 12 wire spaced 2 inches. off is:
In many v -h -f antenna systems, waveguide 8.4 A2
transmission lines are terminated by pyramidal Power gain (db) -
horn antennas. These horn antennas (figure À2
8A) will transmit and receive either horizon-
tally or vertically polarized waves. The use of where A is the frontal area of the mouth of the
waveguides at 144 Mc. and 235 Mc., however, horn. For the 60 degree horn shown in figure
is out of the question because of the relatively 8B the formula simplifies to:
large dimensions needed for a waveguide oper- Power gain (db) = 8.4 D2, when D is ex-
ating at these low frequencies.
A modified type of horn antenna may still be
pressed in terms of wavelength
used on these frequencies, since only one par- When D is equal to one wavelength, the pow-
ticular plane of polarization is of interest to er gain of the horn is approximately 9 db. The
the amateur. In this case, the horn antenna gain and feed point impedance of the 60 de-
can be simplified to two triangular sides of gree horn are shown in figure 9. A 450 ohm
the pyramidal horn. When these two sides are open wire TV -type line may be used to feed
insulated from each other, direct excitation at the horn.
the apex of the horn by a two -wire transmission
line is possible.
In a normal pyramidal horn, all four triangu- 24 -7 VHF Horizontal
lar sides are covered with conducting material, Rhombic Antenna
but when horizontal polarization alone is of
interest (as in amateur work) only the vertical
areas of the horn need be used. If vertical po- For v -h -f transmission and reception in a
larization is required, only the horizontal areas fixed direction, a horizontal rhombic permits
HANDBOOK VHF Rhombic 487
73 TOP VIEW
70
ea
eo
ss
30 0 = TILT ANGLE RI, R2' 390 E

4A NON -INDUCTIVE
2A es es $0$
SIDE LENGTH, ie L I
S
Figure 10 Figure 11
V -H-F RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN V -H -F RHOMBIC ANTENNA
CHART CONSTRUCTION
The optimum tilt angle (see figure il)
for
"zero- angle" radiation depends upon the
length of the sides.
necessary to elongate the array a few per cent
(pulling in the sides slightly) if the horizon
elevation exceeds about 3 degrees.
Table I gives dimensions for two dual pur-
10 to 16 db gain with a simpler construction pose rhombic arrays. One covers the 6-meter
than does a phased dipole array, and has the amateur band and the "low" television band.
further advantage of being useful over a wide The other covers the 2-meter amateur band,
frequency range. the "high" television band, and the 1 % -meter
Except at the upper end of the v -h -f range amateur band. The gain is approximately 12
db over a matched half wave dipole and the
a rhombic array having a worthwhile gain is
beam width is about 6 degrees.
too large to be rotated. However, in locations
75 to 150 miles from a large metropolitan area
a rhombic array is ideally suited for working
The Feed Line The recommended feed line
into the city on extended (horizontally polar- is an open -wire line having a
surge impedance between 450 and 600 ohms.
ized) ground -wave while at the same time mak- With such a line the VSWR will be less than
ing an ideal antenna for TV reception.
2 to 1. A line with two -inch spacing is suit-
The useful frequency range of a v -h -f rhom-
able for frequencies below 100 Mc., but one -
bic array is about 2 to 1, or about plus 40% and
inch spacing (such as used in the Gonset Line
minus 30% from the design frequency. This for TV installations) is recommended for high-
coverage is somewhat less than that of a high - er frequencies.
frequency rhombic used for sky -wave communi-
cation. For ground -wave transmission or recep- The Termination If the array is to be used only
tion the only effective vertical angle is that for reception, a suitable ter-
of the horizon, and a frequency range greater mination consists of two 390 -ohm carbon re-
than 2 to 1 cannot be covered with a rhombic
array without an excessive change in the ver-
tical angle of maximum radiation or response.
The dimensions of a v -h -f rhombic array are 6 METERS 2 METERS, HIGH
determined from the design frequency and fig- AND LOW BAND BAND TV, AND
TV 11/4 METERS
ure 10, which shows the proper tilt angle (see
figure 11) for a given leg length. The gain of
a rhombic array increases with leg length. S
(side) 90' 32'
There is not much point in constructing a v -h -f
rhombic array with legs shorter than about 4
L 166' 10" 59' 4"
wavelengths, and the beam width begins to be- (length)
come excessively sharp for leg lengths greater
than about 8 wavelengths. A leg length of 6 W
(Width) 67' 4" 23' 11"
wavelengths is a good compromise between
beam width and gain. S- 6 wavelenths at design frequency
The tilt angle given in figure 10 is based Tilt angle - 68°
upon a wave angle of zero degrees. For leg
lengths of 4 wavelengths or longer, it will be TABLE I.
sistors in series. If 2 -watt resistors are em- FOR 1 +METERS

ployed, this termination also is suitable for D=i2' D-A=a
transmitter outputs of 10 watts or less. For
higher powers, however, resistors having great- A-23} A-R-6
R- REFLECTOR
er dissipation with negligible reactance in the NG
R=2S- Ar.SR Z
upper v -h -f range are not readily available. A-DRIVEN ELEMENT
For powers up to several hundred watts a REND RADIUS
'LONG
suitable termination consists of a "lossy"

line consisting of stainless steel wire (corres- 16 FEED LINE
ponding to no. 24 or 26 B &S gauge) spaced 2 c
D-
- -
DI RECTOR
-_=7
DETAIL
THRU HOL
inches, which in turn is terminated by two 36 LONG
390 -ohm 2 -watt carbon resistors. The dissi- 152 WELL-SEASONED

pative line should be at least 6 wavelengths WOOD 34 LONG
GAIN 7.505 (20 LONG FOR 14. METERS)
long.
FLATTEN ENDS OF
TURING AND DRILL
FOR 6/32 SCREWS
24 -8 Multi- Element V -H -F
7
Beam Antennas TV LINE
Figure 12
The rotary multi -element beam is undoubted- SIMPLE 3- ELEMENT BEAM FOR 2 AND
ly the most popular type of v -h -f antenna in 1'/ METERS
use. In general, the design, assembly and tun-
ing of these antennas follows a pattern similar
to the larger types of rotary beam antennas
used on the lower frequency amateur bands. driven element is next attached to the center
The characteristics of these low frequency of the wood boom, mounted atop a small in-
beam antennas are discussed in the next chap- sulating plate made of bakelite, micarta or
ter of this Handbook, and the information con- some other non -conducting material. It is held
tained in that chapter applies in general to the in place in the same manner as the parasitic
v -h -f beam antennas discussed herewith. elements. The two free ends of the folded di-
pole are hammered flat and drilled for a 6 -32
A Simple Three The simplest v -h -f beam for bolt. These bolts pass through both the insu-
Element Beam the beginner is the three-ele- lating block and the boom, and hold the free
Antenna ment Yagi array illustrated in tips of the element in place.
figure 12. Dimensions are A length of 75 -ohm Twin -Lead TV -type line
given for Yagis cut for the 2 -meter and 1%- should be used with this beam antenna. It is
meter bands. The supporting boom for the Yagi connected to each of the free ends of the folded
may be made from a smoothed piece of 1" x 2" dipole. If the.antenna is mounted in the verti-
wood. The wood should be reasonably dry and cal plane, the 75 -ohm line should be brought
should be painted to prevent warpage from ex- away from the antenna for a distance of four
posure to sun and rain. The director and re- to six feet before it drops down the tower to
flector are cut from lengths of 1" copper tub- lessen interaction between the antenna ele-
ing, obtainable from any appliance store that ments and the feed line. The complete antenna
does service work on refrigerators. They should is light enough to be turned by a TV rotator.
be cut to length as noted in figure 12. The ele- A simple Yagi antenna of this type will pro-
ments should then be given a coat of aluminum vide a gain of 7 db over the entire 2 -meter or
paint. Two small holes are drilled at the center 1%-meter band, and is highly recommended as
of the reflector and director and these elements an "easy -to- build" beam for the novice or
are bolted to the wood boom by means of two beginner.
1" wood screws. These screws should be of
the plated, or rust-proof variety. An 8- Element Figures 13 and 14 illus-
The driven element is made of a 78" length "Tippable" Array trate an
rotary 8- element
of %4" copper tubing, the ends bent back upon for 144 Mc. array for use on the 144 -
each other to form a folded dipole. If the tub- Mc. amateur band. This
ing is packed with fine sand and the bending array is "tippable" to obtain either horizontal
points heated over a torch, no trouble will be or vertical polarization. It is necessary that
had in the bending process. If the tubing does the transmitting and receiving station use the
collapse when it is bent, the break may be re- same polarization for the ground-wave signal
paired with a heavy -duty soldering iron. The propagation which is characteristic of this fre-
HANDBOOK VHF Parasitic Arrays 489
IS- 16.-- _
2ND
DIRECTOR
33.5"
1ST DIRECTOR
RADIATOR 36°
36-
REFLECTOR
40"
RING BOLT 4B" BOOM MAIN BOOMS- f APPROA. O.D.
ILE ENO TO FIT ELEMENTS- ay
60 BOOM
RG -50 /U CABLES
EACH 40 LONG
FIG-11/U CABLE
SHAPE ENDS OF SHORT PIECES TO -T COAXIAL
TO FIT CONTOUR FITTING
INSULATING ROD- ENDS

CUT DOWN TO GO INTO TUBING
ABOUT Am
!l1E.RM!lININNNNALS
ENDS OF TUBING
WOOD DOWELS IN-
SIDE FOR STRENGTH
AS SHOWN,ANTENNA IS
HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED
PULL TO SWING MAIN BOOM 90

FOR VERTICAL POLARITY.
CONTROL CORDS
RG -Siu CABLE I WoOD-2X2-

TO RIG ROTATABLE MAST.
RADIAL BEARING
Figure 13
CONSTRUCTIONAL DRAWING OF AN EIGHT -ELEMENT TIPPABLE 144 -MC. ARRAY
quency range. Although polarization has been antenna is the same whether it is oriented for
loosely standardized in various areas of the vertical or horizontal polarization, the hori-
country, exceptions are frequent enough so zontal beam width is smaller when the antenna
that it is desirable that the polarization of an- is oriented for vertical polarization. Conver-
tenna radiation be easily changeable from hori- sely, the vertical pattern is the sharper when
zontal to vertical. the antenna system is oriented for horizontal
The antenna illustrated has shown a signal polarization.
gain of about 11 db, representing a power gain The changeover from one polarization to the
of about 13. Although the signal gain of the other is accomplished simply by pulling on the
Figure 14
THE EIGHT -ELEMENT 144-MC. ARRAY IN A HORIZONTAL POSITION
appropriate cord. Hence, the operation is based 13. However, the pointers given in the follow-
on the offset head sketched in figure 13. Al- ing paragraphs will be of assistance to those
though a wood mast has been used, the same wishing to reproduce the array.
system may be used with a pipe mast. The drilling of holes for the small elements
The 40 -inch lengths of RG -59/U cable (elec- should be done carefully on accurately marked
trically % wavelength) running from the center centers. A small angular error in the drilling
of each folded dipole driven element to the of these holes will result in a considerable
coaxial T- junction allow enough slack to per- misalignment of the elements after the array is
mit free movement of the main boom when assembled. The same consideration is true of
changing polarity. Type RG -8 /U cable is run the filing out of the rounded notches in the
from the T- junction to the operating position. ends of the main boom for the fitting of the
Measured standing -wave ratio was less than two antenna booms.
2:1 over the 144 to 148 Mc. band, with the Short lengths of wood dowel are used freely
lengths and spacings given in figure 13. in the construction of the array. The ends of
the small elements are plugged with an inch
Construction of Most of the constructional or so of dowel, and the ends of the antenna
the Array aspects of the antenna array booms are similarly treated with larger discs
are self- evident from figure pressed into place.
The ends of the folded dipoles are made in

the following manner: Drive a length of dowel
into the short connecting lengths of aluminum
'''}.SS4 "
'_V POLYTHENE
tubing. Then drill down the center of the dowel .DIA
with a clearance hole for the connecting screw.

Then shape the ends of the connecting pieces
to fit the sides of the element ends. After as- CORNER
BRACES
sembly the junctions may be dressed with a
file and sandpaper until a smooth fit is ob-
tained.
The mast used for supporting the array is a
30 -foot spliced 2 by 2. A large discarded ball
bearing is used as the radial load bearing and
guy -wire termination. Enough of the upper -mast
corners were removed with a draw -knife to per-
mit sliding the ball bearing down about 9 feet
from the top of the mast. The bearing then was
encircled by an assembly of three pieces of
dural ribbon to form a clamp, with ears for
tightening screws and attachment of the guy
wires. The bearing then was greased and cov-
ered with a piece of auto inner tube to serve
as protection from the weather. Another junk -
box bearing was used at the bottom of the mast
as a thrust bearing.
The main boom s were made from 3-inch
aluminum electrical conduit. Any size of small
tubing will serve for making the elements. ALL JOINTS WELDED
Note that the main boom is mounted at the bal-
ance center and not necessarily at the physi-
cal center. The pivot bolt in the offset head Figure 15
should be tightened sufficiently that there will DETAIL OF LAYOUT AND DIMENSIONS
be adequate friction to hold the array in posi- OF BEAM ASSEMBLY OF PE1PL
tion. Then an additional nut should be placed
on the pivot bolt as a lock.
In connecting the phasing sections between
the T- junction and the centers of the folded The 10 dipoles are fed in phase by means
dipoles, it is important that the center con- of a length of balanced transmission line, a
ductors of the phasing sections be connected quarter -wave matching transformer, and a ba-
to the same side of the driven elements of the lun. A 72 -ohm coaxial line couples the array
antennas. In other words, when the antenna is to the transmitter. A drawing of the array is
oriented for horizontal polarization and the shown in figure 15.
center of the coaxial phasing section goes to The reflecting screen measures 14' 9" high
the left side of the top antenna, the center by 8' 4" wide, and is made of welded %" dia-
conductor of the other coaxial phasing section meter steel tubing. Three steel reinforcing
should go to the left side of the bottom an- bars are welded horizontally across the frame-
tenn a. work directly behind each pair of horizontal
dipoles. The intervening spaces are filled
The "Screen Beam" This highly effective ro- with lengths of no. 12 enamel- coated copper
for 2 Meters cary array for the 144 Mc. wire to complete the screen. The spacing be-
amateur band was de- tween the wires is 2 ". Four cross braces are
signed by the staff of the Experimental Phy- welded to the corners of the frame for addi-
sics Laboratory, The Hague, Netherlands for tional bracing, and a single vertical ii" rod
use at the2 meter experimental station PE1PL. runs up the middle of the frame. The complete,
The array consists of 10 half wave radiators welded frame is shown in figure 15. The no.
12 screening wires are run between 6-32 bolts
fed in phase, and arranged in two stacked rows
of five radiators. 0.2 wavelength behind this placed in holes drilled in each outside verti-
plane of radiators is a reflector screen, meas- cal member of the frame.
uring approximately 15' x 9' in size. The an- The antenna assembly is supported away
tenna provides a power gain of 15 db, and a from the reflector screen by means of ten
front to back ratio of approximately 28 db. lengths of %" steel tubing, each 1' 3%" long.
WOODBLOCK
1-'BRASS TUBING
RADIATOR
A
STUB A
C
SUPPORT
Figure 16
THE MOUNTING BLOCK FOR EACH SET

OF ELEMENTS
_ TRANSFORMER -B
I
SNORTING BAR -C
t
These tubes are welded onto the center tube ir
of each group of three horizontal bracing tubes, CtóC2=S0LLF
and are so located to support the horizontal di- WATERT IGHT
pole at its exact center. The dipoles are at- COMPARTMENT
tached to the supporting rods by means of APPROX
small phenolic insulating blocks, as shown in

figure 16. The radiators are therefore insulated BALUN- D
from the screen reflector. The inner tips of I F SNORTING BAR -

the radiators are held by small polystyrene l
blocks for rigidity, and are cross connected to COPPER TUBING
each other by a transposed length of TV -type
400 ohm open wire line. The entire array is
fed at the point A-A, illustrated in figure 15.
The matching system for the beam is mounted COAX CABLE
72 EL
behind the reflector screen, and is shown in
figure 17. A quarter -wave transformer (B) drops
the relatively high impedance of the antenna
array to a suitable value for the low imped- Figure 17
ance balun (D). An adjustable matching stub THE MATCHING UNIT IN DETAIL FOR
(C) and two variable capacitors (C, and C2) THE PE1PL BEAM DESIGN, WHICH AL-
are employed for impedance matching. The LOWS THE USE OF 72-OHM COAX
two v aria b l e capacitors are mounted in a
watertight box, with the balun and matching

stubs entering the bottom and top of the box,
respectively.
The matching procedure is carried out by
the use of a standing wave meter (SWR bridge).
A few watts of power are fed to the array
through the SWR meter, and the setting of the
shorting stub on C and the setting of the two
variable capacitors are adjusted for lowest
SWR at the chosen operating frequency. The
capacity settings of the two variable capaci-
tors should be equal. The final adjustment is
to set the shorting stub of the balun (D) to re-
move any residual reactance that might appear
on the transmission line. With proper adjust-
ment, the VSWR of the array may be held to
less than 1.5 to 1 over a 2 megacycle range
of the 2 -meter band.
The horizontal radiation pattern of this array
Figure 18 is shown in figure 18.
HORIZONTAL RADIATION PATTERN OF
THE PE1PL ARRAY. THE FRONT -TO- Long Yogi a given power gain, the
For
BACK RATIO IS ABOUT 28 db IN AMPLI- Antennas Yagi antenna can be built
TUDE, AND THE FORWARD GAIN AP- lighter, more compact, and
PROXIMATELY 15 db. with less wind resistance than any other type.
DRILL HOLES TNRO(NGN ZOOM ANO

PASS ELEMENTS TNROUGN HOLES.
BOOM LENGTH = 24. DIAM. 1 }"

DRIVEN ELEMENT GAIN= 10.1 DB
ELEMENT DIMENSIONS 2 METER BAND
LENGTH SPACING
ELEMENT
FROM
((NAM. //e -) 144 MC. 145 MC. 140 MC. 147 MC. DIPOLE
REFLECTOR 41" 40f 401e 40X 19"
DIRECTORS 36 I.- 3OÍ Sit" SG i" D1= 7
,
Dz= 14.5"
DRIVEN ELEMENT Ds= 22"
30.5" D4= 30
CLEARANCE HOLE 4 D5= 70"
BOOM ipR BOLT
De= 102"
D7= 134
De= lee.
GB WIRE FOR 300 0 INSULATING RLATNEN
MATCH.
410 WIRE
PLATE TUBING D9 =190
FOR 450 a AT ENDS.
MATCH DIO =230"
D11 =242"
Figure 19
DESIGN DIMENSIONS FOR A 2 -METER "LONG YAGI" ANTENNA
On the other hand, if a Yagi array of the same provides dimensions for a typical Long Yagi
approximate size and weight as another an- antenna for the 2-meter VHF band. Note that
tenna type is built, it will provide a higher all directors have the same physical length.
order of power gain and directivity than that If the long Yagi is designed so that the di-
of the other antenna. rectors gradually decrease in length as they
The power gain of a Yagi antenna increases progress from the dipole bandwidth will be
directly with the physical length of the array. increased, and both side lobes and forward
The maximum practical length is entirely a gain will be reduced. One advantage gained
mechanical problem of physically supporting from staggered director length is that the
the long series of director elements, although array can be shortened and lengthened by
when the array exceeds a few wavelengths in adding or taking away directors without the
length the element lengths, spacings, and need for retuning the remaining group of para-
Q's become more and more critical. The ef- sitic elements. When all directors are the
fectiveness of the array depends upon a proper same length, they must be all shortened en
combination of the mutual coupling loops masse as the array is lengthened, and vice -
between adjacent directors and between the versa when the array is shortened.
first director and the driven element. A full discussion of Long Yagi antennas,
including complete design and construction
Practically all work on Yagi antennas with information may be had in the VHF Handbook,
more than three or four elements has been on available through Radio Publications, Inc.,
an experimental, cut -and -try basis. Figure 19 Wilton., Conn.
CHAPTER TWENTY -FIVE
Rotary Beams
The rotatable antenna array has become al- ventional three- or four -element rotary beam
most standard equipment for operation on the may properly be called a unidirectional para-
28 -Mc. and 50 -Mc. bands and is commonly used sitic end-fire array, and is actually a type of
on the 14 -Mc. and 21 -Mc. bands and on those yagi array. The flat -top beam is a type of bi-
frequencies above 144 Mc. The rotatable array directional end-fire array. The broadside type
offers many advantages for both military and of array is also quite effective in obtaining
amateur use. The directivity of the antenna low -angle radiation, and although widely used
types commonly employed, particularly the in FM and TV broadcasting has seen little use
unidirectional arrays, offers a worthwhile re- by amateur stations in rotatable arrays.
duction in interference from undesired direc-
tions. Also, the increase in the ratio of low -
angle radiation plus the theoretical gain of 25-1
such arrays results in a relatively large in- Unidirectional
crease in both the transmitted signal and the Parasitic End -Fire Arrays
signal intensity from a station being received. (Yogi Type)
A significant advantage of a rotatable an-
tenna array in the case of the normal station is If a single parasitic element is placed on
that a relatively small amount of space is re- one side of a driven dipole at a distance of
quired for erection of the antenna system. In from 0.1 to 0.25 wavelength the parasitic ele-
fact, one of the best types of installation uses ment can be tuned to make the array substan-
a single telephone pole with the rotating struc- tially unidirectional.
ture holding the antenna mounted atop the pole. This simple array is termed a two element
To obtain results in all azimuth directions parasitic beam.
from fixed arrays comparable to the gain and
directivity of a single rotatable three- element
parasitic beam would require several acres of
surface. 25 -2 The Two Element Beam
There are two normal configurations of radi-
ating elements which, when horizontally polar-
ized, will contribute to obtaining a low angle The two element parasitic beam provides
of radiation. These configurations are the end - the greatest amount of gain per unit size of
fire array and the broadside array. The con- any array commonly used by radio amateurs.
4 94
Parasitic Arrays 495
0
z
O
S
t
/
/
L
R
'iR
r
r,
R ïx as
O 40
w
za
u
,7)
w
z
So
ao
as
p .
4-
/
o is
F
i
o io
a s
o o1 o.is o2 azs 0.1 0.15 o 2 0.25
ELEMENT SPACING (X) ELEMENT SPACING (X)
Figure 1
GAIN VS ELEMENT SPACING FOR A TWO - Figure 2

ELEMENT CLOSE- SPACED PARASITIC RADIATION RESISTANCE AS A FUNCTION
BEAM ANTENNA WITH PARASITIC ELE- OF ELEMENT SPACING FOR A TWO -ELE-
MENT OPERATING AS A DIRECTOR OR MENT PARASITIC ARRAY
REFLECTOR
Such an antenna is capable of a signal gain once for the two element parasitic array for
of 5 db over a dipole, with a front -to -back ratio both the reflector and the director case. Since
of 7 db to 15 db, depending upon the adjust- the optimum antenna -director spacing for maxi-
ment of the parasitic element. The parasitic mum gain results in an antenna radiation re-
element may be used either as a director or sistance of about 17 ohms, and the optimum
as a reflector. antenna- reflector spacing for maximum gain
The optimum spacing for a reflector in a results in an antenna radiation resistance of
two -element array is approximately 0.13 wave- about 25 ohms, it may be of advantage in some
length and with optimum adjustment of the instances to choose the antenna with the high-
length of the reflector a gain of approximately er radiation resistance, assuming other fac-
5 db will be obtained, with a feed -point resist- tors to be equal.
ance of about 25 ohms. Figure 3 shows the front -to-back ratio for
If the parasitic element is to be used as a the two element parasitic array for both the
director the optimum spacing between it and reflector and director cases. To produce these
the driven element is 0.11 wavelength. The curves, the elements were tuned for maximum
gain will theoretically be slightly greater than gain of the array. Better front -to -back ratios
with the optimum adjustment for a reflector may be obtained at the expense of array gain,
(about 5.5 db) and the radiation resistance if desired, but the general shape of the curves
will be in the vicinity of 17 ohms. remains the same. It can be readily observed
The general characteristics of a two -element that operation of the parasitic element as a
parasitic array may be seen in figures 1, 2 and reflector produces relatively poor front-to-
3. The gain characteristics of a two -element back ratios except when the element spacing
array when the parasitic element is used as a is greater than 0.15 wavelength. However, at
director or as a reflector are shown. It can be this element spacing, the gain of the array be-
seen that the director provides a maximum of gins to suffer.
5.3 db gain at a spacing of slightly greater Since a radiation resistance of 17 ohms is
than 0.1 wavelength from the antenna. In the not unduly hard to match, it can be argued that
interests of greatest power gain and size con- the best all -around performance may be ob-
servation, therefore, the choice of a parasitic tained from a two element parasitic beam em-
director would be wiser than the choice of a ploying 0.11 element spacing, with the para-
parasitic reflector, although the gain differ- sitic element tuned to operate as a director.
ence between the two is small. This antenna will provide a forward gain of
Figure 2 shows the relationship between 5.3 db, with a front-to -back ratio of 10 db, or
the element spacing and the radiation resist- slightly greater. Closer spacing than 0.11
496 Rotary Beams THE RADIO
wavelength may be employed for greater front -

to -back ratios, but the radiation resistance of
the array becomes quite low, the bandwidth
of the array becomes very narrow, and the tun-
ing becomes quite critical. Thus the Q of the
antenna system will be increased as the spac-
ing between the elements is decreased, and
smaller optimum fr e q u e n c y coverage will
result.
Element Lengths When the parasitic element
of a two-element array is 01 0. 5 02 0.25
used as a director, the following formulas may ELEMENT SPACING (X)
(PARASITIC ELEMENT TUNED FOR MAXIMUM GAIN)
be used to determine the lengths of the driven
element and the parasitic director, assuming
Figure 3
an element diameter -to- length ratio of 200 to
400: FRONT-TO -BACK RATIO AS A FUNCTION
Driven element length (feet) = -

476
OF ELEMENT SPACING FOR A TWO -ELE-
MENT PARASITIC ARRAY
-
FMc.
450 The effective bandwidth taken between the
Director length (feet) = 1.5/1 standing wave points of an array cut to
FMc. the above dimensions is about 2.5% of the
operating frequency. This means that an array
pre -cut to a frequency of 14,150 kilocycles
Element spacing (feet) = 1F20
would have a bandwidth of 350 kilocycles (plus
or minus 175 kilocycles of the center frequen-
Figure 4 cy), and therefore would be effective over the
FIVE ELEMENT 28 MC BEAM whole 20 meter band. In like fashion, a 15
ANTENNA AT W6SAI meter array should be pre -cut to 21,200 kilo-
Antenna boom is made of twenty foot
cycles.
A beam designed for use on the 10 -meter
length of Sears, Roebuck Co. three -
inch aluminum irrigation pipe. Spacing
band would have an effective bandwidth of
some 700 kilocycles. Since the 10 -meter band
between elements is five feet. Ele-
ments are mode of twelve foot lengths
is 1700 kilocycles in width, the array should
either be cut to 28,500 kilocycles for opera-
of 7/8 -inch aluminum tubing, with ex- tion in the low frequency portion of the band,
tension tips made of 3/4 -inch tubing.
or to 29,200 kilocycles for operation in the
Gamma matching device, element high frequency portion of the band. Operation
clamps, and "Oxen Yoke" element -to- of the antenna outside the effective bandwidth
boom clamps are made by Continental will increase the SWR on the transmission
Electronics 8 Sound Co., Dayton 27, line, and noticeably degrade both the gain and
Ohio. Beam dimensions are taken from front -to -back ratio performance. The height
figure 5. above ground also influences the F/B ratio.
25 -3 The Three -Element Array
The three -element array using a director,

driven element, and reflector will exhibit as
much as 30 db front -to -back ratio and 20 db
front -to -side ratio for low -angle radiation. The
theoretical gain is about 9 db over a dipole in
free space. In actual practice, the array will
often show 7 to 10 db apparent gain over a
horizontal dipole placed the same height above
ground (at 28 and 14 Mc.).
The use of more than three elements is de-
sirable when the length of the supporting struc-
ture is such that spacings of approximately
HANDBOOK Parasitic Arrays 497
0.2 wavelength between elements becomes ommended. For narrower bandwidth, such as
possible. Four-element arrays are quite com- would be adequate for the 14.0 to 14.4 Mc.
mon on the 28 -Mc. and 50 -Mc. bands, and five band or the 144 to 148 Mc. band, the radiator
elements are sometimes used for increased to parasitic element spacing may be reduced
gain and discrimination. As the number of ele- to 0.12 wavelength, while still maintaining
ments is increased the gain and front -to -back adequate array bandwidth for the amateur band
ratio increases but the radiation resistance de- in question.
creases and the bandwidth or frequency range
over which the antenna will operate without
reduction in effectiveness is decreased. Length of the Experience has shown that
Parasitic Elements it is practical to cut the
prarsitic elements of a
three -elementparasitic array to a predetermined
Material for While the elements may consist length before the installation of such an an-
Elements of wire supported on a wood tenna. A pre -tuned antenna such as this will
framework, self- supporting ele- give good signal gain, adequate front -to -back
ments of tubing are much to be preferred. The ratio, and good bandwidth factor. By carefully
latter type array is easier to construct, looks tuning the array after it is in position the gain
better, is no more expensive, and avoids the may be increased by a fraction of a db, and
problem of getting sufficiently good insulation the front -to -back ratio by several db. However
at the ends of the element s. The voltages the slight improvement in performance is us-
reach such high values towards the ends of ually not worth the effort expended in tuning
the elements that losses will be excessive, time.
unless the insulation is excellent. The closer the lengths of the parasitic ele-
The elements may be fabricated of thin - ments are to the resonant length of the driven
walled steel conduit, or hard drawn thin -walled element, the lower will be the feed -point resist-
copper tubing, but durai tubing is much better. ance of the driven element, and the smaller
Or, if you prefer, you may purchase tapered will be the bandwidth of the array. Hence, for
copper- plated steel tubing elements designed wide frequency coverage the director should
especially for the purpose. Kits are available be considerably shorter, and the reflector con-
complete with rotating mechanism and direction siderably longer than the driven element. For
indicator, for those who desire to purchase example, the director should still be less than
the whole system ready to put up. a resonant half wave at the upper frequency
limit of the range wherein the antenna is to be
operated, and the reflector should still be long
Element Spacing The optimum spacing for a enough to act as a reflector at the lower fre-
two -element array is, as has quency limit. Another way of stating the same
been mentioned be fore, approximately 0.11 thing is to say, in the case of an array to cover
wavelength for a director and 0.13 wavelength a wide frequency range such as the amateur
for a reflector. However, when both a director range from 26.96 to 29.7 Mc. or the width of a
and a reflector are combined with the driven low -band TV channel, that the director should
element to make up a three -element array the be cut for the upper end of the band and
optimum spacing is established by the band- the reflector for the lower end of the band. In
width which the antenna will be required to the case of the 26.96 to 29.7 Mc. range this
cover. Wide spacing (of the order of 0.25 wave- means that the director should be about 8 per
length between elements) will result in greater cent shorter than the driven element and the
bandwidth for a specified maximum standing - reflector should be about 8 per cent longer.
wave ratio on the antenna transmission line. Such an antenna will show a relatively con-
Smaller spacings may be used when boom stant gain of about 6 db over its range of cov-
length is an important consideration, but for a erage, and the pattern will not reverse at any
specified standing -wave ratio and forward gain point in the range.
the frequency coverage will be smaller. Thus Where the frequency range to be covered is
the Q of the antenna system will be increased somewhat less, such as a high -band TV chan-
as the spacing between the elements is de- nel, the 14.0 to 14.4 Mc. amateur band, or the
creased, resulting in smaller frequency cover- lower half of the amateur 28 -Mc. phone band,
age, and at the same time the feed-point im- the reflector should be about 5 per cent longer
pedance of the driven element will be de- than the driven element, and the director about
creased. 5 per cent shorter. Such an antenna will per-
For broad -band coverage, such as the range form well over its rated frequency band, will
from 26.96 to 29.7 Mc. or from 50 to 54 Mc., not reverse its pattern over this band, and will
0.2 wavelength spacing from the driven ele- show a signal gain of 7 to 8 db. See figure 5
ment to each of the parasitic elements is rec- for design figures for 3-element arrays.
TYPE DRIVEN ELEMENT REFLECTOR 1ST DI RECTOR 2ND DIRECTOR 3RD DIRECTOR SPACING BET- APPROX.GAIN APPRO%. RADIATION
LENGTH LENGTH LENGTH LENGTH WEENELEMCNTS DR RESISTANCE (11)
-
473 501 445 .15 -.15 7.5 20
FF (MC) F (ucl F (uc)
3- LLCM[NT .25 -. 25 .S 35
rIMC) 4r(MC)
4- CLEMENT - .-.4.1
F(MC)
.2 -.2 -.z 5.5 20
5-CLEMEN7
(IPC) F) 40)
NC) p)
4
(yc-50 .2-.2-.2-.2 10.0 13
Figure 5
DESIGN CHART FOR PARASITIC ARRAYS (DIMENSIONS GIVEN IN FEET)
More Than A small amount of additional resistance, that especial care must be taken
Three Elements gain may be obtained through in materials used and in the construction of
use of more than two parasitic the elements of the array to insure that ohmic
elements, at the expense of reduced feed-point losses in the conductors will not be an appre-
impedance and lessened bandwidth. One addi- ciable percentage of the radiation resistance.
tional director will add about 1 db, and a sec- It is also obvious that some method of imped-
ond additional director (making a total of five ance transformation must be used in many
elements including the driven element) will cases to match the low radiation resistance
add slightly less than one db more. In the of these antenna arrays to the normal range of
v -h -f range, where the additional elements may characteristic impedance used for antenna
be added without much difficulty, and where transmission lines.
required bandwidths are small, the use of more A group of possible methods of impedance
than two parasitic elements is quite practic- matching is shown in figures 7, 8, 9 and 10.
able. All these methods have been used but certain
of them of f e r advantages over some of the
Stacking of (yagis) may
Parasitic arrays other methods. Generally speaking it is not
Yogi Arrays stacked to provide addition-
be mechanically desirable to break the center of
al gain in the same manner that the driven element of an array for feeding the
dipoles may be stacked. Thus if an array of system. Breaking the driven element rules out
six dipoles would give a gain of 10 db, the the practicability of building an all -metal or
substitution of yagi arrays for each of the di- "plumber's delight" type of array, and im-
poles would add the gain of one yagi array to poses mechanical limitations with any type of
the gain obtained with the dipoles. However, construction. However, when continuous rota-
the yagi arrays must be more widely spaced tion is desired, an arrangement such as shown
than the dipoles to obtain this theoretical imin figure 91) utilizing a broken driven element
provement. As an example, if six 5- element with a rotatable transformer for coupling from
yagi arrays having a gain of about 10 db were the antenna transmission line to the driven
substituted for the dipoles, with appropriate element has proven to be quite satisfactory.
increase in the spacing between the arrays, In fact the method shown in figure 91) is prob-
the gain of the whole system would approach ably the most practicable method of feeding
the sum of the two gains, or 20 db. A group of the driven element when continuous rotation
arrays of yagi antennas, with recommended of the antenna array is required.
spacing and approximate gains, are illus- The feed systems shown in figure 7 will,
trated in figure 6. under normal conditions, show the lowest loss-
es of any type of feed system since the cur-
rents flowing in the matching network are the
Feed Systems for lowest of all the systems commonly used. The
25 -4 "Folded Element" match shown in figure 7A
Parasitic (Yogi) Arrays and the "Yoke" match shown in figure 713 are
the most satisfactory electrically of all stand-
The table of figure 5 gives, in addition to ard feed methods. However, both methods re-
other information, the approximate radiation quire the extension of an additional conductor
resistance referred to the center of the driven out to the end of the driven element as a por-
element of multi -element parasitic arrays. It is tion of the matching system. The folded -ele-
obvious, from these low values of radiation ment match is best on the 50 -Mc. band and
HANDBOOK Stacked Yagi Arrays 499
I.- 0. 2 A 0.2 A ----I.'

I.-0.2A 0.2A-+--0.2a--+-0.2A-Al
501 {BS_ S 50
F Mc FNC FMC FMc
DIRECTIONAL
A
OGAIN ABOUT 12 DB
WITH 2 SECTIONS
FEEDER LINE
© GAIN ABOUT IS DB
WITH 3 SECTIONS
CO GAIN ABOUT :7 DB
Figure 6
STACKED MAGI ARRAYS
It is possible to attain a relatively large amount of gain over a limited bandwidth with stocked
yogi arrays. The two -section array at (A) will give a gain of about 12 db, while adding a third
section will bring the gain up to about 15 db. Adding two additional parasitic directors to each
section, os at (C) will bring the gain up to about 17 db.
higher where the additional section of tubing Mc. and 14 -Mc. bands since it is only neces-
may be supported below the main radiator ele- sary to suspend a wire below the driven ele-
ment without undue difficulty. The yoke-match ment proper. The wire may be spaced below
is more satisfactory mechanically on the 28- the self-supporting element by means of several
500 Rotary B e a m s T H E R A D I O
RADIATION
DI FOR DI Dz RFEEO.
RRAC
4
roRDII-
D2 D20.s-uk6.9
41`,..Rrtto S 1.s KRAD.
FOLDED -ELEMENT
MATCH
FOR Dt I-
Dz
S1.s-
.2s 10.5
FOR DI1-
D2.2s-16
S1
i
D FOR D =
*12
FOR D
WIRE
1-
2- 11
S 2- RRcc°° - 14
*12 I.
WIRR
Rrrcc
FOR D1-
S 1.s- 18
24
412 WIRE
FOR D= 1
S 1-
4! WIRE
FOR D 1-
012
S=
WIRE
I Renik
RAD.
32
Figure 7
DATA FOR
FOLDED- ELEMENT
MATCHING SYSTEMS
RFEED 9
3 -WIRE MATCH In all normal applications of

the data given the main ele-
ment as shown is the driven
element of a multi- element
parasitic array. Directors and
reflectors have not been
shown for the sake of clarity.
-0-12112. APPROX.25
5-WIRE MATCH RAD.
small strips of polystyrene which have been to be fed by m e an s of a 465-ohm line con-
drilled for both the main element and the small structed of no. 12 wire spaced 2 inches. The
wire and threaded on the main element. approximate radiation resistance of such an
antenna array will be 20 ohms. Hence we need
The Folded- Element The calculation of the a ratio of impedance step up of 23 to obtain
Match Calculations operating conditions of a match between the characteristic impedance
the folded - element of the transmission line and the radiation re-
matching system and the yoke match, as shown sistance of the driven element of the antenna
in figures 7A and 7B is relatively simple. A array. Inspection of the ratios given in figure
selected group of operating. conditions has 7 shows that the fourth set of dimensions
been shown on the drawing of figure 7. In ap- given under figure 7B will give a 24 -to -1 step
plying the system it is only necessary to mul- up, which is sufficiently close. So it is merely
tiply the ratio of feed to radiation resistance necessary to use a 1 -inch diameter driven ele-
(given in the figures to the right of the sug- ment with a no. 8 wire spaced on 1 inch centers
gested operating dimensions in figure 7) by (% inch below the outside wall of the 1 -inch
the radiation resistance of the antenna system tubing) below the 1 -inch element. The no. 8
to obtain the impedance of the cable to be wire is broken and a 2 -inch insulator placed
used in feeding the array. Approximate values in the center. The feed line then carries from
of radiation resistance for a number of com- this insulator down to the transmitter. The
monly used parasitic -element arrays are given center insulator should be supported rigidly
in figure 5. from the 1 -inch tube so that the spacing be-
As an example, suppose a 3- element array tween the piece of tubing and the no. 8 wire
with 0.15D -0.15R spacing between elements is will be accurately maintained.
L
L-t---1416 L
0 DELTA MATCH DIMENSIONS SHOWN GIVE

APPROX. MATCH TO 300.11
AIR-SPACED LINE
L
Figure 8 14%L-jr14%L
AVERAGE DIMENSIONS
L
FOR THE DELTA AND
"T" MATCH
DI3D2
QB 'T MATCH
ZOO A O11 300
TWIN LINE
In many cases it will be desired to use the The conventional 3 -wire match to give an
folded -element or yoke matching system with impedance 'multiplication of 9 and the 5 -wire
different sizes of conductors or different spac- match to give a ratio of approximately 25 are
ings than those shown in figure 7. Note, then, shown in figures 7C and 7D. The 4 -wire match,
that the impedance transformation ratio of not shown, will give an impedance transforma-
these types of matching systems is dependent tion ratio of approximately 16.
both upon the ratio of conductor diameters and
upon their spacing. The following equation
has been given by Roberts (RCA Review, June, The Delta Match The Delta match and the
1947) for the determination of the impedance and T Match T -match are shown in figure
transformation when using different diameters 8. The delta match has been
in the two sections of a folded element: largely superseded by the newer T- match, how-
ever both these systems can be adjusted to
Transformation ratio = (1 t
\
-
Z,
Z2
2
give a low value of SWR on 50 to 600 -ohm bal-
anced transmission lines. In the case of the
systems shown it will be necessary to make
In this equation Z, is the characteristic im- adjustments in the tapping distance along the
pedance of a line made up of the smaller of driven radiator until minimum standing waves
the two conductor diameters spaced the center - on the antenna transmission line are obtained.
to- center distance of the two conductors in the Since it is sometimes impracticable to elim-
antenna, and Z2 is the characteristic imped- inate completely the standing waves from the
ance of a line made up of two conductors the antenna transmission line when using these
size of the larger of the two. This assumes matching systems, it is common practice to
that the feed line will be connected in series cut the feed line, after standing waves have
with the smaller of the two conductors so that been reduced to a minimum, to a length which
an impedance step up of greater than four will will give satisfactory loading of the transmitter
be obtained. If an impedance step up of less over the desired frequency range of operation.
than four is desired, the feed line is connected The inherent reactance of the T-match is
in series with the larger of the two conductors tuned out by the use of two identical resonat-
and Z, in the above equation becomes the im- ing capacitors in series with each leg of the
pedance of a hypothetical line made up of the T -rod. These capacitors should each have a
larger of the two conductors and Z2 is made maximum capacity of 8 µµfd. per meter of wave-
up of the smaller. The folded v -h -f unipole is length. Thus for 20 meters, each capacitor
an example where the transmission line is con- should have a maximum capacity of at least
nected in series with the a r g e r of the two
1 160 µµEd. For power up to a kilowatt, 1000
conductors. volt spacing of the capacitors is adequate.
502 Rotary Beams T H E R A D I O
pA DIRECT FEED WITH

COAXIAL CABLE
52 A COAXIAL CABLE
pB QUARTER -WAVE
TRANSFORMER FEED
7511 TWIN LINE
50 -400 A LINE
Figure 9
© TRANSFORMER
MATCHING SYSTEM ALTERNATE FEED
METHODS WHERE THE
28 MC. - 4 TURNS 2" DIA., 2" LONG
DRIVEN ELEMENT MAY
ANT. 1 TURN EACH SIDE BE BROKEN IN THE
500 -8008 LINE 14 MC.- TURNS 2- DIA., 2" LONG CENTER
ANT. TAPPED 2 TURNS EACH SIDE
pD ROTARY LINK
COUPLING
COIL SPACED COILS 10-
APPROX. 0.5" DIA
C
1 TURN LINKS ARE PARALLEL
C 13 200 GIUPD VARIABLE
430 -800 al LINE
These capacitors should be tuned for minimum the standing -wave ratio on the 52 -ohm coaxial
SWR on the transmission line. The adjustment cable is less than 2-to-1.(B) shows an arrange-
of these capacitors should be made at the same ment for feeding an array with a broken driven
time the correct setting of the T -match rods is element from an open -wire line with the aid of
made as the two adjustments tend to be inter- a quarter -wave matching transformer. With 465 -
locking. The use of the standing wave meter ohm line from the transmitter to the antenna
(described in Test Equipment chapter) is this system will give a close match to a 12-
recommended for making these adjustments to ohm impedance at the center of the driven ele-
the T- match. ment. (C) shows an arrangement which uses an
untuned transformer with lumped inductance
Feed Systems Using Four methods of exciting for matching the transmission line to the cen-
aDriven Element the driven element of a ter impedance of the driven element.
with Center Feed parasitic array are shown
in figure 9. The system Rotary Link In manycases it is desirable to
shown at (A) has proven to be quite satisfac- Coupling be able to allow the antenna ar-
tory in the case of an antenna -reflector two - ray to rotate continuously without
element array or in the case of a three- element regard to snarling of the feed line. If this is to
array with 0.2 to 0.25 wavelength spacing be- be done some sort of slip rings or rotary joint
tween the elements of the antenna system. The must be made in the feed line. One relatively
feed-point impedance of the center of the driven simple method of allowing unrestrained rotation
element is close enough to the characteristic of ,the antenna is to use the method of rotary
impedance of the 52 -ohm coaxial cable so that link coupling shown in figure 9D. The two cou-
HANDBOOK The Gamma Match 503
-FLAT. LINE RESONANT

SWR1.o SECTION
TRANSMITTER 7
TO
/ Y AN
SIMPLE OIdiLEx
MATCHING STUB
Figure 11
Figure 10
IMPEDANCE MATCHING WITH A CLOSED
THE GAMMA MATCHING SYSTEM
STUB ON A TWO WIRE TRANSMISSION
See text for details of resonating capacitor LINE
pling rings are 10 inches in diameter and are the transmission line and the driven element
usually constructed of V4-inch copper tubing of the array, and the gamma capacitor tunes
supported one from the rotating structure and out the inductance of the gamma rod. By ad-
one from the fixed structure by means of stand- justment of the length of the gamma rod, and
off insulators. The capacitor C in figure 9D is the setting of the gamma capacitor, the SWR
adjusted, after the antenna has been tuned, for on the coaxial line may be brought to a very
minimum standing -wave ratio on the antenna low value at the chosen operating frequency.
transmission line. The dimensions shown will The use of an Antennascope, described in the
allow operation with either 14 -Mc. or 28 -Mc. Test Equipment chapter is recommended for
elements, with appropriate adjustment of the precise adjustment of the gamma match.
capacitor C. The rings must of course be paral-
lel and must lie in a plane normal to the axis
of rotation of the rotating structure.
The Matching Stub If an open-wire line is
used to feed a low imped-
ance radiator, a section of the transmission
line may be employed as a matching stub as
The Gomma Match The use of coaxial cable shown in figure 11. The matching stub can
to feed the driven element transform any complex impedance to the char-
of a yagi array is becoming increasingly popu- acteristic impedance of the transmission line.
lar. One reason for this increased popularity While it is possible to obtain a perfect match
lies in the fact that the TVI- reduction problem and good performance with either an open stub
is simplified when coaxial feed line is used or a shorted one by observing appropriate di-
from the transmitter to the antenna system.
mensions, a shorted stub is much more readily
Radiation from the feed line is minimized when adjusted. Therefore, the following discussion
coaxial cable is used, since the outer conduc- will be confined to the problem of using a
tor of the line may be grounded at several closed stub to match a low impedance load to
points throughout its length and since the in- a high impedance transmission line.
tense field is entirely confined within the out- If the transmission line is so elevated that
er conductor of the coaxial cable. Other ad- adjustment of a "fundamental" shorted stub
vantages of coaxial cable as the antenna feed cannot be accomplished easily from the ground,
line lie in the fact that coaxial cable may be then the stub length may be increased by ex-
run within the structure of a building without actly one or two electrical half wavelengths,
danger, or the cable may be run underground without appreciably affecting its operation.
without disturbing its operation. Also, trans- While the correct position of the shorting
mitting -type low -pass filters for 52 ohm imped- bar and the point of attachment of the stub to
ance are more widely available and are less the line can be determined entirely by experi-
expensive than equivalent filters for two -wire mental methods, the fact that the two adjust-
line. ments are interdependent or interlocking makes
The gamma -match is illustrated in figure 10, such a cut-and -try procedure a tedious one.
and may be looked upon as one -half of a T- Much time can be saved by determining the ap-
match. One resonating capacitor is used, proximate adjustments required by reference to
placed in series with the gamma rod. The ca- a chart such as figure 12 and using them as a
pacitor should have a capacity of 7 µµEd. per starter. Usually only a slight "touching up"
meter of wavelength. For 15 -meter operation will produce a perfect match and flat line.
the capacitor should have a maximum capacity In order to utilize figure 12, it is first neces-
of 105 µµEd. The length of the gamma rod deter- sary to locate accurately a voltage node or
mines the impedance transformation between current node on the line in the vicinity that
[1
li\
__= DIRECTIONAL
01=1111111=11111111=111III1111 60
111111111111i1IIIII1111
iIIIIII
1111111111111111MMM` W
W
.on K
:66IIIIIn 70 V
__MIIIIIIII
MO 111IIIIIIII
60 o
z
. IIII1111 40
1-
---
oA-R-=\_ IIIIIII W
3p
J
1wARO
IIIINM DNplitiinp11a6 t0
OGAIN ABOUT 6 DB FEED LINE
=1---- III1111
1111111=liIIIMIIIj1IIIn
IIIIIIIII
3 4 5 6 7 6
o
6 10
°ú
W
DIRECTIONAL
5W R GAIN ABOUT 6 DC
Figure 12
SHORTED STUB LENGTH AND POSITION
CHART
From the standing wave ratio and current or
voltage null position it is possible to deter-
mine the theoretically correct length and
position ofa shorted stub. In actual prac-
tice a slight discrepancy usually will be FEED LINE
found between the theoretical and fhe ex-

perimentally optimized dimensions; therefore
it may be necessary to "touch up" the di- DIRECTIONAL
mensions after using the above data as a GAIN ABOUT 10 DB
starting point.
has been decided upon for the stub, and also a
to determine the SWR.

Stub adjustment becomes more critical as
the SWR increases, and under conditions of
high SWR the current and voltage nulls are
more sharply defined than the current and volt-
age maxima, or loops. Therefore, it is best to
locate either a current null or voltage null, de-
pending upon whether a current indicating de-
vice or a voltage indicating device is used to
check the standing wave pattern.
The SWR is determined by means of a "di-
© FEED LINE
rectional coupler," or by noting the ratio of

Ern62 to Ern ia or Im. to 'min as read on an Figure 13
indicating device. UNIDIRECTIONAL ALL -DRIVEN ARRAYS
It is assumed that the characteristic imped-
A unidirectional all - driven end -fire array is
ance of the section of line used as a stub is
shown at (A). (B) shows an array with two
the same as that of the transmission line prop-
half waves in phase with driven reflectors.
er. It is preferable to have the stub section
A Lazy -H array with driven reflectors is
identical to the line physically as well as
shown at (C). Note that the directivity is
electrically.
through the elements with the greatest total
feed-line length in arrays such as shown at
(B) and (C).
25 -5 Unidirectional
Driven Arrays
be used in place of a parasitic array of similar
Three types of unidirectional driven arrays dimensions when greater frequency coverage
are illustrated in figure 13. The array shown than is available with the yagi type is desired.
in figure 13A is an end -fire system which may Figure 13B is a combination end -fire and co-
HANDBOOK Driven Arrays 505
linear system which will give approximately natural result of the fact that a larger number
the same gain as the system of figure 13A, but of the radiating elements are directly fed with
which requires less boom length and greater energy, and of the fact that the effective radia-
total element length. Figure 13C illustrates tion resistance of each of the driven elements
the familiar lazy -H with driven reflectors (or of the array is much higher than the feed -point
directors, depending upon the point of view) resistance of a parasitic array. As a conse-
in a combination which will show wide band- quence of this fact, arrays of the type shown
width with a considerable amount of forward in figure 14 can be expected to cover a some-
gain and good front -to -back ratio over the en- what greater frequency band for a specified
tire frequency coverage. value of standing -wave ratio than the parasitic
type of array.
Unidirectional Stocked Three p r a c t i c a b l e In most cases a simple open -wire line may
Broadside Arrays types of unidirectional be coupled to the feed point of the array with-
stacked broadside ar- out any matching system. The standing -wave
rays are shown in figure 14. The first type, ratio with such a system of feed will often be
shown at figure 14A, is the simple "lazy H" less than 2 -to -1. However, if a more accurate
type of antenna with parasitic reflectors for match between the antenna transmission line
each element. (B) shows a simpler antenna ar- and the array is desired a conventional quar-
ray with a pair of folded dipoles spaced one - ter -wave stub, or a quarter -wave matching
half wave vertically, operating with reflectors. transformer of appropriate impedance, may be
In figure 14C is shown a more complex array used to obtain a low standing -wave ratio.
with six half waves and six reflectors which
will give a very worthwhile amount of gain.
In all three of the antenna arrays shown the
spacing between the driven elements and the 25 -6 Bi-Directional
reflectors has been shown as one - quarter wave- Rotatable Arrays
length. This has been done to eliminate the
requirement for tuning of the reflector, as a
result of the fact that a half-wave element The bidirectional type of array is sometimes
spaced exactly one - quarter wave from a driven used on the 28 -Mc. and 50 -Mc. bands where
element will make a unidirectional array when signals are likely to be coming from only one
both elements are the same length. Using this general direction at a time. Hence the sacri-
procedure will give a gain of 3 db with the re- fice of discrimination against signals arriving
flectors over the gain without the reflectors, from the opposite direction is likely to be of
with only a moderate decrease in the radiation little disadvantage. Figure 15 shows two gen-
resistance of the driven element. Actually, eral types of bidirectional arrays. The flat-
the radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole top beam, which has been described in detail
goes down from 73 ohms to 60 ohms when an earlier, is well adapted to installation atop a
identical half -wave element is placed one - rotating structure. When self- supporting ele-
quarter wave behind it. ments are used in the flat -top beam the prob-
A very slight increase in gain for the entire lem of losses due to insulators at the ends of
array (about 1 db) many be obtained at the ex- the elements is somewhat reduced. With a
pense of lowered radiation resistance, the ne- single- section flat -top beam a gain of approx-
cessity for tuning the reflectors, and decreased imately 4 db can be expected, and with two
bandwidth by placing the reflectors 0.15 wave- sections a gain of approximately 6 db can be
length behind the driven elements and making obtained.
them somewhat longer than the driven elements. Another type of bidirectional array which
The radiation resistance of each element will has seen less use than it deserves is shown
drop approximately to one -half the value ob- in figure 15B. This type of antenna system has
tained with untunedhalf -wave reflectors spaced a relatively broad azimuth or horizontal beam,
one -quarter wave behind the driven elements. being capable of receiving signals with little
Antenna arrays of the type shown in figure diminution in strength over approximately 40 °,
14 require the use of some sort of lattice work but it has a quite sharp elevation pattern since
for the supporting structure since the arrays substantially all radiation is concentrated at
occupy appreciable distance in space in all the lower angles of radiation if more than a
three planes. total of four elements is used in the antenna
system. Figure 15B gives the approximate gain
Feed Methods The requirements for the feed over a half-wave dipole at the height of the
systems for antenna arrays of center of the array which can be expected. Al-
the type shown in figure 14 are less critical so shown in this figure is a type of "rotating
than those for the close- spaced parasitic ar- mast" structure which is well suited to rota-
rays shown in the previous section. This is a tion of this type of array.
"LAZY H" WITH REFLECTOR
GAIN APPROX. 110B
O
BROADSIDE HALF -WAVES
WITH REFLECTORS
FOLDED DIPOLES REFLECTORS GAIN APPROX 7 DC
Figure 14
SOO O. LINE BROADSIDE ARRAYS
WITH PARASITIC
REFLECTORS
The apparent gain of the ar-
TWO OVER TWO OVER TWO rays illustrated will be great-
WITH REFLECTORS er than the values given due
to concentration of the radi-
GAIN APPROX. 11.5 DB
ated signal of the lower ele-
vation angles.
11511 LINE
If six or more elements are used in the type tuning will apply. However, the factor that a
of array shown in figure 15B no matching sec- bi- directional array need be rotated through an
tion will be required between the antenna trans- angle of less than 180° should be considered
mission line and the feed point of the antenna. in this connection.
When only four elements are used the antenna
is the familiar "lazy H" and a quarter-wave
stub should be used for feeding from the an-
tenna transmission line to the feed point of Construction of
25 -7
the antenna system.
If desired, and if mechanical considerations Rotatable Arrays
permit, the gain of the arrays shown in figure
15B may be increased by 3 db by placing a A considerable amount of ingenuity may be
half -wave reflector behind each of the ele- exercised in the construction of the supporting
ments at a spacing of one -quarter wave. The structure for a rotatable array. Every person
array then becomes essentially the same as has his own ideas as to the best method of
that shown in figure 14C and the same con- construction. Often the most practicable meth-
siderations in regard to reflector spacing and od of construction will be dictated by the
HANDBOOK Bi- directional Arrays 507
STUB FLAT -TOP BEAM FOR

ROTATABLE ARRAY
GAIN 4 TO DS
OPEN -WIRE LINE
"TWO OVER TWO OVER TWO

TYPE OF ARRAY
Figure 15 GAIN TOTAL NUMBER

Of ELEMENTS
TWO GENERAL TYPES 1.5 DB a
OF BI- DIRECTIONAL 5.0 DB 4
ARRAYS 7.5DB
Average gain figures are giv- 9.0 DB
en for both the flat -top beam 10.0 DB 10

type of array and for the
broadside- colinear array with
different numbers of elements.
-
RADIAL LOAD
BEARING
455 R FEEDERS
la WIRE SPACED Z.
GUY WIRES
ROPES TO
ING POSITION
...-THRUST
BEARING
availability of certain types of constructional 24ST has proven over a period of time to be
materials. But in any event be sure that sound quite satisfactory. Copper tubing is too heavy
mechanical engineering principles are used in for a given strength, and steel tubing, unless
the design of the supporting structure. There copper plated, is likely to add an undesirably
are few things quite as discouraging as the large loss resistance to the array. Also, steel
picking up of pieces, repairing of the roof, etc., tubing, even when plated, is not likely to
when a newly constructed rotary comes down withstand salt atmosphere such as encountered
in the first strong wind. If the principles of along the seashore for a satisfactory period
mechanical engineering are understood it is of time. Do not use a soft aluminum alloy for
wise to calculate the loads and torques which the elements unless they will be quite short;
will exist in the various members of the struc- 24ST is a hard alloy and is best although there
ture with the highest wind velocity which may are several other alloys ending in "ST" which
be expected in the locality of the installation. will be found to be satisfactory. Do not use
If this is not possible it will usually be worth an alloy ending in "SO" or "S" in a position
the time and effort to look up a friend who in the array where structural strength is im-
understands these principles. portant, since these letters designate a metal
which has not been heat treated for strength
Radiating One thing more or less standard and rigidity. However, these softer alloys, and
Elements about the construction of rotatable aluminum electrical conduit, may be used for
antenna arrays is the use of durai short radiating elements such as would be
tubing for the self- supporting elements. Other used for the 50 -Mc. band or as interconnecting
materials may be used but an alloy known as conductors in a stacked array.
ELEMENT CLAMP
2 PIECES
-
LINE OF
ELEMENTS
LINE OF
BOOM, MADE
ALUMINUM PLATE
- OF SECTIONS
OF STEEL TV
MAST OR OF
ELEMENT
APPROX. 3% 12 ALUMINUM U- BOLT

IRRIGATION
TUBING
IP'
INESMNIOELEMENT HELD
(2
PLATE WITH U- BOLTS.
TO
REO-O) OR MUFFLER CLAMPS.
LINE OF BOOM
BOOM CLAMP
2 PIECES
r'J\\
SHIM JOINT WITH THIN RADIATOR OXEN -YOKE CLAMP
STRIPS OF ALUMINUM HOSE CLAMP
IF NECESSARY.
to CENT ER SECTION
LADDER
ADJUSTABLE SLIT CENTER SECTION TUBE ADJUSTABLE
TIP 3AT EACH END. TIP
TYPICAL ELEMENT
Figure 16
ELEMENT "PLUMBER'S ELEMENT HELD TO 2 X4
3- BY 2TV -TYPE U- BOLTS
DELIGHT" ANTENNA ARRAY
All -metal configuration permits rugged,
light assembly. Joints are made with
_2X4 BOLTED TO LADDER BY
2 PIECES OF ANGLE IRON STOCK
U -bolts and metal plates for maximum

rigidity.
Figure 17
(A) OXEN -YOKE CLAMP IS DESIGNED FOR
"Plumber's Delight" It is characteristic of ALL METAL ASSEMBLY
Construction the conventional type of
multi -element parasitic (B) ALTERNATIVE WOODEN SUPPORTING
array such as discussed previously and out- ARRANGEMENT
lined that the centers of all the elements are at A wooden ladder may be used to support o
zero r -f potential with respect to ground. It is
10 or 15 meter array.
therefore possible to use a metallic structure
without insulators for supporting the various
elements of the array. A typical three element used for the 10 and 15 meter antennas, and the
array of this type is shown in figure 16. In this huskier four inch pipe should be used for a
particular array, U -bolts and metal plates have 20 meter beam.
been employed to fasten the elements to the Automobile muffler clamps can often be
boom. The elements are made of telescoping used to affix the elements to the support
sections of aluminum tubing. The tips of the plates. Larger clamps of this type will fasten
inner sections of tubing are split, and a tubing the plates to the boom. In most cases, the
clamp is slipped over the joint, as shown in muffler clamps are untreated, and they should
the drawing. Before assembly of the joint, the be given one or two coats of rust-proof paint
mating pieces of aluminum are given a thin to protect them from inclement weather. All
coat of Penetrox -A compound. (This anti - bolts, nuts, and washers used in the assembly
oxidizing paste is manufactured by Burndy Co., of the array should be of the plated variety to
Norwalk, Conn. and is distributed by the reduce corrosion and rust.
General Electric Supply Co.) When the tubes An alternative assembly is to employ the
are telescoped and the clamp is tightened, an Òxen Yoke" type of clamps, shown in figure
air -tight seal is produced, reducing corrosion 17. These lightweight aluminum fittings are
to a minimum. obtainable from the Continental Electronics
The boom of the parasitic array may be made and Sound Co., Dayton, 27, Ohio, and are
from two or three sections of steel TV mast, available in a wide range of sizes.
or it may be made of a single section of alumi- 1f it is desired to use a split driven element
num irrigation pipe. This pipe is made by for a balanced feed system, it is necessary to
Reynolds Aluminum Co., and others, and may insulate the element from the supporting struc-
often be purchased via the Sears, Roebuck Co. ture of the antenna. The element should be
mail -order department. Three inch pipe may be severed at the center, and the two halves
HANDBOOK Tuning the Array 509
driven onto a wooden dowel, as shown in use very low power (5 or 10 watts of power is
figure The element may then be mounted
1713. usually sufficient) and make sure that the an-
upon an aluminum support plate by means of tenna transmission line is effectively grounded
four ceramic insulators. Metal based insulators, as far as d -c plate voltage is concerned. The
such as the Johnson 135 -67 are recommended, use of the method described in the previous
since the all -ceramic types may break at the paragraph of course eliminates these problems.
mounting holes when the array is subjected One satisfactory method for tuning the array
to heavy winds. proper, assuming that it is a system with sev-
eral parasitic elements, is to set the directors
to the dimensions given in figure 5 and then
25 -8 Tuning the Array to adjust the reflector for maximum forward
signal. Then the first director should be varied
in length until maximum forward signal is ob-
Although satisfactory results may be ob-
tained by pre- cutting the antenna array to the tained, and so on if additional directors are
dimensions given earlier in this chapter, the used. Then the array may be reversed in direc-
occasion might arise when it is desired to tion and the reflector adjusted for best front -
to -back ratio. Subsequent small adjustments
make a check on the operation of the antenna
may then be made in both the directors and the
before calling the job complete.
The process of tuning an array may fairly
reflector for best forward signal with a reason-
able ratio of front -to -back signal. The adjust-
satisfactorily be divided into two more or less
ments in the directors and the reflector will
distinct steps: the actual tuning of the array
be found to be interdependent to a certain de-
for best front -to-back ratio or for maximum for-
gree, but if small adjustments are made after
ward gain, and the project of obtaining the
best possible impedance match between the the preliminary tuning process a satisfactory
antenna transmission line and the feed point set of adjustments for maximum performance
of the array. will be obtained. It is usually best to make
the end sections of the elements smaller in
Tuning the The actual tuning of the array diameter so that they will slip inside the larger
Array Proper for best front -to -back ratio or tubing sections. The smaller sliding sections
maximum forward gain may best may be clamped inside the larger main sec-
be accomplished with the aid of a low -power tions.
transmitter feeding a dipole antenna (polarized In making the adjustments described, it is
the same as the array being tuned) at least best to have the rectifying element of the re-
four or five wavelengths away from the anten- mote- indicating field- strength meter directly
na being tuned and located at the same eleva- at the feed point of the array, with a resistor
tion as that of the antenna under test. A cali- at the feed point of the estimated value of
brated field-strength meter of the remote -indi- feed -point impedance for the array.
cating type is then coupled to the feed point
of the antenna array being tuned. The trans-
missions from the portable transmitter should Matching to the The problem of matching the
be made as short as possible and the call sign
Antenna Trans. impedance of the antenna
of the station making the test should be trans-
mission Line transmission line to the array
mitted at least every ten minutes. is much simplified if the pro-
It is, of course, possible to tune an array
with the receiver connected to it and with a
station a mile or two away making transmis-
sions on your request. But this method is more DRIVEN ELEMENT 4
cumbersome and is not likely to give complete
satisfaction. It is also possible to carry out
the tuning process with the transmitter con- ANTENNASCOPE
RESONATING
nected to the array and with the field- strength CAPACITOR
meter connected to the remote dipole antenna.

In this event the indicating instrument of the
remote- indicating field- strength meter should
be visible from the position where the elements RID DI METER
are being tuned. However, when the array is
being tuned with the transmitter connected to
it there is always the problem of making con- Figure 18
tinual adjustments to the transmitter so that a ADJUSTMENT OF GAMMA MATCH BY USE
constant amount of power will be fed to the OF ANTENNASCOPE AND GRID -DIP
array under test. Also, if you use this system, METER
a s g
J 12
p
CO
yQ c
>c
~° ú
W z =
óF
HANDBOOK Tuning the Array 511
cess of tuning the array is made a substan- it is satisfactory to leave the installation as
tially separate process as just described. After it is. If the ratio is greater than this range it
the tuning operation is complete, the resonant will be best when twin line or coaxial line is
frequency of the driven element of the antenna being used, and advisable with open -wire line,
should be checked, directly at the center of to attempt to decrease the s.w.r.
the driven element if practicable, with a grid - It must be remembered that no adjustments
dip meter. It is important that the resonant fre- made at the transmitter end of the transmission
quency of the antenna be at the center of the line will alter the SWR on the line. All adjust-
frequency band to be covered. If the resonant ments to better the S'411 must be made at the
frequency is found to be much different from antenna end of the line and to the device which
the desired frequency, the length of the driven performs the impedance transformation neces-
element of the array should be altered until sary to match the characteristic impedance of
this condition exists. A relatively small change the antenna to that of the transmission line.
in the length of the driven element will have Before any adjustments to the matching sys-
only a second order effect on the tuning of the tem are made, the resonant frequency of the
parasitic elements of the array. Hence, a mod- driven element must be ascertained, as ex-
erate change in the length of the driven ele- plained previously. If all adjustments to cor-
ment may be made without repeating the tuning rect impedance mismatch are made at this fre-
process for the parasitic elements. quency, the problem of reactance termination
When the resonant frequency of the antenna of the transmission line is eliminated, greatly
system is correct, the antenna transmission simplifying the problem. The following steps
line, with impedance- matching device or net- should be taken to adjust the impedance trans-
work between the line and antenna feed point, formation:
is then attached to the array and coupled to a 1. The output impedance of the matching
low -power exciter unit or transmitter. Then, device should be measured. An Antenna-
preferably, a standing -wave meter is connected scope and a grid -dip oscillator are re-
in series with the antenna transmission line quired for this step. The Antennascope
at a point relatively much more close to the is connected to the output terminals of
transmitter than to the antenna. However, for the matching device. If the driven element
best indication there should be 10 to 15 feet is a folded dipole, the Antennascope
of line between the transmitter and the stand- connects directly to the split section of
ing -wave meter. If a standing-wave meter is the dipole. If a gamma match or T -match
not available the standing wave ratio may be are used, the Antennascope connects to
checked approximately by means of a neon the transmission -line end of the device.
lamp or a short fluorescent tube if twin trans- If a Q- section is used, the Antennascope
mission line is being used, or it may be check- connects to the bottom end of the sec-
ed with a thermomilliammeter and a loop, a tion. The grid -dip oscillator is coupled
neon lamp, or an r -f ammeter and a pair of to the input terminals of the Antenna-
clips spaced a fixed distance for clipping onto scope as shown in figure 18.
one wire of a two -wire open line. 2. The grid -dip oscillator is tuned to the
If the standing -wave ratio is below 1.5 to 1 resonant frequency of the antenna, which
Figure 19
ALL -PIPE ROTATING MAST STRUCTURE FOR ROOF INSTALLATION

An installation suitable for a building with a pitched roof is shown at (A). At (B) is shown a
similar installation for a flat or shed roof. The arrangement as shown is strong enough to sup-
port a lightweight 3- element 28 -Mc. array and a light 3- element SO -Mc. array above the 28-Mc.
array on the end of a 4 -foot length of %r -inch pipe.
The lengths of pipe shown were chosen so that when the system is In the lowered position one
can stand on a household ladder and put the beam in position atop the rotating pipe. The lengths
may safely be revised upward somewhat if the array is of a particularly lightweight design with
low wind resistance.
Just before the mast is installed it is a good idea to give the rotating pipe o good smearing of
cup grease or waterproof pump gr . To get the lip of the top of the stationary section of 11/4-
inch pipe to project above the flange plate, it will be necessary to have o plumbing shop cut a
slightly deeper thread inside the flange plate, as well as cutting an unusually long thread on
the end of the I% -inch pipe. It is relatively easy to waterproof this assembly through the roof
since the 1 1/4-inch pipe is stationary at all times. Be sure to use pipe compound on all the joints
and then really tighten these joints with a pair of pipe wrenches.
5 1 2 Rotary B e am s T H E R A D I O
has been determined previously, and the

Antennascope control is turned for a null
reading on the meter of the Antennascope.
The impedance presented to the Antenna -
scope by the matching device may be
read directly on the calibrated dial of
the Antennascope.
3. Adjustments should be made to the
matching device to present the desired
impedance transformation to the Antenna-
scope. If a folded dipole is used as the
driven element, the transformation ratio
of the dipole must be varied as explained
previously in this chapter to provide a
more exact match. If a T -match or gamma
match system is used, the length of the
matching rod may be changed to effect
a proper match. If the Antennascope ohm-
ic reading is lower than the desired read-
ing, the length of the matching rod should
be increased. If the Antennascope read-
a
ing is higher than the desired reading,
the length of the matching rod should be
decreased. After each change in length
of the matching rod, the series capacitor
in the matching system should be re-
resonated for best null on the meter of
the Antennascope.
Raising and A practical problem always pres-

Lowering ent when tuning up and matching
the Array an array is the physical location
of the structure. If the array is
atop the mast it is inaccessible for adjustment,
and if it is located on stepladders where it can
be adjusted easily it cannot be rotated. One
encouraging factor in this situation is the fact
that experience has shown that if the array is
placed 8 or 10 feet above ground on some step-
ladders for the preliminary tuning process, the
raising of the system to its full height will not
produce a serious change in the adjustments.
So it is usually possible to make preliminary
adjustments with the system located slightly
greater than head height above ground, and
then to raise the antenna to a position where Figure 20
it may be rotated for final adjustments. If the
position of the sliding sections as determined HEAVY DUTY ROTATOR SUITABLE
near the ground is marked so that the adjust- FOR AMATEUR BEAMS
ments will not be lost, the array may be raised The new Comell- Dubilier type HAM -I
to rotatable height and the fastening clamps rotor has extra heavy motor and gear-
left loose enough so that the elements may be ing system to withstand weight and
slid in by means of a long bamboo pole. After inertia of amateur array under the
a series of trials a satisfactory set of lengths buffeting of heavy winds. Steel spur
can be obtained. But the end results usually gears and rotor lock prevent "pin -
come so close to the figures given in figure 5 wheeling" of antenna.
that a subsequent array is usually cut to the
dimensions given and installed as -is.
The matching process does not require ro-
tation, but it does require that the antenna
proper be located at as nearly its normal oper-
HANDBOOK Antenna Control Systems 513
E
CONTROL BOX
S.P
RELAY
D.T. SOCKET PLUG SOCKET
r PLUG
ANTENNA ROTATOR
TO PROP. MOTOR
1
REVAFDS
NMI
8-CONTACT JONES PLUGS L SOCKETS
ROTARY BEAM CONTROL

KfitSYNCHRO.
L GENERATOR
J
D.P. D.T. TOGGLE SWITCH r INDICATOR
SYNCHRO.
PILOT
LIGHT
ITO 115 V.A.C. FUSE
TOGGLE
SWITCH
SOCKET j PLUG SOCKET L PLUG J
DIRECTION INDICATOR
Figure 21
SCHEMATIC OF A COMPLETE ANTENNA CONTROL SYSTEM
ating position as possible. However, on a par- located on the bottom pipe of the rotating mast,
ticular installation the positions of the current with the thrust bearing for the structure lo-
minimums on the transmission line near the cated above the roof.
transmitter may be checked with the array in If the rotating mast is located a distance
the air, and then the array may be lowered to from the operating position, a system of pul-
ascertain whether or not the positions of these leys and drive rope may be used to turn the an-
points have moved. If they have not, and in tenna, or a slow speed electric motor may be
most cases if the feeder line is strung out back employed.
and forth well above ground as the antenna is The rotating platform system is best if a
lowered they will not change, the positions of tower or telephone pole is to be used for an-
the last few toward the antenna itself may be tenna support. A number of excellent rotating
determined. Then the calculation of the match- platform devices are available on the market
ing quarter-wave section may be made, the sec- for varying prices. The larger and more expen-
tion installed, the standing -wave ratio again sive rotating devices are suitable for the rdta-
checked, and the antenna re- installed in its of a rather sizeable array for the 14 -Mc. band
final location. while the smaller structures, such as those
designed for rotating a TV antenna are design-
ed for less load and should be used only with
a 28 -Mc. or 50 -Mc. array. Most common prac-
25 -9 Antenna Rotation Systems tice is to install the rotating device atop a
platform built at the top of a telephone pole
Structures for the rotation of antenna arrays or on the top of a lattice mast of sizeable cross
may be divided into two general classes: the section so that the mast will be self- support-
rotating mast and the rotating platform. The ing and capable of withstanding the torque im-
rotating mast is especially suitable where the posed upon it by the rotating platform.
transmitting equipment is installed in the gar- A heavy duty TV rotator may be employed
age or some structure away from the main for rotation of 6 and 10-meter arrays. Fifteen
house. Such an installation is shown in figure and twenty meter arrays should use rotators
19. A very satisfactory rotation mechanism is
designed for amateur use such as the Cornell -
obtained by the use of a large steering wheel Dubilier HAM -1 unit shown in figure 20.
514 Rotary Beams
traps exert a minimum influence upon the ele-

25 -10 Indication of Direction
ment and it resonates at a frequency determined
by the electrical length of the configuration,
The most satisfactory method for indicating plus a slight degree of loading contributed by
the direction of transmission of a rotatable the traps. At some higher frequency (generally
array is that which uses Selsyns or synchros about 1.5 times the lowest operating frequency)
for the transmission of the data from the ro- the outer set of traps are in a parallel resonant
tating structure to the indicating pointer at the condition, placing a high impedance between
operating position. A number of synchros and the element and the tips beyond the traps.
Selsyns of various types are available on the Thus, the element resonates at a frequency
surplus market. Some of them are designed for 1.5 times higher than that determined by the
operation on 115 volts at 60 cycles, some are overall length of the element. As the frequency
designed for operation on 60 cycles but at a of operation is raised to approximately 2.0
lowered voltage, and some are designed for times the lowest operating frequency, the inner
operation from 400 -cycle or 800 -cycle energy.
This latter type of high- frequency synchro is set of traps become resonant, effectively dis-
the most generally available type, and the connecting a larger portion of the element from
high - frequency units are smaller and lighter the driven section. The length of the center
than the 60 -cycle units. Since the indicating section is resonant at the highest frequency
synchro must deliver an almost negligible of operation. The center section, plus the two
amount of power to the pointer which it drives, adjacent inner sections are resonant at the
the high- frequency types will operate quite intermediate frequency of operation, and the
satisfactorily from 60-cycle power if the volt- complete element is resonant at the lowest
age on them is reduced to somewhere between frequency of operation.
6.3 and 20 volts. In the case of many of the The efficiency of such a system is deter-
units available, a connection sheet is provided mined by the accuracy of tuning of both the
along with a recommendation in regard to the element sections and the isolating traps. In
operating voltage when they are run on 60 cy- addition the combined dielectric losses of the
cles. In any event the operating voltage should traps affect the overall antenna efficiency.
be held as low as it may be and still give sat- As with all multi -purpose devices, some com-
isfactory transmission of data from the anten- promise between operating convenience and
na to the operating position. Certainly it should efficiency must be made with antennas designed
not be necessary to run such a voltage on the to operate over more than one narrow band of
units that they become overheated. frequencies. It is a tribute to the designers of
A suitable Selsyn indicating system is shown the better multi -band beams that they perform
in figure 21. as well as they do, taking into account the
Systems using a potentiometer capable of theoretical difficulties that must be overcome.
continuous rotation and a milliammeter, along
with a battery or other source of direct current,
may also be used for the indication of direc-
tion. A commercially -available potentiometer
(Ohmite RB -2) may be used in conjunction
with a 0 -1 d -c milliammeter having a hand -
calibrated scale for direction indication. 1SOLATIMG TRAPS
I 1
25 -11 "Three -Band" Beams
FEED FoIN
IiRESONANT
A popular form of beam antenna introduced
during the past few years is the so- called AT wuesr rR[QUC"cr
three -band beam. An array of this type is de- RESONANT AT b
INTERMEDIATE REOUENCr
signed to operate on three adjacent amateur
bands, such as the ten, fifteen, and twenty RESONAMr 3 AT LOWEST FREQUENCY
meter group. The principle of operation of

this form of antenna is to employ parallel
tuned circuits placed at critical positions in
the elements of the beam which serve to elec- Figure 22
trically connect and disconnect the outer sec- TRAP -TYPE 'THREE BAND"
tions of the elements as the frequency of ex- ELEMENT
citation of the antenna is changed. A typical Isolating traps permit dipole to be
'three -band" element is shown in figure 22. self-resonant at three widely different
At the lowest operating frequency, the tuned frequencies.
CHAPTER TWENTY -SIX
Mobile Equipment
Design and Installation
Mobile operation is permitted on all amateur mon difficulty with a double conversion super-
bands. Tremendous impetus to this phase of heterodyne constructed as an integral receiver
the hobby was given by the suitable design of in one cabinet. However, it is important that
compact mobile equipment. Complete mobile the b-c receiver employ an r -f stage in order to
installations may be purchased as packaged provide adequate isolation between the con-
units, or the whole mobile station may be home verter and the high frequency oscillator in the
built, according to the whim of the operator. b-c receiver. The r-f stage also is desirable
The problems involved in achieving a satis- from the standpoint of image rejection if the
factory two -way installation vary somewhat converter does not employ a tuned output cir-
with the band, but many of the problems are cuit (tuned to the frequency of the auto set,
common to all bands. For instance, ignition usually about 1500 kc.). A few of the late
noise is more troublesome on 10 meters than model auto receivers, even in the better makes,
on 75 meters, but on the other hand an effi- do not employ an r-f stage.
cient antenna system is much more easily ac- The usual procedure is to obtain converter
complished on 10 meters than on 75 meters. plate voltage from the auto receiver. Experi-
Also, obtaining a worthwhile amount of trans- ence has shown that if the converter does not
mitter output without excessive battery drain draw more than about 15 or at most 20 ma. tot-
is a problem on all bands. al plate current no damage to the auto set or
loss in performance will occur other than a
slight reduction in vibrator life. The converter
drain can be minimized by avoiding a voltage
regulator tube on the converter h -f oscillator.
26-1 Mobile Reception On 10 meters and lower frequencies it is pos-
sible to design an oscillator with sufficient
When a broadcast receiver is in the car, the stability so that no voltage regulator is re-
most practical receiving arrangement involves quired in the converter.
a converter feeding into the auto set. The ad- With some cars satisfactory 75 -meter opera-
vantages of good selectivity with good image tion can be obtained without a noise clipper
rejection obtainable from a double conversion if resistor type spark plugs (such as those
superheterodyne are achieved in most cases made by Autolite) are employed. However, a
without excessive "birdie" troubles, a corn- noise clipper is helpful if not absolutely neces-
515
516 Mobile Equipment THE RADIO
sary, and it is recommended that a noise clip-

per be installed without confirming the neces- TO A F.
sity therefor. It has been found that quiet re- POWER
AMP.
ception sometimes may be obtained on 75 me- I F TRANS.
ters simply by the use of resistor type plugs,
but after a few thousand miles these plugs
often become less effective and no longer do
a fully adequate job. Also, a noise clipper in-
sures against ignition noise from passing
trucks and "un- suppressed" cars. On 10 me-
ters a noise clipper is a "must" in any case.
Modifying the There are certain things that

Auto Receiver should be done to the auto set
when it is to be used with a
converter, and they might as well be done all
at the same time, because "dropping" an auto
receiver and getting into the chassis to work
on it takes quite a little time.
SWITCH SW
First, however, check the circuit of the auto ON-OUT1
receiver to see whether it is one of the few
receivers which employ circuits which com-
plicate connection of a noise clipper or a con- Figure 1
verter. If the receiver is yet to be purchased,

SERIES -GATE NOISE LIMITER FOR AUTO
it is well to investigate these points ahead of RECEIVER
time.
If the receiver uses a negative B resistor Auto receivers using a 6SQ7, 7B6, 7X7, or
strip for bias (as evidenced by the cathode of 6AT6 as second detector and a.v.c. can be
the audio output stage being grounded), then converted to the above circuit with but few
the additional plate current drain of the con- wiring changes. The circuit has the advan-
verter will upset the bias voltages on the var- tage of not requiring an additional tube sock-
ious stages and probably cause trouble. Be- et for the limiter diode.
cause the converter is not on all the time, it
is not practical simply to alter the resistance
of the bias strip, and major modification of the
receiver probably will be required. substituting a 6S8 octal, 7X7 Loctal, or a 6T8
The best type of receiver for attachment of 9 -pin miniature as shown in figure 1. When
a converter and noise clipper uses an r -f stage; substituting a 6T8 for a 6AT6 or similar 7 -pin
permeability tuning; single unit construction miniature, the socket must be changed to a
(except possibly for the speaker); push button 9 -pin miniature type. This requires reaming
tuning rather than a tuning motor; a high vacu- the socket hole slightly.
um rectifier such as a 6X4 (rather than an OZ4 If the receiver employs cathode bias on the
or a synchronous rectifier); a 6SQ7 (or minia- 6SQ7 (or equivalent), and perhaps delayed
ture or Loctal equivalent) with grounded cath- a.v.c., the circuit usually can be changed to
ode as second detector, first audio, and a.v.c.; the grounded -cathode circuit of figure 1 with-
power supply negative grounded directly (no out encountering trouble.
common bias strip); a PM speaker (to minimize Some receivers take the r -f excitation for
battery drain); and an internal r -f gain control the a -v -c diode from the plate of the i -f stage.
(indicating plenty of built -in reserve gain In this case, leave the a.v.c. alone and ignore
which may be called upon if necessary). Many the a -v -c buss connection shown in figure 1
current model auto radios have all of the fore- (eliminating the 1- megohm decoupling resistor).
going features, and numerous models have most If the set uses a separate a -v -c diode which
of them, something to keep in mind if the set receives r -f excitation via a small capacitor
is yet to be purchased. connected to the detector diode, then simply
change the circuit to correspond to figure 1.
Noise Limiters A noise limiter either may be In case anyone might be considering the use
built into the set or purchased of a crystal diode as a noise limiter in con-
as a commercially manufactured unit for "out- junction with the tube already in the set, it
board" connection via shielded wires. If the might be well to point out that crystal diodes
receiver employs a 6SQ7 (or Loctal or minia- perform quite poorly in series -gate noise clip-
ture equivalent) in a conventional circuit, it is pers of the type shown.
a simple matter to build in a noise clipper by It will be observed that no tone control is
HANDBOOK Mobile Receivers 517
shown. Multi- position tone controls tied in needed on weak broadcast signals, the switch
with the second detector circuit often permit can be connected from the hot side of the vol-
excessive "leak through." Hence it is recom- ume control to the junction of the 22,000,
mended that the tone control components be 270,000 and 1 megohm resistors instead of as
completely removed unless they are confined shown. This will provide approximately 6 db
to the grid of the a -f output stage. If removed, more gain when the clipper is switched out.
the highs can be attenuated any desired amount Many late model receivers are provided with
by connecting a mica capacitor from plate to an internal r -f gain control in the cathode of
screen on the output stage. Ordinarily from the r -f and /or i -f stage. This control should
.005 to .01 tfd. will provide a good compro- be advanced full on to provide better noise
mise between fidelity and reduction of back- limiter action and make up for the loss in audio
ground hiss on weak signals. gain introduced by the noise clipper.
Usually the switch SW will have to be Installation of the noise clipper often de-
mounted some distance from the noise limiter tunes the secondary of the last i -f transformer.
components. If the leads to the switch are over This should be repeaked before the set is per-
approximately 11% inches long, a piece of manently replaced in the car unless the trim-
shield braid should be slipped over them and mer is accessible with the set mounted in
grounded. The same applies to the "hot" leads place.
to the volume control if not already shielded. Additional clipper circuits will be found in
Closing the switch disables the limiter. This the receiver chapter of this Handbook.
may be desirable for reducing distortion on
broadcast reception or when checking the in- Selectivity While not of serious concern on
tensity of ignition noise to determine the ef- 10 meters, the lack of selectivity
fectiveness of suppression measures taken on exhibited by a typical auto receiver will result
the car. The switch also permits one to check in QRNI difficulty on 20 and 75 meters. A typi-
the effectiveness of the noise clipper. cal auto set has only two i -f transformers of
The 22,000 -ohm decoupling resistor at the relatively low -Q design, and the second one
bottom end of the i -f transformer secondary is is loaded by the diode detector. The skirt se-
not critical, and if some other value already lectivity often is so poor that a strong local
is incorporated inside the shield can it may be will depress the a.v.c. when listening to a
left alone so long as it is not over 47,000 weak station as much as 15 kc. different in
ohms, a common value. Higher values must be frequency.
replaced with a lower value even if it requires One solution is to add an outboard i -f stage
a can opener, because anything over 47,000 employing two good quality double -tuned trans-
ohms will result in excessive loss in gain. formers (not the midget variety) connected
There is some loss in a -f gain inherent in this "back-to- back" through a small coupling ca-
type of limiter anyhow (slightly over 6 db), pacitance. The amplifier tube (such as a 6ßA6)
and it is important to minimize any additional should be biased to the point where the gain
loss. of the outboard unit is relatively small (1 or
It is important that the total amount of ca- 2), assuming that the receiver already has ade-
pacitance in the RC decoupling (r -f) filter not quate gain. If additional gain is needed, it may
exceed about 100 µµfd. With a value much be provided by the outboard unit. Low- capaci-
greater than this "pulse stretching" will occur tance shielded cable should be used to couple
and the effectiveness of the noise clipper will into and out of the outboard unit, and the unit
be reduced. Excessive capacitance will reduce itself should be thoroughly shielded.
the amplitude and increase the duration of the Such an outboard unit will sharpen the nose
ignition pulses before they reach the clipper. selectivity slightly and the skirt selectivity
The reduction in pulse amplitude accomplishes greatly. Operation then will be comparable to
no good since the pulses are fed to the clipper a home -station communication s receiver,
anyhow, but the greater duration of the length- though selectivity will not be as good as a
ened pulses increases the audibility and the receiver employing a 50 -kc. or 85 -kc. "Q5'er."
blanking interval associated with each pulse.
If a shielded wire to an external clipper is em- Obtaining Power While the set is on the
ployed, the r -f by -pass on the "low" side of for the Converter bench for installation of
the RC filter may be eliminated since the ca- the noise clipper, provi-
pacitance of a few feet of shielded wire will sion should be made for obtaining filament and
accomplish the same result as the by-pass plate voltage for the converter, and for the ex-
capacitor. citer and speech amplifier of the transmitter,
The switch SW is connected in such a man- if such an arrangement is to be used. To per-
ner that there is practically no change in gain mit removal of either the converter or the auto
with the limiter in or out. If the auto set does set from the car without removing the other, a
not have any reserve gain and more gain is connector should be provided. The best method
(OPTIONAL) the screens of a push-pull stage are connected

6V6oa6AQ5 e+ ro to the input side instead of the output side of
CONVERTER
the power supply filter (usually two electroly-
r0 V.C. tics straddling a resistor in an R -C filter), then
follow the output of the filter over into the r -f
portion of the set and pick it up there at a con-
venient point, before it goes through any addi-
tional series dropping or isolating resistors,
Si TO REST
as shown in figure 2.
OF SET
The voltage at the output of the filter usual-
ly runs from 200 to 250 volts with typical con-
REGOLAR
verter drain and the motor not running. This
R -C FILTER will increase perhaps 10 per cent when the
t I30 LF generator is charging. The converter drain will
3011F 1200
2W drop the B voltage slightly at the output of the
.
I
=DI B+ 200 TO 250 v. filter, perhaps 15 to 25 volts, but this reduc-

Z TO %MTR
tion is not enough to have a noticeable effect
upon the operation of the receiver. If the B
V. VIA CONTROL
7
6
RELAY IN XMTR. voltage is higher than desirable or necessary
10HY.
for proper operation of the converter, a 2 -watt
Bf FROM Bh TO LOW POWER'
carbon resistor of suitable resistance should
.T be inserted in series with the plate voltage
RECEIVER SPEECH
STAGES
_L
lead to the power receptacle. Usually some-
I _ I
thing between 2200 and 4700 ohms will be
XMTR J found about right.
Receiver Disabling When the battery drain is

Figure 2 on Transmit high on transmit, as is the
USING THE RECEIVER PLATE SUPPLY case when a PE -103A dy-
FOR THE TRANSMITTER namotor is run at maximum rating and other
This circuit silences the receiver on trans- drains such as the transmitter heaters and auto
mit, and in addition makes it possible to use
headlights must be considered, it is desirable
the receiver plate supply for feeding the ex- to disable the vibrator power supply in the re-
citer and speech amplifier stages in the ceiver during transmissions. The vibrator
transmitter.
power supply usually draws several amperes,
and as the receiver must be disabled in some
manner anyhow during transmissions, opening
the 6 -volt supply to the vibrator serves both
purposes. It has the further advantage of intro-
is to mount a small receptacle on the receiver ducing a slight delay in the receiver recovery,
cabinet or chassis, making connection via a due to the inertia of the power supply filter,
matching plug. An Amphenol type 77-26 recep- thus avoiding the possibility of a feedback
tacle is compact enough to fit in a very small "yoop" when switching from transmit to re-
space and allows four connections (including ceive.
ground for the shield braid). The matching plug To avoid troubles from vibrator hash, it is
is a type 70 -26. best to open the ground lead from the vibrator
To avoid the possibility of vibrator hash by means of a midget s.p.d.t. 6 -volt relay and
being fed into the converter via the heater and thus isolate the vibrator circuit from the ex-
plate voltage supply leads, it is important that ternal control and switching circuit wires. The
the heater and plate voltages be taken from relay is hooked up as shown in figure 3: Stand-
points well removed from the power supply por- ard 8- ampere contacts will be adequate for
tion of the auto receiver. If a single -ended this application.
audio output stage is employed, a safe place The relay should be mounted as close to
to obtain these voltages is at this tube socket, the vibrator as practicable. Ground one of the
the high voltage for the converter being taken coil terminals and run a shielded wire from
from the screen. In the case of a push -pull out- the other coil terminal to one of the power re-
put stage, however, the screens sometimes are ceptacle connections, grounding the shield at
fed from the input side of the power supply both ends. By-pass each end of this wire to
filter. The ripple at this point, while suffi- ground with .01 tifd., using the shortest pos-
ciently low for a push -pull audio output stage, sible leads. A lead is run from the correspond-
is not adequate for a converter without addi- ing terminal on the mating plug to the control
tional filtering. If the schematic shows that circuits, to be discussed later.
HANDBOOK Mobile Receiver Installation 519
mitter oscillator is killed instantly, thus avoid-

KEEP THESE LEADS SHORT
OR SHIELD THEM. I
VIBRATOR ing trouble from dynamotor "carry over."
The efficiency of this arrangement is good
because the current drain on the main high
TO HOT SIOE Or
voltage supply for the modulated amplifier and
VOICE COIL WINDING modulator plate(s) is reduced by the amount
of current borrowed from the receiver. At least
80 ma. can be drawn from practically all auto
sets, at least for a short period, without dam-
age.
It will be noted that with the arrangement of
0 V. VIA CONTROL
RELAY IN XMTR. figure 2, plate voltage is supplied to the audio
output stage at all times. However, when the
screen voltage is removed, the plate current
Figure 3
drops practically to zero.
METHOD OF ELIMINATING THE BATTERY
The 200 -ohm resistor in series with the nor-
DRAIN OF THE RECEIVER VIBRATOR mally open contact is to prevent excessive
PACK DURING TRANSMISSION sparking when the contacts close. If the relay
II the receiver chassis has room for a mid- feeds directly into a filter choke or large ca-
get s.p.d.t. relay, the above arrangement not pacitor there will be excessive sparking at
only silences the receiver on transmit but the contacts. Even with the arrangement shown,
saves several amperes battery drain. there will be considerable sparking at the con-
tacts; but relay contacts can stand such spark-
ing quite a while, even on d.c., before becom-
ing worn or pitted enough to require attention.
The 200 -ohm resistor also serves to increase
If the normally open contact on the relay is the effectiveness of the .01 -pfd. r-f by -pass
connected to the hot side of the voice coil capacitor.
winding as shown in figure 3 (assuming one
side of the voice coil is grounded in accord-
Auxiliary Antenna One other modification of
ance with usual practice), the receiver will
Trimmer the auto receiver which may
be killed instantly when switching from re-
or may not be desirable de-
ceive to transmit, in spite of the fact that the
pending upon the circumstances is the addi-
power supply filter in the receiver takes a
tion of an auxiliary antenna trimmer capacitor.
moment to discharge. However, if a "slow
start" power supply (such as a dynamotor or If the converter uses an untuned output circuit
and the antenna trimmer on the auto set is
a vibrator pack with a large filter) is used with
peaked with the converter cut in, then it is
the transmitter, shorting the voice coil prob-
ably will not be required. quite likely that the trimmer adjustment will
not be optimum for broadcast -band reception
when the converter is cut out. For reception
Using the Receiver An alternative and high - of strong broadcast band signals this usually
Plate Supply ly recommended proce- will not be serious, but where reception of
On Transmit dure is to make use of weak broadcast signals is desired the loss in
the receiver B supply on gain often cannot be tolerated, especially in
transmit, instead of disabling it. One disad- view of the fact that the additional length of
vantage of the popular PE -103A dynamotor is antenna cable required for the converter in-
the fact that its 450 -500 volt output is too high stallation tends to reduce the strength of
for the low power r -f and speech stages of the broadcast band signals.
transmitter. Dropping this voltage to a more If the converter has considerable reserve
suitable value of approximately 250 volts by gain, it may be practicable to peak the antenna
means of dropping resistors is wasteful of trimmer on the auto set for broadcast-band re-
power, besides causing the plate voltage on ception rather than resonating it to the con-
the oscillator and any buffer stages to vary verter output circuit. But oftentimes this re-
widely with tuning. By means of a midget 6- sults in insufficient converter gain, excessive
volt s.p.d.t. relay mounted in the receiver, con- image troubles from loud local amateur sta-
nected as shown in figure 2, the B supply of tions, or both.
the auto set is used to power the oscillator The difficulty can be circumvented by in-
and other low power stages (and possibly corporation of an auxiliary antenna trimmer
screen voltage on the modulator). On transmit connected from the "hot" antenna lead on the
the B voltage is removed from the receiver auto receiver to ground, with a switch in
and converter, automatically silencing the re- series for cutting it in or out. This capacitor
ceiver. When switching to receive the trans- and switch can be connected across either the
converter end or the set end of the cable be- Practically all 0.3- ampere r -f and a -f volt-
tween the converter and receiver. This auxil- age amplifier tubes have 0.15- ampere equiva-
iary trimmer should have a range of about 3 lents. In many cases it is not even necessary
to 50 lipid., and may be of the inexpensive to change the socket wiring. However, when
compression mica type. substituting i -f tubes it is recommended that
Q îth the trimmer cut out and the converter the i -f trimmer adjustments be checked. Gen-
turned off (bypassed by the "in -out" switch), erally speaking it is not wise to attempt to
peak the regular antenna trimmer on the auto substitute for the converter tube or a -f power
set at about 1400 kc. Then turn on the convert- output tube.
er, with the receiver tuned to 1500 kc., switch If the a -f output tube employs conventional
in the auxiliary trimmer, and peak this trimmer cathode bias, substitute a cathode resistor of
for maximum background noise. The auxiliary twice the value originally employed, or add
trimmer then can be left switched in at all an identical resistor in series with the one
times except when receiving very weak broad- already in the set. This will reduce the B
cast band signals. drain of the receiver appreciably without ser-
Some auto sets, particularly certain General iously reducing the maximum undistorted out-
Motors custom receivers, employ a high -Q high - put. Because the vibrator power supply is much
impedance input circuit which is very critical less than 100 per cent efficient, a saving of
as to antenna capacitance. Unless the shunt one watt of B drain results in a saving of near-
capacitance of the antenna (including cable) ly 2 watts of battery drain. This also mini-
approximates that of the antenna installation mizes the overload on the B supply when the
for which the set was designed, the antenna converter is switched in, assuming that the
trimmer on the auto set cannot be made to hit converter uses B voltage from the auto set.
resonance with the converter cut out. This is If the receiver uses push -pull output and if
particularly true when a long antenna cable is one is willing to accept a slight reduction in
used to reach a whip mounted at the rear of the the maximum volume obtainable without dis-
car. Usually the condition can be corrected by tortion, changing over to a single ended stage
unsoldering the internal connection to the an- is simple if the receiver employs conventional
tenna terminal connector on the auto set and cathode bias. Just pull out one tube, double
inserting in series a 100 -µpfd. mica capacitor. the value of cathode bias resistance, and add
Alternatively an adjustable trimmer covering a 25 -pfd. by -pass capacitor across the cathode
at least 50 to 150 µpfd. may be substituted for resistor if not already bypassed. In some
the 100 -14ifd. fixed capacitor. Then the adjust- cases it may be possible to remove a phase
ment of this trimmer and that of the regular an- inverter tube along with one of the a -f output
tenna trimmer can be juggled back and forth tubes.
until a condition is achieved where the input If the receiver uses a motor driven station
circuit of the auto set is resonant with the con- selector with a control tube (d -c amplifier),
verter either in or out of the circuit. This will usually the tube can be removed without up-
provide maximum gain and image rejection setting the operation of the receiver. One then
under all conditions of use. must of course use manual tuning.
While the changeover is somewhat expen-
Reducing Battery When the receiving installa- sive, the 0.6 ampere drawn by a 6X4 or 6X5
Drain of the tion is used frequently, and rectifier can be eliminated by substituting six
Receiver particularly when the receiv- 115 -volt r -m -s 50 -ma. selenium rectifiers (such
er is used with the car as Federal type 402D3200). Three in series
parked, it is desirable to keep the battery are substituted for each half of the full -wave
drain of the receiver- converter installation at rectifier tube. Be sure to observe the correct
an absolute minimum. A substantial reduction polarity. The selenium rectifiers also make a
in drain can be made in many receivers, with- good substitution for an OZ4 or OZ4 -GT which
out appreciably affecting their performance. is causing hash difficulties when using the
The saving of course depends upon the de- converter.
sign of the particular receiver and upon how Offsetting the total cost of nearly $4.00 is
much trouble and expense one is willing to go the fact that these rectifiers probably will last
to. Some receivers normally draw (without the for the entire life of the auto set. Before pur-
converter connected) as much as 10 amperes. chasing the rectifiers, make sure that there is
In many cases this can be cut to about 5 am- room available for mounting them. While these
peres by incorporating all practicable modi- units are small, most of the newer auto sets
fications. Each of the following modifications employ very compact construction.
is applicable to many auto receivers.
If the receiver uses a speaker with a field Two -Meter Reception For reception on the 144 -
coil, replace the speaker with an equivalent Mc. amateur band, and
Pit type. those higher in frequency, the simple converter-
HANDBOOK One -Tube Converter 521
auto -set combination has not proven very satis- tion. A total transmitter power drain of about
factory. The primary reason for this is the fact 80 watts from the car battery (6 volts at 13
that the relatively sharp i -f channel of the auto amperes, or 12 volts at 7 amperes) is about
set imposes too severe a limitation on the sta- the maximum that can be allowed under these
bility of the high- frequency oscillator in the conditions. For maximum power efficiency it
converter. And if a crystal- controlled beating is recommended that a vibrator type of supply
oscillator is used in the converter, only a por- be used as opposed to a dynamotor supply,
tion of the band may be covered by tuning the since the conversion efficiency of the vibrator
auto set. unit is high compared to that of the dynamotor.
The most satisfactory arrangement has been A second school of thought states that the
found to consist of a separately mounted i.f., mobile transmitter should be of relatively high
audio, and power supply system, with the con- power to overcome the poor efficiency of the
verter mounted near the steering column. The usual mobile whip antenna. In this case, the
i -f system should have a bandwidth of 30 to mobile power should be drawn from a system
100 kc. and may have a center frequency of that is independent from the electrical system
10.7 Mc. if standard i -f transformers are to be of the automobile. A belt driven high voltage
used. The control head may include the 144- generator is often coupled to the automobile
Mc. r -f, mixer, and oscillator sections, and engine in this type of installation.
sometimes the first i -f stage. Alternatively,
the control head may include only the h -f os- A variation of this idea is to employ
cillator, with a broadband r -f unit included a complete secondary power system in the
within the main receiver assembly along with car capable of providing 115 volts a.c. Shown
the i.f. and audio system. Commercially manu- in figure 4 is a Leece -Neville three phase
factured kits and complete units using this alternator mounted atop the engine block, and
general lineup are available. driven with a fan belt. The voltage regulator
An alternative arrangement is to build a and selenium rectifier for charging the car
converter, 10.7 -Mc. i -f channel, and second battery from the a -c system replace the usual
detector unit, and then to operate this unit in d -c generator. These new items are mounted
conjunction with the auto -set power supply, in the front of the car radiator. The alternator
audio system, and speaker. Such a system provides a balanced delta output circuit where-
makes economical use of space and power in the line voltage is equal to the coil volt-
drain, and can be switched to provide normal age, but the line current is y'3 times the coil
broadcast -band auto reception or reception current. The coil voltage is a nominal 6- volts,
through a converter for the h -f amateur bands. RAMS and three 6.3 volt 25 ampere filament
transformers may be connected in delta on
A recent development has been the VHF the primary and secondary windings to step
transceiver, typified by the Gonset Communi- the 6 -volts up to three -phase 115-volts. If
cator. Such a unit combines a crystal con- desired, a special 115 -volt, 3 -phase step -up
trolled transmitter and a tunable VHF receiver transformer may be wound which will occupy
together with a common audio system and less space than the three filament trans-
power supply. The complete VHF station may formers. Since the ripple frequency of a three
be packaged in a single cabinet. Various phase d -c power supply will be quite high, a
forms of VHF transceivers are shown in the single 10 mfd filter capacitor will suffice.
construction chapters of this Handbook.
26-2 Mobile Transmitters
As in the case of transmitters for fixed -sta-

tion operation, there are many schools of
thought as to the type of transmitter which is
most suitable for mobile operation. One school
states that the mobile transmitter should have
very low power drain, so that no modification
of the electrical system of the automobile will
be required, and so that the equipment may be Figure 4
operated without serious regard to discharging LEECE- NEVILLE 3-PHASE
the battery when the car is stopped, or over- ALTERNATOR IS ENGINE DRIVEN
loading the generator when the car is in mo- BY AUXILIARY FAN BELT.
95 n COA x TO RECE
RELA
75 rl COA x TO xMTR
Figure 6
5/16 -WAVE WHIP RADIATOR FOR 10
METERS
If a whip antenna is mode slightly longer
than one -quarter wave it acts as a slightly
better radiator than the usual quarter -wave
whip, and it can provide a better match to
the antenna transmission line if the react-
ance is tuned out by a serles capacitor close
to the base of the antenna. Capacitor C1 may
be a 100 -44fd. midget variable.
remarks are in order on the subject of feed

and coupling systems.
The feed point resistance of a resonant quar-
Figure 5 ter -wave rear -mounted whip is approximately
20 to 25 ohms. While the standing -wave ratio
A CENTER LOADED 80 -METER WHIP
when using 50 -ohm coaxial line will not be
USING AIR WOUND COIL MAY BE USED
much greater than 2 to 1, it is nevertheless
WITH HIGH POWERED TRANSMITTERS
desirable to make the line to the transmitter
Ar, anti - corona loop is placed at the top exactly one quarter wavelength long electri-
of the whip to reduce loss of power and cally at the center of the band. This procedure
burning of tip of antenna. Number of turns will minimize variations in loading over the
in coil is critical and adjustable, highQ band. The physical length of RG -8 /U cable,
coil is refommended. Whip may be used from antenna base to antenna coupling coil,
over frequency range of about 15 kilo- should be approximately 5 feet 3 inches. The
cycles without retuning. antenna changeover relay preferably should be
located either at the antenna end or the trans-
mitter end of the line, but if it is more con-
venient physically the line may be broken any-
where for insertion of the relay.
If the same rear-mounted whip is used for
broadcast -band reception, attenuation of broad-
cast -band signals by the high shunt capaci-
tance of the low impedance feed line can be
26 -3 Antennas for reduced by locating the changeover relay right
Mobile Work at the antenna lead in, and by running 95 -ohm
coax (instead of 50 or 75 ohm coax) from the
10 -Meter Mobile The most popular mobile an- relay to the converter. Ordinarily this will pro-
Antennas tensa for 10 -meter operation duce negligible effect upon the operation of
is a rear- mounted whip approx- the converter, but usually will make a worth-
imately 8 feet long, fed with coaxial line. This while improvement in the strength of broadcast -
is a highly satisfactory antenna, but a few band signals.
HANDBOOK Mobile Antennas 523
A more effective radiator and a better line

CAR BODY
match may be obtained by making the whip
approximately 10% feet long and feeding it UN SNIELDED
with 75 -ohm coax (such as RG -11 /U) via a LOADING COIL
series capacitor, as shown in figure 6. The

relay and series capacitor are mounted inside
the trunk, as close to the antenna feedthrough
or base -mount insulator as possible. The 10 /j-
foot length applies to the overall length from RG -58/U LINE
the tip of the whip to the point where the lead TO TRANSMITTER
in passes through the car body. The leads in- COAXIAL LINE
GROUNDED TO
side the car (connecting the coaxial cable, FRAME OF CAR
ADJACENT TO BASE
relay, series capacitor and antenna lead) OF ANTENNA
should be as short as possible. The outer con-

ductor of both coaxial cables should be ground- Figure 7
ed to the car body at the relay end with short,
heavy conductors. THE CENTER -LOADED WHIP ANTENNA
A 100 -µpfd. midget variable capacitor is The center -loaded whip antenna, when pro-
suitable for C,. The optimum setting should vided with a topped loading coil or a series
be determined experimentally at the center of of coils, may be used over o wide frequency
the band. This setting then will be satisfac- range. The loading coil may be shorted for
tory over the whole band. use of the antenna on the 10 -meter bond.
One suitable coupling arrangement for either
a !4-wave or 5/16 -wave whip on 10 meters is
to use a conventional tank circuit, inductively
coupled to a "variable link" coupling loop
which feeds the coaxial line. Alternatively, a tuned to obtain optimum operation on the de-
pi- network output circuit may be used. If the sired frequency of operation. These antennas
input impedance of the line is very low and will operate at maximum efficiency over a
the tank circuit has a low C/L ratio, it may range of perhaps 20 kc. on the 75 -meter band,
be necessary to resonate the coupling loop covering a somewhat wider range on the 40-
with series capacitance in order to obtain suf- meter band, and covering the whole 20 -meter
ficient coupling. This condition often is en- phone band. The procedure for tuning the an-
countered with a !4 -wave whip when the line temas is discussed in the instruction sheet
length approximates an electrical half wave- which is furnished with them, but basically
length. the procedure is as follows:
If an all -band center -loaded mobile antenna The antenna is installed, fully assembled,
is used, the loading coil at the center of the with a coaxial lead of RG -58/U from the base
antenna may be shorted out for operation of of the antenna to the place where the trans-
the antenna on the 10 -meter band. The usual mitter is installed. The rear deck of the car
type of center- loaded mobile antenna will be should be closed, and the car should be parked
between 9 and 11 feet long, including the cen- in a location as clear as possible of trees,
ter- loading inductance which is shorted out. buildings, and overhead power lines. Objects
Hence such an antenna may be shortened to within 15 or 20 feet of the antenna can exert
an electrical quarter-wave for the 10 -meter a considerable detuning effect on the antenna
band by using a series capacitor as just dis- system due to its relatively high operating Q.
cussed. Alternatively, if a pi- network is used The end of the coaxial cable which will plug
in the plate circuit of the output stage of the into the transmitter is terminated in a link of
mobile transmitter, any reactance presented 3 or 4 turns of wire. This link is then coupled
at the antenna terminals of the transmitter by to a grid -dip meter and the resonant frequency
the antenna may be tuned out with the pi -net- of the antenna determined by noting the fre-
work. quency at which the grid current fluctuates.
The coils furnished with the antennas normal-
The All -Band The great majority of mobile ly are too large for the usual operating fre-
Center-Loaded operation on the 14 -!1c. band quency, since it is much easier to remove
Mobile Antenna and below is with center turns than to add them. Turns then are removed,
loaded whip antennas. These one at a time, until the antenna resonates at
antennas use an insulated bumper or body the desired frequency. If too many turns have
mount, with provision for coaxial feed from been removed, a length of wire may be spliced
the base of the antenna to the transmitter, as on and soldered. Then, with a length of insu-
shown in figure 7. lating tubing slipped over the soldered joint,
The center -loaded whip antenna must be turns may be added to lower the resonant fre-
Li TO
26 -4 Construction and
I- {6Ù000 HARMONIC
FILTER
ANT
Installation of Mobile
RFC ¿
51 Equipment
It is recommended that the following mea-

sures be taken when constructing mobile equip-
ment, either transmitting or receiving, to en-
Figure 8 sure trouble -free operation over long periods:
PI- NETWORK ANTENNA COUPLER Use only a stiff, heavy chassis unless the
The pi- network antenna coupler is particu- chassis is quite small.
larly satisfactory for mobile work since the Use lock washers or lock nuts when mount-
coupler affords some degree of harmonic re- ing components by means of screws.
duction, provides a coupling variation to Use stranded hook -up wire except where r -f
meet varying load conditions caused by fre- considerations make it inadvisable (such as
quency changes, and can cancel out react- for instance the plate tank circuit leads in a
ance presented to the transmitter at the end v -h -f amplifier). Lace and tie leads wherever
of the antenna transmission line. necessary to keep them from vibrating or flop-
For use of the coupler on the 3.9 -Mc. band ping around.
Cl should have a maximum capacitance of Unless provided with gear drive, tuning ca-
about 250 µµtd., L1 should be about 9 mi. pacitors in the large sizes will require a rotor
crohenrys (30 turns 1" dia. by 2" long), and lock.
C2 may include a fixed and a variable ele- Filamentary (quick heating) tubes should
ment with maximum capacitance of about 1400 be mounted only in a vertical position.
µµfd. A 100 -µµid. variable capacitor will be The larger size carbon resistors and mica
suitable at C, for the 14 -Mc. and 28 -Mc. capacitors should not be supported from tube
bands, with a 350-4µid. variable at C2. In- socket pins, particularly from miniature sock-
ductor L1 should have an inductance of a- ets. Use tie points and keep the resistor and
bout 2 microhenrys (11 turns 1" dia. by 1" capacitor "pigtails" short.
long) for the 14 -Mc. band, and about 0.8 ml- Generally speaking, rubber shock mounts
crohenry (6 turns 1" dia. by i" long) for the are unnecessary or even undesirable with pas-
28-Mc. band. senger car installations, or at least with full
size passenger cars. The springing is suffi-
ciently "sott" that well constructed radio
equipment can be bolted directly to the vehicle
without damage from shock or vibration. Un-
less shock mounting is properly engineered
as to the stiffness and placement of the shock
quency. Or, if the tapped type of coil is used,
mounts, mechanical- resonance "amplification"
taps are changed until the proper number of
turns for the desired operating frequency is
effects may actually cause the equipment to
found. This procedure is repeated for the dif- be shaken more than if the equipment were
ferent bands of operation. bolted directly to the vehicle.
Surplus military equipment provided with
shock or vibration mounts was intended for
use in aircraft, jeeps, tanks, gun- firing Naval
Feeding the After much experimenting it craft, small boats, and similar vehicles and
Center- Loaded has been found that the most craft subject to severe shock and vibration.
Antenna satisfactory method for feed- Also, the shock mounting of such equipment
ing the coaxial line to the is very carefully engineered in order to avoid
base of a center- loaded antenna is with the harmful resonances.
pi- network coupler. Figure 8 shows the basic To facilitate servicing of mobile equipment,
arrangement, with recommended circuit con- all interconnecting cables between units
stants. It will be noted that relatively large should be provided with separable connectors
values of capacitance are required for all bands on at least one end.
of operation, with values which seem particu-
larly large for the 75-meter band. But refer-
ence to the discussion of pi- network tank cir- Control Circuits The send -receive control cir-
cuits in Chapter 13 will show that the val- cuits of a mobile installation
ues suggested are normal for the values of im- are dictated by the design of the equipment,
pedance, impedance transformation, and oper- and therefore will he left to the ingenuity of
ating Q which are encountered in a mobile in- the reader. However, a few generalizations
stallation of the usual type. and suggestions are in order.
HANDBOOK Control Circuits 525
Do not attempt to control too many relays, PUSH- TO-TALK

SWITCH ON MIKE
PUSH-TO-TALK
RELAY
particularly heavy duty relays with large coils,
by means of an ordinary push -to-talk switch
on a microphone. These contacts are not de-
signed for heavy work, and the inductive kick
will cause more sparking than the contacts on
the microphone switch are designed to handle.
It is better to actuate a single relay with the ALTERNATE MAIN POWER RECEIVER ANTENNA ANY
push -to -talk switch and then control all other CONTROL
SWITCH
RELAY MUTING
RELAY
CHANGEOVER
RELAY
OTHER
RELAYS
relays, including the heavy duty contactor for
the dynamotor or vibrator pack, with this relay.
Figure 9
The procedure of operating only one relay
directly by the push -to -talk switch, with all RELAY CONTROL CIRCUIT
other relays being controlled by this control Simplified schematic of the recommended
relay, will eliminate the often -encountered dif- relay control circuit for mobile transmitters.
ficulty where the shutting down of one item of The relatively small push-to -talk relay is
equipment will close relays in other items as controlled by the button on the microphone
a result of the coils of relays being placed in or the communications switch. Then one of
series with each other and with heater circuits. the contacts on this relay controls the other
A recommended general control circuit, where relays of the transmitter; one side of the
one side of the main control relay is connected coil of all the additional relays controlled
to the hot 6-volt circuit, but all other relays should be grounded.
have one side connected to ground, is illus-
trated in figure 9. An additional advantage
of such a circuit is that only one control wire
need be run to the coil of each additional re-
lay, the other side of the relay coils being microphones is the standard Wester[[ Electric
grounded. type F -1 unit (or Automatic Electric Co. equi-
The heavy -duty 6-volt solenoid-type contac- valent). This microphone has very high output
tor relays such as provided on the PE-103A when operated at 6 volts, and good fidelity
and used for automobile starter relays usually on speech. When used without a speech am-
draw from 1.5 to 2 amperes. While somewhat plifier stage the microphone transformer should
more expensive, heavy -duty 6-volt relays of have a 50 -ohm primary (rather than 200 or 500
conventional design, capable of breaking 30 ohms) and a secondary of at least 150,000
amperes at 6 volts d.c., are available with ohms and preferably 250,000 ohms.
coils drawing less than 0.5 ampere. The widely available surplus type T -17 mi-
When purchasing relays keep in mind that crophone has higher resistance (200 to 500
the current rating of the contacts is not a fixed ohms) and lower output, and usually will re-
value, but depends upon (1) the voltage, (2) quire a stage of speech amplification except
whether it is a.c. or d.c., and (3) whether the when used with a very low power modulator
circuit is purely resistive or is inductive. If stage.
in doubt, refer to the manufacturer's recom- Unless an F -1 unit is used in a standard
mendations. Also keep in mind that a dynamo- housing, making contact to the button presents
tor presents almost a dead short until the ar- somewhat of a problem. No serious damage will
mature starts turning, and the starting relay result from soldering to the button if the con-
should be rated at considerably more than the nection is made to one edge and the solder-
normal dynamotor current. ing is done very rapidly with but a small a-
mount of solder, so as to avoid heating the
Microphones The most generally used micro- whole button.
and Circuits phone for mobile work is the A sound- powered type microphone removed
single -button carbon. With a from one of the chest sets available in the
high- output-type microphone and a high -ratio surplus market will deliver almost as much
microphone transformer, it is possible when voltage to the grid of a modulator stage when
"close talking" to drive even a pair of push - used with a high -ratio microphone transformer
pull 6L6's without resorting to a speech am- as will an F -1 unit, and has the advantage of
plifier. However, there is a wide difference in not requiring button current or a "hash filter."
the output of the various type single button This is simply a dynamic microphone designed
microphones, and a wide difference in the a- for high output rather than maximum fidelity.
mount of step up obtained with different type The standardized connections for a single -
microphone transformers. So at least one button carbon microphone provided with push-
speech stage usually is desirable. to -talk switch are shown in figure 10. Prac-
One of the most satisfactory single button tically all hand -held military-type single -button
RING a time, and the average "on" time should not

TIP OFMIRE be more than half the average "off" time.
SHELL
PLUG
The output voltage vs. current drain is
(GROUND)
shown approximately in figure 11. The exact
PRESS-TO- TAL
SWITCH voltage will depend somewhat upon the loss
resistance of the primary connecting cable
Figure 10 and whether or not the battery is on charge.
STANDARD CONNECTIONS FOR THE The primary current drain of the dynamotor
PUSH -TO -TALK SWITCH ON A HAND- proper (excluding relays) is approximately 16
HELD SINGLE -BUTTON CARBON amperes at 100 nia., 21 amperes at 160 ma.,
MICROPHONE 26 amperes at 200 ma., and 31 amperes at 250
m a.
Only a few of the components in the base
are absolutely necessary in an amateur mobile
installation, and some of them can just as well
microphones on the surplus market use these be made an integral part of the transmitter if
connections. desired. The base can be removed for salvage
There is an increasing tendency among mo- components and hardware, or the dynamotor
bile operators toward the use of microphones may be purchased without base.
having better frequency and distortion char- To remove the base proceed as follows:
acteristics than the standard single- button Loosen the four thumb s c r e w s on the base
type. The high -impedance dynamic type is plate and remove the cover. Remove the four
probably the most popular, with the ceramic - screws h o l ding the dynamotor to the base
crystal type next in popularity. The conven- plate. Trace the four wires coming out of the
tional crystal type is not suitable for mobile dynamotor to their terminals and free the lugs.
use since the crystal unit will be destroyed Then these four wires can be pulled through
by the high temperatures which can be reached the two rubber grommets in the base plate when
in a closed car parked in the sun in the sum- the dynamotor is separated from the base plate.
mer time. It may be necessary to bend the eyelets in the
The use of low -level microphones in mobile large lugs in order to force them through the
service requires careful attention to the elimi- gromm et s.
nation of common- ground circuits in the micro-
phone lead. The ground connection for the Next remove the two end housings on the
shielded cable which runs from the transmitter dynamotor. Each is held with two screws. The
to the microphone should be made at only one high- voltage commutator is easily identified
point, preferably directly adjacent to the grid by its narrower segments and larger diameter.
of the first tube in the speech amplifier. The Next to it is the 12-volt commutator. The 6-
use of a low -level microphone usually will re- volt commutator is at the other end of the ar-
quire the addition of two speech stages (a pen- mature. The 12 -volt brushes should be removed
tode and a triode), but these stages will take when only 6 -volt operation is planned, in order
only a milliampere or two of plate current, and to reduce the drag.
150 ma. per tube of heater current. If the dynamotor portion of the PE -103A
power unit is a Pioneer type VS-25 or a Rus-
PE -103A Dyno- Because of its availability sell type 530- (most of them are), the wires to
motor Power Unit on the surplus market at a the 12 -volt brush holder terminals can be cross
low price and its suitability connected to the 6 -volt brush holder terminals
for use with about as powerful a mobile trans- with heavy jumper wires. One of the wires dis-
mitter as can be employed in a passenger car connected from the 12 -volt brush terminals is
without resorting to auxiliary batteries or a the primary 12 -volt pigtail and will come free.
special generator, the PE -103A is probably The other wire should be connected to the op-
the most widely used dynamotor for amateur
work. Therefore some useful information will
posite terminal to form one of the jumpers.
be given on this unit. 1Xith this arrangement it is necessary only
The nominal rating of the unit is 500 volts to remove the 6 -volt brushes and replace the
and 160 ma., but the output voltage will of 12-volt brushes in case the 6-volt commutator
course vary with load and is slightly higher becomes excessively dirty or worn or starts
with the generator charging. Actually the 160 throwing solder. No difference in output volt-
ma. rating is conservative, and about 275 ma. age will be noted, but as the 12 -volt brushes
can be drawn intermittently without overheat- are not as heavy as the 6 -volt brushes it is
ing, and without damage or excessive brush not permissible to draw more than about 150
or commutator wear. At this current the unit ma. except for emergency use until the 6-volt
should not be run for more than 10 minutes at commutator can be turned down or repaired.
3.60 When using a PE -103A, or any dynamotor

PE-103A for that matter, it may be necessary to devote
e v. INPUT one set of contacts on one of the control re-
eoo lays to breaking the plate or screen voltage
to the transmitter oscillator, If these are sup-
plied by the dynamotor, because the output of
a dynamotor takes a moment to fall to zero
50
when the primary power is removed.
400
100 150 200 250 300
OUTPUT CURRENT, MA
26 -5 Vehicular Noise
Suppression
Figure 11
APPROXIMATE OUTPUT VOLTAGE VS.
Satisfactory reception on frequencies above
LOAD CURRENT FOR A PE -103A
the broadcast band usually requires greater
DYNAMOTOR
attention to noise suppression measures. The
required measures vary with the particular ve-
hicle and the frequency range involved.
Most of the various types of noise that may
At 150 ma. or less the 12-volt brushes will be present in a vehicle may be broken down
last almost as long as the 6-volt brushes. into the following main categories:
The reason that these particular dynamotors (1) Ignition noise.
can be operated in this fashion is that there (2) Wheel static (tire static, brake static,
are two 6-volt windings on the armature, and and intermittent ground via front wheel bear-
for 12 -volt operation the two are used in series
with both commutators working. The arrange-
ings).
ment described above simply substitutes for (3) `Hash" from voltage regulator con-
tacts.
the regular 6-vol t winding the winding and
(4) "Whine" from generator commutator seg-
commutator which ordinarily came into opera- ment make and break.
tion only on 12 -volt operation. Some operators
have reported that the regulation of the PE- (5) Static from scraping connections be-
tween various parts of the car.
103A may be improved by operating both com-
mutators in parallel with the 6-volt line. There is no need to suppress ignition noise
The three wires now coming out of the dy- completely, because at the higher frequencies
namotor are identified as follows: The smaller ignition noise from passing vehicles makes
wire is the positive high voltage. The heavy the use of a noise limiter mandatory anyway.
wire leaving the same grommet is positive 6 However, the limiter should not be given too
volts and negative high voltage. The single much work to do, b e c au se at high engine
heavy wire leaving the other grommet is nega- speeds a noisy ignition system will tend to
tive 6 volts. Whether the car is positive or mask weak signals, even though with the lim-
negative ground, negative high voltage can be iter working, ignition "pops" may appear to
taken as car -frame ground. With the negative be completely eliminated.
of the car battery grounded, the plate current Another reason for good ignition suppres-
can return through the car battery and the ar- sion at the source is that strong ignition
mature winding. This simply puts the 6 volts pulses contain enough energy when integrated
in series with the 500 volts and gives 6 extra to block the a -v -c circuit of the receiver, caus-
volts plate voltage. ing the gain to drop whenever the engine is
The trunk of a car gets very warm in sum- speeded up. Since the a -v-c circuits of the
mer, and if the transmitter and dynamotor are receiver obtain no benefit from a noise dip-
mounted in the trunk it is recommended that per, it is important that ignition noise be sup-
the end housings be left off the dynamotor to pressed enough at the source that the a -v-c
facilitate cooling. This is especially impor- circuits will not be affected even when the
tant in hot climates if the dynamotor is to be engine is running at high speed.
loaded to more than 200 ma.
When replacing brushes on a PE -103A check Ignition Noise The following procedure
to see if the brushes are marked negative and should be found adequate for
positive. If so, be sure to install them accord- reducing the ignition noise of practically any
ingly, because they are not of the same mater- passenger car to a level which the dipper can
ial. The dynamotor will be marked to show handle satisfactorily at any engine speed at
which holder is negative. any frequency from 500 kc. to 148 Mc. Some
of the measures may already have been taken mica capacitor placed from the field terminal
when the auto receiver was installed. of the regulator to ground with the shortest
First either install a spark plug suppressor possible leads often will produce sufficient
on each plug, or else substitute Autolite re- improvement. If not, a choke consisting of a-
sistor plugs. The latter are more effective than bout 60 turns of no. 18 d.c.c. or bell wire
suppressors, and on some cars ignition noise wound on a sá -inch form can be added. This
is reduced to a satisfactory level simply by should be placed right at the regulator termi-
installing them. However, they may not do an nal, and the 0.001 -µfd. by -pass placed from
adequate job alone after they have been in use the generator side of the choke to ground.
for a while, and it is a good idea to take the
following additional measures. Generator Whine Generator "whine" often can
Check all high tension connections for gaps, be satisfactorily suppressed
particularly the "pinch fit" terminal connec- from 550 kc. to 148 Mc. simply by bypassing
tors widely used. Replace old high tension the armature terminal to ground with a special
wiring that may have become leaky. "auto radio" by-pass of 0.25 or 0.5 pfd. in
Check to see if any of the high tension wir- parallel with a 0.001-µfd. mica or ceramic ca-
ing is cabled with low tension wiring, or run pacitor. The former usually is placed on the
in the same conduit. If so, reroute the low ten- generator when an auto radio is installed, but
sion wiring to provide as much separation as must be augmented by a mica or ceramic ca-
practicable. pacitor with short leads in order to be effec-
By -pass to ground the 6-volt wire from the tive at the higher frequencies as well as on the
ignition coil to the ignition switch at each broadcast band.
end with a 0.1-pfd. molded case paper capaci- When more drastic measures are required,
tor in parallel with a .00 1-pfd. mica or cer- special filters can be obtained which are de-
amic, using the shortest possible leads. signed for the purpose. These are recommend-
Check to see that the hood makes a good ed for stubborn cases when a wide frequency
ground con t a c t to the car body at several range is involved. For reception only over a
points. Special grounding contactors are avail- comparatively narrow band of frequencies,
able for attachment to the hood lacings on cars such as the 10 -meter amateur band, a highly
that otherwise would present a grounding effective filter can be improvised by connect-
problem. ing between the previously described parallel
If the high -tension coil is mounted on the by -pass capacitors and the generator arma-
dash, it may be necessary to shield the high ture terminal a resonant choke. This may con-
tension wire as far as the bulkhead, unless sist of no. 10 enamelled wire wound on a suit-
it already is shielded with armored conduit. able form and shunted with an adjustable trim-
mer capacitor to permit resonating the com-
Wheel Static Wheel static is either static bination to the center of the frequency band
electricity generated by rotation involved. For the 10 -meter band 11 turns close
of the tires and brake drums, or is noise gen- wound on a one -inch form and shunted by a
erated by poor contact between the front 3-30 µµfd. compression -type mica trimmer is
wheels and the axles (due to the grease in the suitable. The trimmer should be adjusted ex-
bearings). The latter type of noise seldom is perimentally at the center frequency.
When generator whine shows up after once
caused by the rear wheels, but tire static may
of course be generated by all four tires. being satisfactorily suppressed, the condition
Wheel static can be eliminated by insertion of the brushes and commutator should be
of grounding springs under the front hub caps, checked. Unless a by -pass capacitor has
and by inserting "tire powder" in all inner
opened up, excessive whine usually indicates
tubes. Both items are available at radio parts that the brushes or commutator are in need of
stores and from most auto radio dealers. attention in order to prevent damage to the
generator.
Voltage Regulator Certain voltage regulators Body Static Loose linkages or body or frame
Hash generate an objectionable joints anywhere in the car are
amount of "hash" at the potential static producers when the car is in
higher frequencies, particularly in the v -h -f motion, particularly over a rough road. Locat-
range. A large by -pass will affect the operation ing the source of such noise is difficult, and
of the regulator and possibly damage the the simplest procedure is to give the car a
points. A small by -pass can be used, however, thorough tightening up in the hope that the
without causing trouble. At frequencies above offending poor contacts will be caught by the
the frequency at which the hash becomes ob- procedure. The use of braided bonding straps
jectionable (approximately 20 Mc. or so) a between the various sections of the body of
small by -pass is quite effective. A 0.001 -µfd. the car also may prove helpful.
Miscell There are several other poten- In many cases the control rods, speedometer
tial noise sources on a pas- cable, etc., will pick up high- tension noise
senger vehicle, but they do not necessarily under the hood and conduct it up under the
give trouble and therefore require attention dash where it causes trouble. If so, all con-
only in some cases. trol rods and cables should be bonded to the
The heat, oil pressure, and gas gauges can fire wall (bulkhead) where they pass through,
cause a rasping or scraping noise. The gas using a short piece of heavy flexible braid of
gauge is the most likely offender. It will cause the type used for shielding.
trouble only when the car is rocked or is in In some cases it may be necessary to bond
motion. The gauge units and panel indicators the engine to the frame at each rubber engine
should both be bypassed with the 0.1-pfd. mount in a similar manner. If a rear mounted
paper and 0.001 -µfd. mica or ceramic combina- whip is employed the exhaust tail pipe also
tion previously described. should be bonded to the frame if supported by
At high car speeds under certain atmospheric rubber mounts.
conditions corona static may be encountered
unless means are taken to prevent it. The re-
ceiving-type auto whips which employ a plas- Locating Determining the source of cer-
tic ball tip are so provided in order to minimize Noise Sources tain types of noise is made
this type of noise, which is simply a discharge difficult when several things
of the frictional static built up on the car. A are contributing to the noise, because elimi-
whip which ends in a relatively sharp metal nation of one source often will make little or
point makes an ideal discharge point for the no apparent difference in the total noise. The
static charge, and will cause corona trouble following procedure will help to isolate and
at a much lower voltage than if the tip were identify various types of noise.
hooded with insulation. A piece of Vinylite Ignition noise will be present only when the
sleeving slipped over the top portion of the ignition is on, even though the engine is turn-
whip and wrapped tightly with heavy thread ing over.
will prevent this type of static discharge un- Generator noise will be present when the
der practically all conditions. An alternative motor is turning over, regardless of whether
arrangement is to wrap the top portion of the the ignition switch is on. Slipping the drive
whip with Scotch brand electrical tape. belt off will kill it.
Generally speaking it is undesirable from Gauge noise usually will be present only
the standpoint of engine performance to use when the ignition switch is on or in the "left"
both spark -plug suppressors and a distributor position provided on some cars.
suppressor. Unless the distributor rotor clear- Wheel static when present will persist when
ance is excessive, noise caused by sparking the car clutch is disengaged and the ignition
of the distributor rotor will not be so bad but switch turned off (or to the left position), with
what it can be handled satisfactorily by a the car coasting.
noise limiter. If not, it is preferable to shield Body noise will be noticeably worse on a
the hot lead between ignition coil and distri- bumpy road than on a smooth road, particu-
butor rather than use a distributor suppressor. larly at low speeds.
CHAPTER TWENTY -SEVEN
Receivers and Transceivers
Receiver construction has just about become of alignment, low -Q coils are often found in
a lost art. Excellent general coverage receivers the r -f circuits of commercial receivers, mak-
are available on the market in many price ing the set a victim of cross -talk and over-
ranges. However, even the most modest of loading from strong local signals. Rarely does
these receivers is relatively expensive, and most the purchaser of a commercial receiver realize
of the receivers are designed as a compromise that he could achieve the results he desires
-they must suit the majority of users, and in a home -built receiver if he left off the frills
they must be designed with an eye to the price. and trivia which he does not need but which
It is a tribute to the receiver manufacturers he must pay for when he buys a commercial
that they have done as well as they have. Even product.
so, the c -w man must often pay for a high - The ardent experimenter, however, needs
fidelity audio system and S -meter he never no such arguments. He builds his receiver
uses, and the phone man must pay for the c-w merely for the love of the game, and the thrill
man's crystal filter. For one amateur, the re- of using a product of his own creation.
ceiver has too much bandspread; for the next, It is hoped that the receiving equipment to
too little. For economy's sake and for ease be described in this chapter will awaken the
FIGURE 1
COMPONENT NOMENCLATURE
CAPACITORS, RESISTORS:
I- VALUES BELOW 999 LLFD ARE INDICATED IN UNITS. I- RESISTANCE VALUES ARE STATED IN OHMS, THOUSANDS
EXAMPLE: 1504111FD DESIGNATED AS 150. OF OHMS (K), AND MEGOHMS (M ).
EXAMPLE, 270 OHMS = 270
2- VALUES ABOVE 999 LLFD ARE INDICATED IN DECIMALS. 4700 OHMS= 4.7 K
EXAMPLE: DOS LIFO DESIGNATED AS .005. 33,000 OH MS = 33 K
100,000 OHMS = 100 K OR 0.1 M
3- OTHER CAPACITOR VALUES ARE AS STATED. 33,000,000 OHMS 33 M
EXAMPLE: 10LFD, 0.SLLFD, ETC.
2- ALL RESISTORS ARE 1 -WATT COMPOSITION TYPE UNLESS
4- TYPE OF CAPACITOR IS INDICATED BENEATH THE VALUE OTHERWISE NOTED. WATTAGE NOTATION IS THEN INDICATED
DESIGNATION. BELOW RESISTANCE VALUE.
SM S I LV E R M I CA
47 K
C = CERAMIC EXAMPLE: 0.5
M. MICA
P PAPER
230 .001
EXAMPLE:
.Ot
M INDUCTORS:
5- VOLTAGE RATING OFELECTROLYTIC OR "FILTER MICROHENRIES =LH
CAPACITOR IS INDICATED BELOW CAPACITY DESIGNATION. MILLI HENRIES= MN
HENRIES=
0
H
10 20 25
EXAMPLES ...-3. BOO
6- THE CURVED LINE IN CAPACITOR SYMBOL REPRESENTS

THE OUTSIDE FOIL -GROUND OF PAPER CAPACITORS,
tII SCHEMATIC SYMBOLSI
OR -1-10-
I
THE NEGATIVE ELECTRODE OF ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS, CONDUCTORS JOINED
OR THE ROTOR OF VARIABLE CAPACITORS.
1
CONDUCTORS CROSSING CHASSIS GROUND
BUT NOT JOINED
530
531
experimenter's instinct, even in those individ- times such a comparison is surprising.

uals owning expensive commercial receivers. When the builder has finished the wiring of
These lucky persons have the advantage of a receiver it is suggested that he check his
comparing their home -built product against the wiring and connections carefully for possible
best the commercial market has to offer. Some- errors before any voltages are applied to the
STANDARD COLOR CODE -RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS
AXIAL LEAD RESISTOR INSULATED FIRST RING SECOND RING THIRD RING DISC CERAMIC RMA CODE
UNINSULATED BODY COLOR END COLOR DOT COLOR
BROWN -INSULATED COLOR FIRST FIGURE SECOND FIGURE MULTIPLIER S -DOT 3 -DOT
BLACK - NON -INSULATED BLACK O 0 NONE
BROWN 1 I 0
-- CAPACITY
- I IÇ'F_- RED
ORANGE
YELLOW
2
3
4
2
3
4
00
,000
0.000
MULTIPLIER
TOLERANCE
TOLERANCE
GREEN 5 5 00,000 TEMPERATURE
-MULTIPLIER BLUE e e 000.000 COEFFICIENT
15742ND SIGNIFICANT FIGS. VIOLET 7 7 0,000,000
GRAY e e 00,000.000
WIRE-WOUND RESISTORS NAVE 1ST
DIGIT BAND DOUBLE WIDTH. WHITE 9 9 000,000,000
RADIAL LEAD DOT RESISTOR 5- ROTRADIAL LEAD CERAMIC CAPACITOR EXTENDED RANGE TC CERAMIC HICAP
MULTIPLIER CAPACITY r CAPACITY
TOLERANCE
¡pTT--,, --7--
{jl FIGURE CT
¡IJIIIl1 CT
L,5T FIGURE TOLERANCE TOLERANCE

MULTIPLIER I - MJLTIPLI ER
LTC MULTIPLIER
RADIAL LEAD (BAND) RESISTOR BY -PASS COUPLING CERAMIC CAPACITOR AXIAL LEAD CERAMIC CAPACITOR
MULTIPLIER CAPACITY TEMP. COEFF. CAPACITY
41.$1. MIMEI
I
II FIGURE V(OPT.I 1'sl;I1l

TOLERANCE --IST FIGURE TOLERANCE MULTIPLIER-, k-TOLERANCE
MULTIPLIER
MOLDED MICA TYPE CAPACITORS
r
CURRENT STANDARD CODE
-- I ST
-2NDI SIGNIFICANT FIGURE
RMA 3 -DOT (OBSOLETE)
RATEO 500 V.O.C. ± 2019 TOL.
BUTTON SILVER MICA CAPACITOR
CLASS -
WHITE (RMA) JAN 1 TOLERANCE e = I 1ST DIGIT
BLACK(JAN) ®® -MULTIPLIER RMA
CODE
*MULTI PLIER MULTIPLIER 2NO DIGIT
CLASS -' - TOLERANCE 1_11;44.) SIGNIFICANT FIG. 3RD DIGIT
RMA 5 -DOT (OBSOLETE) RMA 6-DOT (OBSOLETE) RMA 4 -DOT (OBSOLETE)

1
r2NDJ TOLERANCE
1
®
}
MULTIPLIER
RONT
WORK. VOLT.
V"-T
[ 114 MULTIPLIER
SIG.
MULTIPLIER
2ND } SIG. FIGURE
3RD J
l
WORH. VOLTAGE
ER
L
REAR LERANCE WORKING VOLTAGE I T?SD} SIG. PFIGURE
TOLERANCE c T T
MOLDED PAPER TYPE CAPACITORS

TUBULAR CAPACITOR MOLDED FLAT CAPACITOR JAN CODE CAPACITOR
NORMALLY STAMPED COMMERCIAL CODE
FOR VALUE
5j0}
2N0 SIGNIFICANT
at FIGURE
ORKING VOLTS
SILVER
I
-1ST l SIGNIFICA NT FIG.
MULTIPLIER BLACK ®1
BODY
I£I %II?1I111 -MULTIPLIER MULTIPLIER
TOLERANCE 2NDl SIG. VOLTAGE FIG.
-I3T 2NDl SIGNIFICANT TOLERANCE
A2 -O /G /T VOLTAGE RATING INDICATES MORE THAN -1ST f FIGURE - CHARACTERISTIC
900 V ADO 2 ZEROS TO END OF 2 DIGIT NUMBER.
Figure 2
STANDARD COLOR CODE FOR RESISTORS AND CAPACITORS
The standard color code provides the necessary information required to properly identify color coded
resistors and capacitors. Refer to the color code for numerical values and the number of zeros (or multi-
plier) assigned to the colors used. A fourth color band on resistors determines the tolerance rating as
follows: Gold =5 %, silver Absence of the fourth band indicates a 20 ^c tolerance rating.
Tolerance rating of capacitors is determined by the color code. For example: Red- 2c , green 5%, etc.
The voltage rating of capacitors is obtained by multiplying the color value by 100. For example:
Orange =3X 100, or 300 volts.
532 Receivers and Transceivers THE RADIO
FIGURE 3
COMPONENT COLOR CODING
POWER TRANSFORMERS
PRIMARY LEADS BLACK
F TAPPED:
COMMON BLACK
TAP BLACK /YELLOW
END BLACK / RED
HIGH VOLTAGE WINDING RED

CENTER -TAP RED/YELLOW
RECTIFIER FILAMENT WINDING- YELLOW

CENTER -TAP YELLOW /BLUE
FILAMENT WINDING N' 1 GREEN

CENTER -TAP GREEN /YELLOW
FILAMENT WINDING N'2 BROWN Figure 4

CENTER -TAP BROWN/ YELLOW TWO TRANSISTOR BROADCAST
FILAMENT WINDING N 3 SLATE RECEIVER IS EXCELLENT
CENTER -TAP SLATE /YELLOW BEGINNER'S PROJECT
This simple receiver works from a single 9-
I -F TRANSFORMERS volt battery, providing many hours of
peasant listening. Two transistors and a
PLATE LEAD BLUE diode in a reflex circuit provide ample
B+ LEAD REO loudspeaker volume. Tuning control is at
left, with audio control beneath it Midget
GRID (OR O /DOE) LEAD CREEN speaker is at right. Receiver is housed in
A -V -C (OR GROUND) LEAD BL/ -K plastic case.
AUDIO TRANSFORMEF
PLATE LEAD (PR/.) BLUE 9 BROWN damaged by incorrect wiring of the high -volt-
B+ LEAD (PR/.) RED age leads.
GRID LEAD (SEC.) GREEN UR YELLOW The problem of meeting and overcoming
GRID RETURN (SEC.) BLACK such obstacles is just part of the game. A true
radio amateur (as opposed to an amateur
circuits. If possible, the wiring should be broadcaster) should have adequate knowledge
checked by a second party as a safety mea- of the art of communication. He should know
sure. Some tubes can be permanently damaged quite a bit about his equipment (even if pur-
by having the wrong voltages applied to their chased) and, if circumstances permit, he should
electrodes. Electrolytic capacitors can be build a portion of his own equipment. Those
ruined by hooking them up with the wrong amateurs that do such construction work are
voltage polarity across the capacitor terminals. convinced that half of the enjoyment of the
Transformer, choke and coil windings may be hobby may be obtained from the satisfaction
EXTERNAL
ANTENNA
A/ BUS
Figure 5
SCHEMATIC OF TRANSISTOR BROADCAST RECEIVER
B -9 -volt transistor battery. RCA VS -300
C, -365 µpfd. Lafayette Radio Co. MS -214, or Allied Radio Co. 61H -009
L,- Transistor"Loopstick" coil. Lafayette Radio Co. MS-166
LS -3"
loudspeaker, 12 -ohm voice coil. Lafayette Radio Co. SK -39
T, -500 ohm pri., 12 ohm sec. Transistor transformer. Thordarson TR -18
HANDBOOK Circuitry 533
of building and operating their own receiving or spots placed on the body of the component.
and transmitting equipment. Several color codes have been used in the past,
and are being used in modified form in the
The Transceiver A popular item of equip-
present to indicate component values. The
ment on "five meters" most important of these color codes are illus-
during the late "thirties," the transceiver is trated in figure 2. Other radio components
making a comeback today complete with mod-
such as power transformers, i -f transformers,
ern tubes and circuitry. In brief, the transceiver chokes, etc. have their leads color -coded for
is a packaged radio station combining the ele-
easy identification as tabulated in figure 3.
ments of the receiver and transmitter into a
single unit having a common power supply 27 -2
and audio system. The present trend toward
A Simple
compact equipment and the continued growth Transistorized Portable
of single sideband techniques combine natural- B -C Receiver
ly with the space -saving economies of the
transceiver. Various transceiver circuits for the Illustrated in figures 4, 5, and 6 is an easy
higher frequency amateur bands are shown in to construct two transistor portable broadcast
this chapter. The experimenter can start from receiver that is an excellent circuit for the
these simple circuits and using modern minia- beginner to build. The receiver covers the
ture tubes and components can design and range of 500 kc. to 1500 kc. and needs no
build his complete station in a cabinet no larg- external antenna when used close to a high
er than a pre-war receiver. power broadcasting station. An external anten-
na may be added for more distant reception.
27 -1 Circuitry and The receiver is powered from a single 9 -volt
Components miniature transistor battery and delivers good
speaker volume, yet draws a minimum of cur-
It is the practice of the editors of this rent permitting good battery life.
Handbook to place as much usable information
in the schematic illustration as possible. In Circuit Operation of the receiver may
order to simplify the drawing the component Description be understood by referring to
nomenclature of figure 1 is used in all the fol- the schematic diagram of figure
lowing construction chapters. 5. The tuned circuit L, -C, resonates at the
The electrical value of many small circuit frequency of the broadcasting station. A por-
components such as resistors and capacitors is tion of the r -f energy is applied to the base of
often indicated by a series of colored bands the 2N112 p -n -p type transistor. A tapped
Figure 6
INTERIOR VIEW
OF TRANSISTOR
RECEIVER
The speaker and output
transformer are mounted
at the left of the Ma-
sonite chassis. Top, cen-
i
ter is the "loopstick" f
coil, and directly to the
right is the 10 millihenry
r -f choke in the collector
lead of the 214112 trans-
istor. Battery is at lower
right.
winding is placed on coil L1 to achieve an im- Receiver The complete receiver is
pedance match to the low base impedance of Construction mounted upon a thin Maro-
the transistor. Emitter bias is used on this nite board measuring 73/8" x
stage, and the amplified signal is capacity- 47/8" in size. The board fits within a small
coupled from the collector circuit to a 1N34 plastic box having a hinged lid and handle.
diode rectifier. The rectifier audio signal is The dimensions of the box are 71/2" x 5" x
recovered across the 2K diode load resistor, 1 %8 ", exclusive of the handle. Placement of the
which takes the form of the audio volume major components upon the board may be seen
control of the receiver. The diode operates in in figure 6. The "loopstick" antenna coil is
an untuned circuit, the selectivity of the re- mounted to the top center portion of the board
ceiver being determined by the tuned circuit so that it fits directly under the handle of the
in the r -f amplifier stage. box. Slightly below and to the right of the
The audio signal taken from the arm of the coil is the tuning capacitor, G. The midget
volume control (R.) is applied to the base of speaker is mounted in a cut -out in the board
the 2N112 r-f amplifier which functions sim- at the lower left corner with the output trans-
ultaneously as an audio amplifier stage. The former T1 directly above it. The volume con-
amplified audio signal is recovered across the trol R. is placed directly below the tuning
2K collector load resistor of the 2N112, and capacitor. The battery clip for the 9 -volt cell
is capacitively coupled to the base of a 2N217 is placed at the lower right corner of the board.
p -n-p audio transistor. This stage is base and A three terminal phenolic strip is attached to
emitter biased, having the output transformer the board above the battery clip. The leads of
in the collector circuit. Optimum collector load the 2N112 transistor are soldered to this strip.
for the 2N217 is approximately 500 ohms, Before the components are mounted on the
and the 2N217 develops a maximum audio board, it is placed within the plastic box and
signal of 75 milliwatts at this load impedance. used as a drilling template for the box. A
Transformer T1 matches the transistor circuit drill -press and "fly-cutter" may be employed
to the 12 ohm miniature loudspeaker. The to cut the speaker hole in both the board and
receiver draws a maximum signal current of the box. The plastic box should be drilled
11 milliamperes from the 9 -volt battery sup- slowly to prevent excessive heat generation
ply. and consequent melting of the material.
PLACE CARRIER
4.0 5.0
WIDE
DOWN
TO
At -B DB\
NC HERE OR HERE
I I
-el SKC 3.1KCI

0 DB
-BDB
AVERAGE DESIRED MECHANICAL

RECEIVER SELECTIVITY FILTER
SELECTIVITY CURVE SELECTIVITY
RANGE CURVE
24DB
42 DS
-GODS
- 3KC 14- 14- B.SKC
15 TO 30 KC WIDE
AT -BO DB DOWN
Figure 7
BANDWIDTH CURVES OF VARIOUS I -F SYSTEMS
Bandwidth curves showing: A-
Selectivity range of most medium -priced single- conversion receivers with
C-
crystal filter out of circuit; B -Ideal selectivity curve for voice reception; and Selectivity curve of a
455 kc. mechanical filter with a 3.1 kilocycle bandwidth.
HANDBOOK Mechanical Filter 535
The 2N217 transistor is mounted upon a 27 -3 A 455 Kc.

second three terminal phenolic strip placed be-
tween the tuning capacitor and the loud speak-
Mechanical
er. Use of a composition -type chassis precludes Filter Adapter
the employment of the chassis as a common Enjoy modern -style selectivity and perform-
ground. A simple bare copper wire is therefore ance with your present receiver by plugging in
used as a common "ground" return. This lead this simple mechanical filter .adapter that re-
is actually the "B -plus Bus," shown in figure 5.
places the first i -f tube!
The lead runs from the positive terminal of Many modern medium -priced and older
the battery clip, along the lower edge of the high priced communications receivers now in
chassis then up to the "ground" terminal of general use are convenient to operate. The re-
the "loopstick" coil, L. All components that ceivers have good frequency stability and ade-
normally ground to the metal chassis in a quate sensitivity, but lack sufficient "skirt"
conventional assembly are attached to this bus. selectivity to reject strong signals that are only
Be sure to observe the polarity of the electro-
a few kilocycles higher or lower in frequency
lytic capacitors and the dry cell. Improper con-
from a desired signal. The shaded area of curve
nection of these components can damage the A, figure 7 shows the typical selectivity char-
transistors or other parts of the circuit. acteristic of popular medium -priced commun-
The transistors are the last items to be con- ications receivers. Although the "nose" of this
nected into the assembly. Since the transistors curve is usually only a few kilocycles wide, the
are heat sensitive, it is necessary to protect them "skirt" selectivity 60 decibels down from the
during the soldering operation. Grasp the tran- peak may be from 15 to 30 kilocycles broad!
sistor lead to be soldered with a long-nose Small wonder that strong local signals a few
pliers between the body of the transistor and kilocycles up the band from the station you
the end of the lead. The thermal capacity of are trying to copy may sometimes paralyze
the metal pliers will act as a heat sink, pre- your receiver.
venting the heat of the iron from damaging It is possible to add a new order of selec-
the transistor. Be sure to hold the pliers in tivity to your present set by constructing this
place until the completed joint has had time mechanical filter adapter unit, that is substi-
to cool. When all wiring is completed and
checked, the 9 -volt battery can be inserted in
the clip (observe polarity!) and the set can
be turned on by means of switch S,. A 0 -100
milliampere d -c meter placed temporarily
across the open contacts of switch S, can be
used to check the transistor operating current.
The receiver should play immediately upon
closing S. as the transistors have no warm -up
time. If no external antenna is used, the re-
ceiver should be moved about to orient the
"loopstick" coil L1 for best pickup of each
individual broadcast station. Adjacent channel
interference can often be eliminated by care-
ful rotation of the set to "null out" the offend-
ing signal. Ample loudspeaker volume will be
obtained from local stations without the use
of an external antenna.
Figure 8
455 KC. MECHANICAL
FILTER ADAPTER
Enjoy optimum selectivity and performance
from your present receiver by plugging in
this simple adapter that replaces the first
i -f amplifier tube. The two 6B16 tubes are
at opposite ends of the chassis with the
mechanical filter between them. Adapter
plug to fit i -f tube socket is shown in
foreground.
INPUT CABLE
Cs . I
GRID
`
UND PLATE
I
OUTPUT CABLE
.,-. Ce
ter such as the mechanical filter or a crystal
lattice filter. The second system utilizes a string
of high Q tuned circuits in the i -f amplifier
to achieve the desired passband. This latter sys-
r PIN Y P N PIN
I
tem can be space consuming, difficult to ad-

just, and expensive if quality components are
j
-F TUBE
ALT- _J employed.
IST I -F TRANS. I
2ND I F TRANS.
SOCKET TERMINALS
Figure 9 On the other hand, the mechanical filter is

CONNECTIONS BETWEEN very compact. It is readily available in a var-
MECHANICAL FILTER, iety of bandwidths, has an excellent selectivity
ADAPTER AND RECEIVER curve, and is roughly equivalent in cost to
Adapter makes connections to first i -f other systems having comparable selectivity.
socket of receiver. Power may also be ob-
tained from the receiver. Curve C of figure 7 illustrates the selectivity
curve of the 3.1 kilocycle Collins mechanical
tuted for the first ,i55 kc. intermediate fre- filter which is suitable for A -M phone and
quency amplifier tube, without making any single sideband reception.
under -chassis changes in the receiver. Simply
connect the adapter to a power source (which Circuit The complete circuit of the
may be your receiver) , remove the first i -f Description mechanical filter adapter is
amplifier tube, and insert two short coaxial shown in figure 10. Two 6BJ6
cables into the empty tube socket, as shown pentode tubes are employed in the ciircuit to
in figure 9. These cables carry the i -f signal compensate for the insertion loss of the filter.
to and from the adapter, which are then tucked The adapter picks up the 455 kc. signal from
away in an unoccupied corner of your receiver the control grid pin of the receiver's first i -f
or speaker cabinet. amplifier tube socket through coupling capaci-
tor, G. The signal passes through a coaxial
Selectivity There are two systems gen- line to the grid of the 6BJ6 amplifier tube,
Considerations erally used to obtain a V1. The plate circuit of VI is capacity coupled
bandpass characteristic that to the input terminals of the mechanical filter
approaches the ideal communications selectivity to keep plate current from flowing through
curve for voice modulated signals shown at B the filter coil. A much wider signal voltage
in figure 7. One system utilizes a package fil- range can be handled by the filter without
r
V, .002 V2
6BJ6 c, 6BJ6
e
000
C D
e7
-e-
L,
4-105 -250V
SH,ELQ
C5 TO I -F Ce
Tt1TUBE SOCKET ICO
GRID PIN PLATE PIN

Illlll
TO GND. PIN. -F TUBE SOCKET
I
Figure 10
SCHEMATIC OF MECHANICAL FILTER ADAPTER
C,, C,-600 µµtd. ceramic (270- and 330 µµtd. in parallel)
Cr, C,-120 'gild. ceramic
Cs, C,-10 ppfd. tubular ceramic ( Aerovox CI -1)
FL-455 kc. mechanical filter (3.1 kc. bandwidth) (Collins 455J -31)
L,, L,-200 microhenry slug -tuned "loop stick" coil (Superex VL, or J. W. Miller 6300)
P, -Male octal plug with retaining ring (Amphenol 86 -PM8)
Rr -18K, 10 watt. Place between pins 4 and 8 of PI socket for plate supply greater thon 130 volts.
Use jumper for 130 volts or less (see text). R, is screen voltage dropping rtsistor.
V2,6BJ6
L2 ,C4
through the use of small input and output
coupling capacitors and large cathode bias re-
sistors in both amplifier stages. This is suit-
able for receivers having two or more i -f am-
TO PIN.
plifier stages, but additional gain from the
V1 (65J6) adapter may be obtained by reducing the value
SOCKET
of one or both cathode resistors to 270 ohms.
This may be desirable when the adapter is op-
TO GRID PIN
I -F TUBE SOCKET erated with a receiver having only one i -f
amplifier stage.
Figure 11
Power is brought into the adapter unit
OPTIONAL A -V -C CONNECTIONS
FOR THE ADAPTER
through an eight -pin male plug. Connections
to this plug are made so that the plug may be
inserted into the NBFM adapter socket on cer-
overloading when no plate current flows tain National receiver models. Many commun-
through the input coil. Both filter coils are ications receivers have an accessory power sock-
tuned to resonance at the intermediate fre- et on the rear of the chassis from which
quency by fixed capacitors C2 and G. power may be obtained. Adapter requirements
The output terminals of the mechanical fil- are 6.3 volts at 0.3 amperes, and 105 -250
ter are connected directly to the input circuit volts at 10 milliamperes. This is little more
of the second 6BJ6 tube. The output signal than the power requirements of the i -f tube
from this tube is again capacitively coupled replaced by the adapter. A 250 -volt supply
back into the plate circuit of the first i -f stage source requires that an 18K, 12 -watt screen
of the receiver through a second coaxial line voltage dropping resistor (RI) be connected
and coupling capacitor G. The 455 kc. tuned between pins 4 and 8 of the power plug re-
circuits connected to the plate of V. and V2 ceptacle. When the d -c supply is 130 -volts or
are composed of "loopstick" -type coils L. and less, a jumper may be placed directly between
L2, shunted by fixed capacitors C. and G. pins 4 and 8 (see figure 10).
The input and output coaxial cables are 16- A method of applying automatic volume
inch lengths of RG -58/U line. This cable control voltage from the receiver to the second
forms a 40 µpfd. ground leg of a capacitor amplifier stage in the adapter is shown in
voltage divider (G being the other leg) that figure 11. This modification is mainly useful
reduces the signal voltage applied to V. to when the adapter is connected to a receiver
about one- quarter of the voltage developed that has few a -v-c controlled stages. The auto-
across the secondary of the first i -f transformer matic volume control voltage is taken from the
of the receiver. control grid pin of the i -f amplifier tube socket
The overall signal amplification of the adap- through a simple R-C filter and is applied to
ter has been held down to a few decibels the control grid of Vs through the output coil
more than the 10 db insertion loss of the filter of the mechanical filter.
hA-I--4--+ -
4
INPUT
CABLE
2X 2f X 4' M/N /BOX (Boo CV -3003 OR EQUIVALENT )
Figure 12
CHASSIS DRILLING TEMPLATE FOR ADAPTER
A: #32 drill, B: 9'32" drill, C: 5 8" diameter socket punch, D: 3/4" diameter socket punch
Construction The adapter is constructed Cable Constructing the two i -f tube
of the Adapter on an aluminum box mea- Assembly socket cables takes little time if
suring 21/4 " x 21/4" x 4 ", a the assembly shown in figure 15
good compromise size that is compact, yet not is followed. First, cut two lengths of RG -58/U
too small for easy wiring. The primary design coaxial cable 17 inches long and remove 11/2
and construction consideration of this adapter inches of the vinyl cover on one end of each
is to completely isolate the input and output piece. Slide the braided outer shield back over
circuits. Any stray coupling can cause signal the outer cover and trim the insulation and
leakage around the filter unit, thus imparing center conductor so that 1/2 inch protrudes be-
its effectiveness. The construction shown al- yond the shield. Next cut the insulation to
lows maximum isolation, yet permits sim- expose %4 inch of the center conductor and
plicity of construction. A drilling template for trim one lead of the coupling capacitor Cs sol-
the box is given in figure 12, and the place- dering it to the center conductor with a 1/4 inch
ment of the major components may be seen in overlap. Cut narrow strips of plastic insulating
figures 8, 13, and 14. Note that the input tape and wrap them around this joint up to
and output circuits are isolated within the box the body diameter of the capacitor as shown
by a shield passing across the center of the in figure 15. Finally, slide the braided shield
filter socket. over the capacitor, pull it tight and wrap a
short length of tinned copper wire twice
After drilling and punching all holes, the around the middle of the capacitor. Solder the
tube and mechanical filter sockets, power plug, wire to the shield and trim off the excess
and rubber grommets may be assembled. Place shielding. The tinned wires from each cable
solder lugs under all socket retaining bolts for are then soldered to a pin taken from an octal
ground connections. Before any wiring is done tube base, making a plug -in ground connec-
a 3" x 3" piece of perforated aluminum
tion as shown in figure 8. Similar tube base
(Reynold's "Do- it- yourself" aluminum, avail- pins are soldered to the other leads, and the
able at large hardware stores) is formed into excess lead trimmed off. The exposed cable
the shield shown in figures 13 and 14. A 3/e " shield is then wrapped with plastic tape.
flange is bent along all edges of this shield If the receiver has a 7 -pin miniature tube
except where it crosses the center of the 9 -pin in the first i -f amplifier stage, short lengths of
filter socket. A small notch is cut in the shield #18 tinned wire may be used for the plug -in
next to the socket to pass the heater and plate pins on the cables, or the capacitors and
power leads to the V, socket. The shield passes ground lead may be soldered to a special 7 -pin
across the filter socket between pins 3 and 4, miniature male adapter plug (Vector P -7).
and 8 and 9, then is bolted to a soldering lug
that has been soldered to pin 1 of the filter Adapter For easy parts assembly, the filter
socket. The flange is also bolted to the top Wiring shield may be temporarily re-
of the box directly above coil L_, and two self - moved, and replaced when wiring
tapping sheet metal screws are driven into the is completed. Heater, screen and plate power
side flanges of the shield when the other half wires are installed first, keeping all such leads
of the box is assembled. close to the box wherever possible to minimize
Figure 13
UN DERCHASSIS
VIEW OF THE
ADAPTER
Slug -tuned coil L: is at
left, below the second
stage 6 B J 6 socket.
Screen bypass capacitor
is placed across socket.
Capacitors C.. and C, may
be seen on each side of
the center shield. Coil L;
is at right of shield. In-
put cable is at far right.
Output cable passes
through rear wall of
chassis at left. Power
leads pass through center
of shield.
stray signal pickup. The smaller components POLYETHYLENE

INNER INSULATION
are now soldered in place, after which the co- BASE PIN GROUND WRAP JOINT AND OUT-
FROM WIRE SIDE WITH PLASTIC TAPE RG -58/U
axial cable input and output leads are con- OCTAL
TUBE
COAXIAL
SOLDER LINE
nected. About %8 inch of the outer vinyl jacket
10 -UL FD
is removed from the cables and the shield CERAMIC
CAPACITOR
braid is twisted into a single conductor. The SOLDER
VINYL
cable ends are brought into the box through JACKET
rubber grommets. The twisted cable shield is BRAID SHIELD OF COAXIAL LINE PULLED
OVER JOINT AND CAPACITOR. SOLDER TO
soldered to a nearby ground lug and the cen- GROUND WIRE
ter conductor is soldered to the correct tube Figure 15
socket pin. Finally coils L1 and L_ and their CROSS- SECTION VIEW
associated capacitors are placed in position and OF SIGNAL CABLES
wired into the circuit.
Alignment The adapter is connected to Receiver Tuning A somewhat different tun -
of the Adapter to the communications re- Techniques ing technique should be
ceiver as previously describ- used for tuning A -M and
ed, following a wiring and power check to en- single sideband signals on a receiver following
sure that the correct voltages are applied to the installation of the mechanical filter adapter.
various tube elements. The receiver should Modulated signals with carrier should be tuned
then be tuned to the center of a strong, steady in so that the carrier is placed on one edge,
local signal. If the receiver has an S-meter, rather than in the center of the i -f passband
the a -v-c should be left on. The slugs of coils ( figure 7 ) . Only one sideband of an A -M
L, and L: are now tuned for maximum carrier signal will be heard at one time, and the re-
strength reading on the S- meter. If the receiver ceiver tuning may be shifted so that the side -
has no S- meter, a modulated signal from a band on which a heterodyne is present may be
test oscillator must be used in conjunction with "pushed off the edge" of the bandpass curve
a vacuum tube voltmeter placed across the of the i -f system.
audio output circuit of the receiver. Tuning When receiving single sideband or c -w sig-
adjustments on the first and second i -f trans- nals the beat frequency oscillator of the re-
formers in the receiver are also recommended ceiver is turned on and adjusted so that the
for maximum output of the adapter. frequency of the b -f -o is near one edge of the
Figure 14
OBLIQUE VIEW OF
ADAPTER CHASSIS
Coil L, is of left near
power plug, with coil L,
mounted horizontally at
right. Note C: and C,
are placed directly across
pins of mechanical crys-
tal socket.
27 -4 A High
Performance
Amateur Band Receiver
This receiver was designed for outstanding
performance on the 80, 40, 20, 15, 10, and 6
meter amateur bands. It incorporates many up-
to -date features such as mechanical filters for
optimum selectivity, double conversion for
freedom from images, and a novel r-f assembly
for mechanical stability and good operating ef-
Figure 16 ficiency on the higher frequencies. The re-
FRONT VIEW OF AMATEUR ceiver uses 12 tubes, plus a selenium rectifier
BAND RECEIVER power supply. The complete r -f assembly is de-
6 -band receiver covers 80 -6 meters, using signed about a television turret tuner having
TV turret for "front end." Mechanical fil-
ters provide optimum selectivity. positions for 12 separate bands. The rugged
construction and excellence of the self- wiping
contacts of the TV tuner add greatly to the
filter passband. The proper pitch control set- overall stability of the receiver. Complete dial
ting may be determined by tuning the re- calibration and an S -meter provide maximum
ceiver across a carrier while adjusting the pitch tuning simplicity and logging ease.
control so that a beat note on only one side Because of the "snap -in" coil strips of the
of zero beat is heard. After marking this setting tuner it is possible to provide coils to tune any
of the pitch control, again turn it so the test sig- narrow segment of the shortwave range be-
nal on only the other side of zero beat is heard. tween 3.5 megacycles and 75 megacycles. For
Mark this setting, then try tuning in a single example, coils can be wound to cover the 13,
sideband signal. If intelligible speech cannot 19, 21, 31, and 49 meter international short-
be heard, shift the b -f -o pitch control to the wave broadcast bands if desired. Panel control
other setting. Small adjustments of the pitch of the selectivity allows instant selection of the
control and the tuning of the receiver will optimum passband for either voice or c -w re-
produce the correct voice tones. For best reception. The receiver is entirely self- contained
ception, the audio control of the receiver should except for an external speaker.
be fully advanced, and only enough r-f gain
used to produce a readable signal. Volume is Circuit The High Performance Ama-
therefore controlled by the r -f gain control. Description teur Band Receiver is a double
For optimum c -w reception, the 0.5 kc. me- conversion superhetrodyne (fig-
chanical filter may be used. No changes need be ure 17 ) A modified TV turret tuner is em-
.
made to the adapter when filters are changed. ployed to cover six amateur bands. The turret
ANL AUDIO SPEAKER
K
12-BAND TUNER
PACKAGE
R -F MIX /OSC MIXER O KC. 455 KC DET /A-V-C AU010/eFO
MECH. I-F AMPLIFIER
FILTER
12AT1
MICH. R4
FILTER AUDIO
GAIN
R1G
2150 KC.
1
N
XTAL +140V. GAIN 1-105 V.
5 -METER
111115:1)- POWER
SUPPLY
VOLTAGE AV C
REGULATOR BRIDGE
Figure 17
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DE -LUXE AMATEUR COMMUNICATION RECEIVER
Amateur Band Receiver 541
employs a 6BQ7A cascode r -f amplifier and not by the transformer response. To conserve
a 6J6 mixer -oscillator. All r -f tuned circuits filament power, 150 milliampere 6BJ6 tubes
are changed as the tuner is switched from are employed in the i -f amplifier.
channel to channel. The intermediate frequen- A 6AL5 dual diode is used as a second
cy output of the tuner is 1695 kc. A 6BA7 detector and a -v -c rectifier. Automatic volume
pentagrid mixer tube converts the first inter- control voltage is applied to the first two i -f
mediate frequency to the second i -f channel, stages, and a small portion of the a -v -c voltage
which is 455 kc. To obtain a high order of is applied to the 6BQ7A r -f amplifier and
stability, the 6BA7 conversion oscillator is crys- 6BA7 mixer. The a -v -c circuit is rendered in-
tal controlled at 2150 kc. operative for c -w and SSB operation by seg-
Switch S, in the output circuit of the 6BA7 ment D of switch S_. A simple delayed a -v -c
mixer stage permits the selection of one of the system is used to allow best reception of weak
two mechanical filters. In this particular re- signals. Potentiometer Ru sets the delay voltage
ceiver, a 6 kc. and a 3.1 kc. filter were used applied to the cathode of the 6AL5 a -v-c diode.
for "broad" and "sharp" phone reception. A second 6AL5 serves as a noise limiter. The
Three stages of 455 kc. amplification follow threshold value of limiting is set by control
the mechanical filter. The gain of these stages R:, and the noise limiter may be removed from
is adjustable, permitting the overall receiver the circuit by switch Ss. The audio output of
gain to be set at a reasonable value. Too much the detector passes through volume control R4
i -f gain, will make the receiver noisy and sub- and is further amplified by one triode section
ject to overloading effects on strong signals. of a 12AT7 followed by a 6AK6 power am-
Too little i -f gain will make the receiver seem plifier stage. The second section of the 12AT7
insensitive. The i -f gain is controlled by poten- functions as the beat frequency oscillator. The
tiometer R, and also by the value of the ca- frequency of the b-f -o is controlled from the
thode resistors in the second and third i -f panel by variable capacitor Cs.
stages. In order to prevent clipping of the ex- The S -meter circuit consists of a single va-
cellent flat -top response of the 6 kc. mechan- cuum tube voltmeter using a 12AU7 dual tri-
ical filter, small coupling capacitors are placed ode in a bridge circuit. The bridge is balanced
across the "top" of the i -f transformer coils to by potentiometer Rs, and the meter sensitivity
widen the "nose response" of the circuits. The is set by control R,. Automatic volume control
"skirt" selectivity of the i -f strip is determined voltage applied to one grid of the 12AU7 up-
by the passband of the mechanical filter and sets the balance of the bridge and causes a
"TV- TUNER"
r--r COIL
R
ANT. L, MIx/osc
J, 6BQ7A * =TUNER
TRIMMER
La
C19 it 1
T : A
"HP 0 5
.00,
a20.0. 0 N
it
5
AL6
0.5
i* T
Ca _
L _ _ J
TO A-V-C
St
St e4 REG.
0
,-I OUTPUT
Figure 18A
CONVERTED TV-TUNER FORMS "FRONT -END" OF AMATEUR BAND RECEIVER
Several forms of replacement TV- tuners may be purchased from large rodio st . Shown above is typical
"cascade tuner" to be used in this receiver. Check your tuner for circuitry before you modify it. -f output 1
frequency is unimportant, since i -f components of tuner are removed. Tuner trimmers permit minor
adjustments to be made to alignment of r -f stages.
A -Oscillator -mixer excitation measuring point on tuner
C,A- B -C-1S µµfd. per section. All -Star Products Co., Defiance, Ohio. Model C3.
C,-10 µµId. ceramic. Centralab 827B
C,-l5 µµ Bud LC -1641. (Mounted atop chassis after photographs were taken).
L,- 1.2-See Figure 21 for coil data
HANDBOOK Amateur Band Receiver 543
reading on the 0 -1 d -c milliammeter connected three gang tuning capacitor C5 is determined by

between the plates of the 12AU7 triodes. the shaft height of the main dial bushing. CI
The selenium rectifier power supply delivers is therefore mounted above the chassis by
140 volts at the receiver current drain of 65 means of long 6 -32 bolts and steel spacers.
milliamperes. The low plate voltage and small Placement of the major components may be
power consumption of the receiver result in a seen in figures 19 and 20. The two mechanical
very low degree of thermal drift. If desired, filters are mounted to the left of the tuner,
the selenium supply may be replaced with a directly behind the 6BÁ7 mixer tube and the
more conventional supply using a 5Y3 -GT 1695 kc. i -f transformer, Ti. The filter selec-
rectifier tube. Plate voltage to the receiver tion switch Si is mounted below chassis so that
should be held below 160 volts. Plate voltage the switch segments fall over the filter ter-
to the 6J6 oscillator section and the 12AU7 minals. This switch is made up from a switch
S -meter tube is regulated by an OB2 gas reg- kit, and is mounted in place by means of two
ulator. brackets cut from soft aluminum. One bracket
Plate voltage is removed from the r -f and holds the front panel bushing of the switch,
audio stages when the receiver is in "standby" and the other is placed just forward of section
S5B and holds the two fixed shafts of the
condition. All oscillators are left running con-
tinuously to reduce initial warmup drift. switch. A hole is cut in the center of the
bracket to clear the rotary shaft of the switch.
Receiver The receiver is built upon a plated This bracket also serves as a shield isolating
Layout steel chassis measuring 8" x 15" x the output circuits of the mechanical filter from
21/2". Panel height is 8". To the input circuits. The particular switch used
achieve maximum rigidity, the panel is braced is highly recommended, and it is suggested that
to the chassis with two steel angle brackets no substitution be made. It is imperative that
visible in figure 19. The tuning dial is cen- the drive shaft of the switch be metal, and that
tered on the panel, and the three gang tuning it is securely grounded. Some switches have
capacitor is behind the dial, on the center -line fibre drive shafts, or metal shafts held in po-
of the chassis. Directly to the left of the tuning sition with a cotter pin. Fibre drive shafts
capacitor is a 31/2 " x 5" cut -out in the chassis. permit signal leakage along the shaft, deterior-
The TV tuner is placed in this cut -out, held ating filter performance, and the cotter pin -
in place by two 3" angle brackets cut from type switch does not insure the shaft is secure-
aluminum stock. Height of the tuner above ly grounded which is mandatory, when the
the chassis is determined by the shaft of the metal shaft -type switch is used.
tuner which must pass through the bushing The three intermediate frequency stages are
drilled in the lower left corner of the dial spaced along the back of the chassis. At the
escutcheon. Likewise, the placement of the right rear are the 6AK6 audio stage, the volt-
Figure 19
TOP VIEW OF
AMATEUR
COMMUNICATION
RECEIVER
Mechanical filters are at
left with three stage i -f
amplifier along rear of
chassis. The TV tuner is
mounted in chassis cut-
out to the left of main
tuning capacitor. Power
supply and audio section
occupy right-hand sec-
tion of steel chassis. Six
channels of tuner are
used to cover the ama-
teur bands between 80-
and 6- meters. Six spare
channels may be used to
cover shortwave broad-
cast bands, or portions
of 100 Mc. region.
age regulator tube, and the 12AÚ7 S -meter which is then drilled and punched. All major
tube. In front of the last i -f transformer can components with the exception of the TV
are the two 6AL5 tubes and potentiometers turret are mounted in place. The ground con-
R, and R. nections at each tube socket are made first,
At the right end of the chassis is the power then the filament leads are wired in position.
transformer, and between it and the panel is Use #14 insulated wire for the filament leads,
the b -f -o transformer and the 12AT7 au- as the current drain is quite high. The power
dio/b-f-o tube. Between the power transformer supply should be wired first and tested. It
and the three gang tuning capacitor are the should deliver approximately 140 volts across
power supply filter capacitor and the auxiliary a 2000 ohm, 10 watt resistor used as a tem-
filament transformer. The i -f gain control po- porary dummy load. When the power supply
tentiometer RI is placed between the filament section is completed, the audio stages, b -f -o,
transformer and the main tuning capacitor. S- meter, second detector, and noise limiter
Placement of the smaller components below stages can be wired. Operation of the audio
the chassis may be seen in figure 20. The system may be checked by injecting a small
TV turret and mechanical filter switch are at audio signal on pin #2 of the 12AT7 stage
the right of the chassis, with the audio output and checking the volume of the tone in the
transformer mounted to the back wall of the loud speaker.
chassis near the turret. The filter choke for the
power supply is mounted to the left side wall The next step is to wire the three i -f am-
of the chassis, with the two selenium rectifiers plifiers and the a -v -c circuit. Five terminal
in front of it. The 10 watt dropping resistor phenolic tie-point strips are mounted in front
for the regulator tube is mounted to the chas- of each i -f tube socket. The a -v -c, cathode bias,
sis beween the filter choke and the rear tube and screen dropping resistors are mounted be-
sockets. tween the socket pins and the terminals of the
strip. The ceramic bypass capacitors are sol-
Receiver The receiver should be built dered directly between socket pins with the
Construction in two parts to simplify con- shortest possible leads. All interconnecting
struction. The power supply, wiring is done between the terminal strips.
audio and 455 kc. i -f sections are built first, After the i -f strip has been wired up to the
and the receiver is placed in operating condi- arm of switch S., segment B, the amplifier
tion up to the 1695 kc. i -f channel. The TV may be tested. Pin #1 of the first 6BJ6 i -f
tuner is then modified, using the rest of the tube is temporarily returned to the a -v -c bus
receiver for alignment and adjustment tests. by placing a 100 K resistor across the output
All major components should be marked in pins of the mechanical filter socket. Switch SI
position on the paper wrapper of the chassis is adjusted to place the resistor in the circuit.
Figure 20
UNDER -CHASSIS
VIEW OF AMATEUR
BAND RECEIVER
To the left of the chassis
are the selenium recti-
fiers and the filter choke.
At the extreme right is
the mechanical filter se-
lector switch mounted
on two aluminum brack-
ets. The controls along
the panel are (left to
right): BFO, AUDIO
GAIN, MAN--- AM - --CW,
tuning control, TV tur-
ret switch, R -F GAIN,
and filter selector switch.
Output transformer is
mounted to back of
chassis.
HANDBOOK Amateur Band Receiver 545
A signal generator having a tone modulated coupled through a 0.01 µfd. blocking capaci-
455 kc. signal is attached to the input grid of tor to the "hot" end of the primary winding
the 6BJ6 tube, and an a -c voltmeter is con- of transformer T. This transformer is adjusted
nected across the speaker terminals. To insure for maximum output signal. The receiver is
that the i -f system is aligned at the center of now ready for tuner installation.
the filter passband it is imperative that the
alignment frequency be very close to 455.0 Tuner The tuner used in this re-
kc. The use of a BC -221 or equivalent signal Modification ceiver is a Standard Coil Co.
generator is recommended. As the transform- replacement type unit using
ers are brought into alignment the input signal a 6BQ7A cascode r -f amplifier and a 6J6 mix-
to the i -f strip should be decreased. A vacuum er stage. Several different variations of this
tube voltmeter may be employed to measure tuner can be purchased at nominal prices
the negative voltage developed on the a -v -c bus. through large wholesale outlet stores. The
A maximum voltage of about volts is de- -8 tuner has snap -in coil strips for 12 TV chan-
veloped with a strong input signal to the i -f nels, and may have either a 21 Mc. or 42 Mc.
strip. Overall gain is controlled by the setting i -f output range. Several simple changes must
of RI when switch S_ is placed in the "A -M" be made to the tuner for use in this receiver.
position. The i -f output coil and the cascode neutralizing
After i -f alignment has been completed, the circuit must be removed. The best thing to do
100 K input resistor should be removed from is to remove all the clip -in coils and trace out
the filter socket and the 6BA7 mixer stage the tuner circuit, and then compare it with the
wired. The capacitors connected between pins circuit shown in figure 18A. Cathode bias must
1 and 2 and ground of the 6BA7 socket de- be added to the first section of the cascode and
termine the level of excitation to the 2150 kc. several of the resistors in the tuner must be
crystal. If difficulty is encountered in obtain- changed. Rewire the tuner according to the
ing consistent oscillation, the value of one or circuit of figure 18A. Note that regulated volt-
both of these capacitors may be altered until age is applied to the oscillator section of the
reliable oscillation is obtained. Operation of 6J6 and that a -v -c voltage is applied to the
the crystal oscillator may be monitored with a first section of the 6BQ7A. The main tuning
nearby receiver tuned to the crystal frequency. capacitor CIA -B -C is connected to the appro-
When the oscillator is working properly, a priate points in the tuner by three short leads.
1695 kc. tone modulated signal should be A )i -inch coil is drilled in the rear of the
F IGURE 21 - COIL TABLE FOR AMATEUR BAND RECEIVER

BAND COIL WINDING AND WIRE SIZE SPACING1CÁAC 74RESTONANCE BAND COIL WINDING AND WIRE SIZE
Li
ANT. N 22 E.
31
GRID:5T. N 18E.
C -W
WIRE DIA.
-
56 LWFD.
-
63MC.
Li
ANT:
GRID:13
7 T.
T.
N 22 E.
N 22 E.
C -W
C -W
-
'SPACINGICÁPÁC17Y
RESONANCE
1801110D. 15.2 MC.

-
6M PLATE, R-F: ST. N 16 E. WIREDIA. 621.110D 63 MC. 20M PLATE, R -F: 13T. N 22 E. WIRE DIA. 200LUFD 14.75 MC.
W_ GRID,0SC.: 5T N 62LUFD. 62 MC. 17- GRID. OSC. 112 T. N 22 E. MC.
- -
16 E. WIRE DIA. WIRE DIA. 200LLFD. 17
32.3 16.05
N 16E. N 30E.
-
PLATE, OSC., ST. C -W PLATE, 05C.:
- - C-W
MC. MC. 10 T.
L1
ANT.: 10 T. N 22 E. C -W
Li
ANT.: 15 T. N 30 E. C -W -
GRID: IO T. N 22 E. WIRE DIA. 75111JPD. 33 MC. GRID: 391'. N 30 E. C-W 100 LUFD 7.9 MC.
10M PLATE, R -F: 10T. N22E. WIRE DIA. 621.1LFD. 32 MC. 40M PLATE, R -F: 361'. N30 E. C-W 11011.UFD. 7.6 MC.
26.3-
25.0
MC.
GR ID. OSC. ;10
PLATE, OSC.: 97.
ANT: 9 T.
T.
N 22 E.
N22 E.
N 30 E.
WIRE DIA. 66LUJFD.
C
-W
-W
-
-
32.5
-
-
MC. 6.7-
9.1
MC.
GRID.OSC.: 25T.
PLATE, 05C.: 127. N30E.
ANT : 10 T. N 30 E.
N 30E. C
C
-W
-W
C -W
110LL/F0.
-
-
--
10 MC.
Li Li
GRID: 97. N221. WIRE DIA. 130 LUFD. 22.3 MC GRID: "L OOPST/CCN' C COIL. REE-
MOYETURNSIORESONAHCE.
ee ISULF0.
10N 5.4 MC.
I5M L2 PLATE, R -F: 10 T. 1.22 E. WIRE DIA. 120 LWFD. 22.25 MC. 80M PLATE, R -F: SEE Li ABOVE 12.U1/1.0 5.7 MC.
N 22
19.3-
19
MC
73
GRID,OSC.: IOT.
PLATE.OSC.:IO T.
E.
N 30 E.
WIRE DIA. 220L11/FD.
C -W - -
21.0 MC. 52-
5.7
MC
GRID,OSC.: SEE L1 ABOVE
PLATE .OSC.: 20T.N30E.j C -W -
391JUID
-
7.2 MC.
NOTE -GRID WINO /NG OF OSCILLATOR CO /L L2 is PLACEO NEXT TO OSCILLATOR PLATE WINDING. R -F PLATE WINDING
IS PLACEO ABOUT F/2 -INCH AWAY FROM OSCILLATOR -GRID WINO/NC.
2-ANTENNA CO/L SPACED ABOUT I /1C -INCH FROM GRID CO /L.
3-10 X RESISTOR PLACEO ACROSS 60 METER R-F GRID COIL.
4- RESONANT FREQUENCY MEASURED WITH SHUNT CAPACITOR ACROSS COIL.
tuner case to permit the coaxial lead from the porarily held in place with a small piece of
antenna receptacle to enter the tuner. The cellophane tape until the coil form is cemented
tuner is now ready to be mounted in the rein the assembly clamp with Duco cement.
ceiver. The coil leads are then cleaned and soldered
to the corresponding terminals. After the shunt
Tuner Coil The tuner coils should be capacity is added, the natural resonance of the
Modification removed from their snap -in winding should be checked against the value
holders. Notice that the r -f given in figure 21. The coil should be sus-
coils have five terminals and that the mixer - pended in the clear and checked with a grid -
oscillator coils have six terminals. All coil -dip oscillator. Turn spacing may be varied to
forms and windings are removed from the produce the correct resonance point. The mix-
clip -in assemblies and may be discarded. The er- oscillator coil is wound next. The two tuned
new coils for all bands are to be wound on windings are placed at the ends of the form
lengths of 1/4-inch diameter polystyrene rod, and the oscillator plate winding is placed be-
cut to fit into the assembly clamps. For this tween them, positioned close to the grid wind-
particular tuner, the r -f coil forms are 15/s" ing as illustrated in figure 22. The coil wind-
long and the oscillator mixer coil forms are ings may be held in position with a temporary
1 13/16" long. The ends of the forms are piece of cellophane tape. This coil is adjusted
tapered slightly with a file so that they fit in the same manner as the r -f coil. When com-
into the slotted ends of the assembly clamp. pleted, the mixer -oscillator coil may be snapped
After each set of coils is completed the fre- into the tuner and the receiver turned on. The
quency band notation is marked on the unit
oscillator operates on the low frequency side
for future identification. of the signal for 10 meter reception, cover-
Complete coil data is given in figure 21 ing the range of 26.3 Mc. to 28.0 Mc. as the
and a complete set of coils is shown in figure receiver is tuned from 27,995 kc. to 29.7 Mc.
22. Start with the ten meter coils, as they have Listen for the oscillator in a nearby receiver.
few turns and are easy to wind. Make the r -f The frequency range of the oscillator can be
stage coil first. The windings may be tem- set by varying the spacing of the turns of the
6J6 oscillator coil, and also by adjustment of
the oscillator trimmer capacitor G in the tuner.
When the correct frequency range is covered
the winding may be permanently held in place
with a small application of Duco cement. Check
the frequency range once again after you ap-
ply the cement as the frequency shifts slightly
lower as the cement is applied. Make your
final correction before the cement dries. The
other coil windings are relatively non -critical
and require no adjustments after they are
completed.
Once the oscillator tuning range has been
set, the signal generator may be used to cali-
brate the main dial of the receiver. If care is
used in this process, the dial calibrations can
be read to an accuracy of five kilocycles or
less. The oscillator injection voltage may be
checked at terminal A on the tuner with a
v- t -v -m. The injection range should lie between
two to three volts on each band, and may be
controlled by varying the spacing between the
Figure 22
COIL SET FOR AMATEUR
BAND RECEIVER
Tuner coils are wound on 1/4-inch poly-
styrene rods. R -f coils are at left, with
mixer- oscillator coils at right. 80 meter
coils are at top of photo, with 6 meter
I coils at bottom.
HANDBOOK "Handie -Talkie" 547
oscillator grid winding and the untuned plate the S-meter will respond much more slowly
winding. These adjustments may be made with to changes in signal strength. The value of
the coils in the receiver by removing the bot- this capacitor can be altered to suit the user's
tom and side plates of the tuner. taste.
The conversion oscillator operates on the Finally, various settings of the noise limiter
high frequency side of the signal on the 15, threshold control Rz should be tried to find
20, 40, and 80 meter bands, as tabulated in the best clipping level for various types of
figure 21. The 80 coils are made from "loop - pulse-type interference.
stick" -type broadcast coils. Turns are removed
from these coils until the natural resonance Receiver Receiver tuning is extremely
falls at the desired frequency as shown in the Operation smooth, and the dial calibration
table. A small value of capacitance is used remains as good as the original
across these coils since the percentage- tuning calibration. The r -f input circuits are designed
range is quite high. for 50 -100 ohm unbalanced transmission line
on all amateur bands, and r -f stage resonance
Receiver After the first set of coils has may be easily attained by means of the an-
Adjustment been completed, the receiver tenna trimming capacitor located within the
may be adjusted for optimum set. For phone reception, switch S3 is set to
results. A balance between r -f gain and i -f A -M and the audio level is controlled by the
gain must be achieved. Under normal operat- audio potentiometer R4. For c -w or sideband
ing conditions, the residual noise picked up reception 52 is set to C -W and audio control
by the antenna system should mask out the in- R. is fully advanced. Receiver gain is now
ternal noise level of the receiver. If the an- controlled by the R -F gain potentiometer Rb.
tenna is removed from the receiver and the The B -F -O pitch control G is adjusted to place
internal noise level does not drop appreciably the oscillator on the edge of the filter pass -
it is usually a sign that the i -f gain of the band for "single signal" reception of c -w sig-
receiver is too high and the r -f gain is too nals or single sideband reception of SSB trans-
low. The value of i -f gain may be controlled missions. The S-meter is operative on the
by the setting of R4. Normally, there is no "A -M" position of S=; S -meter sensitivity is
instability or regeneration in the i -f strip. The controlled by potentiometer R..
stability, however, is dependent to some extent
upon the wiring technique you use; it may 27 -5 A "Handie -
be necessary to retard the i -f gain level to
prevent instability. Receiver i -f gain may be
Talkie" for 144 Mc.
further decreased by increasing the value of The 144 Mc. band is the ideal frequency
the cathode resistor of the first 6BJ6 stage. range for short -haul, portable equipment. Little
I -f gain may be increased by decreasing the power is required for local coverage, and the
value of the cathode resistors of the second antenna size is moderate. Then too, this is just
two i -f stages. about the highest frequency at which filament
The a -v -c bias delay potentiometer R, should type battery tubes will operate.
be set to provide about one volt of bias on Shown in the accompanying illustrations is
pin #1 of the 6AL5 a -v -c rectifier. This will a battery powered, crystal controlled "handie-
retard a -v -c action on weak signals and im- talkie" designed for operation in the 2 meter
prove the signal -to -noise ratio of threshold region. It is especially well suited for Civil
signals. Defense work or emergency service. This unit
The level of beat oscillator injection can be was designed after the AN /URC -4 air -sea res-
set by varying the setting of coupling capaci- cue transmitter, and is completely self-con-
tor C4. Sufficient injection should be used to tained, including batteries.
provide good reception of single sideband sig-
nals. The injection level is not critical for Circuit The circuit of the "handie-
c -w operation. Finally, the b -f -o capacitor G Description talkie" is shown in figure 24.
should be set at mid -scale and the slug of Six quick heating filament type
transformer T. adjusted until the b -f -o signal tubes are used. Two tubes are used in the
is tuned exactly to 455 kc. transmitter portion of the transceiver, two in
The response of the S -meter is controlled the receiver portion, and the remaining two
by the time constant in the grid of the 12ÁU7 in the common audio section.
meter tube. If the grid capacitor in this circuit The transmitting portion of the unit em-
is increased in value from .05 pfd. to 1.0 µfd. ploys a 3A5 dual triode and a 3A4 pentode.
The first triode section of the 3A5 serves as serves as a doubler from 72 Mc. to 144 Mc.
an overtone crystal oscillator, delivering 24 Tuning of the plate circuit is accomplished
Mc. energy from an 8 Mc. crystal. The crystal by the slug of coil L. Inductive coupling is
oscillates in series mode and sufficient regen- used between L and the quarter -wave whip
eration is introduced in the circuit by return- antenna.
ing the crystal circuit to a tap on the oscillator The receiver employs a 5678 sub -miniature
plate coil. The oscillator may be adjusted by pentode r-f stage to provide a better signal -to-
tuning the slug of coil L. The 24 Mc. plate noise ratio and also to reduce spurious radia-
circuit of the oscillator stage is capacitively tion from the superregenerative detector. At
coupled to a 3A4 pentode tripler stage whose a distance of fifty feet from the transceiver,
plate circuit is tuned to 72 Mc. This stage the detector radiation is inaudible to a sen-
is resonated by means of the slug of coil L. sitive receiver. In the interest of economy, the
The 3A4, in turn, is capacitively coupled to 5678 can be replaced with a 959 "acorn" tube
the second section of the original 3A5 which if miniaturization of the unit is not desired.
The superregenerative detector uses a special
quench circuit which provides smooth opera-
tion yet allows the usual variable quench con-
trol to be eliminated. Values shown in the
schematic are optimum, and care should be
taken to keep all leads short. Capacitor C. is
the receiver tuning control and has a range
of 140 Mc. to 150 Mc. If it is desired to re-
duce the tuning range, one or two plates can
be removed from G and coil L readjusted
accordingly. The 5676 can be replaced by a
957 "acorn" tube in the interest of economy.
Audio output from the super - regenerative
detector is passed through a simple R-C filter
to suppress the quench frequencies. The first
audio stage is a 1S5 pentode using contact po-
tential grid bias. Interstage coupling is ac-
complished by a Centralab Couplate printed
circuit incorporating the six components re-
quired at this juncture. If this item is not
available, the values of resistance and capaci-
tance shown can be substituted. The output
stage consists of a 3Q4 power pentode driving
a 21/2 -inch speaker through the output trans-
former T2. For reception only one-half of the
3Q4 filament is used to conserve "A" and "B"
battery drain. During transmit periods the
extra audio is needed and the other half of
the filament is energized.
The "send -receive" switch S1A- B -C -D -E is
a miniature ceramic rotary switch. Section A
switches the antenna from the receiver to the
transmitter. Secion B energizes the filaments
of the receiver r -f tubes on the "receive" po-
sition, and energizes the microphone and the
second section of the 3Q4 filament on the
"transmit" position. Section C turns off all
Figure 23 filaments in the "off" position, and section
BATTERY POWERED "HANDIE- D opens the 67.5 volt battery circuit in the
TALKIE" FOR 2 METERS "off" position. Section E connects the loud-
Completely sell -contained transceiver em-
ploys crystal controlled transmitter for speaker to the audio system in the "receive"
greatest stability. Send -receive switch is at position of switch S.. The extreme counter-
top right with tuning control of receiver
directly below. clockwise position of S. is the "off" position.
HANDBOOK "Handie- Talkie" 549
Under normal operating conditions the within a steel box measuring 9" long by 23/4"
transceiver is held like a telephone and a short wide by 25i" deep. The width and depth di-
whip antenna is used. The operating range mensions were determined by the size of the
may be extended by removing the whip and battery pack. The "front" of the cabinet is
using a beam, connected to the unit by a one piece with flanged edges. The microphone
length of 52 -ohm coaxial transmission line. and speaker are attached to this portion of
Three separate battery voltages are required the box. The transceiver chassis is custom de-
by the "handie- talkie." 11/2-volts is required for signed to fit the available components and is
the filament circuit, 4.5 volts is required for held to the front of the box by two 6 -32
grid bias of the 3Q4 audio stage, and 67.5 bolts through the rear of the speaker frame.
volts is required for the plate voltage. All The rear and sides of the cabinet serve merely
these voltages may be obtained from miniature as a dust shield as no components are fastened
batteries placed within the case of the trans- to them, except for the coaxial antenna recep-
ceiver. tacle. The portion of the cabinet directly over
the batteries is separately removable to permit
Transceiver No hard and fast assembly pro - easy access to the battery pack. The remaining
Layout cedure is given for this unit, portion of the cabinet is affixed permanently
since each builder will want to to the front piece by means of sheet metal
custom -fit the circuit into his particular case. screws. The crystal projects through a cut -out
_
The unit shown in the photographs was built in this piece, and there are three % -inch holes
(,44 MC.) OFF SPEAKER
Lz Ls
R _-
5678 TUNE 5676 155 0021 3Q4 le.1)t
(144 MC.) 470

L1 M 4
J
QRFC
CI)1 s
i 2'e - 1
s
10M A CENTRALAO
0.2s COUPLATE
PC-90
B
1 03 ,
NJ
12 K 220K
'57.23
AM
.002
M 1
1002
.002
M
Ti
1 4-32-20LFD
= 150
R.07.5V
OFF' T
EXTERNAL SIA
WHIP
ANTENNA
(24 MC.)
L4
(144MC) Le
3A5
rÒ 0 0°v5
Tc 001
100
DP MODULATED
3A4 (72 MC.)
LS
100
li
0.25
OMG.
OFF OT OFFORÓ "T OF}a
o. 25 SI 13 S1D SICS1c
4.7n 001-÷- 4- WIRE CABLE

0.5 C
BI-07.5Y. -4.3 *e7.3 - .5 + .5 I

+4.5 jj VOLTS
-e7.s
Figure 24
SCHEMATIC, "HANDIE- TALKIE" FOR 2 METERS
Coil data is given in Figure 26.
C, -11 pN/d. "butterfly ". Johnson 3MB11
S,A- B- C -D -E -5
pole, three position rotary switch. Centralab PA -2015
T, -100 ohms to grid. Triad A -1X
T2-5 K pri., 6.7 K and 4 ohm sec. Triad M -4Z
F,- Telephone -type carbon microphone.
through which the transmitter tuning slugs FIGURE 26-COIL TABLE FOR "HANDIE-TALKIE"
may be adjusted. These holes are closed with
L1 -5 TURNS N 1e E. (SEE TEXT)
snap -in hole plugs after adjustments are com-
pleted. L2 -2 TURNS N22 INSULATED WIRE COUPLED
TO GRID END Of COIL L3.
A general view of the transmitter chassis LS -S TURNS N 1e E.. 3/6 -INCH DIAMETER,
may be seen in figures 25, 27, and 28. Notice 1/2 -INCH LONG. AIR WOUND.
that a small shield passes across the r -f stage L4- 20 TURNS N 26 E., 1/2 -INCH DIAMETER,
tube socket, and pin 3 of the socket is ground- 1/2 -INCH LONG. TAP
a TURNS FROM GRID END.
RESONATES IN CIRCUIT AT 24 MC.
ed to the shield. The shield isolates coil L.
from tuning capacitor C. which is placed di- LS -7 TURNS N 1e E., 3/e -INCH DIAMETER,
1/2-IN. LONG. RESONATES IN CIRCUIT AT 72 MC.
rectly below it. The two audio stages and
Le - S TURNS N16 E., 3/6-
INCH DIAMETER,
transformer T. mount at the end of the chassis. 1/2-IN. LONG. RESONATES IN CIRCUIT AT 144 MC.
The tubes mount parallel to the front panel
on a small aluminum angle bracket. Directly
below T. is the 5676 detector tube, also placed Transceiver Wiring techniques are extreme-
in a horizontal position. Wiring ly important when working on
The crystal socket, the transmitter coils, the VHF equipment that must be
two r -f tubes, and the "send- receive" switch compacted into a small space. It is recommend-
S. are mounted at the far end of the chassis. ed that a "pencil- type" soldering iron be used,
A small shield plate is placed between coils along with small gage wire whose insulation
L. and L to reduce interstage feedback. Output will not melt if it is overheated. All socket
transformer T, is located between the 3A4 grounds and filament wiring are completed
plate coil (L) and the audio tubes. first. Coils are wound and put into position.
The r -f stage coil L. is wound upon a slug - After the coupling capacitors and other r -f
tuned form made from a concentric trimmer componepts are mounted in place, the tubes
capacitor. The outer electrode of the capacitor are placed in the sockets and the tuned circuits
is removed, exposing the polystyrene form are adjusted to frequency. It may be necessary
upon which the coil may be wound. The inner to alter the number of turns on coils L., L, L,
slug of the capacitor serves as the tuning slug and L due to slight variances in circuit com-
of the coil. ponents and tube inter -electrode capacities.
Figure 25
VIEW OF
"WALKIE-TALKIE"
CHASSIS SHOWING
MAJOR
COMPONENTS
Oblique view of chassis
looking towards switch
SI. Output coil L. is in
foreground with 3AS
tube behind it. To right
of 3AS is 3A4 tripler
stage. Coils L. and L. are
behind 3A4. To right of
switch S, is receiver tun-
ing control C,. Shield
separates C, from coil
LI directly above it. R -f
amplifier tube 5687
mounts on vertical plate
supporting L,. Shield be-
low r -f tube isolates it
from detector compon-
ents below the chassis.
Audio tubes are at right,
with T,.
Figure 27
UNDER -CHASSIS
VIEW OF
WALKIE- TALKIE
SHOWING MAJOR
COMPONENTS
Chassis of transceiver is
specially bent to fit com-
ponents in smallest possi-
ble space. Oscillator coil
L. is at left separated
from tripler coil L. by
small shield. Output coil
L- is to rear. 5676 detec-
N
tor tube is at right rear,
flanked by 20 ..fd. filter
capacitor. Audio tubes t
are under chassis parti-
tion at right. Quench fil-
ter capacitors are to
right of coil L -.
These adjustments may be done quickly and ed for best reception after the transceiver is
easily with the aid of a grid dip oscillator. assembled and the whip antenna placed in the
After the r -f circuits are adjusted the rest of coaxial receptacle. However, it is possible to
the transceiver may be wired. Short, direct place a short piece of wire in the antenna re-
leads should be used in the r -f circuits and all ceptacle to pick up a test signal while the
wires should be routed in the shortest possible transceiver is dissembled on the bench. The
paths. coupling between L: and L should be adjusted
for best superregenerative action and sensi-
Transceiver After all wiring has been check- tivity .
Alignment ed, the tubes should be removed After the receiver is operating, the transmit-
from their sockets and the fila- ter should be energized. Tune the slug of coil
ment batteries connected to the unit. The fila- L. for reliable crystal operation. A grid dip
ment voltage at each tube socket should be oscillator held in the proximity of L. will serve
checked in all three operating positions of as a r -f indicator. Remove the plate voltage
switch S,. Make sure the second filament sec- from the grid dip oscillator for this test. Al-
tion of the 3Q4 (pin #7) is energized in the ternatively, oscillator operation may be moni-
"transmit" position of S,. The bias batteries tored in a nearby receiver tuned to the 24
and B -plus batteries may now be attached to Mc. overtone frequency of the crystal. The
the proper leads. Be sure of the correct battery 3A4 tripler stage may now be tuned for maxi-
polarity before inserting the tubes in the sock- mum output on 72 Mc. as indicated on the
ets. Test the "handie -talkie" for proper recep- grid dip oscillator. Finally, the grid dip oscilla-
tion first. The slug of coil L, should be adjust- tor (or wavemeter) is held in close proximity
Figure 28
TRANSCEIVER
CHASSIS BOLTED
TO PANEL OF
WALKIE- TALKIE
The chassis is held in
place by bolts passed
through frame of small
speaker. Modulation
transformer T. is visible
in foreground with Cen-
tralab "Couplate" at rear
of audio tube sockets.
Batteries occupy space
to left obove microphone.
Crystal socket is at far
right, which is "top" end
of transceiver.
to the 144 Mc. doubler plate coil, L. This relatively low power and the amateur having
coil is tuned for maximum output at 2 meters. modest power suffers no handicap if he has a
After this preliminary alignment is completed good antenna.
the chassis of the transceiver may be placed in The growth of mobile operation on the six
the case, along with the battery power pack. meter band has been rapid and the need has
arisen for a compact transceiver that will work
Final Experience with several of these well either in the car or at home. The unit
Alignment units has shown that maximum described in this section has been designed to
output is obtained with a whip meet this need.
antenna slightly longer than quarter wave- This compact transceiver operates in the 50-
length. The transmitter stages should be re- 54 Mc. range. It employs a stable, superhetero-
tuned for maximum field strength in a nearby dyne type receiver and a 10 watt transmitter.
wavemeter and different length whip antennas The transmitter may be either crystal con-
should be tried. The quarter wavelength whip trolled, or driven with an external variable
is nineteen inches long, but whip lengths up frequency oscillator. A 5 -watt audio system
to twenty -seven inches should be tried. In operates from a high impedance crystal micro-
general, whip lengths of twenty-four inches or phone and provides 100% modulation of the
so seem to produce best results with this little transmitter. In the receiver mode, the audio
transceiver. Input to the final stage of the system delivers sufficient power to drive an
3A5 is approximately 3i -watt under optimum external speaker well above the noise level
loading conditions. of the automobilé.
Small enough to fit comfortably under the
The operating range between two of these
dash of today's car, the transceiver delivers a
units varies from a thousand feet or so over well modulated signal at a total plate power
obstructed terrain to better than three miles
drain of 100 milliamperes at 250 volts po-
over smooth ground. Communication between
tential. Voltage regulation of the plate and fila-
the "handie -talkie" and a base station equipped
ment voltages of the receiver oscillator en-
with a sensitive receiver and a high gain beam
sures the maximum stability required for mo-
can be maintained over greater range.
bile work.
27 -6 Six Meter Transceiver A block diagram of the trans-
Transceiver Circuit ceiver is shown in figure 30.
for Home or Car Eleven tubes are employed, plus
a filament voltage regulator. Change-over
The six meter band has become extremely from receive to transmit is accomplished by a
popular within the past few years. The pin- push -to -talk circuit that operates two d-c re-
nacle of the sunspot cycle, combined with the lays from the microphone control button.
influx of new amateurs has brought life to The receiver employs a broad -band r-f stage
an otherwise neglected amateur band. Most and two i -f stages. The r -f stage uses a 6CB6
of the stations operating on this band employ television -type pentode with pre-tuned grid and
plate circuits. This stage is capacity coupled
to a second 6CB6 mixer operating with grid
injection. The variable frequency oscillator is
a third 6CB6 in a Tri -let configuration. The
oscillator circuit (L3 -G -C4) tunes the 17.0-
17.7 Mc. range. The plate circuit of this
Figure 29
DE -LUXE SIX METER TRANSCEIVER
FOR HOME OR CAR
Operating from a separate power package,
this compact transceiver is well suited for
the serious six meter operator. A 10 watt
crystal controlled transmitter and super-
heterodyne receiver are combined with a
dual purpose audio system in this small
cabinet. Receiver controls are at left and
transmitter controls at right. Meter serves
as S -meter and transmitter tuning indica-
tor. External VFO may be used with trans-
ceiver.
HANDBOOK 6 -Meter Trcnsceiver 553
stage is gang -tuned to the oscillator and covers Two stages of one megacycle i -f amplifi-
the third harmonic range of 51 -53 Mc. The cation are used for maximum gain. Five i -f
harmonic voltage is capacitively coupled to the transformers are used to narrow the "skin"
input grid circuit of the mixer stage. Series response of the i -f strip. A 12AL5 serves as
padding capacitors in the oscillator and tripler the detector, a -v -c rectifier, and automatic
stages permit close tracking over the tuning noise limiter. Filament voltage to the 12AL5
range. is reduced to 10.5 volts to provide better noise
An i -f channel of 1 Mc. is employed in this limiting action.
transceiver. When the oscillator is considered Two tubes are used in the audio system of
to be on the high frequency side of the received the transceiver. A 12AX7 dual triode serves
signal, the tuning range is 50 -52 Mc. When as a two stage resistance coupled speech am-
the oscillator is considered to be on the low plifier. Only one section of the 12AX7 is
frequency side of the received signal, the used for reception purposes. The dual triode
tuning range is 52 -54 Mc. The broad band r -f is capacity coupled to a 12AQ5 audio output
circuits of the receiver "front end" cover the stage. A tapped output transformer matches the
complete range of 50 -54 Mc. so that signals 12AQ5 to the r -f amplifier plate circuit of the
on either side of the injection frequency may transmitter section, and a low impedance wind-
be detected. This principle is sometimes re- ing on the transformer drives an external
ferred to as super -imposition tuning, wherein speaker for reception. The screen voltage of
the receiver is tuned to two frequencies simul- the 12AQ5 is reduced for receiving operation
taneously. For example, if the local oscillator to conserve power supply drain.
is tuned to 51 Mc., simultaneous reception of The transmitter section of the transceiver uses
signals on 50 Mc. and 52 Mc. is possible. two pentode tubes. The oscillator is a 6CL6
Since most amateur activity takes place in the in a "hot cathode" circuit employing 25 Mc.
lower one megacycle of the six meter band, overtone crystals. Switch S_ in the grid circuit
the chance of two signals appearing at one of the oscillator permits selection of an ex-
point of the dial that in reality are two mega- ternal variable frequency oscillator. The plate
cycles apart is remote. circuit of the oscillator (G -L) is tuned to the
Super -imposition tuning greatly simplifies 50 Mc. second harmonic of the crystal. A
the design of a VHF receiver. Double conver- switch (Si) in the oscillator screen circuit
sion is not required, and the local oscillator permits the operator to turn on the oscillator
need tune only a relatively narrow frequency stage during reception for "zero -beat" or fre-
range. Saving, in parts and circuit complexity, quency marking purposes. The oscillator is in-
is obvious. ductively coupled to a 5763 r -f amplifier
DET..A-N-L
%R2
VOLUME
RY2A AUDIO AUDIO SPEAKER
MOD GAIN
RI ADJ. RS
50 MC. ANT OSC.. MULI. I
(51-55MC ) I
S -METER
MICROPHONE
AND PUSH- TO-
J TALK SWITCH
RYIA 1 RY2c
REGULATOR _1_ -d-
1- RY2eL _ _J
I
OSC R -F AMP
(SOW.)
xTAL
S2
P
VF O
1
I I
___-6-
T--
I
RY1B B. 25G
Figure 30
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 10 WATT SIX METER TRANSCEIVER
RY, The stage is tuned for maximum reading of
0
ANTENNA
TO
TO
TRANSMITTER OUTPUT CIRCUIT
J (ANNA
TEN )
the voltmeter.
CHANGEOVER A two pole, four position rotary switch (Ss)
TO RECEIVER INPUT
serves to place the 0 -1 d -c milliammeter across
TO 5763 SCREEN CIRCUIT the appropriate circuits in the transceiver. In
5763 SCREEN
yo- --- TO RY2- SECTION C position 1 (M6) the meter serves as a 0 -500
CONTROL -o OVEN volt meter measuring the transceiver plate
voltage. Position 2 (M3) converts the meter
1
OPEN into a 0 -10 d -c milliammeter measuring power
SPEAKER TO SPEAKER CIRCUIT amplifier grid current. Position 3 (M4) moni-
CONTROL
N TO Ti SECONDARY
tors the r -f voltmeter output, and position 4
(M1, Mr) places the meter in the a-v -c con-
w RY2 trolled B -plus line of the receiver where it
AUDIO
CONTROL
U.-+
W
T
TO
TO
TO
GAIN CONTROL, R3
GRID, 124,57
VOLUME CONTROL, Ra
serves as a signal strength meter.
Under normal driving and charging condi-
tions, the voltage of the standard "12 volt"
battery can vary from 11 volts to 14.5 volts.
V
12A0S SCREEN
moo--. TO 12AQS SCREEN
B+ 250 This fluctuation can raise havoc with the re-
CONTROL TO 47K RESISTOR ceiver oscillator stability. It is annoying, to
say the least, to have the receiver calibration
© 64- TO eue, PV' SECTION B change with variations of car speed and gen-
B +CONTROL T0 6+ 250 erator voltage. To eliminate this effect, an
T 6+ TO RECEIVER Amperite ballast tube (R4) is placed in series
with the filament circuit of the 6CB6 receiver
oscillator tube. This current sensitive device
compensates for voltage changes in the fila-
ment circuit, holding the voltage at the fila-
+ ment terminals of the oscillator tube within
a few percent of a nominal 6.3 volts.
(SEE FIGURE 32) The six volt tubes of the receiver are con-
nected in series parallel for operation across
Figure 31 the 12 -volt power supply. A compensating re-
RELAY AND METER CIRCUITS sistor is required across the filament of the
Relays are shown in unenergized position.
5763 to equalize the current drain with that
of the 6CL6 oscillator.
stage, which is plate modulated by the 12AQ5 Transceiver Layout Figures 29, 33, and 34
audio amplifier. The r -f amplifier is bridge and Assembly provide a general lay-
neutralized by capacitor C1. for greatest sta- out of the transceiver.
bility at the operating frequency range. The The unit is built upon an aluminum chassis
plate circuit of the 5763 is pi- coupled to a measuring 9" x 7" x 11/2" in size. This assem-
52- or 72 -ohm external load. bly fits within a steel wrap- around type cab-
Transfer from reception to transmission is inet 4 % " high, and approximately the same
accomplished by means of two d -c relays ac- length and depth. The cabinet is formed of
tuated by a push -to -talk switch in the micro- perforated metal to ensure proper ventilation
phone. The six volt relay coils are connected while at the same time reducing spurious radi-
in series for twelve volt operation. Relay ation to a minimum.
change -over operation is shown in figure 31. Viewed from the top rear (figure 33), the
Relay RY-1 actuates antenna changeover, receiver portion of the unit occupies the right
screen control, and speaker control circuits. half of the chassis and the transmitter and
Relay RY -2 actuates audio control, 12AQ5 modulator occupy the left half. The external
screen control, and B -plus control circuits. plugs and receptacles are mounted on the
Both relays are shown in "receive" position in rear apron of the chassis as is the modulation
figures 31 and 32. gain control, R4. These components project
Proper tuning of the r -f amplifier is ac- through a cut -out in the rear of the steel en-
complished by a simple crystal diode voltmeter closure. All the ceramic variable capacitors that
(1N38A) connected in the antenna circuit. serve as circuit adjustment trimmers are flush
HANDBOOK 6 -Meter Transceiver 555
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mounted to the chassis and may be tuned ing to the data of figure 35 before wiring is
from the top of the unit, with the exception started.
of the receiver oscillator trimmer C. which is The majority of components are installed
mounted below chassis to conserve space. between the socket pins of the various tubes
Below the chassis, a small aluminum shield and five large phenolic terminal strips. One of
measuring 1W' long and 1)1" high is positioned these strips (previously mentioned) is placed
between the oscillator output coil L. and the between the two transfer relays. A four term-
receiver r -f amplifier plate coil L. This is the inal and a six terminal tie-point strip are
only interstage shield required in the trans- mounted in line running parallel to the i -f
ceiver. The two transfer relays RY -1 and RY -2 tube sockets of the receiver, towards the chas-
are mounted in the under -chassis area be- sis-edge side of the sockets. The i -f stage com-
neath the modulation transformer T, Between ponents mount between these tie -points and
the relays is placed an 8-terminal phenolic the pins of the 6BJ6 and 12AL5 tube sockets.
mounting strip. To the side of this strip is A fourth terminal strip (8 tie-points) is par-
placed the midget S -meter potentiometer R.. allel to and directly beside the edge of the
All sockets and trimming capacitors are mount- chassis adjacent to the r-f tube sockets of the
ed in place using 4 -40 hardware with solder- receiver. The smaller components of the r-f
ing lugs placed beneath the nuts in various section mount between this strip and the pins
convenient locations. of the 6CB6 sockets.
Transceiver The wiring of the unit is quite The r-f coils of the receiver section (L., L.,
Wiring simple if done in the proper L., and L.) are mounted directly to the ceramic
sequence. The underchassis area trimming capacitors associated with each coil.
contains many small components but these need The interstage coupling coils (L6 and L) of
not be crowded, provided proper care is taken the transmitter section are mounted to their
in the layout and installation of parts. Be sure respective trimming capacitors and may be
the i -f transformers have been modified accord- seen in the center of the chassis in figure 34.
Figure 33
REAR VIEW OF
SIX METER
TRANSCEIVER
CHASSIS
Receiver section of unit
is at right with trimmer
capacitors seen on chas-
sis deck. Center section
of three gang variable
capacitor is unused.
Transmitter output con-
trols are located at up-
per left. Filament volt-
age regulator tube is
at rear of chassis, just
above modulation level
control potentiometer.
5763 amplifier tube is
behind modulation trans-
former, with shielded
6CL6 tube to right. l -f
strip runs along center
of chassis. Antenna and
speaker plugs and power
receptacle are along rear
lip of chassis. Receiver
audio control is at upper
right of front panel.
Frir
6t-
¡ .
.6
HANDBOOK 6 -Meter Transceiver 557
After all major components have been FIGURE 35

mounted to the chassis the various socket COIL TABLE FOR SIX METER TRANSCEIVER
ground connections should be made, followed L1, L2,L4- 6TURNS N16E.. 3/6^ DIAM., 1/2^ LONG
by the filament wiring. The speech amplifier L3 -7 TURNS N16 E., 1/2^ DIAM., 1/2^ LONG.
(81w COIL STOCK
should be wired next, taking care to place
LS, Le- 10 TURNS N22 E., 5/16` DIAM., 5/16 LONG.
small components directly between socket ADJUST SPACING BETWEEN COILS FOR MAXI-
pins to conserve space. All the small compon- MUM GRID DRIVE. COILS MOUNT END TO END.
ents of the i -f system can be mounted above L7-6 TURNS N' 16 E., 1/2^ DIAM.. 5 /C^ LONG. AIRWOUND.
the tube sockets, and in the space between the T1,Ts- REPLACE 100 LLFD PADDING CAPACITORS
WITH 200L11FD CAPACITORS TO RESONATE
sockets and the tie-point strips. The power WINDINGS TO MC.
1
leads from the wired sections of the transceiver

should now be run to the two relays.
The next step is to complete the receiver A power supply capable of delivering 250
wiring. Shielded leads are run to the volume volts at 100 milliamperes and 12.6 volts at
control R2 mounted in the upper-left hand 3 amperes is required to test the transceiver.
corner of the receiver panel (as viewed from A 4 -ohm loudspeaker is also required. The
the front) . The S -meter wiring circuit should receiver is energized and the important voltage
be completed as the final wiring step. Note points are checked with a high resistance volt-
that the case of potentiometer R, is "hot" and meter and should comply closely with the
should be insulated from the chassis with fibre values of figure 32. When the receiver section
bushings. is determined to be in operational order, a
tone modulated 1 megacycle signal should
Receiver The receiver may be tested be- be loosely coupled to the plate circuit of the
Check -out fore the transmitter wiring is 6CB6 mixer tube (pin 5) and the slug cores
done. Relays RY -1 and RY -2 of all i -f transformers tuned for maximum
are in an unenergized position during recep- audio signal. As the stages are bought into
tion. Examine both relays to make sure that resonance, the input signal to the mixer tube
the back contacts (normally closed) are in should be reduced to prevent over -excitation
good operating condition. of the stages.
Figure 34
UNDER -CHASSIS
VIEW OF
TRANSCEIVER
Changeover relays are
located at the left edge
of the chassis. The i -f
amplifier runs down the
center of the chassis,
with the receiver r -f
stages to the right.
Transmitter stages are
located between front re-
lay and i -f strip. Audio
stages are placed along
rear of chassis. Small
components are mounted
between socket pins and
adjacent phenolic termi-
nal strips.
Note: filament circuit is
designed for d.c. opera-
tion. If a.c. filament op-
eration is desired, high
resistance relay coils op-
erated from the high
voltage supply should be
employed.
The next step is to check the tuning range chassis should be made of coaxial cable, as
of the high frequency oscillator, which should should the lead from relay RY -1 to the an-
be 17.0 -17.7 Mc. The range may be checked tenna receptacle J.. In addition, the lead from
with an accurately calibrated receiver or fre- the receiver antenna input circuit to relay RY -1
quency meter. The fixed trimming capacitor should be shielded.
determines the overall frequency span of the The majority of small components of both
oscillator, and padding capacitor C. determines the oscillator and amplifier stages may be
the range setting. Padding capacitor C. is ad- mounted by their leads between socket pins
justed so that 17.0 Mc. occurs when the main and a nearby 5- terminal phenolic tie-point
tuning dial is set to five degrees, allowing a strip. The plate coil L; of the 5763 amplifier
slight amount of 'overlap" at the band edges. stage is mounted above chassis, directly be-
As the main tuning capacitor setting is de- hind amplifier tuning capacitors G. and Cu.
creased the oscillator will tune to 17.7 Mc. Small National Co. polystyrene feed through
If it is desired to widen or diminish the tuning bushings are used to support the coil. Neutral-
range, the value of the series capacitor may be izing capacitor C. is soldered to a rotor termi-
changed slightly. Once the proper oscillator nal of plate tuning capacitor Cu. The lead
range has been established, the tripler circuit from C. to the "cold" end of L passes through
should be adjusted to track with it. The main a % -inch hole drilled in the chassis. To insure
tuning capacitor should be set to 17.7 Mc. and a good ground return, the rotors of C.. and
padding capacitor G adjusted so that the tuned C. are connected to the chassis with a short,
circuit resonates at 53 Mc., as checked with a heavy copper strap.
grid dip oscillator. The main tuning dial is The final step is to complete the wiring to
then reset to place the oscillator on 17.0 Mc.; the meter switch and the relays as outlined in
trimming capacitor C, is adjusted so that the figure 31. When this is completed, all the
tripler circuit resonates at 51 Mc. Once the transceiver wiring should be completely check-
two circuits have been brought into rough ed and the chassis thoroughly cleaned of loose
alignment they may be placed on the nose" bits of solder, wire, etc.
by adjusting C, and G for constant grid cur-
rent in the mixer stage across the tuning Transmitter It is necessary to close both re-
range. Temporarily unsolder the grounded ter- Adjustment lays to test the transmitter op-
minal of the 0.1- megohm grid resistor of the eration. For the time being,
6CB6 mixer tube (pin 1) and place a 0 -100 they may be wedged close with a bit of match-
micro -ammeter in series with the resistor to stick if a 12 -volt d -c supply is not readily
ground. Adjust CT at the high frequency end available. A 25 Mc. crystal should be plugged
of the tuning dial and G at the low frequency in the panel holder and switch S: set to the
end until the rectified grid current is relatively XTAL position. Switch S. is set to OSC posi-
constant across the band. Under proper oper- tion, and the lead from the screen circuit of
ating conditions, the reading should be about the 5763 amplifier tube to the contact of re-
15 microamperes. lay RY1 -B is temporarily opened, removing
The last step is to align the tuned circuits screen voltage from the r -f amplifier. Filament
of the r-f stage. These are relatively broad band and plate voltage is applied to the transceiver
and need only be peaked over the usual fre- and capacitor G is tuned for oscillation of the
quency range of operation. For most purposes crystal. The meter of the transceiver is switched
they should be resonated at 50.5 Mc. for opti- to the GRID (MO) position and capacitor G
mum operation at the low frequency end of adjusted for maximum grid current. A reading
the band. Signals above 52 Mc. will be slightly of half -scale should be obtained. The coupling
attenuated by this adjustment. If operation at between L and L can be varied slightly to
the high frequency end of the six meter band obtain the proper reading.
is desired, the circuits should be peaked at 53 The dummy antenna ( figure 32) is next
Mc. with a consequent slight reduction of per- plugged into antenna receptacle J. and loading
formance in the 50 Mc. region. capacitor C. set at full capacity. The plate cir-
cuit of the amplifier stage should be resonated
Completion of the Once the receiver is at 50 Mc. with the aid of a grid dip oscillator
Transmitter Section judged to be in good coupled to coil L. The turns of L. should be
operating condition, at- adjusted so resonance occurs at half -capacity
tention should be turned to the transmitter. setting of tuning capacitor C... After this pre-
The lead from the XTAL -VFO switch S7 to liminary adjustment has been made, capacitor
the v -f -o input receptacle J2 on the rear of the Cu should be tuned through its range while
HANDBOOK 28 -Mc. Transceiver 559
carefully noting the grid current of the ampli- All r -f adjustments should be carried out with
fier. Unless neutralizing capacitor G. has been the purpose of cbtaining maximum reading on
correctly set by a lucky accident, the grid cur- the output meter of the transmitter under a
rent reading will show an abrupt kick as ca- given set of antenna conditions. Under these
pacitor C. is tuned through resonance. The conditions, maximum transceiver plate current
setting of the neutralizing capacitor should be is 100 milliamperes at a plate potential of
slowly varied so as to minimize the kick of 250 volts.
grid current. After change of setting of Ceo,
The Meter A final word should be said
grid tuning capacitor Co should be retuned for
Circuit about the metering circuit of the
maximum grid current. An adjustment of G.
will soon be found that will reduce the grid transceiver. The particular meter
current variation to an imperceptible kick of used has a d -c resistance of 100 ohms, and a
the meter. When this point is found, the rotor full scale reading of one milliampere. In order
of G. should be fastened in place with a drop to simplify the problem of obtaining meter
of nail polish and the screen lead to RY -1 shunts, the meter is converted into a 0 -1 volt-
should be resoldered. meter by adding a 900 ohm resistor in series
with the meter in the grid current position
Switch S. is now set to the transmit posi- (Ms). The meter is placed across a 1000 ohm
tion and power is again applied to the trans- shunt in this position. Since the resistance of
mitter. The meter switch is placed in the OUT- the meter circuit and the shunt are equal, one -
PUT (M,) position, and plate tuning capaci- half the grid current flows through the meter,
tor C. adjusted for maximum meter reading. and one -half through the shunt. Thus, when
At the same time, the bulbs of the dummy an-
the meter reads full scale (one milliampere),
tenna should glow. Capacitors C.. and C. are two milliamperes of grid current are flowing
touched up for maximum indication of the in the grid return circuit.
meter.
When the meter is switched to S-METER
In order to test the modulator section of the position (M., M2) of switch S3, the meter is
transmitter when using an a -c filament supply, placed in a bridge circuit, the variable leg of
it is necessary to disconnect the push -to -talk which is the internal resistance of the a -v -c
circuit at pin #2 of the microphone plug; controlled, i -f amplifier tube. The bridge is
otherwise there will be a loud hum on the balanced by proper setting of R,; meter sensi-
audio signal. When this is done, the micro- tivity is set by the value of the series resistor
phone may be plugged into the jack and the (2.2K) . Dropping the value of this resistance
gain control (R3) advanced. The dummy an- will increase the sensitivity of the meter.
tenna should increase in brilliance under pro- When S. is set to the VOLTS position, the
per modulation. If the coupling to the dummy meter is placed in series with a 500 K resistor
load is too tight downward modulation will (Ms) and is converted into a 0 -500 volt meter
result, and the bulb brilliance will drop. The to check the operating potential of the plate
capacity of loading capacitor C. should be in- supply.
creased, dropping the degree of loading.
The transmitter is designed to operate into 27 -7 A "Hot"
a coaxial transmission line having an imped- Transceiver
ance value between 50 and 75 ohms. When a for 28 Megacycles
high value of standing wave ratio exists on
the line the impedance presented to the pi- This little transceiver is vivid proof that
network amplifier may be of such magnitude DX can be easily worked on the 10 meter
as to preclude the possibility of a proper band. During a test period of two weeks, using
match. It is permissible to add a second mica a dipole antenna, over 80 foreign phone con-
capacitor in parallel with loading capacitor C. tacts were made in four continents, including
to extend the operating range of the pi -net- three contacts with India. Power input to the
work. If more than 50 µµfd. has to be added, transmitter section of the unit was under 10
the SWR ratio should either be lowered by watts. Admittedly, such DX is not a daily
proper adjustments to the antenna, or the feature with such low power, but it does
length of the transmission line between the prove that a few watts into a well situated an-
transciver and antenna should be altered in tenna can work wonders on the 28 megacycle
order to present a more reasonable load to band.
the amplifier circuit. Maximum carrier power The 28 -10 transceiver (28 megacycles, 10
output when properly tuned is about 41/2 watts. watts) is designed to operate over the range
Figure 36
TEN METER TRANSCEIVER HAS
SIMPLE CONTROL PANEL
Used with a dipole antenna, this 10 watt
28 Mc. transceiver has made three contacts
with India. Main tuning dial of receiver is
at center with send -receive switch below it.
At upper right is combination 5 -meter and
transmitter tuning indicator. Transmitter
tuning controls are at left with "push -to-
zero" switch near receiver tuning dial.
Unit features self- contained power supply
for 115 volt operation.
Transceiver A block diagram of the trans-

Circuit ceiver is shown in figure 37.
Change -over from receive to
transmit is accomplished by a ceramic rotary
switch, SI. The receiver employs one r -f stage
and two i -f stages for optimum selectivity and
of 28.0 -29.7 Mc. The receiver portion em- sensitivity. The r -f stage employs a low drain
ploys five tubes in a single conversion cir- 6BJ6 remote cut -off pentode with tuned grid
cuit. Two tubes do double duty as the audio and tuned plate circuits. The plate of the r -f
section for reception and the modulator for tube is shunt fed through a 10 K composition
transmission. Four tubes are used in the r -f resistor and the tuned circuit is placed in the
section, making a total of eleven tubes plus a low potential grid circuit of the next stage. A
voltage regulator. A voltage doubler selenium 6U8 is employed here as a combined mixer
rectifier supplies plate voltage for the complete and oscillator. Grid circuit injection is used.
transceiver. The whole unit weighs less than The triode section of the 6U8 serves as the
eleven pounds so it is readily transportable, local oscillator, tuning from 26.5 -28.2 Mc. for
even by air. The power source is 115 volts, 10 meter coverage. A three section variable
50 -60 cycles, a -c. capacitor C1A -B -C simultaneously tunes the
R.F. AMP. MI%ER.OSC. I F I F. DETECTOR.
(2 a MC- ) SMC ) (J.SMC. )
RI
VOLUME
_6_
SIA
AMTR V-F-O DOUBLER RF AM P RF
(7.0-725MC.) (28 MC. ) INDICATOR
L -J
--1 7,'S, 51B
MIKE
SID
AUDIO AUDIO'
Jn
PHONES
REGULATOR
51E
_J
Figure 37
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TEN METER TRANSCEIVER
r -f, mixer, and oscillator stages. Series padding is a simple pi- network designed to match loads
in the r-f and mixer circuits is employed for of 50 to 75 ohms. The external antenna is
good tracking across the band. switched between the transmitter and the re-
An i -f channel of 1.5 Mc. is used in this ceiver by means of switch segment S1A. A
unit. This particular frequency was chosen to separate section of the transfer switch (SIB)
eliminate the troublesome "image" problem, removes plate voltage from the 6AQ5 r.f.
so prevalent on the 10 meter band when the
usual 455 kc. i -f channel is employed. Selec- amplifier stage and applies an audio load to the
tivity suffers a bit when the higher frequency modulator during reception. This auxiliary
channel is used, but a total of eight tuned loading prevents audio feedback when the
circuits (four transformers) provide an ac- headphones are removed from the jack J :, and
ceptable passband for voice reception. A 6AL5 permits the use of headphones of any imped-
double diode serves as the detector, a -v -c rec- ance to be used without the danger of spurious
tifier, and automatic noise limiter. The a -n -1 feedback. The overall gain of the audio sys-
is left in the circuit at all times. tem is quite high and it is built in a small
space. As a result, it does not have the reserve
The audio section of the 28 -10 uses two
of stability that would normally be expected.
tubes. A 6BJ6 serves as a resistance coupled
The switching system, too, tends to create
pentode voltage amplifier which is coupled to
small feedback loops that must be carefully
a 6AQ5 power amplifier. A tapped output
controlled. The chief cause of audio instability
transformer matches the 6AQ5 to the r -f am-
(or feedback) in this case is due to the close
plifier plate circuit of the transmitter section, proximity of transformers T6 and T. above the
and a low impedance winding on the trans-
chassis. Feedback can be reduced or enhanced
former matches the audio system to external
by reversing the polarity of the secondary
earphones or speaker. The input circuit of the
winding of Ti. The additional audio filtering
6BJ6 forms an R -C dividing network isolating
shown in the schematic of figure 38 reduced
the microphone input from the audio output
this tendency to a minimum. As a final pre-
circuit of the receiver. No switching is required
caution, a small shield (cut from a segment of
in this circuit.
tin can) was soldered to the top of the core
The transceiver is designed to be used with of Ts. The shield projected downwards over
a low impedance carbon microphone. Voltage the windings of the transformer, as seen in
for microphone operation is taken from a tap Figure 39. A more expensive solution would
on the cathode circuit of the 6AQ5 amplifier have been to employ a shielded transformer in
stage. This circuit is broken by switch SID this portion of the circuit. A similar shield is
during reception. At the same time, switch sec- soldered to the core of the filament transform-
tion SIE connects the earphone circuit to the er to reduce hum pickup by the adjacent audio
low impedance winding on the output trans- transformers.
former T..
Three tubes plus a gas -type voltage regula- The a -c operated power supply employs two
tor and a diode r -f indicator are used in the "replacement type" selenium rectifiers in a
transmitter portion of the transceiver. A 6BJ6 voltage doubling circuit delivering 250 volts
serves as a "Tri -tet" oscillator covering the at 100 milliamperes. A small filament trans-
range of 7.0 -7.25 Mc. The plate circuit is slug- former (T :) provides 6.3 volts for the tubes
tuned to the 14 Mc. second harmonic. A and pilot lamp. This particular voltage doubler
switch (Si) in the plate circuit of the oscillator has the negative side of the high voltage in
permits the operator to turn on this stage for common with one side of the primary line.
"zero-beat" or frequency marking purposes. As a result, there is a fifty -fifty chance that
The oscillator is capacitively coupled to a the chassis of the transceiver will be "above
6AQ5 doubler stage whose plate circuit is ground" by the amount of the line voltage,
tuned to the 28 Mc. region. Switch segment which in this case is 115 volts. This can be a
SIC removes the plate voltage from this stage lethal situation if permitted to exist. A prac-
during reception and applies it to the r-f sec- tical solution is to remove the "ground" side
tion of the receiver. The plate circuit of the of the transmitter power cable from the usual
6AQ5 doubler stage is capacitively coupled two wire line, and connect it directly to the
to a second 6AQ5 serving as the modulated external ground, as shown in figure 41. This
amplifier. This latter stage is bridge neutralized ensures that the chassis of the transceiver is at
by capacitor G for stability at the operating ground potential. The "hot" side of the line
frequency. The plate circuit of the amplifier returns to one pin of the line plug. If the plug
" fl
4I Y
O
iwuva U
1-- f000001 ri(-iU
O U n
Q o
°0 N
p
° I.
FIGURE 388 simple and foolproof system of protection and

COIL TABLE, 10 METER TRANSCEIVER permits the use of the inexpensive and light
L1- ANTENNA: 2 TURNS N 16 INSULATED WIRE
weight selenium supply. The only other prac-
AROUND "COLD" END OF Li. GRID: 14 TURNS tical alternative is to employ a power trans-
N18E.,1 /4" DIAM., 1/2 LONG. J W. MILLER 1447 -F
former which will add excessive weight and
L2- 13 TURNS N 18 E., SAME AS L,
L3 -7 TURNS N to E., SAME AS L1, TAP AT 3TURNS
bulk to the package.
FROM GROUND END.
Because this hazard exists with any radio
L4- 13TURNS N IRE., 3/4- DIAMETER, 1/2"
NATIONAL .rR -62 FORM.
LONG. equipment of the so- called ac -dc type, many
LS- J.W. MILLER FORM 1447 -F, 1/4" DIAM., 1/2"
of the newer buildings are being wired with
LONG CLOSEWOUND WITH N
26 E. FULL LENGTH polarized power receptacles having a separate
OF SPACE.
grounding pin. The use of this new wiring
LE- 14 TURNS N 16 E., SAME AS L
technique will help to reduce the inherent
N 1 6 /
3 II "shock potential" of the practical and efficient
half -wave rectifier systems, of which this is an
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
TUBE
example.
PLATE SCREEN CATHODE
68.1E R -F 160 130 2.5 Transceiver Layout The component place -
eue
MAI
MIX.
OSC.
I-F'S
210
100
185
-
185
140
-
7
3
and Assembly ment may be seen in
figures 39 and 40. The
SACS
260 260
TX -12.5 28 -10 transceiver is built upon an aluminum
AUDIO RX - 17
chassis measuring 11" x 81/2" x 2" in size,
and fits within a steel wrap-around type cabi-
net 53/4" high. The cabinet is formed of per-
is inserted in a wall socket incorrectly nothing forated metal to ensure proper ventilation. Ra-
will happen. The transceiver simply refuses to diation of harmonics from the assembly is re-
function, and no dangerous situation is created. duced to a minimum with this type of en-
Simply reversing the plug will energize the closure.
circuit, with no danger to the operator. The Layout of the major components above the
dual power lead connection, therefore, is a chassis may be seen in figure 39. The receiver
11`
Figure 39
REAR VIEW OF
TRANSCEIVER
CHASSIS
Tuning capacitor of vari-
able frequency oscillator
is in foreground of photo,
panel driven by an ex-
tension shaft. To the left
of the capacitor is the
adjustable slug core of
the oscillator coil. Along
rear edge of the chassis
are the selenium rectifi-
ers, the filament trans-
former and the high volt-
age filter capacitor.
Transmitter tubes are at
right of chassis, with am-
plifier tube next to
panel. At far right is
voltage regulator tube.
Audio section is at up-
per left with 9006 diode
rectifier in front of the
input audio transformer.
l -f amplifier is at center
chassis, parallel to front
panel.
section of the unit occupies the center section The transmitter oscillator coil L. is placed at
of the chassis with the power supply directly the left rear corner of the chassis. The adjust-
behind it. To the right is the transmitter sec- able slug of this coil is visible in figure 39
tion with the variable frequency oscillator at between the selenium rectifiers and tuning ca-
the rear. Panel control of the oscillator is ac- pacitor G.
complished by an extension shaft and a flexi- To facilitate wiring, four phenolic tie-point
ble coupling. At the left of the chassis is the terminal strips (six lug type) are placed be-
audio system. neath the chassis. One is located parallel to
Placement of the main tuning dial is dic- the edge, just to the left of the 6AQ5 buffer
tated by the height of the three -gang tuning tube socket. A second is placed parallel to the
capacitor shaft above the chassis deck. In this first, to the right of the same socket. The latter
case, it is necessary to cut a small notch in the strip is used for connections to the r -f circuitry
soft aluminum chassis to permit the dial drive of the receiver section. The third strip is placed
assembly to drop low enough to permit the dial parallel to the rear of the chassis just in front
shaft to align with the capacitor tuning shaft. of the i -f strip and is used for i -f connections.
No interstage shields are required below The last strip is located between the 6AL5 tube
the chassis. Filter choke CH1 mounts at the socket and the main filter capacitor. The noise
rear of the chassis, directly below filament limiter and a -v -c components are mounted to
transformer T7. The 100 µpfd. filter capacitor this strip.
mounts to the left wall of the chassis below To secure maximum stability it is necessary
and to the left of v -f -o tuning capacitor G. to firmly mount the oscillator tuning capacity
The three slug -tuned coils of the receiver may to the chassis. An aluminum block measuring
be seen in the photograph. Coil L, is located 15/8" x 1" was therefore cut from a section of
behind change-over switch S.. Coil L_ is to- 1/2 -inch aluminum stock and used as a support
wards the middle of the chassis, and adjacent block for capacitor C2. The capacitor is bolted
to the 10 pfd. audio decoupling capacitor. Coil to the chassis by long 6 -32 machine screws
L3 is to the left of L. and between the r -f tube which pass through the block and are firmly
and mixer tube sockets. bolted beneath the chassis.
Alb
litZi
Figure 40
UNDER -CHASSIS
VIEW OF
TEN METER
TRANSCEIVER
The transmitter com-
ponents are along the
left side of the chassis.
Receiver components are
at the center, with r -f
stage nearest the panel.
Filter choke is mounted
below chassis at rear.
Audio stage components
are grouped in upper
right corner of chassis.
See text for placement
of the smaller compon-
ents.
3-WIRE HOUSEHOLD
WIRING CIRCUIT tuning capacitor, and the tube sockets are made
"HOT. LEAD OF TRANSCEIVER
with # 16 tinned solid wire. In particular, care
POWER SUPPLY should be taken to prevent movement of the
GROUND" LEAD OF TRANS- leads and components in the oscillator section
CEIVER POWER SUPPLY as any minute vibration of this part of the
circuit would lead to receiver instability.
/ 5
Sufficient coupling exists between the wir-
ing of the oscillator and mixer circuits to pro-
Figure 41 vide the proper level of injection, and no
"GROUNDED NEUTRAL" coupling capacitor is required. The final wir-
WIRING SYSTEM ing step is to wind the antenna coil on form
Most dwellings have a three -wire grounded
neutral system. 115 volts a -c can be ob- L. One end is attached to a nearby socket
tained from either side of the system to ground lug and the other end goes to the
ground. Separate ground lead on trans-
ceiver is always connected before line plug "receive" contact of transfer switch SIA.
is energ.zed. This eliminates usual "ac -dc"
shock hazard.
When the receiver is completed, a 28.5 Mc.
may be injected into the antenna circuit and
the main tuning dial set near maximum ca-
Transceiver The sequence of wiring follows pacity. The slug of receiver oscillator coil L
Wiring much the same pattern as that is now adjusted until the signal is received near
of the six meter transceiver a dial setting of thirty degrees. After this,
described in section 27-6. Small components coil L. and coil L: are peaked for maximum
are installed between tube socket pins, or be- signal strength. Dial calibration should wait
tween socket pins and adjacent terminal strip until the transmitter section is completed.
lugs. Socket ground connections are made first
Completion of the The oscillator coil should
and then the filament wiring is completed. The Transmitter Section
power supply wiring can be done first. be wound and mounted
When the supply is completed it should be in position. The lead
from coil L. to tuning capacitor C2 is made of
tested. A 2500 ohm, 25 -watt resistor should
be attached between the output of the supply
# 14 solid copper and passes through a 3i -inch
hole in the chassis. All oscillator components
and ground. A full 250 volts should be devel-
are firmly mounted to reduce vibration to a
oped across this resistor with 115 volts a -c
applied to the power supply.
minimum. Coils Ls and L. are wound and
snapped into position as the buffer stage is
Next, the i -f and second detector section of
the receiver should be wired. Short, direct being wired. The p -a plate coil (L,) is mount-
ed above chassis between the 6ÁQ5 amplifier
leads and the use of the adjacent terminal
tube and the front panel. The plate (or "hot ")
strips will reduce crowding in this area. The
end of the coil is supported on a 1/2 -inch cer-
audio stages should now be wired, along with
amic insulator and the coil lead passes through
switch segments SIB, SID, and S1E. When
a 11 -inch hole in the chassis to the stator of
this is completed, the i -f section and audio of
the transceiver may be tested. A test speaker
tuning capacitor G, mounted directly below
the coil. The opposite end of coil L, is attached
should be connected to jack J3, and a 1.5 Mc.
to a polystyrene feed -through insulator. Neu-
tone modulated signal from a test oscillator is
tralizing capacitor G is affixed at one end to
loosely coupled to the plate pin ( #6) of the
a terminal of coil form L. The other end at-
6U8 socket. The top and bottom slugs of the
taches to the plate r -f choke, as shown in the
i -f transformers are now adjusted for maxi-
under -chassis photograph. The output lead
mum output signal. As the stages approach
from transfer switch SIA to the antenna re-
alignment, be sure to decouple the signal gen-
ceptacle on the rear of the chassis is made from
erator to prevent overloading.
a short length of coaxial cable. When the
After this portion of the transceiver has wiring is completed all connections should
been tested, the r -f circuits of the receiver
be checked and the chassis thoroughly cleaned
should be wired. Coils L., L, and L3 are wound
of solder bits, pieces of wire, flux, etc.
and the coil forms clipped in place. The front
section of tuning capacitor CIA is employed Transmitter The 6BJ6 oscillator tube should
for the grid circuit of the r -f stage, the middle Adjustment be placed in the socket, along
section is for the interstage r -f circuit, and the with the 0A2 voltage regulator.
rear section is for the oscillator section of the Transmitter frequency control capacitor C2 is
6U8 tube. Connections between the coils, the set near full setting and the slug of oscillator
566 Receivers and Transceivers
coil L. is adjusted so as to place the oscillator Transceiver The transmitter may now be
frequency on 7.1 Mc. The fourth harmonic of Operation attached to a suitable antenna
the oscillator will then be on 28.4 Mc. At or dummy load (see section
27 -6) for an operative check -out. Receiver
minimum tuning capacitor setting the upper
calibration should be rechecked, and the dial
frequency limit of the transmitter will be may be calibrated. The transfer switch should
slightly above 29.7 Mc. The 6AQ5 tubes are be set to the transmitting position and the
now placed in their sockets, and a 0.5 d -c mil - transceiver loaded into the antenna system. The
liammeier is temporarily connected across meter now indicates the r -f voltage rectified by
meter shunt R: in the grid circuit of the 6AQ5 the 9006 diode attached to the output of the
final amplifier stage. The screen lead (pin 6) pi- network system. Tuning (G) and loading
of the 6AQ5 amplifier tube is temporarily (G) should be adjusted to provide a maxi-
opened. Transfer switch S, is placed in the mum meter reading, with G always being set
last for the final "touch up" adjustment. Maxi-
"transmit" position and the v -f -o tuning ca-
mum capacity setting of C. provides minimum
pacitor G is set to 29 Mc. The transmitter is loading and vice- versa.
energized and the slugs of oscillator coil L. It may be necessary when working into low
and buffer coil L. are adjusted for maximum impedance loads, or transmission lines having
grid drive to the amplifier (about two milli- a high value of SWR to parallel loading ca-
amperes). Amplifier loading capacitor G is pacitor C. with an auxiliary 100 µµfd. mica
set at full capacity, and tuning capacitor G is capacitor to obtain optimum loading. This will
tuned through its range while carefully noting have to be determined by experiment.
the grid current reading. The reading will show A mobile carbon microphone may now be
an abrupt kick as G is tuned through reson- plugged into jack J.. An indication of the mod-
ance. Next, the setting of neutralizing capaci- ulation level can be obtained by noting the
tor G should be slowly varied by means of a increase in brilliance of the lamps of the dum-
fibre-blade screwdriver so as to minimize the my antenna. Overloading will tend to cause
kick of grid current. After each movement of downward modulation. The degree of modula-
G, the slug of coil L. should be reset for max- tion may be varied by moving the microphone
imum grid current. A setting of G can readily away from the lips. Using a telephone -type
be found that will provide a minimum value F -1 unit, optimum modulation occurs when
of grid current change as capacitor G is tuned speaking in a normal tone about three inches
through resonance. The last step is to resolder from the microphone. The transceiver output
the screen lead to pin 6 of the 6AQ5 amplifier is about six watts fully modulated with a power
tube socket. amplifier input of ten watts.
CHAPTER TWENTY -EIGHT
The exciter is the "heart" of the amateur his hobby, these and other units shown in later
transmitter. Various forms of amplifiers and chapters should offer interesting ideas which
power supplies may be used in conjunction might well fit in with the design of his basic
with basic exciters to form transmitters which transmitting equipment.
will suit almost any need. Of great interest As in the previous chapter, the component
today are simple SSB exciters for fixed and nomenclature and color codes outlined in fig-
mobile operation. These may be used "as -is" ures 1, 2, and 3 of chapter 27 are used in this
or with a small linear amplifier for mobile chapter unless otherwise noted.
work, or may be combined with a high power
linear amplifier for fixed station operation. 28 -1 SSB Exciter for
Also occupying a position of importance is
the "package" VHF station capable of opera-
Fixed or Mobile Use
tion on one or more of the VHF amateur The simplest and most economical method
bands. of generating a single sideband signal is to
Several different types of equipment de- employ a phasing -type transmitter of the form
signed to meet a wide range of needs are des- outlined in chapter 17 of this Handbook. If
cribed in this chapter. There are two different the r -f phasing system operates on the carrier
sidband exciters for fixed /mobile service and frequency of the transmitter the complex fre-
a de -luxe VHF station capable of outstanding quency conversion circuits may be omitted and
performance on two VHF amateur bands. Also the complete exciter becomes inexpensive to
shown is a high stability variable frequency build and simple to place in operation.
oscillator unit designed for operation in the A SSB exciter suitable for fixed or mobile
high frequency DX bands. To the amateur operation is shown in figures 1 and 4. The
who is interested in the construction phace of exciter delivers a 3 watt peak power signal,
567
568 Low Power Transmitters THE RADIO
sufficient to drive a high power tetrode linear BO M.

12AÚ7 a - 1 N8 1 6C'_6
amplifier to a kilowatt level. Operation is con- xTAL DIODE 3w 55B
MODULATOR SIGNAL
fined to the 80 meter band, although operation X
on the higher frequency bands is possible with
a change of coils, phasing network, and crystal.
=12AT7 6C4 12AU7

The r-f phasing circuits are balanced at some xTAL
IC. CATH
frequency within the amateur phone band and M
FOL.
will retain a good degree of balance over a
.
Rs
CATH
FOL.
frequency range of plus or minus fifty kilo- GAIN
CONTROL
cycles of the adjustment frequency.
Figure 2
Circuit The circuit of the single side - BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PHASING -TYPE
Description band exciter is shown in figures SIDEBAND EXCITER
2 and 3. A 12AU7 is employed Only five tubes are required in this simple
phasing -type sideband exciter. Audio system
as a crystal oscillator stage and buffer -amplifier. has sufficient gain to operate from crystal
microphone.
The first section of the double triode is used
in a Pierce oscillator circuit with the crystal
connected between the grid and plate of the ohms in the center of the 80 meter phone
tube. The oscillator operates directly on the band. Bridge balance and carrier elimination
chosen SSB frequency in the 80 meter band. is achieved by adjustment of the variable po-
The frequency of oscillation may be varied over tentiometers (Rd, Re, R50) in the bridge cir-
a range of two hundred cycles or so by the 50 cuit. Four selenium diodes are used in the
µµfd trimming capacitor permitting the trans- modulator circuit. A 1N82 multiple diode as-
mitter to be "zeroed in" on a particular SSB sembly may be employed, or four 1N81 diodes
channel. The second section of the 12AU7 whose front /back ratios are equal may be used.
serves as an isolation amplifier with the plate The output of the balanced modulator net-
circuit tuned to the operating frequency. work is coupled by a low impedance link to
Changes in the input impedance of the diode the grid circuit of a neutralized 6CL6 linear
modulator stage under operating conditions amplifier. This stage operates class AB1 with
would cause frequency shift of the oscillator cathode bias, delivering a 3 watt peak SSB
stage if direct coupling between these circuits signal to a low impedance load circuit. All
was used. The isolation afforded by the buffer circuits are tuned by adjustable slug-tuned
stage effectively prevents frequency pulling of coils (L, L2, and Li) .
the oscillator stage during modulation. A cascade 12AU7 and a 6C4 comprise the
The output of the buffer stage is link speech amplifier which may be driven from a
coupled to a simple 90° r -f phase shift net- crystal microphone. The output of the 6C4
work wherein the audio signal from the audio is transformer coupled into the audio phase
phasing amplifier is combined with the r -f shift network PS -1. An interstage transformer
signals. The network is of the R -C type made up is connected backwards for T2, providing a
of 50 ohm non -inductive resistors and 800 relatively low impedance secondary winding
wad. capacitors in a bridge configuration. The delivering two equal audio voltages that are
reactance of the capacitors is very close to 50 180° out of phase. These voltages are ap-
plied to the special audio network whose out-
put circuits drive separate triode sections of
the 12AU7 audio phasing amplifier. The
12AU7 tube functions as a dual cathode fol-
Figure 1
THE GLOVE COMPARTMENT

SIDEBAND EXCITER
This miniature phasing -type SSB exciter may
be mounted in the glove compartment of a
car with room to spare! Using only four tubes
the exciter delivers a 3 watt peak sideband
signal capable of driving a kilowatt tetrodo
amplifier to full output. The 12AU7 and
6CL6 r -f tubes are at the right end of the
chassis, along with the crystal. Major tuning
controls are on the right end of the chassis.
Entire unit is bolted to the roof of the glove
compartment.
HANDBOOK S.S.B. Exciter 569
lower which provides the necessary low im- by throwing carrier insertion switch S: to the
pedance required to match the r -f phasing net- right r.nd biasing the diode modulators by
work. means of carrier insertion control R,.
Sideband switching is accomplished by re- Power requirements for the transmitter are
versal of polarity of the audio channels by 300 volts at a current drain of 100 milliam-
switch S. The diode modulator may be un- peres, and 6.3 volts d -c at 1.85 amperes. When
balanced to pass a carrier for tune -up purposes the filaments are connected for 12.6 volt op-
12AU7 6CL6
OsC. AMP.
100
ADJUST
FREQUENCY
RFC RFC
.001
SIDE BAND
SELECTOR
SWITCH
O
S2
+
10LF
T 25K
P1 25 SSB 1117
CARRIER
RIER INSERTION
B+300 V
_La
CI"
01 133.3K 74R1-
iN
tom FIL.
1
FIL -t caT. 1 p.760.lC11

lO O N i
0.5 M
rt iI.
3
12AT7 G P 51 12AU7
CRYSTAL I AUDIO
PHASING
2 AMPLIFIER
J2 -
8+
0.5 500/M360 1 I
I
,Iÿ,I
1 L>CAGI
E,r.f
300 1
FILAMENT CONNECTIONS 6
LE _133:à_xkRiJ
6 VOLT 12 VOLT PS-1
12AU7 (SEE FIGURE 7 ) NOTE
Osc.
6CL6
AMP
* = MATCHED COMPONENTS (7 7e OR
LESS). EXACT VALUE CRITICAL
12 AUT ONLY IN THAT /T SHOULD MATCH
AUDIO THE MATING UNIT CLOSELY.
6CA
AUDIO
12AU7
AUDIO
TO PI TO P,
Figure 3
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF FIXED /MOBILE SSB EXCITER
C,, C,, C,, C -See figure 7
C, -10 pµfd variable ceramic, Centralab 827B.
R,, R:, R,, R.-See figure 7
R: 500K linear taper potentiometer
R., R -100 ohm potentiometer
R- -25K linear taper potentiometer
R., R1-1K potentiometer
PS -1 -Phase shift network package. See figure 7
L:, L, -See figure 8
T,- lnterstage audio transformer (1:3). Stoncor A -53C used backwards.
RFC- Miniature 2.5 mh. choke. Millen .1300 -2500
X -80 meter crystal (3800 - 4000 kc.)
PC -3turns o 18 e. wire around 50 ohm, 0.5 watt composition resistor.
D,- D. -1N81 diodes; see text.
570
! '
Low Power Transmitters
'
Figure 4
TOP VIEW OF SSB EXCITER
The top plate is removable for easy access to
internal wiring and adjustments. Microphone
jack and coaxial antenna receptacle are visi-
ble at left of chassis. Four control potentio-
THE RADIO
Figure 5
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF
EXCITER
SSB
meters are along bottom of box (see text).
Placement of the main components may be
seen in this inside view of the chassis. R -f
eration currcut the current drain is 1.25 am-
circuitry is at the left with home -made audio
phasing network at center, right. R -f modu-
peres. lator potentiometers and germanium diodes
in lower left area of the chassis with audio
Transmitter section at right. The 6CL6 linear amplifier
The transmitter is constructed plate coil is in the foreground of the center
Construction upon an aluminum box -chas- of the chassis.
and Wiring sis measuring 10" x 21/2" x
211" in size. Placement of in figure 7A. The mounting base may be thin
the major components may be seen in figure 5. phenolic or any insulating material. The base
The 80 meter crystal and 12AU7 oscilla- holds four precision resistors and four fixed
tor /buffer tube are positioned at the left end mica capacitors padded with four adjustable
of the chassis, and the 6CL6 linear amplifier mica trimmer capacitors. If desired, a series
is centered on the chassis. The balanced modu- of fixed capacitors may be measured on a
lator is mounted on a phenolic terminal board capacity bridge and hand picked units chosen
on the opposite side of the box. Oscillator tun- to replace the variable capacitors after final
ing controls are placed on the left side of the adjustments have been completed. This was
box -chassis, along with the sideband selector done with the network shown in the photo-
switch S1, the carrier insertion switch Sr, and graphs.
the audio gain control R.. Along the "bottom" The two 100 K series resistors used in the
of the chassis are placed (left to right) the network are Continental Nobeloy 1% tolerance
modulator balance potentiometers R., R., and precision resistors. The 133.3 K resistors, how-
R1. and the audio balance control R.. The car- ever, were made by taking two 150 K pre-
rier insertion potentiometer R, is mounted in- cision Continental Nobeloy resistors and paral-
side the chassis. The three audio stages are leling each of them with a one -half watt 1.2
mounted on the right-hand section of the megohm (plus or minus 10% tolerance) resis-
chassis. tor. Careful selection of the 1.2 M units per-
The components of the audio phasing net- mits close adjustment to the desired target
work PS -1 are mounted on a small phenolic value of 133.3 K. A convenient way to mount
terminal board that may be observed in the the 1.2 M resistors is to slip them inside the
lower right corner of the chassis. This network hollow body of the precision resistors. The
should be wired and tested before it is placed dashed connections should be omitted initially,
in the transmitter. since the alignment procedure described below
presumes that these connections will be made
The Audio The complete network at the proper time only.
Phasing Network may be purchased as a
finished item (Millen Adjustment of the Ifa manufactured net-
75012) or it may easily be home built if Audio Network work is employed no ad-
an audio oscillator and oscilloscope are avail- justments are required.
able for testing purposes. However, the home-made network must be
The circuit of the audio network is shown aligned before it is placed in the transmitter
chassis. The network resistors should bear the

ratio of 133.3 to 100.0, that is, 4 to 3 as close-
ly as can be determined. If in doubt as to the
ratio of the resistors you use, double-check
their values on an accurate bridge. The ad-
justment of the phase shift network now con-
sists only of setting the four capacitors to their
proper values.
An audio oscillator capable of operation SrANCOR 453-C
T1 ( 3 ) c +300 V.
from 225 to 2750 cycles per second (with
1
good waveform) is required, plus an oscillo- Figure 6

scope. The oscillator should be carefully cali- SIMPLE "VOX" CIRCUIT FOR ANY
brated by the method described later. Connect SSB EXCITER
the output of the audio oscillator through a Capacitor C and resistor R determine the "de-
lay time" of the voice operated relay circuit.
stepdown transformer (T will serve nicely) Operation point is set by potentiometer R.
Relay RY has a high resistance d.c. coil
to a 1 K potentiometer (use R1) with the arm (Automatic Electric Co. type R -45L with
grounded. 10,000 ohm coil may be used).
Adjust the arm position so that equal and
opposite voltages appear on each half of the justment) . Adjust the horizontal and vertical
potentiometer. A steady audio frequency signal gain controls of the oscilloscope to produce a
of any convenient frequency may be used with line about 11/2 inches long slanted at 45 de-
the oscilloscope acting as the voltmeter for grees when the oscillator is set to a frequency
this job. Swing the vertical deflection lead of of 490 c.p.s. (an exact method of setting fre-
the 'scope from one end of the potentiometer quency will be described later). If the oscillo-
to the other and adjust the arm to obtain equal scope has negligible internal phase shift the
voltages. Hook up a temporary double cathode display will be a straight line instead of a nar-
follower using a 12AT7 with 500 ohms from row slanting ellipse. If the latter display ap-
each cathode to ground and connect as shown pears, it is necessary to correct the oscilloscope
in figure 7B. (It will be convenient to pro- phase shift externally by using an adjustable
vide leads M, N, and 1 and 2 with clips at series resistance (a 100 K potentiometer)
the ends to facilitate checking). Cathode pins mounted at either the vertical or horizontal
8 and 3 of the 12AT7 should connect to the input terminal, depending on what correction
H and V deflection amplifiers in the oscillo- is necessary.
scope, and the oscilloscope "ground" connec- The objective here is to obtain a single
tion should be made to the common return of straight line pattern on the 'scope at an audio
the cathode follower amplifier. frequency of 490 c.p.s. In some cases a series
First connect lead M to terminal A on PS -1 capacitor may be needed in conjunction with
and lead N to terminal A'. Connect leads 1 the potentiometer to provide the necessary cor-
and 2 to terminal M. (Note that the dashed rection. Try values from .05 µfd to .0005 µfd.
connections are missing at this stage of ad- When the required slanted line is obtained,
PHASE SNIPT NETWORK PS -1
PHASE
SHIFT
NETWORK
PS -1
AUDIO OSCILLATOR
12ÁT7
TO VERTICAL DEFLECTION PLATE
TO HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION PLATE
ALL COMPONENTS 111R TOLERANCE
Figure 7
AUDIO PHASE -SHIFT NETWORK AND TEST LAYOUT
E, set the oscillator frequency to 1960 c.p.s.,
2A TURNS N 22 E
correct oscilloscope phase shift as before, and
move lead 1 to terminal G. Adjust capacitor
B I F I L AR CONNECTIONS C. in PS -1 for a circle as was done for C.,
4 TURNS HOOKUP WIRE
using the precautions outlined for that case.
Now connect lead M to terminal D, and
NATIONAL ER 50 lead N to terminal F. Connect leads 1 and 2
COIL. FORM
(1/2" DI AM.)
to terminal D, set the oscillator frequency at
GROUND LUG
1307 c.p.s., correct oscilloscope phase shift
.UM I as before, and move lead 1 to the junction of
=11
R3 and G. Adjust capacitor G for a circle on
the oscilloscope, as before.
Repeat the above procedure for the remain-
NOTE TWO PARALLEL PIECES OF HOOKUP WIRE ARE WOUND ing R -C pair, R_ and C,. Use terminals D and
SIMULTANEOUSLY OVER PRIMARY WINDING TO MAKE
8 /FILAR SECONDARY. BOTTOM END OF ONE WINDING C at this time and set the oscillator to 326.7
AND TOP ENO OF OPPOSITE WINDING ARE GROUNDED
ro MOUNTING LUG ON CO /L FORM. c.p.s. This completes the tests except for a final
Figure 8
check to all adjustments. Connect A to A', E
to E', B to C, F to G, and A to E. The net-
BIFILAR COIL FOR SSB
TRANSMITTER (LI) work PS -1 is now completely wired.
Coils L and L have 4 -turn link coils over
bottom end instead of the bifilar winding. Checking the If the oscilloscope did not
Audio Network require changes in external
compensation over the four
shift lead 1 from terminal A to terminal B frequencies used, an over -all frequency check
on the phase network PS -1. Adjust the trimmer may now be easily made on the phase shift net-
capacitor C. ( figure 3) to obtain a circle on work. To do this, connect lead 1 to point
the oscilloscope. It will be noted as this ad- B -C, lead 2 to point F -G, lead M to point A -A'-
justment is made the display will shift from E-E', and lead N to point D. Now shift the
an ellipse "leaning" to one side through a arm of the potentiometer towards M until a
circle or ellipse (with axes parallel to the de- circle appears on the oscilloscope screen at a
flection axes) to an ellipse which "leans" the frequency of 250 c.p.s. Then, as the oscillator
other way. If desired, the appropriate gain frequency is varied from 250 c.p.s. to 2500
control on the oscilloscope may be varied so c.p.s., this circle will wobble a little from one
that a circle instead of an "erect" ellipse is side to the other, passing through a perfect
obtained at the point of correct adjustment. circular display at 440, 1225, and 2500 c.p.s.
After checking the gain control on the 'scope, The audio band over which the wobble in-
recheck and correct (if necessary) the phase dicates a plus or minus 1.3 degree deviation
shift in the oscilloscope by moving lead 1 from true 90 degrees is 225 to 2750 c.p.s., or
back to terminal A, and then repeat the setting 12 to 1 in range. This means that when other
of capacitor C. with lead 1 back on terminal B. circuits are properly adjusted, a sideband sup-
In general, always make certain that the os- pression ratio of 39 decibels is possible at the
cilloscope is used in a phase -corrected manner. worst points within this range. The average
As a double check (if the deflection plates in suppression ratio will be about 45 decibels.
the oscilloscope are skewed, for instance) con- Proper phase -shift network operation is neces-
nect lead 2 to terminal A'. If the circle changes sary to obtain this class of performance, so
to a slanting ellipse, readjust G to produce an the adjustment procedures have been outlined
ellipse "half -way" between the ellipse (ob- in detail as an aid toward this goal. The phase
tained by switching lead 2) and a circle. shift network should never require readjust-
Changing lead 2 from A' to A and back ment, so that when you are satisfied with the
again should give equal and opposite skew adjustment you may seal the trimmers with
to the display when capacitor C. is set correctly. cement.
Failure to get symmetrical ellipses (egg- shaped,
or other display) is due to distortion in the Audio Oscillator It will be noted that the
'scope, the oscillator, the transformer, or the Calibration frequency ratios are such
cathode follower. Conduct the test at the low- that the 12th harmonic
est signal level possible to avoid distortion. of 326.7 c.p.s., the 8th harmonic of 490
Next, connect leads M and N to terminals E c.p.s. and the 3rd harmonic of 1306.7 c.p.s.
and E', respectively. Connect leads 1 and 2 to are all the same as the 2nd harmonic of
1960 c.p.s.., namely 3920 c.p.s. Thus, if a 3.8 - 4.0 Mc. Apply plate power and adjust
stable source of 3920 c.p.s. frequency (such the slug of coil L, for maximum signal
as a thoroughly warmed audio oscillator) strength of the oscillator in a nearby receiver.
is used as a reference, the frequency of the The oscillator should start promptly each time
test oscillator can be set very closely to one - plate voltage is applied to the unit. Frequency
half, one-third, etc. of the reference frequency of oscillation may be varied over a small range
if both oscillators feed an oscilloscope and the by changing the setting of the crystal tuning
resulting Lissajous figures observed, as dis- capacitor.
cussed in chapter 9 of this Handbook. The next step is to neutralize the 6CL6
Use of a calibrating frequency in this man- linear amplifier. It is necessary to bypass the
ner assures that the frequency ratios used are diode modulator to do this. Temporarily dis-
correct, even though the exact frequencies used connect one lead of the bifilar link winding
are unknown. The frequency ratios (just as on L,, and also disconnect the lead between po-
the resistance ratio previously mentioned) are tentiometer R. and amplifier grid coil L2. Now,
far more important that the actual values of connect the free winding of the bifilar link of
frequency (or resistance) used. L, to the ungrounded end of the link of L.
Transmitter The r -f and audio sections of This will apply the oscillator signal directly
Wiring the unit should be wired before to the linear amplifier. Temporarily load the
the phase network is placed
within the chassis. Socket ground connections
and filament wiring are done first. The oscilla-
(6.3 volt, 150 ma. -
6CL6 stage with one or two flashlight bulbs
brown bead) connected
in parallel at the output jack J.. The slugs of
tor section should be wired and tested first. coils L. and L. should be adjusted for maxi-
The bifilar secondary winding of coil L, may mum amplifier output. The 12AU7 oscillator
be made of two lengths of insulated hookup tube should now be removed from the socket,
wire wound over the coil as shown in figure 8. and unless the setting of neutralizing capaci-
The germanium diodes in the modulator tor C. happens by chance to be correct, the
section deserve special care in handling. Do not flash lamp load will continue to give some in-
bend the leads close to the diode unit itself. dication of output, showing that the 6CL6
The diodes are mounted by means of their leads amplifier stage is oscillating. Neutralizing ca-
between the terminals of potentiometers R. and pacitor C. should be adjusted with the aid of
R. and adjacent tie-point terminals. Protect a fibre screwdriver until the bulb goes out.
the diodes from excessive heat while soldering Readjust L. and L. for maximum bulb indica-
by holding the lead with pliers between the tion as the setting of capacitor C. is varied.
body of the diode and the point where the sol- A setting of C. will be found at which oscilla-
dering takes place. Further, use only as much tion will not occur, regardless of the setting
heat as is necessary to make a good joint. of the slugs of coils L. and L.
The 50 ohm composition resistors used in When C. is properly adjusted, the 12AU7
the modulator bridge circuit should be a tube should be replaced in its socket and coils
matched pair, measured on an ohmmeter or L. and L. returned for maximum output. The
Wheatstone bridge. In the same fashion the temporary link connection between L. and L.
bridge capacitors should be matched as closely should be removed and the diode modulator
as possible to the target value of 800 1.1Lfd. reconnected into the circuit.
Both coils L. and L. of the linear amplifier Next, remove the r -f tubes and insert the
are mounted beneath the chassis on either side three audio tubes in their respective sockets.
of the 6CL6 tube socket. To reduce coupling Apply a low level audio signal of 1225 c.p.s.
between the coils, a shield is placed over coil to the microphone jack J. of the unit and con-
L2. The shield may be made from part of an nect the horizontal deflection terminal of the
old i -f transformer can measuring approxi- oscilloscope to a cathode (pin 3) of the
mately 1" x 1" x 2" in size. 12AU7 audio phasing amplifier, and the ver-
When the transmitter wiring is completed, tical deflection terminal to the other cathode
the audio phase network PS -1 may be placed (pin 8) after making certain that the 'scope
in the transmitter chassis and wired in place. is phase- compensated at the test frequency of
Transmitter After the wiring has been com- 1225 c.p.s. Adjust audio balance control R.
Adjustment pleted and checked the trans- to produce a circle on the screen. Make this
mitter is ready for adjustment. test at as low an audio level as possible.
Insert the 12AU7 oscillator/buffer tube in the Now, plug in the r -f tubes and connect the
socket, and plug in a crystal in the range of dummy load to the antenna receptacle, J,.
574 Low Power Transmitters T H E R A D I O
Connect the vertical plates of the oscilloscope transmitter are desirable for serious sideband
(no 'scope amplifier used) to the terminals work, and are doubly suited for mobile opera-
of the dummy load so that the 80 meter signal tion, since full attention may be given to road
of the transmitter may be seen on the screen of problems. A simple voice control (VOX) cir-
the 'scope. Deliberately unbalance one of the cuit suitable for use with this transmitter is
diode modulators by setting potentiometer R. shown in figure 6. Connection to the speech
off -center. Adjust amplifier output coil for amplifier is made at point A of figure 3. The
maximum pattern deflection at any convenient voice signal is amplified by a triode stage and
sweep speed. As the pattern grows when L. is rectified by the 6AL5 diode. The resulting
resonated it may be necessary to reduce modu- signal is applied to the second half of the
lator unbalance to keep from overloading the triode tube which operates a sensitive relay
output stage or the 'scope. Remove all audio connected in the plate circuit. The relay con-
input to the transmitter by adjusting audio tacts operate the changeover circuits of the
gain control R. to zero, then by successive ad- transmitter. The time delay required to make
justments of the modulator balance controls the transmitter "hang on" between syllables
adjust for zero output as seen on the oscillo- of speech is determined by the R -C network
scope. It will be noted that as the correct point in the grid of the relay control tube. Increas-
is approached the adjustments will become pre - ing the size of the capacitor will increase the
gressively sharper. Potentiometers R. and R. delay time and vice- versa.
should be juggled until the indicated carrier
is a minimum. Slight capacity unbalances with- 28 -2 A Mobile
in the modulator bridge may prevent a perfect Transistorized
minimum from being obtained. It may be nec- SSB Exciter
essary to place a small 10 µµEd variable cer-
Power consumption of radio equipment is
amic capacitor from either end of potentiome-
of paramount importance in mobile systems.
ter R,. back to one side of the diode rectifier
bank for best attenuation. Good carrier at-
Without the addition of auxiliary expensive
tenuation may finally be achieved by juggling
the settings of R., R., and R.., together with
the added padding capacitor.
Next, apply a 1225 c.p.s. audio signal and
advance gain control R.. An r -f envelope
should be seen on the screen of the oscilloscope.
The percentage of modulation (or ripple)
noted on the pattern is an indication of the
degree of misadjustment of the balancing
controls of the unit. The balance potentiome-
ters should now be touched up to produce
minimum modulation on the observed carrier.
Audio balance control R. should also be check-
ed for minimum ripple pattern.
It is a good idea to vary the audio level
input to the transmitter to determine the point
of overload. This can be seen on he 'scope
as the point at which the modulation ripple
on the pattern increases sharply as R. is ad-
vanced. Always make sure that your audio
level is set well below this overload point when
adjustments are being made. It should be pos- Figure 9
sible to produce a pattern having very little TEN THOUSAND MILES OF QSO'S
ripple on the observed carrier wave. This com- HAVE BEEN MADE WITH THIS
pletes the adjustments of the transmitter. Car- TRANSISTORIZED FORTY METER
rier insertion for test purposes may be obtained SSB EXCITER
by reversing switch S: and adjusting carrier The reliability of transistorized sideband equip-
ment has been proven with this miniature
insertion control R,. phasing -type exciter. Overall size is only
2
7'/4" X 4" X /z ". Antenna, power, and mi-
VOX Circuits Voice control of the "send - crophone connectors are on end of chassis
and balancing potentiometers and buffer base
receive" circuits of the inductor (Lr) are mounted on side of chassis.
HANDBOOK Transistorized Exciter 575
charging components, the usual automotive service, it appears that the vacuum tube will
electrical system is capable of a relatively small still be necessary as a buffer when high fre-
additional power drain over and above the quencies are involved. Power requirements for
standard equipment provided with the car. the exciter are 300 volts at 50 milliamperes,
Single sideband affords an excellent oppor- and 12.6 volts at 0.43 amperes.
tunity for the mobile enthusiast to obtain A new subminiature printed circuit ampli-
more "talk power" for a given degree of pri- fier (Centralab TA -11) is used for the speech
mary power consumption. In addition, if the amplifier. Completely sealed in epoxy resin
sideband equipment can be transistorized the for protection against mechanical abrasion and
power drain will be reduced by a further im- humidity, this four stage transistor amplifier
portant amount. provides a gain of over 70 decibels. The com-
Described in this section is a 40 meter ex- plete unit is only 11/4 inches long and less
perimental transistorized sideband exciter de- than one inch high.
livering sufficient output to excite a tetrode It is strongly recommended that spare tran-
linear amplifier to one kilowatt peak input sistors be on hand for substitution in the var-
power. The exciter operates directly from the ious circuits. This will give the builder confi-
12 volt ignition system of the car, using five dence and assurance that each stage is function-
inexpensive transistors, a printed circuit tran- ing as it should. Many times limitations on per-
sistor amplifier, and a single vacuum tube. formance are imposed by certain transistors
Until a power transistor is developed for r -f without the operator being aware of the con-
PAYTIiEON RAYTHEON 12BY7A
2N112 1.00 t 2N114 so CI no
PNP Li 7- SOM PNP L3 \Li _ m1PC L4
ANT
+óóLxYxv?VJ1 .1r 1-1 J1
QQI 1 O
'1 °RFC
A0 OQI
-I
T
1673
RFC
0.5 z.oT
RFC
1m
R4,1oK
R-FG,AIN
=.1
C
P1
+300 V.
+12 V.
CARRIER 5K S1
o
INJECT R5
1j7
o
too
CH
SEC. - i
(MOUNT ON HEAT SINN) zo2* T'
L r
14)() CETRILAB
N T./. CAS
I
2 NI 70
TA-I/ 2N250 :2N255 Ti
RIAL TRANSISTOR
AMPLIFIER
04
'
+
IIH
T1 PNP -0p ejl
MIC- 1.9KIHASC-SMFTI
i
1 QQ
100
Q NETWORK
y 250
I
O PS-1
J2 IO K
Q Q
Q
Re, ,o o0 SK E
Re,,00
NOTES, AUDIO GAIN 3S RT NULL (SEE P 0.1
G.7) 2N170 IO
1. ALL COMPONENTS MARXEO *
ARE 1% TOLERANCE. DIAS NON 25
EXACT VALUE CRITICAL ONLY IN rIAr /r SHOULD TYPICAL O.C. VOLT. G. E.
MATCH THE MATING UNIT CLOSELY. MEASUREMENTS
POINT VOLTAGE
-1.25
-2.45
- 3.9
-
Figure 10 zo
SCHEMATIC OF TRANSISTORIZED FORTY METER SSB EXCITER
CI-25ppfd. variable ceramic capacitor. Centralab 823 -DZ
L, -35 turns o22 enamel, 1/2" diam., closewound on National XR -S0 form. Start with two turn bifilar
winding (see figure 8, section 28 -1 for bifilar detail). Mount coil assembly in small shield can.
L , L -Same as L Mount L. in small shield can.
L, -Same as L:. Tap 18 turns from "cold" end. Mount in small shield can.
RFC-2.5 mh. miniature r -f choke. Millen J300 - 2500
T, -1K pri., 60 ohm sec. transistor transformer. Chicago UM -111
T -95K sec., 15K pri. (use backwards) UTC -07
-
CH, -200K pri., K sec. transistor transformer. Use primary only. Chicago UM -112
1
X-7.2 - 7.3 Mc crystal

D1-12,-Matched 1N81 Diodes; see text.
dition. The concept of transistor action is new cease to function properly. It is therefore nec-
and novel to many amateurs; it is not easy to essary to incorporate a simple low -pass filter
run to the corner radio store and test a transis- that will substantially eliminate all audio fre-
tor to make sure it is operating properly. quencies above 3000 cycles. Such a filter is in-
corporated in the circuit between the micro-
Exciter The complete schematic of the phone input jack J2 and the transistorized
Circuitry transistorized exciter is shown in audio amplifier. The filter consists of the pri-
figure 10. It is derived from the mary winding of a small audio transformer
vacuum tube exciter circuit of figure 3, section (CHI) and two 250 i.tilfd capacitors.
1, and employs phasing technique on the fre-
quency of operation. The output signal from the encapsulated
A 2N112 transistor is used as a grounded
transistorized amplifier is transformer coupled
to a 2N250 (or a 2N255) power transistor
emitter crystal oscillator employing crystals in
the 7.2 - 7.3 Mc. range. The r-f output is which serves as a driver for the phase shift
network. The 2N250 transistor requires a
coupled through a tuned circuit and a bifilar
winding to the crystal diode balanced modu- "heat sink" for the collector to allow maximum
lator. The output in turn drives a 2N114 r-f collector dissipation rating to be achieved. The
amplifier stage, operating in grounded emitter transistor may therefore be mounted on ano-
configuration. A base bias potentiometer R, is dized aluminum discs or mica wafers (sup-
included in this stage which permits parameter plied by the manufacturer of the transistor) ,
adjustment for maximum output. The collec- thus insulating the case of the transistor (the
tor of the transistor is tapped at a point on the collector terminal) from the chassis of the ex-
grid inductor of the linear amplifier stage pro- citer. The phase shift network driven by this
viding maximum drive without exceeding the transistor is identical to that described in sec-
transistor ratings. tion 28 -1 and illustrated in figure 7.
A 12BY7A is used as the linear amplifier Two 2N170 NPN type transistors are base
stage. Neutralization is employed for greatest driven by the phase shift network, and serve
circuit stability, and VHF parasitic oscillations as emitter followers, providing a low imped-
are eliminated by the use of a parasitic sup- ance driving source for the balanced modulator.
pressor in the plate circuit. Sideband selection is accomplished by switch
The subminiature transistorized audio am- S= whose purpose is to reverse the phase of
plifier used in this exciter has a rising fre- the audio signals applied to the balanced mod-
quency characteristic that is well suited for ulator. Carrier injection is accomplished by
SSB work. However, the rising response car- potentiometer Ra and switch S1 which apply
ries well into the upper audio range wherein conducting bias to the modulator diodes.
the phase shift networks of the PS -1 unit A voltage dropping network is employed
Figure 11
UNDER -CHASSIS
VIEW OF
TRANSISTORIZED
SSB EXCITER
The audio and r -f net-
works are mounted on a
phenolic sheet attached
to the bottom of the
chassis. The 12BY7A lin-
ear amplifier and shield
are mounted on a small
aluminum bracket at the
left of the assembly.
Grid coil L- is beside the
tube, and plate coil L.
is behind the tube. Coil
L. is to the right of L,
with sideband switch 5,
behind it. The two r -f
balancing controls R: and
R, are at the extreme
right of the chossis panel.
HANDBOOK Transistorized Exciter 577
to reduce the 12.6 volt primary supply to 9 age should be first applied to the transistor
volts for the 2N170 stage, and to 4 volts and oscillator. R -f output may be measured at the
211 volts for the preamplifier stage. The ex- terminals of the bifilar coil with the aid of a
citer is designed for use with a primary supply vacuum tube voltmeter. The slug of coil L.
having the positive terminal of the battery is adjusted for maximum reading. Under diode
grounded. load, about 4 volts r.m.s. may be measured
Exciter The exciter is built within from either side of the winding to ground.
Construction an aluminum case measur- The bifilar winding is relatively critical. Too
ing 71/4" x 4" x 21/2" in many turns will load the oscillator to a point
size. Miniaturization of the audio phase shift of instability, and too few turns deliver in-
network was accomplished by measuring a sufficient drive to the modulator. Two turns,
quantity of resistors and capacitors on a bridge. loosely coupled to the primary winding, seem
Final selection was made from those having to be about correct. When the bridge is un-
the closest tolerances. These hand picked com- balanced, approximately 0.2 volt r.m.s. may be
ponents are mounted on a phenolic terminal measured from either arm of output potentio-
strip. This same sheet is used to support the meter R. to ground. This voltage is stepped
small r -f chokes as well as the balanced modu- up by means of a pi- network circuit so that
lator components. maximum excitation voltage is applied to the
It is a good idea when building equipment base of the 2N114 r -f transistor.
to fit in a limited space to construct everything Preliminary adjustments, in general, follow
in the form of sub -assemblies. This will permit those described for the vacuum tube exciter
the components to be mounted in the open, described in section 28 -1. Potentiometers R.,
facilitating wiring. In this particular unit, the R2, and R. are adjusted for minimum carrier
audio components and the r -f modulator are output in the collector circuit of the 2N114.
mounted on a phenolic board on one side of It may be necessary to add a 10 µµfd variable
the box and the r -f components are attached ceramic capacitor from one side of the modu-
to the opposite wall of the box. The oscillator lator bridge to ground to achieve maximum
coil L. is placed within an old i -f transformer carrier suppression. The final adjustment is to
can as is the linear amplifier grid coil L.. The apply an audio signal and touch up the audio
12BY7A tube is mounted on a small bracket phasing potentiometer R. for maximum re-
at one end of the box, and has a tube shield jection of the unwanted sideband.
placed over it. The plate coil L of the amplifier
When these preliminary adjustments have
stage is directly behind the tube (figure 11).
been made, the 12BY7A tube may be inserted
Various voltage dropping resistors are
in the socket, and the shield slipped over the
mounted on a small terminal board at the cen- tube. Grid inductor L is resonated for maxi-
ter of the chassis, and the audio transistors
mum grid excitation with the aid of grid dip
are placed in the area between the lower ter- oscillator, and the plate inductor L. can be
minal board and the rear wall of the case. tuned in the same manner. A dummy load
The r -f circuits are wired after the com- consisting of two 6.3 volt, 150 ma. flashlamp
ponent boards are mounted in place. Wiring bulbs (brown bead) connected in parallel is
is straightforward and simple. The two r-f
attached to output jack J.. Plate voltage and
transistors are mounted by their leads to three excitation are now applied to the linear ampli-
terminal phenolic tie -point strips. Be sure to fier stage and L. and L. adjusted for maximum
protect both the transistors and the modulator
output. When audio excitation is removed
diodes from excess soldering heat, as described from the exciter the r -f amplifier will prob-
in section 28 -1. The reader is referred to this
ably break into oscillation and the antenna
section concerning the adjustment and test
bulbs will continue to glow. Neutralizing ca-
procedure for the home -made phase shift net-
work.
pacitor C. should now be adjusted with a
fibre screwdriver until oscillation stops. After
Testing The The transistorized SSB exciter the exciter is operating properly, full battery
Exciter may be bench tested by running voltage may be applied to the transistor stages
the transistors from a group with a consequent increase in grid drive and
of 11/2 volt batteries. It is wise to conduct power output of the linear amplifier. Approx-
preliminary tests at an operating potential of imately 2 volts r.m.s. grid drive may be meas-
about 9 volts. The voltage may be boosted to ured with the vacuum tube voltmeter at the
the operating value after tuning and align- grid pin of the 12BY7A linear amplifier stage
ment adjustments have been completed. Volt- under conditions of maximum excitation.
28 -3 A VHF Transceiver seconds. Twenty tubes including a voltage reg-

ulator are employed in the unit, and the total
of Advanced Design primary power consumption is approximately
Modern tubes and circuit techniques permit 105 watts.
sensitivity and stability levels to be achieved Circuit This high performance trans-
in the VHF region that were possible only at Description ceiver is a complex device, and
the lower frequencies a few years ago. The the wiring diagram has been
transceiver described in this section makes full
broken down into several schematic drawings
use of these advanced circuits to produce su-
( figures 14, 15, 17, 18, and 19) . A block dia-
perb results in the amateur 50 Mc. and 144 gram of the complete circuit is given in figure
Mc. bands.
13.
The transceiver (pictured in figure 12)
comprises a complete VHF station and power The Receiver Section. The receiver portion
supply in one small, streamlined cabinet. The of the unit employs thirteen tubes in a double
transmitter section is crystal controlled on any conversion superheterodyne circuit. Separate r -f
one of eleven frequencies chosen at random "front ends" are employed for each band. Each
in the two bands, and runs eighteen watts in- "front end" employs a 6BZ7 cascode r -f am-
put fully modulated. The receiver section em- plifier and a 6J6 converter/oscillator tube. The
ploys cascode -type r-f amplifiers resulting in a desired section is activated by energizing the
noise figure better than 5 decibels on both filaments and connecting the output circuit
bands. Optimum communications selectivity is of the mixer stage to the first i -f amplifier.
obtained by the use of a two- section crystal Switch Sr accomplishes this action. The 144
lattice filter in the intermediate frequency am- Mc. cascode amplifier is neutralized for opti-
plifier. Maximum frequency stability is achiev- mum signal-to -noise ratio, while the neutraliz-
ed by the use of crystal controlled VHF con- ing circuit is omitted from the 50 Mc. ampli-
version oscillators and a highly stable low fre- fier since a satisfactory noise figure is obtained
quency tunable oscillator. A signal strength without the extra coil. Overtone crystals oper-
meter is incorporated in the receiver, and a ating in the VHF region are used in a regen-
tuning meter is used to obtain optimum trans- erative oscillator circuit to provide mixing
mitter adjustment. The power supply operates voltage for the 6J6 triode converter. The com-
from 115 volts a.c., and either 6- or 12 -volts plete schematic of the r -f section is given in
d.c. figure 14.
Styling for the transceiver permits its use The tunable intermediate frequency ampli-
either as a fixed, home station or as a mobile fier covers the range of 30 - 34 Mc. "Low side"
unit. The major tuning controls are placed at oscillator operation is used for two meter oper-
the left of the panel -to permit operation while ation with the conversion crystal at 114 Mc.
the automobile is being driven. A push -to -talk "High side" operation is used for six meter
system is employed for rapid break-in opera- service with the crystal at 84 Mc. The four
tion, and band changing takes place in a few megacycle i -f tuning range is covered by a
Figure 12
VHF Tronsceiver for Six and
Two Meters is Designed for
Fixed or Mobile Operation
This transmitter -receiver pro-
vides the highest order of re-
liable communication in the two
most popular VHF bands. Re-
ceiver tuning controls are
placed at the left of the unit
to permit ease of tuning in
mobile installation. Double con-
version receiver and crystal lat-
tice i -f filter provide maximum
i
stability and selectivity for re-
ception. Crystal controlled trans-
mitter delivers a ten watt car-
rier. Band change takes only a
few seconds. Left hand meter is
signal strength indicator for re-
ceiver, and meter at right is
multi -purpose millammeter for
transmitter. The transmitter tun-
9.. ing controls are at right. Perfo-
rated metal cabinet insures
maximum ventilation for con-
tinuous operation.
HANDBOOK Advanced Transceiver 579
TV -type rotary induction tuner, padded to the crystals are used, one at a frequency of 2007
correct operating range. The use of this type kc. and the other at a frequency of 2011 kc.,
of tuned circuit provides exceptional stability providing a "flat top" to the passband of about
combined with small size and has proven to 4 kilocycles. The crystals used in this filter are
be a very satisfactory choice. A 6BJ6 remote specially cut for fi:ter work, and the substitu-
cutoff pentode is used as the first i -f amplifier tion of ordinary "transmitter type" crystals will
stage (Vs) and a 6BE6 is used as the second degrade the performance of the filter. The units
mixer (V6). The tunable oscillator stage op- specified in figure 15, however, are not ex-
erates 2009 kilocycles lower than the variable pensive. The i -f transformers are standard 1500
intermediate frequency and employs a single kc. units with the mica tuning capacitors
section of a 6J6 tube (V7) A small inductance . changed as shown in figure 15 to permit oper-
(L) is placed in series with the rotary coil ation at 2 Mc. The lattice filter may be re-
of the oscillator section to ensure proper track- moved from the circuit by means of the "sharp -
ing over the 4 Mc. tuning range. broad" switch, S,. All four crystals are shorted
The greater portion of the receiver gain and out in the "broad" position, and one crystal in
selectivity is achieved in the second inter- each filter section is disconnected from the as-
mediate frquency amplifier which operates at sociated i -f transformer. In addition, another
a center frequency of 2009 kc. A double lat- section of the switch (S,C) drops the gain
tice crystal filter is employed to ensure maxi- of the amplifier tube (V8) to compensate for
mum selectivity at this frequency. The filter the rise in stage gain that occurs when the
is made in two sections and has a single 6BJ6 crystals are removed from the circuit. Two
amplifier tube (V.) between the sections to additional stages of i -f amplification (VP, V10)
compensate for the insertion loss of the filter. follow the crystal filter, providing an abund-
The first section of the filter is placed im- ance of gain for proper operation of the a -v-c
mediately after the 6BE6 converter tube to and audio squelch circuits.
achieve maximum i -f amplifier protection from The detector and associated audio compon-
strong signals adjacent to the desired one. Two ents of the receiver are shown in figure 17. A
144 MC.
Ji
50 MC
Jz
RY,A
RY2
V1
6627
R-
AMP
V3
6627
I
Vz
6.18
Ix
osC
V4
eJe
11
I
I
11
¡I
S7A
66J6
VS
30-34
i6J6
V7
MG
Ve
66E6 S 1A
LATTICE
FILTER
Sie
Sic
Ve
61J6
I
S1D
2009 KC.
SECOND I.F.
LATTICE
FILTER
SIE
RY e
VO
66J6
i©
V10
66.16
OP
MiETE
V,,
GALS
DET.
ANL
RY1C
0
V12
124.57
VIS
6AQS
SPEAKER
-
I
I
1-r---
I I I
-±-I +1SO V.I
-
RI EGULATED
IV14
I I
IoA2
--
I i i
1,_ e+2SOv.
15 16 V17
eCLe 6380 6360
50 MC AM P. 50 MC. 144 MC.
41 TRI P 644 MC
24 MC.
X7 S2 Se S3e,C
L
r
ZERO
----0
Q
V3F
V16
6AQS
RY2eA , Vis
12Ax7
® I
POWER SUPPLY
250 V. AT ISO MA
CRYSTAL
MICROPHONE
1"5 ®m
1POWER TUNE -OPERATE AVDIO.
Sio SS Rz 6AQS
V20
6/120 D. C. L 0- _J
Figure 13
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 2 -6 METER TRANSCEIVER
Twenty tubes plus selenium rectifier power supply provide de -luxe operation for the advanced VHF
enthusiast. Power supply may be operated horn either automobile electrical system or 115 volts, a.c.
6AL5 (V,5) is employed as detector, a -v -c, stages (V,. and VI.) deliver sufficient audio
and a -n -1 tube. The noise limiter is of the low power to fully drive a loudspeaker and to over-
distortion type and is left in the circuit at all come the motor and wind noises of a car in
times. One section of the 6AL5 serves as the motion. An auxiliary jack (J7) provides ear-
a -v -c rectifier, and the resulting voltage is ap-
phone reception if desired. The receiver is in-
activated during transmission periods by relay
plied to four i -f tubes for smooth a -v -c action contacts RY2B which remove the high voltage
on strong signals. The last i -f stage (V,.) is from the plates and screens of the receiver
left off the a -v -c line, and the S -meter is con- tubes.
nected between the plate supply return of this
tube and an adjacent controlled tube. A change The Transmitter Section. Shown in figure 17
in the plate current of the controlled tube is the transmitter section of the transceiver.
(V.) upsets the balance of the bridge circuit, Six tubes are used, three for the audio portion
and a meter reading is produced that is proof the unit and three for the r -f portion.
portional to the a -v -c voltage. This voltage is Crystals in the 24 - 25 Mc. region are employ-
also applied to one section of a double triode ed for both 6- and 2 -meter operation. Any one
audio tube (V,.) which functions as a squelch of eleven crystals may be selected by switch
tube. This circuit renders the audio section of S. The oscillator is a 6CL6 (V1.) in a "hot -
the receiver inoperative until the receiver a -v -c cathode" doubler circuit, delivering energy in
circuit is activated, thus eliminating a large the 48 - 50 Mc. region. A split -stator tuning
portion of the background noise commonly as- capacitor is employed in the plate circuit to
sociated with VHF reception. The squelch cir- provide a balanced output configuration. The
cuit may be disabled by switch S:,. Two audio oscillator stage may be turned on during re-
V2
144 MC. SECTION 6J 6
33
L3 L4 C
Li
144 MC.
ills :H-
v 7.28
J,
1
TO
iRY,A
TX
ee
CI I i¿
000T BSOUL
LS 8+ REG
a
V3 V4
6BZ7A 50 MC. SECTION 6J6
L7 Le c
33 0o0 S 7
I (SEE F/G. le FOR
6 Le \12 So
2 I SECTIONSReC )
-i1 CHI,
3
50 MC.
J
3
N
J2 470K
ee
RY2A =
cja-.
TO TX
NOTES, 000T oQ00o pl
,. SEE FIG. le FOR F /LAMENT WIR /NG. L9 8+

8+ H,V.
REG 'S7D
t -F OUT
CC
I
Z. C2.007 DISC CERAMIC

3. ALL RESISTORS 7/2 WATT
OSEE FIGURE
O ® 7S
Figure 14
SCHEMATIC, R -F PORTION OF RECEIVER SECTION
C-.001 Aid. disc ceramic capacitor. Centralob DD -102
C1, C,-20 Avid. Johnson 20M11
J,, J,-BNC -type coaxial receptacle
L, -L.See figure 21 for coil information
57A, D -Part of S7 (Centralob wafer PA -9) See figure 18.
RY,A, RY:A-See figure 19
8, -114 Mc. overtone crystal. Precision Crystal Lab., Santa Monica, Calif.
X: -84 Mc. crystal (see X,)
C1ó
FU
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=
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O
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LL OZ Y
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1-xKoac
ception by depressing the "zero" switch S., to the tripler, and the plate circuit (C. -L..) is
which applies plate voltage to the oscillator inductively coupled to the output circuit. A
by way of the receiver circuits. separate antenna receptable (J.) is used for
The balanced output circuit of the oscillator 144 Mc. operation. Plate voltage is applied to
stage is inductively coupled to a push-pull this tube by switch section S.F.
miniature beam amplifier stage employing a The use of inductive coupling between the
6360 (V..) . The grid circuit of this stage is three stages of the transmitter reduces spurious
broadly resonant to the 50 Mc. region by vir- emissions to a minimum. Channel 2 television
tue of the interelectrode capacitances of the interference, so common to six meter trans-
tube. For six meter operation, the 6360 func- mitters is absent when this transmitter is used,
tions as a class -C amplifier with the plate cir- thanks to the combination of interstage induc-
cuit (Lu -C.) tuned to 50 Mc. Bias and screen tive coupling and the employment of 25 Mc.
voltages are set for optimum operating values crystals. Power input to the modulated stage
by segments of switch S,. In addition, the plate on both bands is close to 18 watts, permitting
return of the stage is routed through the sec- a carrier power of over 10 watts. ,
ondary of modulation transformer T,. The r -f Transmitter adjustment is greatly simplified
output circuit is inductively coupled to the 50 by the use of r -f volt-meters connected to the
Mc. antenna coaxial receptacle through relay output circuits of each amplifier stage. Small
contacts RY2A. , germanium diodes (D. and D») are used to
When switch S. is moved to the 144 Mc. rectify a minute portion of the output voltage
position, the aforementioned 6360 stage is con- which is read on the multi -meter M. of the
verted into a high efficiency tripler stage, pro- transmitter. All tuning adjustments of the
viding output in the 140 - 150 Mc. region. transmitter are conducted so as to enhance the
Switch segment S,D raises the operating bias reading of the r-f voltmeter under a given set
on the stage, segment S,E drops the screen of antenna conditions.
voltage, and segments S.A -B select the proper The transmitter is plate modulated by two
plate tank coil, L... 6AQ5 tubes (V.., V=.) operating class AB».
A separate amplifier stage employing an- Plate voltage may be removed from these tubes
other 6360 dual beam power tube (V.1) is and from the modulated amplifier by the "tune -
used for 2 -meter operation. The tube functions operate" switch S.. A single 12AX7 serves as
as a class -C amplifier and is driven by the a two stage resistance coupled audio amplifier,
push -pull tripler stage (V.). The grid circuit having sufficient gain for the use of a crystal
of the 144 Mc. amplifier is inductively coupled or dynamic microphone.
Figure 16
11111b A1111111 REAR VIEW OF
VHF TRANSCEIVER
At the left rear of the chassis is
the dual purpose power supply
with the vibrator and filter ca-
pacitors mounted in front of the
power transformer. At the front
of the chassis are the two 6360
tubes and the tuning capacitors of
the transmitter. Note that the
stages are isolated by shields
placed between the tuning capaci-
tors and tubes.
The modulator and power supply
filter choke occupy the center por-
tion of the chassis, with the re-
ceiver i -1 section to the right. In
front of the i -f strip are the trans-
mitter crystals and the lattice
crystals. At the right of the chas-
sis are located the "TV- type"
variable inductor tuner and the
three tunable i -f stage tubes. At
1
the rear of the chassis, directly
./
behind the tuner are the two VHF
conversion oscillators. The micro-
phone receptacle and audio gain
control are on the rear lip of the
chassis, directly below the cascode
stages. Cabinet and chassis cus-
{{{.{{..,,,,, tom made by California Chassis
Co., Lynwood, Calif.
4
ri
!
N
H
C]
000,
UN
NIy
o
II
sl N
ná
J 0001
:
lu
i!
o0ó0 oóbÓo
36,119/! 33S 335-/
I! 9nnll!
The Power Supply Section. The complete of the power transformer. This transformer has
transceiver requires a plate supply of 250 volts two auxiliary windings. One winding may be
at 150 milliamperes, and either 6.3 volts at used for 115 volt, 50 -60 cycle operation, and
7.8 amperes or 12.6 volts at 3.9 amperes. These the other one is intended for vibrator opera -
voltages may be obtained from the power sup- ation from either a 6- or 12 -volt d.c. primary
ply whose schematic is given in figure 18. The source. The choice of a.c. or d.c. operation may
high voltage portion of the supply employs a be made by inserting the correct terminal plug
voltage doubler selenium -type rectifier system in receptacle SO,, mounted on the rear of the
operating from a 117 volt half -wave winding transceiver chassis.
RFC 3 6 -12y. D.0 I I S V. A-C

PLI PL2
0001 01 (SEE FIL. SCNEMATIC)
TP SOI
31Í
YY
211
vjj e r
T1
C
(SEE TEYT',
VIBt
1811
M
I70 O
P-8158
MODIFIED 2711 208
F L
SEE FIG. I7 GND HOT' 115 V..P

FIL
6 -12 VOLT FILAMENT SCHEMATIC.
20 27 7 2 7 8
Va
S70 S7C
115 V.
ti
i --50.-cr 9-41E--->
V
4 Sto 5 /e T
0.3V
FIL. II
C =.007 CERAMIC CAPACITOR
II
1ISVs
RFC
17
117V.
FOR 8 -VOLT OPERATION
115 VOLT'. WIRING A- JUMPER PINS 2-9
/N PL
B- JUMPER PINS 7 -20
72 /4 IN PL,.
HO7 rr--5--1
S10
LLL....pppp////'''"'JJJJJJ
II----5((
e
7
e
VIBi II
9 FOR 12-VOLT OPERATION

GND
11 73 A- JUMPER PINS 70 -20
10 IN PL,.
6 -12 VOLT D -C WIRING
Figure 18
SCHEMATIC, POWER SUPPLY OF TRANSCEIVER
CH, -4
h. at 175 ma. S2ancor C -1410
-4
/,h., 6 amp. J. W. Miller 5221
RFC
RFC -2.5
mh., 200 ma. J. W. Miller 5222
S,.-DPST toggle switch, 12 amp. H B H 80600 -268
SO, -21
terminal receptacle. Cinch -Jones P321-5B
SRS, SR.- Selenium rectifier, 156 volt, 250 ma. International Rectifier Corp. 6RS250
PL,, PL -21
terminal plug. Cinch -Jones 5321 -CCT
T, -117 volts at 200 ma., three 6.3 volt windings. Stancor P -8158 (modify as per text).
VIB,- Radiart vibrator type 5503 -6 (6 volt) or 5503 -12 (12 volt)
P,-6.3 volt, 150 mo. Pilot lamp (brown bead)
5:--4 pole, 2 position. Centralab PA9 deck with PA -300 hardware.
RELAY SWITCHING CIRCUIT

The power transformer is made from a TV- (SHOWN UNENERC/ZEO)
replacement type, with a new vibrator winding
replacing the usual 6.3 volt filament windings. RYI RY2
Information covering the conversion of the 2x R -F COIL y---eaR -F COIL
A TO J/ A mac+ TO J2
transformer will be found later in this section. Rx *--o -e. XMTR ANT. COIL XMTR ANT. COIL
The special winding may be arranged for eith- y TO VS TO RECEIVER

B TO +S
-METER B TO !+
er 6 -volt d.c. or 12- volt d.c. operation, but --°-ib 4-o+ TO XMTR
not both. Thus, the choice of d.c. supply volt- I
Tx TO VIO
age must be determined before the transformer C TO -S-METER C ..}UNUSED
s--o+ TO R -F DIODES
is modified.
The filaments of the transceiver are ar-
ranged in a series parallel circuit so that they
may be operated from either 6- or 12 -volts
d.c., or 6.3 volts a.c. with no change in cir- TO CONTROL CIRCUIT TO FILAMENT
IN MICROPHONE VOLTAGE SUPPLY
cuitry. The appropriate filament connections to
the power supply are automatically made when TRANSCEIVER CONTROLS
the proper terminal plug is inserted in SOI. A SWITCHES POTENTIOMETERS
simplified drawing of the primary power wir-
ing of the transceiver is shown in figure 18. SI- SELECTIVITY RI- RECEIVER VOLUME
32 -XMTR CRYSTAL R2 -XMTR AUDIO GAIN
SS- EANDSWITCH, XMTR R3-S-METER ADJ.
Relay and Switching Circuits. The control
Se- FILAMENT
circuits of the de -luxe transceiver are shown in
SS- TUNE-OPERATE
figure 19. Two relays control change-over op-
Se- `ZERO' TUNE
eration. The relay coils are of the d.c. type, S7- eANDSWITCH, RECEIVER
and are connected in series with the push -to- Se- METER SELECTOR, XMTR
talk button of the microphone and the filament Se- SOUELCH
voltage supply. Closing the microphone switch SIO -POWER (SACK OF CHASSIS)
grounds one end of the relay coil circuit and
actuates both relays. Relay RYI controls the Figure 19
144 Mc. antenna changeover, and switches the RELAY CONTROL WIRING AND
LIST OF TRANSCEIVER CONTROLS
S -meter to the r -f output meter circuit of the
transmitter section. Relay AY: conrols the 50
RY:, RY -3pole, DT. Advance MF3C 6VD.
Hook coils in parallel for 6 volt operation.
Mc. antenna changeover, and switches the B-
plus from the receiver to the transmitter. tion of the chassis, with the power supply to
Meter M1 serves as a multi -meter for the the rear left, and the transmitter at the upper
transmitter portion (figure 17) . The basic left of the photograph. The variable TV -type
meter has a 0 -10 d.c. millammeter movement tuner is panel driven by the main tuning dial
and is used as -is for measuring the grid current through a simple speed reduction gear (Crowe).
of VII and VII. Meter switching is accomplished To the side of the tuner are tubes V., V., and
by means of S.. The third position of the switch V7. To the rear of the tuner are the two separ-
connects the meter across the shunt in the plate ate "front end" sections of the receiver. The two
circuit of the modulated amplifier stage. The cascode stages are in the corner, with the 6J6
resistance of the shunt is chosen so that full mixer /oscillator tubes to the left. The various
scale meter deflection is 100 milliamperes. coil slugs and tuning capacitors are mounted
to the chassis deck and are adjustable from the
Transceiver Layout The transceiver is housed top of the unit. Near the center of the chassis
and Assembly in a special cabinet mea- and running from the front to the back is the
suring 14" long, 10" 2009 kc. i -f strip. The four crystals of the i -f
deep, and 51/2" high. The cabinet is formed filter are seen near the front of the chassis di-
from "cane metal" stock and has a removable rectly behind i -f transformer TI. To the left
front panel. The back, which is also made of of the i -f strip arranged in a line are the volt-
solid material is welded to the wrap- around age regulator tube V1., the first 10 cfd. filter
cane -metal cover. The chassis of the unit is capacitor for the speech amplifier, the speech
made of sheet steel which is copper plated amplifier tube VI., the second 100d. filter
after all major holes have been drilled. Chas- capacitor, and the receiver audio amplifier/
sis height is 2 inches. Placement of the major squelch tube VI To the left of these com-
components may be seen in figure 16. The ponents are the two 6ÁQ5 modulator tubes
receiver section occupies the right -hand por- and transformers T. and T.. In the far left
corner of the chassis are placed the power trans- stages at the rear of the chassis and is actuated
former T1, the vibrator VIB,, and the two from the panel by an extension shaft.
power supply filter capacitors. Note that the The r -f section of the transmitter is visible
case of one of the capacitors is "hot" to ground in the upper right area of the chassis, running
and the unit is mounted on a fibre base ring. parallel to the front panel. A small brass
The transmitter components occupy the up- shield is passed across the center of each of the
per left chassis area of the transceiver. The 6360 tube sockets. The shield passes between
6CL6 oscillator stage is at the center of the pins 1 and 9, and 3 and 4. Transmitter band -
chassis with tuning capacitor G to the left. A change switch S. is located in the center com-
small aluminum shield isolates the oscillator partment and the adjoining shields prevent
components from the 6360 buffer /amplifier coupling between the coils of this circuit and
tube. A second shield plate is placed between either the 144 Mc. amplifier coil or the 50
the second stage tuning capacitor CT and the Mc. oscillator coil.
6360 144 Mc. amplifier. Transceiver The transceiver is a complex
Space is provided on the chassis to mount Wiring piece of equipment and should
five miniature crystal holders for the trans-
be wired with care. Space is at
mitter oscillator circuit. A small aluminum a premium and wiring errors are difficult to
clamp holds five additional crystal sockets to find when working in a small area. It is there-
the rear of crystal selector switch S., as seen fore suggested that the unit be wired in sec-
in the under -chassis photograph of figure 20.
tions. The receiver should be wired first, and
The power supply area beneath the chassis placed in operation with an auxiliary power
is separated from the remainder of the cir-
supply. The transmitter may be wired next
cuitry by a 2 inch high copper shield that en- and tested for operation with the receiver.
closes the selenium rectifiers and other small Finally, the power transformer should be con-
supply components. Leads passing out of this verted and the power supply can be wired and
compartment go through chassis mounting type tested within the transceiver. The final check
miniature feedthrough capacitors mounted in is to make sure that all sections operate proper-
holes in the shield (Centralab FT- 1000). ly as a complete system.
The "broad-sharp" switch S, may be seen in
the upper left area of the chassis. Each segment Wiring the Receiver Section. The receiver
of the switch is placed over a group of i -f section should be wired first. It is imperative
crystal sockets so that the leads from the crys- that all r -f wiring and ground leads be short
tals to the switch contacts are extremely short. and direct. As many components as possible
To the left of this switch is the S -meter "zero" are mounted between the pins of the tube
potentiometer R,. The receiver bandswitch ST sockets and the socket ground lugs. Miniature
is located adjacent to the cascode amplifier disc ceramic capacitors are used for bypass pur-
Figure 20
TRANSCEIVER
General layout of the components below the
chassis may be seen in this view. At the lower
right are the power supply components, sep-
arated from the rest of the circuitry by a
copper shield. RY -, RY, and the audio driver
transformer are just above this shield. Across
the front of the chassis is the transmitter
section with the inter -stage shields mounted
across the tube sockets. At the center is the
crystal switch with five crystals mounted to
the wafer of the switch. Directly behind this
switch is the i -f section of the receiver and
the audio output transformer. In the lower
left corner are the cascade r -f stages and the
bandswitch for the receiver which is mounted
on a small bracket and panel driven with
an extension shaft. In front of this switch
are the components of the tuned first con-
version stage. The trimmers used with the TV
"inductuner" are mounted on the tuner ter-
minals.
Sections of 1/4-inch coaxial cables connect the
various antenna circuits to the change -over
relays and the coaxial antenna receptacles
on the rear of the chassis.
TI lo SR, CH,
FIGURE 21 ?SW
e+
COIL TABLE FOR 2 AND 6 METER TRANSCEIVER IA --- -' 4. IOUF
RECEIVER SECTION, FIGURES 14 AND 15
1t7V.
SR/ 'ft''250 +20LF
+150LF 330
Li- 6T. Si 20 E., 3/6' DIA., 1/2' LONG. TAP 2 1/2 T. PRI
-
I
T23D
FROM GROUND END. 06
11SV
L2 -12 T. N20 E. 3/16
DIA. 7/16
LONG. MOUNT BETWEEN ti F-6.3 1 =
PIN 3 AND PIN 6 OF SOCKET VI. v.
LS. LO-S T. M 16 E. 1/4' DIA., SPACED WIRE DIA. ON CTC

IRON CORE FORM PLS6. CENTER -TO-CENTER DIS- \\6.3V. T1=STANCOR P-6156
TANCE BETWEEN L3 AND L4 IS 3/4. ` (UNMODIFIED )
LS- PLATE WINDING. 6T MI6 E. 5/16 DIA.
GRID WINDING: T. PLASTIC HOOKUP WIRE BETWEEN
1
TWO "COLD END TURNS OF PLATE WINDING.

1/2' LONG
F-6 3V
L6-10 T. M 20 E, 3/6' DIA.. 1/2' LONG. TAP 4T FROM GND. END Figure 22
L7, LB -16 T.R 20 E. CLOSEWOUND ON CTC IRON CORE FORM TEST POWER SUPPLY FOR
PLS6. CENTER -TO- CENTER DISTANCE BETWEEN L7
AND LB IS 3/4'. TRANSCEIVER
L9- PLATE WINDING 97.1416 E. 5/16 DIA. 5/6' LONG
GRID WINDING 1T. PLASTIC HOOKUP WIRE BETWEEN
TWO "COLD" END TURNS OF PLATE WINDING. Testing the Receiver Section. After the re-
LIO A, B, C -MALLORY INDUC TUNER, VHF TV TYPE, MODEL 8303 ceiver wiring is completed, it should be thor-
Li,- 0.3311H. J.W. MILLER 4366 R -F CHOKE. oughly checked for errors and omissions. Have
another person check your wiring, as it is often
TRANSMITTER SECTION. FIGURE 17 difficult to find your own errors. When you
LI2 -PLATE WINDING. 12T 16, 3 /4'DIA 3/4 "L. 88w 301r. are sure of the circuitry the receiver section may
ÇRIO WINGING: 7T. 016, 1' DIA. 9/16' L. 66w 3015
PLACE PLATE COIL WITHIN GRID COIL. CIRCUIT be connected to the test power supply shown in
RESONATES TO 24 -26 MC. REGION.
figure 22. This supply makes use of the trans-
L13 -PLATE WINDING 1BT.M16 E. 1/2" DIA.. 11/2 L. WITH ceiver components and may be wired "bread-
1/4"SPACE AT CENTER OF WINDING. CIRCUIT RE-
SONATES TO 50 -54 MC. REGION. board style" for the duration of the tests. A
ANTENNA WINDING; 3 7.020 E. 1/2" DI A. 1/4 LONG
AT CENTER OF PLATE WINDING. speaker is connected to the output jack of the
LI4 -PLATE WINDING, 67. MI6 E 1/2" DIA., 1 1/2' L. WITH receiver, and a modulated test signal of the in-
1/4'SPACE AT CENTER OF WINDING. CIRCUIT RE- termediate frequency is injected on pin 5 of the
SONATES TO 144 -146 MC. REGION.
GRID WINDING, 4T. M20 E. 1/2" DIA. LONG 1/4' 6BE6 mixer tube (V..) . A very small capacitor
AT CENTER OF PLATE WINDING. is used to couple the i -f signal into the receiver.
LIS -PLATE WINDING SAME AS LI4, M IA E. WIRE. Remove the 6J6 oscillator tube (V1) for this
ANTENNA WINGING' 3T. 620 E., 1/2' DIA. 1/4' LONG
AT CENTER OF PLATE WINDING. test. The signal generator can be of the BC -221
type capable of being accurately set to a fre-
quency half-way between the crystal frequencies
of the lattice filter. (In this case, the mid -fre-
poses in the r -f section of the receiver and quency is 2009 kc.) Switch SI is set to the
every attempt should be made to keep the leads "sharp" position and the tuning slugs of the
as short as possible. Components associated with i -f transformers are adjusted for maximum
tubes V1, V., and V. are mounted between the audio output. As the i -f strip is brought into
socket pins and an eight terminal phenolic tie - alignment, the coupling to the signal generator
point strip attached to the side wall of the should be reduced to prevent overloading.
chassis immediately above the sockets. Trim- The 6J6 mixer tube is now replaced and the
ming capacitors CI, C., and Cl are mounted signal generator is tuned to the first inter-
directly to the terminals of the TV tuner. A mediate frequency of 34 Mc. The tuner is ad-
twelve terminal phenolic strip mounts to the justed to the high frequency dial setting and
right of the i -f section of the receiver and sup- oscillator trimming capacitor G adjusted until
ports various components of these stages. generator is heard. R -f padding capacitors G
After the majority of components have been and C. are adjusted for maximum signal
wired, the r -f coils of the receiver are wound strength. If a short antenna is attached to the
and soldered in position. They should be ad- rotor arm of transfer switch S1A, signals in the
justed to resonance with the aid of a grid -dip 30 - 34 Mc. range should be easily received.
oscillator. The first tunable i -f circuit (L,0A -C,) Switch S1 is next set to 50 Mc. and the r -f
and the 6BE6 grid circuit (L,0B -C1) may be amplifier (V.) and mixer tube (V1) for this
adjusted with the aid of the grid -dip oscillator range are placed in their sockets. Oscillator
to cover 30 - 34 Mc. as the main tuning dial tuning capacitor C. and the coupling between
of the receiver is tuned throughout its range. coil L. and the crystal feedback winding are ad-
The mixer circuit (L,.,C -05) covers the range justed for stable operation of the oscillator
of 28 - 32 Mc. stage. The oscillator may be monitored in a
588 Low Power Transmitters T H E R A DI O
nearby receiver tuned to 84 Mc. A signal in cillator coil L.. and will light brightly when the
the 50 - 54 Mc. range is now injected in the oscillator stage is functioning. Capacitor C. is
antenna receptacle (J.) of the receiver section, adjusted for steady operation of the oscillator.
and the adjustable slugs of coils L, and L Bandswitch Si is now set to 50 Mc. and switch
tuned for greatest signal response. The last S3 is set to the "tune" position removing plate
step is to adjust the slug of antenna coil L. and screen voltage from the amplifier tube.
Switch S. should be set to the 144 - 148 The 6360 is inserted in the buffer socket and
Mc. range and tubes Vi and V. are placed in meter switch S. is set to read the grid current
their sockets. Oscillator operation is checked of this stage. A reading of about 3.5 milliam-
at 114 Mc., and coils L., L., and L. are adjusted peres can be obtained by proper adjustment of
for maximum signal response in the 2 meter capacitor C.. The plate circuit of the 50 Mc.
band. When the receiver is operating properly stage should be set to approximate resonant
on both bands, the transmitter section of the frequency with a grid -dip osilclator and a
transceiver may be wired and tested. dummy load or antenna is attached to the 50
Mc. antenna receptacle J.. Switch S. is now set
Wiring the Transmitter Section. The r -f sec- to the operate position and the push -to -talk
tion of the transmitter is wired first. Coupling relay circuit actuated. Amplifier tuning capaci-
coil L.2 between the oscillator and buffer is tor C. is adjusted for maximum meter reading
made of two sections of coil stock that are when the meter is switched to the r -f volt-
telescoping, and the plate coil is placed within meter position. Plate current of the 6306 tube
the grid coil. Coils L.. and L ,. are mounted under this condition is approximately 70 milli-
between the wafer sections of Switch S.. The amperes. The actual value of plate current may
50 Mc. antenna coil is placed between the two be checked by setting meter switch S. to the
windings of L,., and the 144 Mc. grid coil of "amplifier" position (0 - 100 milliamperes) .
the 2 meter amplifier is placed between the The next step is to check the modulator. In-
dual windings of coil L.. The various resistors sert tubes V.., V.., and V.. in their respective
associated with the bandswitch are mounted sockets. Advance gain control R. while speak-
between the terminals of the switch. The 2 ing into the microphone in a normal tone.
meter plate coil L.. is fastened to the terminals When checked in a nearby receiver the modu-
of tuning capacitor C., which project through lation should be clear and crisp.
1/2-inch clearance holes cut in the chassis. The After the transmitter section is operating
2 meter antenna coil is supported on two min- properly on 50 Mc., attention should be given
iature ceramic insulator posts mounted adja- to the 2 meter section. A 144 Mc. antenna is
cent to L... When the r -f wiring is completed, attached to receptacle J., and the 6360 ampli-
the various coils may be adjusted to operating fier tube (V..) is inserted in its socket. Switch
frequency range by varying the spacing between S. is placed in the "tune" position, and the
the turns. coupling between the grid coil of this stage and
The audio section of the transmitter should buffer plate coil L. adjusted for 3.5 milliam-
be wired next. This is a straightforward oper- peres of grid current to V,.. Switch S. auto-
ation and comparatively simple. Small shielded matically activates tube V., when the switch
leads are run from the second section of the is placed in the 144 Mc. position. Finally,
12AX7 speech amplifier to the audio gain switch S. is placed in the 'operate position
control R. mounted on the rear apron of the and the tuning (C.) and loading (C..) controls
chassis near the microphone jack. A shielded are adjusted for maximum indication on the
lead runs from the microphone jack to the r -f voltmeter. Plate current to the 2 meter
first section of the 12AX7. The coils of relays stage is held at 70 milliamperes as measured
RY, and RY. are connected in series with the on the amplifier position of meter switch S..
control pin of J., and are returned to the fila- The bandchange operation will now merely
ment circuit of the transmitter. consist of selecting the proper transmitting
crystal, setting S. to the proper position, and
Testing the Transmitter Section. The trans- adjusting the transmitter controls for maximum
mitter is now temporarily connected to the reading of the r-f voltmeter. The complete
auxiliary power supply and the 6CL6 oscillator bandchanging operation takes about fifteen
tube and an appropriate crystal are inserted in seconds.
their respective sockets. A test lamp should
be made from a 6.3 volt, 150 ma. (brown The Power When the transceiver is in work -
bead) pilot lamp attached to a small loop of Supply ing order, attention should be
wire. This test lamp is coupled loosely to os- turned to the power supply sec-
HANDBOOK Miniature S.S.B. Transmitter 589
tion ( figure 18) . At the time of construction, placed at the 12.6 volt spot on the winding,
no power transformer was available that would or twenty turns from point B. Thus, the fila-
provide the desired voltages and at the same ments work as a "six volt string" for 6/115
time be capable of operation from both a 115 volt operation and as a "twelve volt string"
volt a.c. and a d.c. vibrator primary source. It for 12/115 volt operation. The two different
is necessary, therefore, to find a power trans- arrangements of plug PL-2 necessary to ac-
former that has suitable high voltage windings complish this are shown in figure 18.
and to remove the f4m ent windings, replacing
them with a special multi- purpose winding Testing the Power Supply. After transformer
that will fill the bill. The Stancor P-8158 was T. has been modified, the power supply should
used in this transceiver, and does the job nicely. be wired in accord with figure 18. Before it is
This transformer has a 115 volt primary wind- used with the transceiver, it should be tested
ing, a 117 volt secondary winding designed with both a.c. and d.c. input circuits. The high
for voltage doubler service, and three 6.3 volt voltage system should develop approximately
filament windings. The three filament windings 250 volts across a 1600 ohm 50 watt resistor,
are on the outside of the transformer and may and a full 6.3 volts should be measured across
a 1 ohm, 10 watt filament load resistor. The
be easily removed.
12 volt configuration should develop the same
Power Transformer Modification. The four high voltage under a similar load, and should
transformer bolts should be removed, exposing deliver 12.6 volts across a 2 ohm, 10 watt re-
the copper shorting band of the transformer, sistor. If it is found that the voltages developed
which is taken off. Take off the layers of cam- during operation from the d -c source are lower
bric tape to expose the uppermost filament than the corresponding voltages derived from
winding. Now, remove the unused filament a -c operation, it is an indication that the modi-
windings, being careful not to damage the fied primary winding has too many turns. The
other windings of the transformer. A new transformer should be removed from the in-
winding made of enameled wire should now stallation and one turn removed from each half
be placed over the remaining windings. This of the primary winding. This will boost the
winding will be for either six or twelve volt d.c. plate voltage about 10%. After the voltage
operation, and will have a voltage tap for fila- has been set, the power supply wiring and
ment operation when the supply is run from switching circuits of the transceiver may be
alternating current. During battery operation completed.
the filaments of the transceiver will be run
directly from the d.c. primary source. 28 -4 A Miniaturized
Decide whether you want a six or twelve SSB Transmitter
volt primary winding. The six volt winding for M Mc.
will be made of #14 wire, whereas the twelve
volt winding will be made of #16 wire. Each This 40 watt p.e.p. sideband transmitter was
winding will have a tap at the proper point to designed to provide the greatest amount of
provide voltage for the tube filaments. This "talk power" for a given size and weight. It
new winding is shown on transformer T., was built by W6AVA expressly for the pur-
figure 18. pose of permitting amateurs in far-off coun-
The new winding will be put on in two tries to have the opportunity to experiment
halves, since two separate windings are re- with SSB transmission. The completely self -
quired for proper operation of the "full-wave" contained transmitter has been shipped around
vibrator. The six volt winding consists of two the world by air freight, and has been operated
separate windings of 14 turns of #14 wire. in such locations as Canton Island, Fiji, Brunei,
The windings are wound on in series, with the Singapore, and other exotic spots.
two adjacent leads brought out as a center tap The transmitter and power supply is con-
(see terminal B, T1, figure 18) . The 6.3 volt tained within an aluminum case measuring
filament tap (terminal D, TO is placed ten 9" x 6" x 5" and weighs less than seven
turns from the junction of the two windings pounds. When encased in a strong cardboard
(point B). The windings should be carefully box it is completely transportable by air ex-
taped in place and the transformer reassembled. press. Primary power source can be either 115 -
If twelve volt operation is desired, two separate or 230 -volts, 50 - 60 cycles. Air tested by many
windings of 28 turns of #16 wire are wound hours of operation under conditions of extreme
in series on the transformer. The filament tap heat and humidity, this small sideband trans-
for a -c operation of the filaments (D) is mitter has proven to be an effective design
that may provide inspiration for a more elab- the "carrier null" potentiometer R.. For maxi-
orate assembly. Tuning adjustments are simple mum carrier elimination capacitor C. is ad-
and fool proof, and the transmitter remains in justed to neutralize the capacity feed -through
alignment without time consuming balancing which may occur between V.A and V.B.
of r -f and audio phase networks. With proper adjustment of C. and R. a car-
Transmitter A block diagram of the circuit rier reduction of greater than 40 decibels be-
Circuitry is shown in figure 24. Fourteen low maximum SSB signal may be obtained
tubes are used including two with stability.
voltage regulators. The filter method of side - The mixing carrier is generated at approx-
band generation is employed using a 500 kc. imately 498 kc., the frequency of the "20
Collins mechanical filter having a passband of db attenuation point" of the mechanical filter.
3.1 kc. The sideband signal is heterodyned to The carrier is coupled into the Crosby modu-
the 14 Mc. operating frequency by two mixer lator through cathode follower V.B. A single
stages. A voltage doubler type silicon rectifier sideband suppressed carrier signal appears at
power supply provides high voltage for trans- the output terminals of the mechanical filter
mitter operation. and is amplified by a single 5702 pentode
The complete transmitter schematic is given stage (V.) , which drives a cathode coupled
in figures 26 and 29. Sub -miniature tubes are 6BG7 mixer (V.) . A crystal oscillator (V..)
used wherever possible to conserve space. The operating on 4002 kc. provides mixing voltage
audio and sideband generation section of the to deliver a 4.5 Mc. sideband signal in the
transmitter is illustrated in figure 26. The heart output circuit of the mixer tube. Two double
of this section is the Crosby triple triode mod- tuned transformers (T. and T.) provide ade-
ulator stage (V_A, V.A, V.B) . The first quate supression of the mixer voltage. Further
triode serves as a cathode follower audio stage signal amplification is obtained at 4.5 Mc. by
and is driven by a sub -miniature 5702 resis- virtue of a 6BG7 cascode r -f amplifier stage,
tance coupled audio amplifier V.. The second V..
triode is also a cathode follower (V.A) and At this point the signal is mixed in a second
is excited by the mixing oscillator stage V.A, cathode coupled mixer stage (V.) and hetero-
B. The cathode follower output voltage is de- dyned to the 14 Mc. amateur band. The mix-
veloped across a common cathode resistor and ing oscillator operates in the 9.7 - 9.8 Mc. re-
is injected into the cathode of a grounded grid gion and uses a 5744 triode (V..) in a Pierce
mixer tube V.B. A double sideband A -M circuit. The 14 Mc. SSB signal is developed
signal is developed in the plate circuit of the across a tuned circuit in the plate of the mixer
mixer tube. The phase of the signal at the tube. The signal level at this point is quite
plate of mixer V.B is opposite to that of a low, and a second cascode r -f amplifier (V.)
signal injected on the control grid of the tube. is employed to boost the signal to a level high
Cancellation of the carrier is therefore possible enough to drive a class AB, tetrode linear am-
by injecting the r -f carrier on this grid via plifier. The RCA 6524 dual beam amplifier
tube requires only 33 volts peak drive signal
to develop 50 watts p.e.p., so it was chosen for
the final r -f amplifier stage. With the two sec-
tions of the tube connected in parallel and 475
volts applied to the plates approximately 40
watts p.e.p. can be obtained from the tube.
For maximum stability and freedom from para-
sitic oscillations, suppressors are placed in the
grid and plate leads of the tube and the stage
is neutralized.
A simple pi- section output circuit is em-
Figure 23
SINGLE SIDEBAND IN A SMALL PACKAGE!
A complete filter -type 14 Mc. single sideband trans-
mitter capable of 40 watts p.e.p. and less than one -hall
cubic foot in size is described in this section. Com-
pletely self contained, this seven pound sideband pack-
age is well suited for portable or mobile operation. Pri-
mary power source is 115 230 volts, 50 -60 cycles. Sili-
con rectifiers are used in high voltage supply and a
6524 is employed as high level linear amplifier.
AUDIO CATHODE PRODUCT I -F SECOND

MIXER
.5 MC.
AMPLIFIER
THIRD
MIXER
FIRST 14 MC.
AMPLIFIER
SECOND 14 MC.
AMPLIFIER
AMP. FOLLOWER MODULATOR AMPLIFIER
ATAL V1 V2A V3 Ve V6 V7 Ve V9 V12
500KC.
"10 Ri
MECHANICAL
FILTER
T3
GAIN
CONTROL OSCILLATOR
CATHODE- FOLLOWER OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR
® V4
CRYSTAL X1
V10
CRYSTAL X 2
VII
CRYSTAL X3
96 KC 4002 KC. 9.7 -9.6 MC.
r475 125 +300
POWER
SUPPLY V13 V14
REG. REG.
115 /2300.
50-60 Y.,
LAYOUT, CHASSIS* 1, SIDE* I LAYOUT, CHASSIS* I, FRONT LAYOUT. CHASSIS *1, SIDE a
3 AND Ve AND
SHIELD SHIELD
B
Cie (0 \ MECHANICAL
FILTER X3 Ri
O SHIELD VS L16 OJt

V1
V4 AND 0R3 Cie Rae
SHIELD
Figure 24
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND PARTS LAYOUT OF 14 MC. SIDEBAND TRANSMITTER
Fourteen tubes (including two voltage regulators) are used in this compact transmitter. A "Crosby"
modulator and 500 kc. Collins Mechanical Filter are employed for sideband generation. First frequency
conversion is to 4 Mc., and second frequency conversion is to 14 Mc.
Layout of major components on both sides and front of special chassis is shown in the illustration.
Figure 25
OBLIQUE VIEW OF
AMPLIFIER AND
EXCITER CHASSIS
The power amplifier !¡*
chassis is at the left. The F
plate coil, plate tuning
F
capacitor and loading 'e+:. ñ

switch are in the fore-
ground. Side _ of the 1
exciter is shown. The in-

ter-chassis area is cov-
ered with perforated
metal. The tip jacks for
the receiver disabling
circuit are on the right
edge of the chassis. Cor-
ners of the mounting
base are rounded to per-
mit close fit with round-
ed corners of drawn
aluminum case.
592 Low Power Transmitters
ployed with the linear amplifier stage. In order Tarzian silicon rectifiers. The forward voltage
to conserve space, the usual variable capacitor drop of these rectifiers is of the order of only
is omitted from the output side of the network 1.5 volts and the back resistance is extremely
and a rotary switch and selection of fixed ca- high. Because of the very small size, a great
pacitors is employed in its place. Proper choice number of rectifiers may be placed in a small
of capacitors permits the transmitter to be area (figure 33) Care must be taken with
.
matched to 52- or 72 -ohm transmission lines these rectifiers not to overload them with an
having s.w.r. values as great as 2.5/1. accidental short circuit. Peak currents are cri-
The problem of obtaining the necessary d -c tical because the small mass of the rectifier
power from a supply that would fit within element will heat instantaneously and could
the small cabinet space was solved by employ- conceivably reach failure temperature within
ing a bridge rectifier using the new Sarkes- a time lapse of a few microseconds. The use of
SIDE * 1 OF CHASSIS * 1
VI V2A V3A V3B VS

5702 4-6111 +6111 5702 TI
SIAL 2.2.0 220 001 (500 KC )
HIC.
A
Ji 4.711 TO
CHASSIS
2,
ve
10UT
25 SSIS
B +125 FROM
4-0 O BY SUPPLY
500 B (CONTROL )
C
TO FIG. 2:
NOTES
Xi I- CAPACITORS MARKED * ARE 240 LINF FOR TYPE
CARRIER S008-37
MODEL FILTER.
NULL 2- ALL RESISTORS 1/2 -WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED.
O
R3,10K 3-C=.01././F DISC CERAMIC CAPACITOR.
47015
50
4- SUBMINIATURE TUBE SOCKET TERMINALS
leo KI K2
Sr02 eeG7 111
K.0 0
R2, 10K
= CARRIER
ÔOr ô_or RED 744 RED H
01
3 s
.2 e7
H
G2
INSERT
G1 K G3 N H G2 P KG IH HP
CHASSIS *3 CHI
T4
CONNECTIONS TO
CHASSIS 1 e 2
+75 V.
e.3 V. )
(AT EACH TUBE SOCKET)
Figure 26
SCHEMATIC, LOW FREQUENCY SECTION AND POWER SUPPLY OF SSB TRANSMITTER
DL, -Time delay relay, 45 seconds. Amperite 6N045 -T. Normally open.
T,-455 kc. miniature i -f transformer. J. W. Miller 12 -C9. Remove turns from windings to resonate at
500 kc.
T.-150 volt, 125 ma., 500 volt, 125 ma., 6.3 volt, 4 amp. Two 11S volt, 50 -60 cycle primary windings.
Walgren 3266. Walgren Electric Mfg. Co., Pasadena, Calif.
CH,, CH- 2 henry at 130 ma. Stancor C -2303
SR, -Four silicon rectifiers. Max. inverse volts = 280. Sarkes -Tarzian M -500 or 7N1084
SR,--Eight silicon rectifiers, two in series for each leg. Max. inverse volts 280. Sarkes-Tarzian M-500
or 1N1084
MF-Collings Mechanical Filter, 3.1 kc. bandwidth, 500 kc. center frequency. Type 5008 -31
X,-Approximately 498 kc. Frequency chosen to place carrier oscillator at "20 db. down" point on filter
curve (see filter data sheet).
RFC -2.5 mh. miniature r-f choke. Millen 1300 -2500.
5,-See figure 29
Figure 27
INTERIOR OF LOW FREQUENCY
PORTION OF FILTER TYPE SSB
TRANSMITTER
500 kc. filter and low frequency components
are on the bottom deck of the chassis. Small
components are mounted between socket pins
and miniature tie -point terminals. Interior
shield isolates low frequency section from
conversion oscillators and 4 Mc. amplifier
stages. The "twenty meter" conversion crys-
tal X, projects through the front panel of
the transmitter (left). Note that transformers
are mounted below chassis level to bring
overall height even with that of miniature
tubes. 6BK7A amplifier tube is also sub -
mounted.
Power leads that pass through inter -stage
shielding are routed through feed -thru type
ceramic insulators (Centralab type FT- 1000).
an auxiliary supply for tuning operations, the actual placement of major components is
therefore, is highly recommended. shown in figures 25 and 27. The mechanical
filter occupies the upper right portion of the
Transmitter Layout The transmitter is built deck. Input and output circuits of the filter
and Assembly in three sections which are isolated by a shield partition that passes
are held together by a across the midsection of the filter. This shield
common front panel. The exciter ( figure 27) , also braces side #1 to the interior full -
the linear amplifier (figure 31), and the power length shield seen in figure 27. Power leads
supply (figure 33) make up these three sec- from this portion of the exciter pass through
tions. When the three sections are placed in .001 I.Lpfd. Centralab type FT ceramic feed -
position they appear as in figure 32. A rear through capacitors. These capacitors are em-
view of the complete transmitter (minus the ployed wherever power leads pass through an
case) is shown in figure 28. The sections are interstage shield. Note that coupling trans-
bolted together and the complete assembly is former T. is submounted to bring its height
fastened to the front panel. Because space is at in line with that of the sub -miniature tubes.
a premium in such a configuration, each chas- All components are mounted on this side of
sis is individually designed and shaped to fit the chassis and it is wired before it is attached
the unusual layout. A sketch of the exciter to the base.
chassis is shown in figure 24. It is formed Side #2 of the exciter chassis is attached
from two sides and a base. The base mounts to the base, and is further braced to side #1
in a vertical position in the completed as- by an end plate and an interstage shield. The
sembly (see figure 28) Side #1 of the ex-
. 6BK7A socket, and transformers T2 and T2
citer chassis contains the low frequency portion are submounted to bring their height down to
of the exciter and can be seen in figure 26, and that of the sub -miniature tubes. The compon-
Figure 28
REAR VIEW OF ASSEMBLED SSB
TRANSMITTER
The three sub -assemblies of the transmitter
are fastened together and bolted to the front
panel. At the left is the power supply section.
The a.c. power receptacle is at the bottom
of the assembly with the two filter chokes
at the left. Above the chokes is the bank of
silicon rectifiers with the two voltage regula-
tor tubes and dropping resistor at the top of
the supply.
The linear amplifier comprises the center sec-
tion of the assembly. Antenna and receiver
coaxial receptacles are mounted on a small
bracket bolted between the outer sections.
Plate coil is visible at the top of the chassis
with adjustable loading switch to the right.
The right section of the assembly is the ex-
citer, shown in detail in ligure 27.
SIDE *2 OF CHASSIS *I
V6 V7 Ve V9
6507 T2 6B(G 7 T3 6111 L, BK 7A Lz
J11.00 (7MC)
(4.3MC)
-0 (4.5MC) (l4MC)
o -1(001/C
`(00,/C
A 47
á
FIG.20 1. 11 I
EQT "
C AMP.I
KSTACEI
220 C 220 L31
SSB 1e0
IfE--e 1
t2
ja
-
_
J2,1(EY1J"
Cw ,20
C = C
PC PC
N
w
13+300v.
Vlo
5744
100K
B(coNTROL).
FIG. 26
Viz CHASSIS 2
8524 PC
L3 001 L4
(14 MCI SKV U4MC.) S2 ssBSIC
(-100001
ANTENNA
l
BY o
C4 -x C51
TO L2
50
3T Cw
C
ss SID J4
'
BY
RFC
RECEIVER
AF 1
(SEE rEXr) Cw
u DISABLE
220 J5
NOTES
220 SH1 1-ALL RESISTORS I/2 WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED.
2 -C ° .01 LP CERAMIC CAPACITOR
B1
37.5 v. -- 3- SEE FIGURE 26 FOR SOCKET CONNECTIONS OF
SUBM/N/AtURE TUBES.
+300V. +475 V.
Figure 29
Tr, T,-4.5 Mc. interstage transformer. J. W. Miller 6204
L1-20 turns »22 e., 1/4" diam.. 3/e" long on ceramic form with iron slug. J. W. Miller 4504
L,, L,-15 turns ::18, 3/e" diem, 3A" long on polystyrene form. Link 2 turns hookup wire.
L. 12 turns# 16, 11/4" diam., 11/2" long
C,-50 µµId. ceramic trimmer. Centralab 822 -AN
-50 µµId.
C. Johnson 501(10
C,-9 µµid. Johnson 9M11
Ch-50 µpfd. Johnson S0LIS
C, -75 µpfd. fixed capacitor. Switch 5: odds seven 33 ppfd. capacitors in succession. (EI -Mento type
CM -19 or Centralab TCZ -33).
-5
S,A -E
S,-
pole, 3 position. Centralab PA -2015
Centralab P -121 Index Assembly with PIS progressive shorting deck.
Xr -4002 kc. Precision Crystal Lab., Santa Monica, Calif.
X,- Frequency = 20 meter frequency minus 4500 kc.
PC- Parasitic choke. 52 ohm, 1 watt resistor wound with 6 turns 16 wire.
RFC-21/2 mh. miniature r -f choke. Millen J300 -2500
M
B,
-0-10 d.c. milliammeter.
-37.5 volts. Burgess XX22 plus two type Z flashlight cells
5H, -150 ma. shunt. 100 ohms
RFC,- Ohmite Z -14 r -f choke
ents are mounted and wired before the side is portion of the transmitter assembly, and can
attached to the base. The base contains no wir- be seen in figures 23, 25, and 30. The tube
ing, except for two leads to the receiver dis- socket and major parts are mounted on a flat
abling jacks J. and Js. plate, with the grid circuit components en-
Amplifier chassis #2 occupies the center closed in a "step" shaped box. This shield is
Figure 30
LINEAR AMPLIFIER
AND EXCITER
SECTIONS OF SSB
TRANSMITTER
Left: Linear amplifier is
constructed upon an
aluminum sheet with
grid circuit enclosed by
small L- shaped shield
box. Low impedance link
leads from exciter pass
through grommet in box.
The coaxial output ca-
ble posses through chas-
sis hole to changeover
switch. Space to the right
of grid enclosure is oc-
cupied by meter and time
delay relay.
Right: Front view of as-
sembled exciter chassis
shows main panel con-
trols. Chassis mounts in
vertical position in final
assembly. "Twenty me-
ter" conversion crystal
J
socket is at top, left, of
front of assembly.
clearly visible in figure 32. The clearance space occupies the far end of the chassis. Pi- network
provided by the "step" is occupied by the switch S, is placed next to the tuning capaci-
"SSB- standby -CW" switch S, which is mount- tor, and the various padding capacitors are
ed to the panel in close proximity to the grid mounted directly on the back of the switch
circuit components of the amplifier stage. The section.
important leads to the control switch pass out Power supply chassis #3 is attached to the
of the grid compartment through ceramic feed front panel, and the weight of the supply is
through capacitors mounted on the wall of the supported by a sheet metal screw run through
"step" shield. The coaxial r-f output lead and the rear of the case into the supply chassis
the grid bias lead also pass through this shield after final assembly. The power supply com-
and may be seen in figure 32. ponents are mounted upon a phenolic board
Figure 31 provides a close -up of the in- which in turn is fastened to the aluminum
terior section of the amplifier chassis. Grid chassis frame. The silicon rectifiers are held in
coil L is affixed to a polystyrene insulator and position by fuse clips mounted on the boards
is mounted to the side of the chassis -box. Neu- and are placed so that they obtain the maxi-
tralizing capacitor G is placed on a small poly- mum possible ventilation. The primary power
styrene plate adjacent to the 6524 amplifier plug is placed on the rear of the supply chas-
tube. Plate r -f choke is next to C., and the sis and projects through a hole cut in the case
5KV plate blocking capacitor is supported be- of the transmitter. The time delay relay DL -1
tween the top end of the choke and the stator is mounted on the side of the amplifier chassis
of tuning capacitor C1. The plate inductor L, and may be seen in figure 31. The small bias
battery for the amplifier stage fits below this
space.
Transmitter It is important that no low
Wiring frequency energy pass around
the mechanical filter as spurious
Figure 31
INTERIOR VIEW OF LINEAR
AMPLIFIER GRID COMPARTMENT
Time delay relay is mounted on side of grid
box, occupying space between the panel meter
and plate tank assembly. The grid coil and
tuning capacitor can be seen below the tube
socket. Neutralizing capacitor is made from
Johnson 30M8 with every third plate removed,
but capacitor listed in parts list of figure 29
is satisfactory.
Figure 32
COMPLETE R -F ASSEMBLY OF 20
METER SSB TRANSMITTER
The two r -f units are bolted together in this
view. The power supply chassis mounts on the
right -hand edge of this assembly. Bias bat-
teries fit in the lower area of the center unit,
while plate meter fits into upper space in
front of time delay relay. Compare this view
with figure 23. This photo is taken from the
right front, looking upward at the assembly.
the crystal frequency plus the frequency of

the audio signal. (i.e.; a 2 kc. audio signal
will produce a carrier frequency of 500 kc.).
The carrier may be observed on an oscilloscope
as described in chapter 17 and audio signal
level and null adjustments are varied to reduce
the residual "ripple" modulation of the car-
rier.
Conversion crystal X_ and tubes V «, V;, V.,
and V. are inserted in the proper sockets and
the receiver is tuned to 4.5 Mc. and coupled
leakage will deteriorate the sideband and car- to the secondary winding of Ta. Transformer
rier suppression to a great degree. Power leads T1, T_, and T. are adjusted for maximum sig-
are therefore bypassed with feed through type
ceramic capacitors at each partition. Several
circuits (V,B, V_, V3, V;, and Vs) are of
the "hot cathode" type in which r -f voltage
appears on the cathode of the tube. It is very
necessary, therefore, to bypass the filament
lead of these tubes to prevent a signal leakage
path along the common filament wiring.
Bypass capacitors are placed directly at the
1
tube socket pins to conserve space and all
wiring is short and direct. Coil L. (14 Mc.
mixer plate coil) is mounted within the chassis
assembly on a small bracket and a short ex-
tension shaft is soldered to the slug to permit
circuit adjustment from the front panel. All
wiring must be checked for opens, shorts, trans-
positions, and accidental grounds before power
is applied to the transmitter.
Testing the The transmitter should be test-
Transmitter ed in sections before it is as-
sembled in the case. The use
of an auxiliary power supply is recommended.
The exciter section should be tested first. A
one kilocycle audio signal of low harmonic
content is applied to the microphone jack J.. Figure 33
"Carrier insert" potentiometer R5 is set at zero COMPACT SILICON POWER SUPPLY
(ground end) and the antenna of a receiver RUNS ENTIRE TRANSMITTER
capable of tuning to 500 kc. is attached to Miniature silicon rectifiers permit the com-
plete power supply to be built in extremely
point A, figure 26. Before the audio signal is small space. Rectifiers are mounted in fuse
applied, "carrier null" potentiometer Ra and clips bolted to phenolic board. Power trans-
former occupies bottom area of assembly and
neutralizing capacitor C. are adjusted for min- is fastened to aluminum assembly plate by
imum signal at the crystal frequency of 498 the four bolts in the foreground. Primary
power plug can be seen at top of unit, with
kc. When the audio level is advanced an un- the two filter chokes mounted back -to -back
on an arm of the assembly plate. Voltage reg-
modulated carrier should be heard in the re- ulator tubes and dropping resistors are in the
ceiver. The frequency of the carrier will be foreground.
Figure 34
"DUPLEX" TRANSMITTER- RECEIVER
FOR 220 MC. RADIO LINK
The width of the amateur 220 Mc. band per-
mits simultaneous duplex transmission between
two remote points. This compact VHF package
contains a complete 220 Mc. "Radio Link." A
crystal controlled transmitter operates on
224.6 Mc. The receiver operates at a fre-
quency of 220.1 Mc. Signal from the trans-
mitter acts as local oscillator for the i -f sig-
nal of 4.5 Mc.
The complete station is housed in single steel
cabinet. Transmitter section is at left with
crystal mounted on panel. Receiver section is
at right with power supply occupying lower
portion of cabinet. Transmitter may be tone
modulated for i.c.w. transmission.
nal level at 4.5 Mc. if a broadband oscilloscope, and tubes V. and V are placed in their sockets.
such as the Heathkit 0 -11 is at hand, the signal Capacitor C, (figure 29) is tuned for maxi-
may be observed visually and the audio level mum SSB signal in the 14 Mc. band. The in-
may be set for minimum carrier modulation. terstage coupling transformers are peaked for
When monitored in the receiver the 4.5 Mc. maximum sideband signal and the receiver
signal should be a pure carrier with little or may be used for monitoring purposes. Voice
no tone modulation. When audio gain con- modulation of the transmitter should be sharp
trol R, is retarded, the signal should gradually and clean. The carrier may be inserted for
weaken and disappear. After satisfactory oper- test purposes by advancing potentiometer Rs.
ation is obtained at this frequency, crystal Xr The next step is to check the operation of
7T
220.1 MC R -F
AMP.
R -F
AMP. MIXER
4.5 MC
2
I-F
3 DET.
ANL /AVC AUDIO
V, Va V3 V5 V6 V7 V12
224.6MC R -F
AMP TRIPLER TRIPLER OSC.
VII VIO V9 ve
4.994MC
12Aí7 12ÁT7
®
VHF "RADIO LINK"
MODULATOR SPEECH
V13 V,4
12AU7 CARBON +300V. AT 210MA.
'I MICROPHONE
RECT.
VI 7
AUDIO OSC.
V15
n5v 1,
Figure 35
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF 220 MC. TRANSMITTER -RECEIVER
Seventeen tubes are employed in the VHF station. The receiver has two grounded grid r -f stages for
maximum sensitivity. Local oscillator injection is provided from the transmitter. Three 4.5 Mc i -f stages
provide excellent gain and adequate selectivity. Transmitter is crystal controlled from 25 Mc. crystal
and is plate modulated. Power supply provides 300 volts at 210 milliamperes. Transmitter draws 80
milliamperes, receiver draws 75 milliamperes, and modulator draws approximately 45 milliamperes under
l00x, modulation. Speech system is designated to be used with high gain mobile -type carbon microphone.
28 -5 A Duplex
Transmitter- Receiver
for 220 Mc.
Duplex operation is permitted in the 220
Mc. amateur band and opens interesting pos-
sibilities for unusual and novel forms of equip-
ment. This class of operation consists of two
one-way communication links separated in fre-
quency from each other sufficiently to permit
interference -free operation. The width of the
220 Mc. band permits placing one link at the
low frequency end of the band and the other
link near the high frequency end of the band
without the danger of excessive interference
between the links.
Shown in figure 35 is the block diagram of
a transmitter- receiver unit designed to serve
as one end of a typical duplex communication
link. Transmission takes place on 224.6 Mc.,
and reception takes place on 220.1 Mc. The
frequency separation between the two links is
4.5 Mc. At the opposite end of the link, trans-
mission takes place on 220.1 Mc., and recep-
tion takes place on 224.6 Mc.
The complete duplex station is built within
a single cabinet and employs a common power
Figure 36 supply. Separate antennas are used for trans-
REMOVAL OF FRONT PANEL SHOWS mission and reception, and communication is
PLACEMENT OF R -F CHASSIS maintained in the same manner as in the case
The receiver and transmitter sections are bolt- of a "land- line," that is, simultaneous recep-
ed together to form a single unit which sits
near tha top edges of the power transformer tion and transmission are possible.
and modulator chassis. Power supply chassis
is bolted to cabinet "on edge" along left Transmitter -Receiver The schematic of the
hand side, and modulator chassis is attached
in the some fashion along the right hand side Circuitry transmitter - receiver
of the cabinet. Ventilation holes are drilled is given in figure 37
along upper edge of rear portion of cabinet.
and figure 38. The receiver section employs
eight tubes in a superheterodyne circuit having
the linear amplifier stage. Bias voltage should two grounded grid r -f amplifier stages ( figure
be applied to the 6524 and meter switch Ss 35) . The intermediate frequency of the re-
set to the grid position. With full carrier in- ceiver is 4.5 Mc. and three stages of i -f ampli-
sertion, one or two milliamperes of grid cur- fication are used. Since the frequency separa-
rent will flow. The stage is neutralized by tion of the two links is 4.5 Mc. it is feasible to
adjusting capacitor G for minimum grid cur- employ the signal from the transmitter portion
rent fluctuation as the plate circuit is tuned of the unit as the injection frequency for the
through resonance. A dummy load is then at- first mixer of the receiver. Thus with the use
tached to the antenna receptacle (J.,) and the of two properly chosen transmitter crystals
amplifier stage tuned in the usual manner. (one at each end of the duplex link) the two
Make sure that plate voltage is never removed transmitter - receivers are locked on frequency
when excitation is applied to the tube as the and tuning of the receivers is unnecessary. The
screen current will increase to such a value transmission frequency at each end of the cir-
as to endanger the tube. Always remove the cuit controls the frequency of reception of the
screen lead when you remove the plate voltage. receiver portion of the transmitter -receiver.
When the carrier is nulled out, the resting Two 6ÁJ4 tubes are used in the receiver as
plate current of the linear amplifier will be grounded grid r -f amplifier stages. The gain
about 20 ma., ritinz to about 100 ma. under per stage is quite low but is sufficient to over-
voice peaks. No grid current should be indi- come the noise level of the mixer tube (V.).
cated under these conditions. R -f energy from the transmitter section pro-
HANDBOOK 220 -Mc. Duplex 599
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iX N THI 136 7 1-7
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600 Low Power Transmitters
V14 V13
12AU7 Te 12AX7 7
PIN 1, PL,
R
4711
IW
CARBON
M IC.
MODULATOR SECTION
J3
PIN 5. PLI
CHI
4 300 V. TO PINS
2l S, PL,
O1
'ISV.
KEY
R2
ti POWER SUPPLY SECTION
loo TONE
OLF GAIN
25 6.3V. TO PIN 3, PLI
PILOT
AUDIO TONE OSCILLATOR s 1
Via
FROM RECEIVER 6C4 T5
(PINE, PLO 1_
J4 NOTES
500 11 PHONES
RI I ALL RESISTORS I/2 WATT UNLESS
OTHERWISE NOTED.
AUDIO VOLUME 10ÚF

RECEIVER 25
RECEIVER AUDIO STAGE

Figure 38
SCHEMATIC, AUDIO AND POWER SUPPLY SECTIONS OF TRANSMITTER -RECEIVER
TI, T.-10K pri., 4 ohm sec. Stancor A -3879
Ts-10K pri., Pri. to 2 sec. 2:1. Stancor A -4713
1
T, -10 pri., 8K sec. Stancor A -3845

T,-360-0-360 volts at 200 ma., 5 v. at 6 amp., 6.3 v. at 9 amp. Stancor P -8351
CH: -2 henry at 200 ma. Stancor C -2325
B- Miniature blower motor and fan, 115 volts
Figure 39
REAR VIEW, R -F DECKS OF
TRANSMITTER- RECEIVER
Receiver deck is at the left and
transmitter deck is at the right.
The two chassis are bolted to-
gether to form one unit. Across
the back lip (left to right) are;
Receiver antenna receptacle,
pwoer plug PL , meter terminals,
transmitter antenna receptacle,
and transmitter loading ca-
pacitor.
Rows of I,"
holes are drilled in
the transmitter chassis to im-
prove ventilation of the rectfier
area under the chassis.
Figure 40
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW, R -F DECKS
OF TRANSMITTER -RECEIVER
Small components of both sections are mount-
ed between tube socket pins and phenolic
terminal strips mounted at center of chassis.
Small copper shields are placed across center
i.
of 6A14 r -f tube sockets of the receiver.
Shield plate made of perforated aluminum
sheet is placed over bottom of transmitter
chassis to reduce injection voltage to receiver
mixer stage. Neutralization capacitors of
transmitter amplifier stage are mounted di-
rectly across socket on either side of the
grid coil.
vides the proper mixing voltage for this stage.

Three stages of 6BA6 amplifiers at 4.5 Mc.
comprise the i -f section of the receiver. A -v -c
is applied to each stage. A 6T8 multi -purpose
tube (V,) is employed as diode detector, a -v -c
rectifier, noise limiter, and first audio stage.
The transmitter section is mounted upon a drives a second 12AT7 tripler stage to 224.6
separate chassis. A 6AB4 triode oscillator (V.) Mc. All stages employ capacity coupling. A
operates on 24.994 Mc. The plate circuit of third 12AT7 ( V5 ) is used as a push -pull neu-
this stage is split to provide balanced drive tralized amplifier at 224.6 Mc. The plate cir-
to a push -pull 12AT7 tripler, which in turn cuit of this stage is a "hair pin" inductance
(L.) tuned by a miniature butterfly capacitor
G. Inductive coupling is employed between the
driver stage (V,.) and the amplifier, and be-
tween the amplifier and the antenna circuit. A
1N34 germanium diode serves as a r-f volt-
meter in the antenna circuit for transmitter
tuning purposes.
The transmitter modulator, audio tone os-
cillator, and receiver audio amplifier stage are
mounted upon another chassis (figure 38).
The modulator uses two tubes. A 12AU7 (V24)
serves as a two stage resistance coupled speech
amplifier, and a 12AX7 (V23) is used as a
class B modulator. The speech amplifier is de-
signed to be used with a mobile -type carbon
microphone. M -c -w transmission is permissible
in the 220 Mc. band and a 12AU7 (V,.) audio
oscillator has been added for this purpose. The
oscillator may be keyed for code transmissions.
The power supply occupies the remaining
chassis. It uses two 5Y3 rectifier tubes to pro-
vide 300 volts at a current drain of 210 mil-
liamperes. No standby circuits are required
since both transmitter and receiver operate
simultaneously.
Figure 41
TRANSMITTER -RECEIVER CABINET, Assembly The complete assembly is hous-
SHOWING POWER SUPPLY ond Wiring ed in a steel cabinet measuring
AND MODULATOR 7" x 12" x 8" (figures 34 and
The power supply and modulator chassis are
mounted vertically against the side walls of 36). The receiver and transmitter portions are
the cabinet. The tubes are mounted on the built upon two aluminum chassis measuring
top edge of the chassis. A small blower motor 5" x 8" x 1 ". These chassis are bolted together
is placed at the rear of the chassis for con-
tinuous duty operation. R -f section sits upon as seen in figures 39 and 40 and occupy the
power transformer and is held in position by center section of the cabinet. The power supply
panel bolts and sheet metal screws passed
through rear of cabinet. and modulator are built upon two similar
chassis that are mounted against the side walls tured coil stock and are mounted to the stator
of the cabinet as seen in figure 41. The corners rods of the tuning capacitors. Coils La and L4
of these chassis are rounded to permit mount- may be wound from enameled wire. The var-
ing them snugly against the walls of the cab- ious power leads, decoupling resistors and ca-
inet. The various tubes are mounted in a verti- pacitors are placed clear of the r-f circuitry
cal position on the upper side of the chassis and the components are mounted upon pheno-
while the transformers mount on the vertical lic tie point strips placed adjacent to the tube
surface. To the rear of the cabinet is a small sockets. The power leads and meter leads
blower motor to provide adequate ventilation that leave the chassis pass through ceramic
for protracted operation of the equipment. The feed through capacitors (Centralab FT-1000)
various manual controls fasten directly to the mounted on the walls of the chassis.
main panel of the cabinet and flexible leads
are run from them to their respective circuits Preliminary Transmitter Adjustments. Trans-
in the equipment. The r -f deck sits atop the mitter operation may be checked using the
power transformer and the modulation trans- power supply shown in figure 38, or any aux-
former and is held in position by sheet metal iliary supply capable of providing about 200
volts at 80 milliamperes. If the permanent sup-
screws that pass through the rear wall of the
ply is used for tune -up purposes, a 5000 ohm,
cabinet into the chassis.
10 -watt dropping resistor should be placed in
The Transmitter Chassis. The placement of series with the B -plus lead to the exciter to
major parts on the transmitter chassis may be protect the tubes in case of misadjustments.
seen in figures 39 and 40. The crystal oscilla- Tuned circuit L. -C. may be set to 25 Mc. with
tor stage is at the front of the chassis with the the aid of a grid dip oscillator and the 6AB4
crystal mounted in a horizontal position, pro- oscillator tube and crystal X. plugged in their
jecting through the front panel of the cabinet. sockets. Proper operation of this and succeeding
The multiplier stages fall in a line, with the stages may be checked with a 2 volt, 60 milli-
final amplifier stage at the rear of the chassis. ampere ( pink bead) flash light bulb attached
The coaxial antenna receptacle J1 and antenna to a small loop of wire which is held in prox-
tuning capacitor C. are mounted to the rear. imity to the coil of the stage being adjusted.
wall of the chassis. When oscillation is obtained, the 12AT7 trip -
Common v.h.f. wiring techniques are em- ler tube is plugged in its socket and circuit
ployed in the assembly. Short, direct leads in L_ -C= set to 75 Mc. with the grid dipper. Plate
the r -f section are mandatory. The sockets of voltage is again applied and the circuits touch-
the two tripler tubes (Vo and V10) and the ed up for maximum bulb brilliance when the
amplifier tube (V..) are positioned at an pickup loop is held near L2. The second tripler
angle of 45 degrees so that a line drawn tube V., is plugged in the socket and circuit
through pins 1 and 6 is parallel with the front L3 -G adjusted for maximum output at 225
edge of the chassis. The midget butterfly ca- Mc. using the indicator lamp. Spacing of the
pacitors are mounted in line with the tube turns of L3 may require adjustment to permit
sockets, permitting very short leads to be run resonance. Plate current drawn by these three
from the plate pins of the tubes to the stators tubes should be about 70 milliamperes when
of the capacitors. the dropping resistor is shorted out.
The nine -pin tube sockets are the type that The next step is to neutralize the amplifier
mount from beneath the chassis and have a stage. This may be done by observing the grid
metal ring encasing the phenolic portion of the current of V.. while capacitors C. and G are
socket. The various pins of each socket that adjusted. The leads of a high resistance volt-
must be grounded are bent down and soldered meter are temporarily clipped across the 2.7K
directly to this ring. The grid resistors of V. grid resistor of the amplifier stage, and the
and V10 are installed directly between the grid exciter circuits are repeaked for maximum grid
pins and the grounded cathode pins of the tube voltage reading. Over twenty volts should be
socket. The coupling capacitors between the obtained. Plate voltage to the amplifier stage is
stages are placed between the grid pins and removed for this test. Neutralizing capacitors
the stator rods of the butterfly tuning capaci- C. and G are now set to minimum capacity
tors. Filament pins 4 and 5 of the nine -pin and coil L. is varied in position with respect
sockets are grounded to the socket ring and a to L., to obtain maximum grid voltage. The
common filament lead runs between the num- amplifier plate tuning capacitor G is tuned
ber 9 pins. through resonance while grid voltage is ob-
Inductors L. and L_ are made of manufac- served. If a change in voltage occurs during
HANDBOOK 220 -Mc. Duplex 603
VERTICAL ARRAY HORIZONTAL ARRAY
the tuning process the settings of capacitors FOR TRANSMISSION FOR RECEPTION
G and G are advanced in unison until no
change of grid voltage is noticeable. As the
WOODEN
capacity settings are increased (keeping the SUPPORT
A
two settings approximately equal) the "kick"
of grid voltage will gradually decrease, until
there is either no movement of the meter as
G is varied, or else merely a gradual rise of A
a volt or so as G is swung through its range.
1
.,% s'
A 6.3 volt, 150 milliampere (brown bead)
lamp is now connected to antenna receptacle t1 5/IR .i"'
J1 and plate voltage is applied to the amplifier
FEED SYSTEM FOR EACH ANTENNA
stage and exciter. Capacitors G and C, are
tuned for maximum bulb brilliance. The plate i 255'
I,.
current of the amplifier stage will be close to
30 milliamperes under conditions of maximum - DIA. ALUMINUM I E WIRE
ELEMENT LENGTHS
output. AND SPACING .-300 P. TV LINE
REFLECTOR(R) 25.5 (RANDOM
Once initial adjustments have been made, ANTENNA (A) 23.5
LENGTH)
a 0 -1 d.c. milliammeter may be connected to

the r -f voltmeter terminals and the transmitter
may be completely tuned by adjusting all re-
DIRECTOR
SPACING (SI
(0) 22.25
10° - SOL DER 3
SHIELDS
sonant circuits for maximum indication of the

COAXIAL (SALON
meter. It is wise, however, to make the pre- TOTAL LENGTH 17 1/4'
MAGEOIF ?SA COAXAL LINE
liminary adjustments stage by stage as des-
cribed above to acquaint the operator with 75 A COAXIAL LINE
TRANSMITTER -RECEIVER
proper transmitter operation. TO
6
The Receiver Chassis. The placement of the Figure 42
major components of the receiver chassis may DUAL ANTENNA SYSTEM FOR 220
be seen in figures 39 and 40. The line -up of MC. TRANSMITTER- RECEIVER
stages forms a "U" on the chassis, passing The same polarization must be used on each
link. This means that polarization of trans-
down one side, across the front and back along mission and reception is different at each sta-
the other side. Two six terminal phenolic tie - tion. For the companion link to the one illu-
strated in this drawing, the vertical array
point strips are mounted along the center line should be used for reception, and the hori-
of the chassis, supporting various decoupling zontal array for transmission.
and voltage dropping resistors. Layout of the
components being mounted between the socket
r -f stages may be seen in the under -chassis
and i -f transformer terminals and the phenolic
view of figure 40. A small copper shield plate
tie-point strip. Power leads are terminated at
1" high and 11/2 inches long passes across the
the six prong plug mounted on the rear apron
center of each socket and is grounded at each
of the chassis.
end by soldering to the socket retaining screws.
The center stud of the socket, and pins 1, 3, No connection need be made between the
r -f circuit of the transmitter and the mixer
4, 6, and 9 are all soldered to this plate. Tun-
ing capacitors G, Co, C10, and C., are mounted stage of the receiver as ample proximity coupl-
ing exists. In fact, a shield plate is placed over
close to the tube sockets, and the VHF -type
the bottom of the transmitter chassis to reduce
bypass capacitor at the "cold" end of each coil
(Centrolab type ZA) is mounted next to the the mixer injecion to a tolerable level.
tuning capacitor. Coils L., L., L.., and L,, are Preliminary Receiver Adjustment. After all
mounted between the terminals of the respec- wiring is completed, the i -f section of the re-
tive tuning capacitor and the adjacent VHF ceiver may be aligned. A 4.5 Mc. tone modu-
bypass capacitor. Care must be taken to keep lated signal is loosely coupled to the plate pin
the coil leads as short as possible-less than (# 5) of mixer tube V. and earphones or an
1/4-inch long in any case. a -c meter connected to the output circuit of
One filament choke of each r -f amplifier audio tube V, (Pins 5 and 6 of the power
stage is grounded to the shield plate and the plug) . The slug cores of transformers T1, T2,
other choke is bypassed by a disc ceramic ca- T.., and T. are adjusted for maximum signal.
pacitor and returns to the common filament The receiver and transmitter sections should
lead. Wiring of the i -f stages is straightforward, be bolted together and the transmitter tuned
Figure 43
COMPACT VFO PROVIDES HIGH
STABILITY SIGNAL FOR HIGH
FREQUENCY DX BANDS
This small v.f.o. employs latest techniques to
achieve stable, drift -free signal. Only 712 X
9" X 7" in size, the unit uses a high -C 1.75
Mc. oscillator followed by a cathode follower
to achieve o maximum degree of circuit isola-
tion. Buffer tuning and control switch are at
left of panel, with large, easily read fre-
quency control dial at center.
the position of the antennas to provide max-

imum signal pickup with a minimum of inter-
ference from the local transmitter. In general,
up wih a dummy load. This will provide in- the receiver antenna should be oriented for
jecion signal for proper receiver operation at maximum signal from the distant station, and
220.1 Mc. A remote signal (preferably that the transmitter antenna should be oriented for
of the companion unit) should be used as a minimum local signal pickup. For general use,
signal source and the tuned circuits of the r -f the two antennas may be attached to the same
amplifiers adjusted for best signal reception. supporting structure, separated from each other
It may be necessary to alter the spacing of coils by four or five feet. As with any VHF equip-
L.-141 to provide proper circuit resonance ment, time spent in placing the antennas will
which should occur at about the middle of the pay big dividends in system operation.
tuning range of the associated capacitor.
28 -6 A High Stability
Modulator and Power Supply Construction. V.F.O. For the
The layout of the modulator and power supply
can be seen in figure 41. The units are wired DX Operator
and the control leads are brought out through Stability and freedom from drift are the
insulated grommets placed in the end of the prime requisites of a high quality variable fre-
chassis. A common ground lead is run from quency oscillator. To meet the requirements
each chassis to the switches and controls mount- of the discriminating operator the v.f.o. must
ed upon the front panel. The small blower be stable with respect to warm -up, ambient
motor is mounted at the rear of the cabinet temperature variations, line voltage shift, vi-
and a row of %B" ventilation holes is drilled bration, and the presence of a strong r -f field.
around the top edge of the cabinet as shown To achieve these parameters in a unit simple
in the photograph. The power supply and enough for home construction is a large order.
modulator should be tested before they are The variable frequency oscillator shown in
mounted in the cabinet, and the whole assem- figures 43, 46, and 47 is a successful attempt
bly should be in operating condition before to meet these requirements and is recommend-
it is placed within the cabinet. The tone of ed to those operators who desire a v.f.o. having
the audio oscillator (V11) may be varied by a high order of stability and resetability.
placing a capacitor across the primary winding
of the oscillator transformer T.. Frequency The perfect variable frequency
Stability oscillator has the frequency de-
Antenna Two separate antennas are re- termining elements completely
Installation quired for duplex operation. To
reduce coupling, one link is
horizontally polarized and the other link is VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS, V.F.O.
vertically polarized as illustrated in figure 42.
Care must be taken that identical polarization SCREEN (P /NJ) eue -70
is employed at both ends of each link. Three - CATHODE (P /Ne) eue -10.5
element beam antennas are used for each link. R -F VOLTS, GRID (P /N 9) eue- 10.3
A folded dipole and balun system are employed R -F VOLTS, CATHODE (P /N e) eue- 9.5
to provide a good match to the coaxial trans-
mission line. After the links have been set up, R -F VOLTS, Ji. ACROSS 47 OHM RESISTOR -6.2
transmitter and receiver tuning adjustments
should be peaked to maximize the signals. It Figure 44
will be found advantageous to experiment with VOLTAGE CHART FOR V.F.O.
HANDBOOK High -Stability V.F.O. 605
((aoa )
Li 26U8 '6 -'26U8 6A05
ee M
T5
05 M R-F
6 5 OUTPUT
Ji
C, C2 IsoK
002 300
P C
RFC)
NOTES+
- ALL MICA CAPACITORS EL -MENCO
SILVER MICA OR EQUIVALENT.
2 -ALL CERAMIC CAPACITORS DISC -TYPE
CENTRALAB 00 OR EQUIVALENT.
ZERO BEAT - %MIT
au
SIA Ste .00c5
BAOS
RFC2
HI RFC 2 RFC 2
H,
.005
- WIRE CABLE
TO SUPPLY
PI
2
(6.300) (covrROL) (8.3 V) (cNO. )
Figure 45
C -.002 pfd. Centralab high accuracy capacitor 950 -202.
Cr --300 pµtd. Bud MC -1860
C.,-25 ppfd. Bud LC -1642
L, -173/4 turns 20 e, 3/4" diam., approx. 1" long. (See text) Wind on National ceramic form XR -72. Tap
at 4 turns from "cold" end.
L,-4.5 Mc. lnterstage "TV" transformer. J. W. Miller 1466. Remove secondary winding and replace
with 8 turns »22 d.c.c. wound next to primary winding.
RFC,-2.5 mh. Notional R -100
RFCr-VHF choke, S00 ma. National R -60
isolated both electrically and physically from subject to temperature variations, changes in
the rest of the transmitting equipment. This the relative humidity of the surrounding air,
goal cannot be achieved in practice since a and absorption of heat from nearby objects. By
vacuum tube or transistor must be coupled to employing temperature and humidity resistive
these circuit elements to maintain oscillation. materials and removing as many heat generat-
The coupling of such items deteriorates the ing components from the vicinity of the fre-
electrical isolation of the frequency determin- quency determining circuits, a good degree of
ing circuit. By the use of proper coupling cir- stability in the v.f.o. may be obtained.
cuits the effects of the tube or transistor can Finally, steps must be taken to ensure that
be minimized. the oscillator of the v.f.o. unit is completely
The frequency determining circuit is also free of parasitics, and that the output waveform
Figure 46
REAR VIEW OF V.F.O. CHASSIS,
SHOWING PLACEMENT OF PARTS
Oscillator inductor L, is at the left of chassis,
separated from the heat producing electron
tubes. To right of L, is the precision padding
capacitor C, mounted to the chassis. The main
tuning capacitor is firmly affixed to a heavy
dural mounting plate bolted to the gear box
of the dial drive. The rear of the tuning ca-
pacitor is attached to the chassis by a mount-
ing stud. To the right are the three tubes and
the output transfermer. Directly under the
tuning capacitor is the polystyrene chassis
plate holding the feed through bushings for
the oscillator leads to the underchassis area.
Control switch S, is at upper right.
with regard to temperature changes. This style

of winding reduces the possibility of the oscil-
lator developing random frequency jumps with
changes in temperature and humidity.
A 56 ohm resistor is inserted in series with
the grid lead of the 6U8 oscillator tube. This
suppressor eliminates any tendency toward par-
asitic oscillation that can result in this type
of oscillator circuit. The parastic tends to make
fundamenal oscillation unstable at certain set-
tings of the oscillator tuning capacitor. This
instability may be caused by variations of the
inherent inductance of the tuning capacitor at
the frequency of parasitic oscillation.
All components of the oscillator circuit are
spaced clear of the oscillator tube to prevent
heat transfer from the tube to the frequency
Figure 47 determining circuit.
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF The pentode oscillator is R -C coupled to
V.F.O. UNIT the triode section of the 6U8 which serves as
Power lead filters are at lower right of chas-
sis, with r -f circuit components at left. All a cathode follower. The input impedance of
parts are firmly mounted to terminals and the cathode follower is extremely high and
tie points to reduce vibration. Power leads
are laced. Buffer tuning capacitor C. is at provides excellent isolation between the oscil-
upper left. lator circuit and the output stage. Plate and
screen voltage of the oscillator and plate volt-
is low in harmonic content. The variable fre- age of the cathode follower are regulated by an
quency exciter to be described in this section 0A2 gas regulator to provide maximum iso-
meets these fundamental requirements. lation from power supply fluctuations.
The V.F.O. Circuit The circuit diagram of The r -f output of the triode section of the
the high stability v.f.o. 6U8 is taken from the low impedance cathode
is shown in figure 45, and the complete physi- circuit and is capacity coupled to a 6AQ5 min-
cal layout may be seen in figures 46 and 47. iature pentode tube which serves as a frequency
The pentode section of a miniature 6U8 doubler to the 80 meter region. The v.f.o.
tube is used as the oscillator. The oscillator covers the frequency range of 1750 kc. to
circuit is tuned to the 160 meter region and 1850 kc., and the plate circuit of the 6AQ5
consists of a high -Q oscillator coil resonated doubler tunes 3500 kc. to 3700 kc. The 80
to the working frequency by a precision ceram- meter output is 0.8 watt which is more than
ic capacitor in parallel with a variable air sufficient to drive a tetrode buffer such as an
capacitor. The ceramic capacitor (Centralab 807 or 6146. If more output is desired, a
type 950) has a measured temperature coeffi- 6CL6 may be substituted for the 6AQ5 (with
cient of less than plus or minus ten parts per appropriate socket wiring changes) to deliver
million over the temperature range of -40 approximately 2 watts.
degrees to plus 60 degrees Centigrade. The One filament terminal of each tube is
use of ordinary ceramic or silver mica capaci- grounded and the free terminals are bypassed
tors as a substitute for this unit is not recom- to ground with .005 Add. ceramic capacitors.
mended, since the temperature coefficient of The filament leads then pass through an r-f
such units cannot be closely controlled in choke to ensure maximum lead isolation.
quantity production. Switch S1 disables the v.f.o. by removing the
The oscillator coil, L,, is wound upon a cer- plate voltage. A second section of the switch
amic coil form that has a very low coefficient opens an auxiliary circuit that can control the
of expansion. The coil turns are spaced to en- power relays of the transmitter. A third posi-
sure low inter -turn capacitance. The wire is tion of switch SI permits the v.f.o. to be
wound upon the form under tension and at a turned on by itself for zero -beat operation.
relatively high temperature. As the wire cools, Transmitter keying for c -w operation is done
it shrinks and tightly clasps the form so that in the stages following the v.f.o.-exciter to
for all practical purposes the wire and the achieve maximum frequency stability and free-
form have the same coefficient of expansion dom from frequency shift during keying.
HANDBOOK High- Stability V.F.O. 607
Mechanical Design The mechanical design output coil L,, the 6AQ5 socket and the 0A2
of the V.F.O. of the variable frequen- socket. Switch S, is mounted to the front panel
cy oscillator is equally directly in front of the 6AQ5. The front panel
important as the electrical design if maximum is held to the chassis by means of four 6/32
stability and reliability are to be achieved. bolts placed in the extreme corners of the
Provision must be made for dissipation of the front lip of the chassis. The panel is spaced
heat generated by the vacuum tubes, and the slightly away from the chassis by an extra set
v.f.o. components should be mounted on a of nuts slipped over the bolts before the panel
sheet of conducting material which will act as is affixed to the chassis.
a heat "sink" and will tend to resist rapid All control leads to the v.f.o. unit pass
changes in the temperature of the components through a four wire cable which enters the un-
bolted thereto. der chassis area via a rubber grommet on the
The v.f.o. is built upon a cadmium plated back lip of the chassis. Each lead is bypassed
steel chassis measuring 71/2" x 9" x 11 ". The with a .005 µfd. ceramic capacitor and is fil-
gear box of the National HRO -type dial is tered with a low resistance r -f choke. The co-
bolted to the chassis and the main tuning ca- axial output receptacle for the v.f.o. is also
pacitor G is affixed by its front bearing to a mounted on the rear lip of the chassis, directly
3" x 3" x 0.125" dural plate held to the ca- behind the 6U8 oscillator tube.
pacitor gear box by three long machine screws Wiring the V.F.O. The under -chassis area of
and three 11/4" metal spacers. The tuning ca- the v.f.o. should be wired
pacitor is driven through a high quality flexi- first. Common ground connections are made
ble coupling. This coupling should be free of to the three sockets by means of soldering lugs
back -lash, and should not permit end pressure and lock washers placed beneath one socket re-
on the shaft of the capacitor. A Johnson 104- taining nut. The filament leads are wired next.
250 coupling is recommended. Make sure that The bypass capacitors for pins 1, 3, and 4 of
the shaft of the gear box and that of the ca- the 6U8 socket are placed between the socket
pacitor are perfectly in line as misalignment pins and the grounded center stud of the socket
tends to force a degree of back -lash in the with the shortest possible leads. All compon-
system. ents of the 6U8 stage should be mounted solid-
The rear mounting foot of the capacitor is ly in place between adjacent tube pins or to
fastened to the steel chassis by means of a long nearby phenolic tie-point terminals. The grid
6/32 bolt and a 1 -inch metal spacer. This as- resistor and capacitor of the oscillator section
sembly provides a very rugged arrangement are mounted between pin #2 of the 6U8
with a minimum of flexing between the ca- socket and the inter- chassis feedthrough insu-
pacitor and the chassis. lator in the polystyrene block.
Oscillator coil L, and the precision ceramic The plate coil of the 6AQ5 doubler stage is
capacitor C, are mounted to the chassis to the made from a 4.5 Mc. sound TV i -f transformer.
side of the tuning capacitor as seen in the rear The secondary winding and tuning capacitor
view photograph. The slug of coil L, is re- are removed and a link winding of 8 turns is
moved and discarded before the coil is wound. wound on the form, closely spaced to the pri-
Moveable oscillator slugs are not conducive mary winding. The transformer is then re-
to any great degree of oscillator stability and placed in the shield can and mounted atop the
this potential source of instability should be chassis. The r -f choke in the plate circuit of
taken from the circuit before it can do any the doubler stage is mounted between two ter-
damage. minals of a phenolic tie -point strip bolted to
The leads from the oscillator circuit to the one of the transformer lugs.
6U8 pentode tube pass through a 11/4" hole The power supply r -f filter circuits are
cut in the steel chassis. A 1/4". -thick square of placed on two four terminal tie -point strips
polystyrene is mounted under this hole and two mounted in the far corner of the chassis. The
miniature feedthrough bushings are mounted bypass capacitors are mounted between the in-
in the insulating plate. The residual capacity dividual terminal lugs and the adjacent ground
to grounds of these important leads is thereby connections of the strip and the r -f chokes are
held to an absolute minimum value. mounted between the strips.
The vacuum tubes and auxiliary circuits After the under -chassis wiring is completed
are placed on the opposite side of the tuning the wiring atop the chassis may be done. The
capacitor from the sensitive tuned circuit L, -C,. leads of the tuned circuit are made of #12
In front of the oscillator tube is the 80 meter tinned wire. The coil is wound with #20
enameled wire space -wound to a length of ap- 5V4 G

proximately one inch. The easiest way to ob-
tain the correct spacing is to wind two separate
windings on the coil. One winding is the de-
sired one of #20 wire, the second is composed
of #24 enameled wire and is used only for
spacing. The two windings are put on simul-
taneously and the #24 wire is removed after
the other winding has been properly termin-
ated at both ends. To obtain the best tempera- 11SV 1,
ture coefficient of the coil the wire should be Figure 48
wound on when it is warm. The easiest way to SCHEMATIC, POWER SUPPLY FOR
accomplish this is to place rolls of the two VFO
wire sizes in the open and warm them slowly L-325-0-325 volts, 55 ma. Stancor PC-8407
until they are almost too hot to touch. The CH, CH.:-7 henry at 50 ma. Stancor C-1707
wires are then removed from the oven and

wound on the coil form before they have a "zero- beat" or "transmit" position the v.f.o.
chance to cool to room temperature. The wire signal may be heard in a nearby receiver tuned
is kept under tension during the winding pro- to the 160 meter region. The oscillator is now
cess and may be reheated with a soldering iron run for a few hours before it is adjusted to
or heat lamp if it begins to grow cold. When the correct frequency range. The next step is to
the coil is completed and the wire cools, it plug the 6AQ5 in its socket, and a 6.3 volt,
will be found to be tightly wound around the 150 ma. (brown bead) pilot lamp is placed
coil. across the terminals of the coaxial output jack
After the coil has been completed the fourth Ji, serving as a dummy load. The v.f.o. is
turn (cathode tap) should be cleaned care- turned on and the setting of G and the slug
fully with a small, sharp knife blade and a of coil L_ are varied to provide an indication
short length of #22 wire is soldered to the in the bulb.
turn. The opposite end of this lead is attached The next step is to calibrate the oscillator. A
to a lug terminal at the base of the coil. All BC -221 frequency meter or calibrated receiver
the unused lugs may then be removed from the should be used. The dial of the v.f.o. should
coil form. A separate ground lead is run from be set so the bandspread scale reads "0" when
the ground lug of the coil form to the ground capacitor G is fully meshed. When the dial
lug of Ct and then to the rotor terminal of is tuned to a reading of "10" the capacitor is
tuning capacitor C2 to prevent any intermittent nearly fully meshed, and the operating fre-
ground paths through the chassis and the ca- quency of the oscillator should be 3500.00 kc.
pacitor mounting assembly. Unless you are extremely lucky, this will not
be the case. Since there are no adjustable pad-
V.F.O. Power The schematic of the v.f.o. ding capacitors in the frequency determining
Supply power supply is shown in circuit coil Lt must be adjusted a bit at a time
figure 48. The power supply until the correct frequency falls at the desig-
is constructed as a separate unit since it is de- nated dial reading. The turns of L, may be
sired to keep the heat and vibration of the varied in position with the aid of a pen -knife
transformers and chokes away from the v.f.o. blade, and minute adjustments to the top few
circuits. The power construction is straightfor- turns may be made until the correct calibra-
ward, with all leads bypassed to prevent r -f tion is reached. Once the calibration of the
pickup from the transmitter. The supply is oscillator has been set, the turns of L, may be
built upon a 71/2 x 51/2 miniature amplifier permanently fixed in place by means of a few
foundation chassis and provides 300 volts at drops of colorless nail polish. Use the mini-
50 milliamperes for the v.f.o. circuits. mum amount of polish possible. Placing the
polish on the coil will vary the operating fre-
V.F.O. Alignment After the v.f.o. wiring quency slightly, so a final slight adjustment
and Adjustment has been checked the must be made after the last spot of polish has
6U8 and 0A2 tubes been placed on the coil. Full coverage of all
should be plugged in their sockets. Switch S. the amateur bands except 80 meters will be
is set to the "off" position and the power sup- obtained with this value of tuning capacitor.
ply is turned on. The filaments of the tubes Decreasing the size of C: will provide greater
should light, and when S. is set to either the bandspread on the high frequency bands, and
HANDBOOK High- Stability V.F.O. 609
increasing the capacitance of G will provide negative coefficient capacitance to the tuning
full coverage of the 80 meter band. In either circuit. This is a cut -and -try process and is not
case, it will be necessary to juggle the turns on recommended unless the builder has plenty of
L. to obtain the correct tuning range. time and previous experience with the task.
It is not really required unless the oscillator is
Operating Check When completed the v.f.o. operated under extremes of room temperature.
of the V.F.O. should be placed in the
operating position and run The last step is to place the v.f.o. in the
for a period of several hours. During this time, metal cabinet. The unit should not be operated
the frequency of the v.f.o. should be compared out of the cabinet as the enclosure affords
against a known standard such as a 100 kc. some degree of shielding from the r -f field of
crystal, or Standard Frequency Station W W V. the transmitter. The rear of the chassis is
Under normal conditions the v.f.o. will have fastened to the bottom of the cabinet by two
a small positive initial warm -up drift of less sheet metal screws passed from the under side
than 100 cycles on 80 meters. It should settle of the bottom of the cabinet up into the rear
down after a period of time and remain rela- lip of the chassis. To prevent frequency changes
tively stable if the temperature of the room is during operation the lid of the cabinet should
constant. be fastened shut by means of two sheet metal
Temperature stabilization may be accom- screws run through the front corners of the
plished by the addition of a small value of lid into the cabinet.
CHAPTER TWENTY -NINE
The trend in design of transmitters for oper- excitation and audio driving power for high -
ation on the high frequency bands is toward level amplifiers running up to the 1000 -watt
the use of a single high -level stage. The most power limit. The amplifiers shown in this
common and most flexible arrangement in- chapter may be easily driven by such exciters.
cludes a compact bandswitching exciter unit,
with 15 to 100 watts output on all the high- 29 -1 Power Amplifier
frequency bands, followed by a single power Design
amplifier stage. In many cases the exciter unit
is placed upon the operating table, with a co- Choice of Either tetrode or triode tubes may
axial cable feeding the drive to the power am- Tubes be used in high - frequency power
plifier, although some operators prefer to have amplifiers. The choice is usually
the exciter unit included in the main trans- dependent upon the amount of driving power
mitter housing. that is available for the power amplifier. If
This trend is a natural outgrowth of the in- a transmitter-exciter of 100 -watt power capa-
creasing importance of v -f -o operation on the bility is at hand (such as the Heath TX-1)
amateur bands. It is not practical to make a it would be wise to employ a power ampli-
quick change in the operating frequency of a fier whose grid driving requirements fall in
transmitter when a whole succession of stages the same range as the output power of the
must be returned to resonance following the exciter. Triode tubes running 1- kilowatt in-
frequency change. Another significant factor in put (plate modulated) generally require some
implementing the trend has been the wide ac- 50 to 80 watts of grid driving power. Such
ceptance of commercially produced 75 and a requirement is easily met by the output
150 -watt transmitters. These units provide r -f level of the 100 -watt transmitter which should
610
Design 611
TO ANTENNA TO ANTENNA
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
UNBALANCED COAXIAL BALANCED TWIN- LINE

FEED SYSTEM FEED SYSTEM
Figure 1
Figure 2
LINK COUPLED OUTPUT CIRCUITS
FOR PUSH -PULL AMPLIFIERS CONVENTIONAL PUSH -PULL
AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
The mechanical layout should be symmetrical
and the output coupling provision must be
be employed as the exciter. Tetrode tubes evenly balanced with respect to the plate coil
(such as the 4 -250A) require only 10 to C,- Approx. 1.5 µµId. per meter of wave-
length per section
15 watts of actual drive from the exciter for
Cr -Refer to plate tank capacitor design in
proper operation of the amplifier stage at 1- Chapter 11
kilowatt input. This means that the output Cr-May be S00 ppfd., 10,000 -volt type cer-
amic capacitor
from the 100 -watt transmitter has to be cut NC -Max. usable capacitance should be great-
down to the 15 watt driving level. This is a er, and min. capacitance less than rated
nuisance, as it requires the addition of swamp- grid -plate capacity of tubes in amplifier.
50% greater air gap than Cr.
ing resistors to the output circuit of the trans- R,-100 ohms, 20 watts. This resistor serves
mitter- exciter. The triode tubes, therefore, as low Q r -f choke.
would lend themselves to a much more con- RFC, -All -band r -f choke suitable for plate
current of tubes
venient driving arrangement than would the M1-M,-Suitable meters for d -c grid and plate
tetrode tubes, simply because their grid drive currents
requirements fall within the power output All low voltage .001 pfd. and .01 pfd. by -pass
capacitors are ceramic disc units (Centra-
range of the exciter unit. lob DD or equiv.)
On the other hand, if the transmitter- exciter L, -50 -watt plug -in coil, center link
output level is of the order of 15 - 40 watts L,- Plug -in coil, center link, of suitable power
rating.
(the Johnson Ranger, for example) sufficient
drive for triode tubes running 1- kilowatt input
would be lacking. Tetrode tubes requiring low Common technique is to employ plug -in
grid driving power would have to be employed plate coils with the push-pull amplifier stage.
in a high -level stage, or smaller triode tubes re- This necessitates some kind of opening for coil
quiring modest grid drive and running 250 changing purposes in the "electrically tight"
watts or so would have to be used. enclosure surrounding the amplifier stage. Care
must be used in the design and construction
Power Amplifier Either push-pull or single of the door for this opening or leakage of har-
Design- Choice ended circuits may be em- monics through the opening will result, with
of Circuits ployed in the power ampli- the attendant TVI problems.
fier. Using modern tubes Single ended amplifiers may also employ
and properly designed circuits, either type is link -coupled output devices, although the trend
capable of high efficiency operation and low is to use pi- network circuits in conjunction
harmonic output. Push -pull circuits, whether with single ended tetrode stages. A tapped or
using triode or tetrode tubes usually employ otherwise variable tank coil may be used which
link coupling between the amplifier stage and is adjustable from the front panel, eliminating
the feed line running to the antenna or the an- the necessity of plug -in coils and openings
tenna tuner. into the shielded enclosure of the amplifier.
It is possible to use the link circuit in either Pi- network circuits are becoming increasingly
an unbalanced or balanced configuration, as popular as coaxial feed systems are coming
shown in figure 1, using unbalanced coaxial into use to couple the output circuits of trans-
line, or balanced twin -line. mitters directly to the antenna.
612 H.F. Power Amplifiers T H E R A D I O
29 -2 Push -Pull Triode movement at plate voltages much higher than

one thousand.
Amplifiers
Figure 2 shows a basic push -pull triode Grid Bias The recommended method of ob-
amplifier circuit. While variations in the meth- taining bias for c -w or plate mod-
od of applying plate and filament voltages and ulated telephony is to use just sufficient fixed
bias are sometimes found, the basic circuit bias to protect the tubes in the event of ex-
remains the same in all amplifiers. citation failure, and to obtain the rest by the
voltage drop caused by flow of rectified grid
Filament Supply The amplifier filament trans- current through a grid resistor. If desired, the
former should be placed bias supply may be omitted for telephony if an
right on the amplifier chassis in close proximity overload relay is incorporated in the plate cir-
to the tubes. Short filament leads are necessary cuit of the amplifier, the relay being adjusted
to prevent excessive voltage drop in the con- to trip immediately when excitation is re-
necting leads, and also to prevent r -f pickup moved from the stage.
in the filament circuit. Long filament leads The grid resistor RI serves effectively as
can often induce instability in an otherwise an r -f choke in the grid circuit because the im-
stable amplifier circuit, especially if the leads pressed r -f voltage is low, and the Q of the
are exposed to the radiated field of the plate resistor is poor. No r -f choke need be used in
circuit of the amplifier stage. The filament the grid bias return lead of the amplifier, other
voltage should be the correct value specified than those necessary for harmonic suppression.
by the tube manufacturer when measured at the The bias supply may be built upon the am-
tube sockets. A filament transformer having a plifier chassis if care is taken to prevent r -f
tapped primary often will be found useful in from finding its way into the supply. Ample
adjusting the filament voltage. When there is shielding and lead filtering must be employed
a choice of having the filament voltage slight- for sufficient isolation.
ly higher or slightly lower than normal, the
higher voltage is preferable. If the amplifier is The Grid Circuit As the power in the grid
to be overloaded, a filament voltage slight- circuit is much lower than
ly higher than the rated value will give greater in the plate circuit, it is customary to use a
tube life. close -spaced split -stator grid capacitor with
Filament bypass capacitors should be low insufficient capacitance for operation on the
ternal inductance units of approximately .01 lowest frequency band. A physically small ca-
¡lid. A separate capacitor should be used for pacitor has a greater ratio of maximum to
each socket terminal. Lower values of capaci- minimum capacitance, and it is possible to ob-
tance should be avoided to prevent spurious tain a unit that will be satisfactory on all bands
resonances in the internal filament structure of from 10 to 80 meters without the need for aux-
the tube. Use heavy, shielded filament leads for iliary padding capacitors. The rotor of the grid
low voltage drop and maximum circuit isola- capacitor is grounded, simplifying mounting of
tion. the capacitor and providing circuit balance and
electrical symmetry. Grounding the rotor also
Plate Feed The series plate voltage feed helps to retard v -h-f parasitics by bypassing
shown in figure 2 is the most them to ground in the grid circuit. The L/C
satisfactory method for push -pull stages. This ratio in the grid circuit should be fairly low,
method of feed puts high voltage on the plate and care should be taken that circuit reso-
tank coil, but since the r -f voltage on the coil nance is not reached with the grid capacitor at
is in itself sufficient reason for protecting the minimum capacitance. That is a direct invita-
coil from accidental bodily contact, no addition for instability and parasitic oscillations
tional protective arrangements are made neces- in the stage. The grid coil may be wound of
sary by the use of series feed. no. 14 wire for driving powers of up to 100
The insulation in the plate supply circuit watts. To restrict the field and thus aid in
should be adequate for the voltages encoun- neutralizing, the grid coil should be physical-
tered. In general, the insulation should be ly no larger than absolutely necessary.
rated to withstand at least four times the max-
imum d-c plate voltage. For safety, the plate Circuit Loyout The most important consid-
meter should be placed in the cathode return eration in constructing a
lead, since there is danger of voltage break- push -pull amplifier is to maintain electrical
down between a metal panel and the meter symmetry on both sides of the balanced cir-
HANDBOOK Design 613
cuit. Of utmost importance in maintaining elec-

trical balance is the control of stray capaci-
tance between each side of the circuit and
ground.
Large masses of metal placed near one side
of the grid or plate circuits can cause serious
unbalance, especially at the higher frequen-
cies, where the tank capacitance between one
side of the tuned circuit and ground is often
quite small in itself. Capacitive unbalance
most often occurs when a plate or grid coil is
located with one of its ends close to a metal
panel. The solution to this difficulty is to
mount the coil parallel to the panel to make
the capacitance to ground equal from each end
of the coil, or to place a grounded piece of
metal opposite the "free" end of the coil to Figure 3
accomplish a capacity balance. LAYOUT OF 350 -WATT PUSH -PULL

Whenever possible, the grid and plate coils TRIODE AMPLIFIER
Two 811 -A tubes are employed in this circuit.
should be mounted at right angles to each Plate tuning capacitor is at left of chassis,
other, and should be separated far enough with swinging -link type plug -in coil assembly
mounted above it. Rotor of split- stator capaci-
apart to reduce coupling between them to a tor may be insulated from ground to increase
minimum. Coupling between the grid and plate voltage breakdown rating of capacitor. Note
that pickup link is series -tuned to reduce cir-
coils will tend to make neutralization frequency cuit reactance. One corner of rotor plate of
sensitive, and it will be necessary to readjust series capacitor is bent so that capacitor
shorts itself out at maximum capacitance.
the neutralizing capacitors of the stage when Grid circuit coil and capacitor are at right.
changing bands. Center- linked plug -in coil is employed. Para-
sitic chokes are placed in grid leads adjacent
All r -f leads should be made as short and to the tube sockets, and tube filaments are
bypassed to ground with .01 ,,fd. ceramic
direct as possible. The leads from the tube capacitors. Complete area above the chassis
grids or plates should be connected directly is enclosed with perforated screen to reduce
to their respective tank capacitors, and the radiation of r.f. energy.
leads between the tank capacitors and coils
should be as heavy as the wire that is used amplifier employing 811 -A tubes. The circuit
in the coils themselves. Plate and grid leads corresponds to that shown in figure 2 except
to the tubes may be made of flexible tinned that the 811 -A's are zero bias tubes. The bias
braid or flat copper strip. Neutralizing leads terminals of the circuit are therefore jumpered
should run directly to the tube grids and plates together and no external bias supply is re-
and should be separate from the grid and plate quired at plate potentials less than 1300 volts.
leads to the tank circuits. Having a portion of All r -f components are mounted above
the plate or grid connections to their tank cir- deck. The plate circuit tuning capacitor and
cuits serve as part of a neutralizing lead can swinging link tank coil are to the left, with
often result in amplifier instability at certain the two disc -type neutralizing capacitors be-
operating frequencies. tween the tank circuit and the tubes. At the
right of the chassis is the grid tank circuit.
Excitation In general it may be stated Small parasitic chokes may be seen between
Requirements that the overall power require- the tube sockets and the grid circuit. Plate
ment for grid circuit excitation and grid meters are placed in the under -chassis
to a push -pull triode amplifier is approximately area where they are shielded from the r -f field
10 per cent of the amount of the power output of the amplifier.
of the stage. Tetrodes require about 1 per cent Larger triode tubes such as the 810 and
to 3 percent excitation, referred to the power 8000 make excellent r -f amplifiers at the kilo-
output of the stage. Excessive excitation to watt level, but care must be taken in ampli-
pentodes or tetrodes will often result ill re- fier layout as the inter -electrode capacitance of
duced power output and efficiency. these tubes is quite high. One tube and one
Push -Pull Symmetry is the secret of suc- neutralizing capacitor is placed on each side
Amplifier cessful amplifier design. Shown of the tank circuit (figures 4 and 5) to permit
Construction in figure 3 is the top view of very short interconnecting leads. The relative
a 350 watt push -pull all band position of the tubes and capacitors is trans-
614 H.F. Power Amplifiers THE RADIO
Figure 4 Figure 5
UNIQUE CHASSIS LAYOUT PERMITS LEFT -HAND VIEW OF KILOWATT
SHORT LEADS IN KILOWATT AMPLIFIER OF FIGURE 4
AMPLIFIER Above shielded meter box is the protective
Large size components required for high level "micro- switch" which opens the primary power
amplifier often complicate amplifier layout. circuit when the panel door is not closed. Tube
In this design, the plate tank capacitor sits sockets are recessed in the chassis so that
astride small chassis running lengthwise on top of tube socket shells are about 12 -inch
main chassis. Inductor is mounted to phenolic above chassis level. On right side of amplifier
plate atop capacitor. Variable link is panel facing it from the rear) the tube socket is
driven through right -angle gear drive. Plate nearest the panel, with the neutralizing ca-
circuit is grounded by safety arm when panel pacitor behind it. On the opposite side, the
door is opened. Note that plate capacitor is capacitor is nearest the panel with the tube
mounted on four TV -type capacitors which directly behind it. This layout transposition
serve to bypass unit, and also act as supports. produces very short neutralizing leads, since
A small parasitic choke is visible next to the connections may be made through the stator
grid terminal of the 810 tube. of plate tuning capacitor.
posed on each side of the chassis, as shown in 29 -3 Push -Pull

the illustrations. The plate tank coil is mount- Tetrode Amplifiers
ed parallel to the front panel of the amplifier
on a phenolic plate supported by the tuning Tetrode tubes may be employed in push -pull
capacitor which sits atop a small chassis -type amplifiers, although the modern trend is to
box. The grid circuit tuning capacitor is located parallel operation of these tubes. A typical
within this box, as seen in figure 6. An ex- circuit for push -pull operation is shown in
ternal bias supply is required for proper ampli- figure 7. The remarks concerning the filament
fier operation. Operating voltages may be de- supply, plate feed, and grid bias in Section
termined from the instruction sheets for the 29 -2 apply equally to tetrode stages. Because
particular tube to be employed. of the high circuit gain of the tetrode ampli-
fier, extreme care must be taken to limit
Whenever the amplifier enclosure requires interstage feedback to an absolute minimum.
a panel door for coil changing access it is wise Many amateurs have had bad luck with tet-
to place a power interlock on the door that rode tubes and have been plagued with para-
will turn off the high voltage supply whenever sitics and spurious oscillations. It must be re-
the door is open! membered with high gain tubes of this type
HANDBOOK P -P Tetrode Amplifier 615
Figure 7
Figure 6 CONVENTIONAL PUSH -PULL
UNDER CHASSIS VIEW OF TETRODE AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
1- KILOWATT TRIODE AMPLIFIER Push -pull amplifier uses many of the same
The grid circuit tuning capacitor and plate components required by triode tubes (see
circuit r -f choke are contained in the below figure 2). Screen supply is also required.
chassis enclosure formed by a small chassis
mounted at right angles to the front panel. 8- Blower for filament seals of tubes.
The bandswitch coil assembly for the grid C. -Low internal inductance capacitor, .001
circuit is mounted on two brackets above this »fd., SKV. Centrolab type 858S - 1000.
cutout. A metal screen attached to the bottom
of the amplifier completes the TVI -proof NC -See text and figure 8.
enclosure.
PC- Parasitic choke. SO ohm, 2 -watt compo-
sition resistor wound with 3 turns x12 e.
wire.
that almost full output can be obtained with
Note: Strap multiple screen terminals together
practically zero grid excitation. Any minute at socket with 3e" copper ribbon. Attach
amount of energy fed back from the plate cir- PC to center of strap.
cuit to the grid circuit can cause instability or
oscillation. Unless suitable precautions are in- heavily loaded plate circuit, one might be able
corporated in the electrical and mechanical de- to use an unneutralized push -pull tetrode am-
sign of the amplifier, this energy feedback will plifier stage and suffer no ill effects from the
inevitably occur. residual grid -plate feedback of the tubes. In
fact, a minute amount of external feedback in
Fortunately these precautions are simple.
the power leads to the amplifier may just (by
The grid and filament circuits must be isolated
from the plate circuit. This is done by placing
chance) cancel out the inherent feedback of
the amplifier circuit. Such a condition, how-
these circuits in an "electrically tight" box.
ever, results in an amplifier that is not "re-
All leads departing from this box are by -pass-
produceable." There is no guarantee that a du-
ed and filtered so that no r -f energy can pass
plicate amplifier will perform in the same, sta-
along the leads into the box. This restricts the
ble manner. This is the one, great reason that
energy leakage path between the plate and grid
many amateurs having built a tetrode amplifier
circuits to the residual plate -to -grid capacity
that "looks just like the one in the book" find
of the tetrode tubes. This capacity is of the
out to their sorrow that it does not "work like
order of 0.25 µµfd. per tube, and under normal
the one in the book."
conditions is sufficient to produce a highly re-
generative condition in the amplifier. Whether This borderline situation can easily be over-
or not the amplifier will actually break into os- come by the simple process of neutralizing the
cillation is dependent upon circuit losses and high -gain tetrode tubes. Once this is done, and
residual lead inductance of the stage. Suffice the amplifier is tested for parasitic oscilla-
to say that unless the tubes are actually neu- tions (and the oscillations eliminated if they
tralized a condition exists that will lead to occur) the tetrode amplifier will perform in an
circuit instability and oscillation under cer- excellent manner on all bands. In a word, it
tain operating conditions. With luck, and a will be "reproduceable."
Figure 9
UNDER CHASSIS VIEW OF
Figure 8 4 -250A AMPLIFIER
The bias supply for the amplifier is mounted
REAR VIEW OF PUSH PULL at the front of the chassis between the two
4 -250A AMPLIFIER control shafts. A blower motor is mounted
The neutralizing rods are mounted on ceramic
beneath each tube socket. A screened plate
is placed on the bottom of the chassis to com-
feedthrough insulators adjacent to each tube plete the underchassis shielding.
socket. Low voltage power leads leave the
grid circuit compartment via Hypass capaci-
tors located on the lower left corner of the
chassis. A screen plate covers the rear of the
amplifier during operation. This plate was power gain and high screen voltage. As the
removed for the photograph. operating frequency of the tube is increased,
the inductance of the internal screen support
As a summation, three requirements must
be met for proper operation of tetrode tubes
whether in a push -pull or parallel mode:
- lead of the tube becomes an important part of
the screen ground return circuit. At some criti-
cal frequency (about 45 Mc. for the 4 -250A
1. Complete isolation must be achieved be-
tube) the screen lead inductance causes a
series resonant condition and the tube is said
tween the grid and plate circuits.
to be "self- neutralized" at this frequency.
2. The tubes must be neutralized.
Above this frequency the screen of the tetrode
3. The circuit must be parasitic -free.
tube cannot be held at ground potential by the
Amplifier The push -pull tetrode ampli - usual screen by -pass capacitors. With normal
Construction fier should be built around circuitry, the tetrode tube will have a tendency
two "r -f tight" boxes for the to self -oscillate somewhere in the 120 Mc. to
grid and plate circuits. A typical layout that has 160 Mc. region. Low capacity tetrodes that can
proven very satisfactory is shown in figures 8 operate efficiently at such a high frequency are
and 9. The amplifier is designed around a Bar- capable of generating robust parasitic oscilla-
ker & Williamson "butterfly" tuning capacitor. tions in this region while the operator is vain-
The 4 -250A tetrode tubes are mounted at the ly trying to get them operating at some lower
rear of the chassis on each side of the capaci- frequency. The solution is to introduce enough
tor. The base shells of the tubes are grounded loss in the circuit at the frequency of the
by spring clips, and short adjustable rods pro- parasitic so as to render oscillation impos-
ject up beside each tube to act as neutralizing sible. This procedure has been followed in this
capacitors. The leads to these rods are cross - amplifier.
connected beneath the chassis and the rods During a long series of experiments de-
provide a small value of capacitance to the signed to stabilize large tetrode tubes, it was
plates of the tubes. This neutralization is nec- found that suppression circuits were most ef-
essary when the tube is operated with high fective when inserted in the screen lead of the
HANDBOOK Pi- Network Amplifiers 617
tetrode. The screen, it seemed, would have r -f seen in figure 10. Two fixed vacuum capaci-
potentials measuring into the thousands of volts tors are mounted vertically upon the chassis
upon it during a period of parasitic oscillation. and the upper terminals are attached to the
By- passing the screen to ground with copper plates of the amplifier tubes by means of low
strap connections and multiple by -pass capaci- impedance straps. Resonance is established by
tors did little to decrease the amplitude of the rotation of a shorted copper loop located with-
oscillation. Excellent parasitic suppression was in the amplifier tank coil. This loop is made
brought about by strapping the screen leads of a %g" long section of copper water pipe,
of the 4 -250A socket together (figure 7) and two inches in diameter. Approximate resonance
inserting a parasitic choke between the screen is established by varying the spacing between
terminal of the socket and the screen by -pass the turns of the copper tubing tank coil. In-
capacitor. ductive coupling is used between the tank coil
After this was done, a very minor tendency and the antenna circuit in the usual manner.
towards self -oscillation was noted at extreme- Sufficient range to enable the operator to cover
ly high plate voltages. A small parasitic choke a complete high frequency band may be had
in each grid lead of the 4 -250A tubes elimi- with this interesting tuning method.
nated this completely.
The neutralizing rods are mounted upon two 29 -4 Tetrode Pi-
feedthrough insulators and cross -connected to Network Amplifiers
the 4 -250A control grids beneath the chassis.
These rods are threaded so that they may be The most popular amplifier today for both
run up and down the insulator bolt for neu- commercial and amateur use is the pi- network
tralizing adjustment. configuration shown in figure 11. This circuit
Because of the compact size of many tetrodes is especially suited to tetrode tubes, although
it is necessary to cool the filament seals of the triode tubes may be used under certain circum-
tube with a blast of air. A small blower can be stances.
mounted beneath the chassis to project cooling A common form of pi- network amplifier is
air directly at the socket of the Fube as shown shown in figure 11A. The pi circuit forms the
in figure 9. matching system between the plate of the am-
plifier tube and the low impedance, unbalanced
Inductive Tuning of The plate tank circuit antenna circuit. The coil and input capacitor
Push -Pull Amplifiers of the push -pull ampli-
fier must have a low
impedance to ground at harmonic frequencies
to provide adequate harmonic suppression. The
usual split -stator tank capacitor, however, has
an uncommonly high impedance in the VHF
region wherein the interference -causing har-
monics lie. A push -pull vacuum -type capacitor
may be used as these units have very low in-
ternal inductance, but the cost of such a capac-
itor is quite high.
A novel solution to this problem is to em-
ploy a split stator capacitor made up of two
inexpensive fixed vacuum capacitors. Ampli-
fier adjustment can then best be accomplished
by inductive tuning of the plate tank coil as
Figure 10
INDUCTIVE TUNING MAY BE
EMPLOYED IN HIGH POWER
AMPLIFIER
Two fixed vacuum capacitors form split -stator
capacitance, providing very low inductance
ground path for plate circuit harmonics. Tun-
ing is accomplished by means of shorted,
single -turn link placed in center of tank
coil. Shorted link is made from 3 5-inch section
cut from copper water pipe. Larger link out-
side of tank coil is antenna pick -up coil.
V1 C2 L1 L2
LOW Z
OUTPUT
RFC I
V1 C2 L2
LOW Z
OUTPUT
EXCITATION
- BIAS
Figure 11
TYPICAL PI- NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS
A -Split grid circuit provides out -of -phase voltage for grid neutralization of tetrodo tube. Rotary coil
isemployed in plate circuit, with small, fixed auxiliary coil for 28 Mc. Multiple tuning grid tank T
corers 3.5 - 30 Mc. without switching.
8- Tapped grid and plate inductors are used with "bridge type" neutralizing circuit for tetrodo ampli-
fier stage. Vacuum tuning capacitor is used in input section of pi- network.
C- Untuned input circuit ¡resistance loaded) and plate inductor ganged with tuning capacitor comprise
simple amplifier configuration.
PC;, PC: -57 ohm, 2 watt composition resistor, wound with 3 turns 18 c. wire,
HANDBOOK Pi- Network Amplifiers 619
of the pi may be varied to tune the circuit over EXCITER - -

+ AURL FIER
807 P A TUBE
a 10 to 1 frequency range (usually 3.0 - 30 4 -250A, ETc
Mc.). Operation over the 20 - 30 Mc. range
takes place when the variable slider on coil L2
is adjusted to short this coil out of the circuit.
Coil L, therefore comprises the tank inductance I CONNECT /NG TERMINAL
STRIP LOCATED ON TOP
for the highest portion of the operating range.
I
OF EXC /TEA UN /T.
This coil has no taps or sliders and is con-

BIAS
structed for the highest possible Q at the high -
frequency end of the range. The adjustable Figure 12

coil (because of the variable tap and physical CAPACITIVE COUPLING CIRCUIT
construction) usually has a lower Q than that BETWEEN EXCITER AND FINAL
of the fixed coil. AMPLIFIER STAGE MAKES USE
OF ONE COMMON TANK CIRCUIT
The degree of loading is controlled by ca- Grid circuit of amplifier stage serves as plate
pacitors C. and G. The amount of circuit ca- circuit of exciter in this simplified circuit.
Leads between the tubes must be kept short
pacity required at this point is inversely pro- and direct.
portional to the operating frequency and to
the impedance of the antenna circuit. A load- rated at 1000 µµEd. at 5000 volts. This corn-
ing capacitor range of 100 µµfd. to 2500 pact ceramic capacitor has relatively low inter-
µµfd. is normally ample to cover the 3.5 - 30 nal inductance and may be mounted to the
Mc. range. chassis by a 6 -32 bolt. It is shown in various
The pi circuit is usually shunt-fed to remove amplifiers described in this chapter. Further
the d.c. plate voltage from the coils and capa- screen isolation may be provided by a shielded
citors. The components are held at ground po- power lead, isolated from the screen by a .001
tential by completing the circuit ground µfd. ceramic capacitor and a 100 ohm car-
through the choke RFC,. Great stress is placed bon resistor.
upon the plate circuit choke RFC :. This com- Various forms of the basic pi- network am-
ponent must be specially designed for this plifier are shown in figure 11. The A config-
mode of operation, having low inter -turn ca- uration employs the so- called "all- band" grid
pacity and no spurious internal resonances tank circuit and a rotary pi- network coil in the
throughout the operating range of the ampli- plate circuit. The B circuit uses coil switching
fier. in the grid circuit, bridge neutralization, and
Parasitic suppression is accomplished by a tapped pi- network coil with a vacuum tun-
means of chokes PC -1 and PC-2 in the screen ing capacitor. Figure 11C shows an interesting
and grid leads of the tetrode. Suitable values circuit that is becoming more popular for
for these chokes are given in the parts list of class ABI linear operation. A tetrode tube op-
figure 11. Effective parasitic suppression is de- erating under class AB1 conditions draws no
pendent to a large degree upon the choice of grid current and requires no grid driving
screen bypass capacitor C1. This component power. Only r -f voltage is required for proper
must have extremely low inductance through- operation. It is possible therefore to dispense
out the operating range of the amplifier and with the usual tuned grid circuit and neutraliz-
well up into the VHF parasitic range. The ca- ing capacitor and in their place employ a sim-
pacitor must have a voltage rating equal to at ple load resistor in the grid circuit across
least twice the screen potential (four times the which the required excitation voltage may be
screen potential for plate modulation). There developed. This resistor can be of the order of
are practically no capacitors available that will 50 - 300 ohms, depending upon circuit re-
perform this difficult task. One satisfactory so- quirements. Considerable power must be dis-
lution is to allow the amplifier chassis to form sipated in the resistor to develop sufficicnt
one plate of the screen capacitor. A "sandwich" grid swing, but driving power is often cheaper
is built upon the chassis with a sheet of insu- to obtain than the cost of the usual grid cir-
lating material of high dielectric constant and cuit components. In addition, the low im-
a matching metal sheet which forms the screen pedance grid return removes the tendency to-
side of the capacitance. A capacitor of this wards instability that is so common to the
type has very low internal inductance but is circuits of figure 11A and 11B. Neutralization
very bulky and takes up valuable space be- is not required of the circuit of figure 11C,
neath the chassis. One suitable capacitor for and in many cases parasitic suppression may
this position is the Centralab type 858S -1000, be omitted. The price that must be paid is the
The compact kilowatt linear amplifier de-

scribed in this section is designed for remote
control operation on any one amateur band. It
may be driven by any exciter capable of one
or two watts p.e.p. output.
Amplifier The circuit of the mobile linear
Circuit amplifier is shown in figure 14.
Designed around two Eimac
4W-300B water cooled tetrode tubes, the am-
plifier may nevertheless be used with 4X -250B
or 4CX -300A tubes if air cooling is employed.
For purely mobile operation the water cooled
tubes are recommended as air blowers are bul-
ky, noisy, and draw a high current from the
automobile primary power system. Water cool-
ing, although unfamiliar to many amateurs, is
Figure 13 relatively simple and inexpensive. A Stewart -
MIDGET LINEAR AMPLIFIER FOR Warner fuel pump is used to pump distilled
MOBILE SIDEBAND OPERATION water from a reservoir through polyethylene
FEATURES WATER COOLED
4W -300B TETRODE TUBES tubes to the anodes of the 4W -300B tetrode
Miniature amplifier is comparable in size with and back through other tubes to the reservoir.
sideband exciter. Antenna, plate, and screen This container is a surplus one gallon G.I.
current are monitored by panel lamps used in
place of larger and more expensive meters. gasoline can (figure 17). The temperature of
Inductor slug of grid coil is located below the water remains under 100 °F. even when the
plate circuit tuning capacitor.
transmitter is operated for extended periods of
time. The water jackets of the tubes are con-
additional excitation that is required to de- nected in series as shown in the drawing. It
velop operating voltage across grid resistor R,. has been found by experiment that it is not
The pi- network circuit of figure 11C is necessary to have any other form of cooling
interesting in that the rotary coil L_ and the medium to maintain the tubes at a safe tem-
plate tuning capacitor G are ganged together perature. The water pump draws a current of
by a gear train, enabling the circuit to be tuned 0.2 amperes at maximum pumping speed. It
to resonance with one panel control instead of is mounted in a corner of the turtle -back of
the two required by the circuit of figure 11A. the automobile, along with the G.I. water can.
Careful design of the rotary inductor will per- The pump motor is connected so that it starts
mit the elimination of the auxiliary high fre- as soon as filament voltage is applied to the
quency coil L, reducing the cost and complexi- two 4W -300B tubes.
ty of the circuit. The two tetrode tubes are connected in par-
A single tuned circuit may be employed to allel with a parallel resonant plate circuit and
couple the power amplifier grid circuit to the a simple "pi- type" grid circuit. The plate cir-
buffer stage as shown in figure 12. Care must cuit consists of a minature Jennings GSLA -120
be taken to ensure that a good ground exists variable vacuum capacitor (CO in parallel
between the two circuits. with a silver plated copper tubing tank coil.
Plate voltage is fed to the tubes through a r -f
29 -5 A Compact choke and the anodes of the tubes are coupled
Linear Amplifier for to the tank circuit through a 500 µµEd., 5 KV
Mobile SSB ceramic capacitor. The low impedance antenna
system is directly tapped at a low impedance
Single sideband transmission is ideal for point on the tank coil. A small 6 volt auto-
mobile operation because it provides the max- mobile headlamp is placed in series with the
imum amount of "talk power" for a given antenna lead to provide a simple indicator of
amount of primary power drain. The new three r-f current. Antenna transfer is accomplished
phase alternator systems available for automo- by means of a minature Jennings RB -1 s.p.d.t.
tive use are capable of supplying over one vacuum relay.
thousand watts of primary power, making the Special low impedance sockets for these
proposition of a kilowatt sideband transmitter tubes are supplied by the Eimac Co. and their
a reality. use is recommended. The sockets have a built-
HANDBOOK Mobile SSB Amplifier 621
4W- 300B/
4X- 250B
55e
INPUT
J1
L 1
c
002
L2
TO MOBILE
2 ANTENNA
FROM
Exci7ER_
J3 TO RECEIVER
S01
GNO. -BIAS B- FIL. +SCR. RELAY CONTROL
Figure 14
SCHEMATIC, MOBILE LINEAR AMPLIFIER
C -120 ,.,.fd., 5KV variable vacuum capacitor. Jennings GSLA -120
L: -(20 meters): 15 turns = 18e., 58" diam., 1" long. Adjust to resonance with J:
shorted and tubes in sockets.
L; -(20 meters); 6 turns, 14 -inch silver plated copper tubing, 2, 2" i.d., 2" long.
Adjust antenna tap for proper loading.
RFC, -2.5 mh. National R -100
RFC.-225 turns r28 monganin, 8" dia., 2" long, in series with National R -100
choke. Or, heavy -duty Raypar RL -102 choke may be substituted for these two
items.
RY,-SPDT relay, d.c. coil to match battery voltage. Jennings RB -1 vacuum relay
employed
B,, B:, 13,-Indicator pilot lamps. B. should have 500 ma. rating; B., 60 ma. rating;
and B- may be automobile headlight lamp heavy enough to carry antenna
current.
in screen capacitor which provides an extreme- Amplifier Class ABI operation plus the
ly low impedance screen ground return circuit, Construction complete absence of parasitics
reducing the problem of parasitics to a mini- results in a very minimum
mum. amount of harmonic generation. The use of a
A simple "series" tuned input circuit is low inductance variable vacuum capacitor pro-
employed in the grid circuit. The internal in- vides an effective return path to ground for
put capacitance of the tubes is effectively in high frequency harmonics appearing in the
parallel with the grid coil resonating it to the
operating frequency. Since no grid current is
drawn during class ABI operation a small bat-
tery may be used to provide the correct value
of operating bias. Flashlight bulbs are placed
in the screen and negative high voltage leads
instead of meters 0) conserve space.
Figure 15
SMALL SIZE OF LINEAR AMPLIFIER
IS DUE TO USE OF MINIATURE
300 WATT, WATER COOLED
TETRODE TUBES
Parallel operation of the 4W -300B tubes is
employed. Plate tank inductor is at right,
with miniature variable vacuum capacitor be-
hind it. Plate choke is in the foreground,
made up of a 2.5 mh. choke in series with a
home -mode unit. Commercial choke may be
used, os indicated in parts list of figure 14.
Special low inductance Eimac sockets are em-
ployed with the tubes. Vacuum-type antenna
relay is at top, center.
plate circuit of the amplifier. As a result, a very strap. A wire interconnecting lead will invari-
minimum of shielding and lead filtering :s bly lead to VHF parasitic oscillation of the
required with this amplifier even when 28 Mc. stage.
operation is desired. Placing the amplifier
within the turtle -back of the automobile and Amplifier The amplifier must be completely
the insertion of a low pass TV- filter in the Operation tested before it is installed in the
coaxial antenna line reduces TVI- producing automobile. Grid, plate, and screen
harmonics to such a low value that no inter- meters should be inserted in the power leads
ference is caused to a nearby television receiver to the amplifier and preliminary tune-up into
tuned to a channel 2 signal of moderate a dummy load is done at reduced screen and
strength. plate potentials. A small driving signal is ap-
plied to the amplifier and grid coil L1 reson-
The amplifier is built upon a shallow metal ated. The screen and plate currents will in-
deck just large enough to hold the various
crease sharply in value when the grid circuit
components (figure 15). The two 4W -300B
is tuned to the operating frequency. The degree
tube sockets are placed in the left area of the of plate loading is determined by the position
chassis with the variable vacuum capacitor
of the antenna tap on the plate tank coil.
mounted at the right corner of the front panel. Screen current is a very sensitive indicator
The silver plated copper tubing tank coil is of the degree of amplifier antenna loading. At
bolted between the rear terminal of the capaci- plate potentials of 2000 or so the total screen
tor and one of the capacitor mounting bolts. current at one kilowatt peak input is about 10
Make sure that a good connection exists be- milliamperes, varying slightly with individual
tween the capacitor, the panel, and the chassis tubes. As the plate potential is raised above
as this ground return is part of the plate tank
this value the screen current gradually drops
circuit. until at 3000 volts plate potential the screen
Centered on the front panel are the three current is near zero. In general, overcoupling
pilot lamp indicator sockets, the antenna of the amplifier will be indicated by low
changeover relay and the coaxial antenna re-
screen current and undercoupling will result
ceptacles. At the rear of the chassis is the plate in high values of screen current. At 3000 volts
r -f choke. Two r-f chokes in series were used
plate potential, an overcoupled condition is
in the original model, but have since been re- indicated by negative screen current, and un-
placed with one of the new Raypar miniature
dercoupling will produce positive screen cur-
chokes (see parts list, figure 14) .
rent. Only a slight deviation from zero current
The grid circuit components are mounted during voice operation indicates proper opera -
in the under -chassis area of the amplifier (fig- rion. Maximum peak input under these condi-
ure 16). A shield plate is placed over the tions is about 1500 watts (3000 volts at 500
bottom of the amplifier to completely isolate ma.).
the components from the field of the plate
tank circuit. Grid coil Li is mounted to the The Power Supply This amplifier is designed
panel and slug-tuned to resonance. The grid to work from a three -
terminals of the tube sockets are connected phase alternator system of 1500 watts capacity.
with a short length of 1/4 -inch wide copper A three -phase rectifier supply is employed to
Ia
TI
Figure 16
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF MOBILE
SSB LINEAR AMPLIFIER SHOWS
SIMPLICITY OF CIRCUIT
Input circuit is at the left, with grid terminals
of socket connected with short copper strap.
Screen series resistors are at center, with grid
choke and power plug at right. Under -chassis
area is enclosed with aluminum bottom plate
held in place with self- tapping sheet metal
screws.
HANDBOOK Mobile SSB Amplifier 623
provide 2500 volts at 400 milliamperes (fig-

ure 18). Since the frequency of the alternator
is 120 cycles or higher and the ripple output
of the supply is less than 5% before filtering,
a small capacitor is sufficient to produce pure
d.c. and to provide good regulation for peak
power surges.
In the interest of power conservation and
compactness the new Sarkes-Tarzian silicon
rectifiers are used in the high and low voltage
power supplies. These rectifiers can be operat-
ed in series with no special selection. It is ONE
GALLON
RE5ERV01
possible therefore to provide compact and in- OISTIL.LE
WATER
expensive high voltage rectifiers by connecting
a number of the standard type M -500 recti- 6v DC
a
fiers in series to obtain the required peak in- 0 A
(TURNS ON W /TN
V-53I F /CS)
verse voltage rating. The higher cost of the
bank of silicon rectifiers as compared to va- Figure 17
cuum tube rectifiers is offset by the elimina- WATER CIRCULATION SYSTEM
tion of the tubes and a special three -phase fil- FOR X -531 (4W -300B) TUBES
ament transformer. If desired, the special
Sarkes- Tarzian 280 -SM rectifier stack may be alternator will not supply much more than
substituted for the individual units. Since the 1500 watts, the primary voltage drops rapidly
T, (SEC r I )
50
+325V. (SCREEN)
AT /0O MA
3 -PHASE
6 OR 12
VOLT H,
NPUT
71 (SEC r2)
+2500v. (PLATE )
AT 400 MA.
Figure 18
SCHEMATIC, THREE -PHASE MOBILE POWER SUPPLY
D, -D, -500 ma. silicon rectifier. Sorkes-Torzian M -500
-2.5
D:- D. KV, 130 ma. rectifier stack. Sarkes- Tarzian 280 -SM silicon rectifier. See text lot
substitute
T,-Special three -phase power trans former to deliver 2500 volts d.c. at 400 ma., and 32S
volts d.c. at 100 ma. Design data and core may be obtained from Arnold Engineering Co.,
Marengo, Ill. Core number: ATA -1573 with 12 -mil Hypersil laminations for 120 cycle
operation.
Primary winding: (12 volts) -Each leg, 15 turns =8e. wire
( 6 volts) -Each leg, 7 turns oSe. wire
Low Voltage secondary, Each leg, 265 turns o30e. wire
High Voltage secondary: Each leg, 2400 turns o28e. wire
7.5 KV insulation employed. High voltage winding placed next to core, low voltage
secondary next, and primary winding outside, with 2KV insulation. Vacuum impregnate
windings. When finished, polarize windings by placing 6 volt, SO c.p. lamps in series
with each primary lead. Bulbs should only glow red when primary windings are correctly
polarized. Correct polarization of secondary windings will deliver desired output voltages.
Figure 19
WATER COOLED LINEAR
AMPLIFIER PACKAGED FOR
FIXED STATION USE
Either 4W -300B (water cooled) tubes or 4X-
2508 (air cooled) tubes may be employed in
this compact linear amplifier. Input and out-
put capacitors of pi- network are vacuum
units, and power supply (three phase) is con-
tained within the cabinet (right). Wide band
plate.l. choke is at left of cabinet, running
from front to back. Amplifier operates at
plate potential of 3000 volts, with p.e.p. of
1500 watts.
Four tubes in parallel will provide a p.e.p. of

two kilowatts at 2000 volts plate potential. An
under overload conditions and the silicon rec- experimental amplifier having five tubes in
tifiers cannot be damaged, even with a direct parallel has run 3500 watts p.e.p. into dummy
short circuit across the output terminals of the loads. The five tube amplifier employed neu-
high voltage power supply. tralization and parasitic suppression and per-
This unusual equipment is described for formed in normal fashion with no signs of in-
others who may wish to make models based stability.
upon ideas presented in the design. Although Shown in figure 19 is a fixed station version
some of the components shown in the ampli- of this amplifier. Employing a pi- section plate
fier or power package are unique or are not tank circuit and a three -phase power supply,
readily available, it is hoped that the reader the complete unit is built within a standard
can make use of his facilities and abilities to 12" x 16" x 19" cabinet. Of unusual interest
use many of the ideas shown herewith. is the r -f choke employed in the plate circuit
Variations Upon It is possible to increase of the linear amplifier stage. This choke is
the Basic Circuit the power level of this usually a critical item as the full value of r -f
amplifier by merely add- plate potential is developed across it. For max-
ing more tubes connected in parallel with the imum amplifier efficiency and minimum loss
original two. Three tubes will permit a p.e.p. the plate choke must present an impedance of
of two kilowatts at 3000 volts plate potential. several thousand ohms at any frequency of
operation. Special r -f chokes are available that
will perform this exacting task, and the one
described equals the best of the commercial
items at a fraction of the cost. The choke coil
consists of 250 turns of #22 double cotton
covered manganin wire close -wound upon a
1/2-inch diameter wooden dowel rod. The small
d.c. resistance of the winding effectively de-
stroys undesired resonance effects within the
choke, providing a high and uniform imped-
ance across all amateur bands from 80- to 10-
meters. The choke will work well up to power
levels of the order of 2000 watts, p.e.p., or
1000 watts, plate modulated.
29 -6 A Multi -band
Mobile Linear Amplifier
Figure 20
MULTI -BAND LINEAR AMPLIFIER The kilowatt linear amplifier described in
FOR MOBILE SERVICE FEATURES this section is designed for remote control mo-
THREE SEPARATE TANK CIRCUITS bile operation on any three amateur bands.
SWITCHED BY CONTROL RELAYS The unit shown in the photographs operates
Three vacuum tank capacitors are located at
top left corner of panel. To the right is ther- on the 80, 40, and 20 meter bands, but opera-
mocouple r.l. ammeter in output circuit. Zero - tion on 15 or 10 meters is possible by altering
center screen meter and 0 -500 d.c. ma. plate
meter are at lower right. the constants of the plate tank circuit.
625
J3
RECEIVER
i1
I
ii-
*2
I
*3
I
GND *4 8+350V.
NOTE w= SCREEN
BOh
B
40X
PASS IN T,/BE SOCKET
20X
SO, I Y
o .,,,I
60V1-gt
1
T ON Sa I
+
11
I i1Lst SWITCH PTALNTO POWER
CIRCUIT SUPPLY
fA
Figure 21
SCHEMATIC, MULTI -BAND MOBILE LINEAR AMPLIFIER
C, C:, C,- Jennings variable vacuum capacitor, type GSLA. Use 250 pl,fd. unit for 80 meters and 120
I,I,id. units for other bands. Adjust coils to resonate circuit with capacitors set near maximum value.
L; -16 turns, 14-inch silver plated copper tubing, 21/2" i.d., 31.2" long. Antenna tap approximately 2
from ground end.
L, -8turns
turns, same as L:. Antenna tap approximately 2 turns from ground end.
L -51/2 turns, L Antenna top approximately
same as turn from 3/4 ground end.
RFC- -Wide band choke, 500 ma. rating. Raypar RL -102
RY,, ,-DPDT relay, d.c. coil to match battery voltage. Jennings type RB vacuum relay
RY. -SPST relay, d.c. coil to match battery voltage. Jennings type RB -1 vacuum relay (Jennings Radio
Co., San Jose, Calif.)
M; -0 - 500 ma. d.c. meter
M:-500 - O - 500 d.c. microammeter, zero center movement, shunted to 50 - - 50 ma.
O
M3-0 - 5 ampere, r.f. ammeter
Amplifier The amplifier employs two ex- coils. The proper tuned circuit is switched to
Circuit ternal anode tetrodes such as the the linear amplifier by means of miniature
4W -300B, 4X -250B, or 4CX- vacuum- sealed d.p.d.t. relays. Three relays are
300A. The water cooled tubes are recommend- required, one for each tank circuit. The tank
ed for mobile operation, while the air cooled circuits are relatively low impedance devices
tubes may be used for fixed operation. The as they are tuned with capacitors having a large
schematic of the amplifier is shown in figure value of maximum capacitance, permitting
21 and is a version of the untuned input cir- good efficiency in matching the tubes to the
cuit of figure 11C. very low load impedance presented by the
Three separate parallel tuned plate circuits mobile antenna system.
are employed in the linear amplifier. Each Although the tubes operate with "zero"
circuit is made up of a silver plated copper driving power the resistive input system de-
tubing coil paralleled with a miniature vari- mands that approximately 9 watts of excita-
able vacuum tuning capacitor. These new Jen- tion be employed to develop 50 volts (peak)
nings capacitors are extremely small in size across the 300 ohm circuit impedance. The
and are tuned by means of a slotted shaft in- mobile SSB exciters of Chapter 28 used in
stead of the more cumbersome and expensive conjunction with a 2E26 linear buffer stage
counter dial arrangement. The low impedance will supply an abundance of excitation for
mobile antenna system is tapped directly ro this kilowatt amplifier. Alternatively, a high
experimentally determined points on the tank impedance grid circuit such as shown in figure
11B may be used, dropping the grid driving Amplifier The amplifier should be bench-
power level to a watt or so. Operation tested before it is placed within
Selection of the proper tank circuit is ac- the automobile. Operating con-
complished by means of a rotary switch (Se) ditions are similar to those described in Section
located at the driver's position in the automo- 29 -5. A center-reading milliammeter is used
bile. One of the three miniature plate circuit in the screen circuit to observe screen current
relays at a rime may be operated by this switch. during loading adjustments. Linear operation
The antenna change-over relay is actuated by may be checked with the aid of envelope de-
the push -to -talk circuit in the microphone. tectors, as discussed in an earlier chapter. Nor-
mal operation takes place at 2500 volts at 400
Amplifier The amplifier is built upon milliamperes, peak current. Screen current is
Construction a shallow metal deck (figure less than 5 milliamperes under these condi-
22) . The two Eimac low in- tions. Grid current is zero.
ductance sockets for the tetrode tubes are
placed in the rear corner of the chassis with 29 -7 An Inexpensive
the 80 meter tank coil to their left. One end Cathode Driven
of the coil is bolted to the chassis and the Kilowatt Amplifier
other end is attached to the rear terminal of
the variable vacuum capacitor which is mount- An objectionable feature of triode tubes is
ed to the metal panel. The 40 and 20 meter that they must be neutralized in conventional
tank coils are mounted directly ro their respec- grid driven circuits. Tetrode tubes may often
tive tuning capacitors. dispense with the neutralizing circuit, but they
The front area of the chassis is taken up require a screen power supply whose cost and
with the plate circuit switching relays RY, -_ -s. complexity dissipate the saving afforded by
These relays are bolted to the chassis and the elimination of the neutralizing circuit. The
connections are made to the various terminals use of a cathode driven amplifier employing
by means of flexible 1/4-inch silver plated cop- zero bias tubes overcomes these two disadvan-
per strap. The three meters are mounted in the tages. The grids act as an excellent screen be-
remaining panel space. Under-chassis wiring tween the plate and cathode so neutralization
is extremely simple, as seen in figure 23. The is not usually required. The very small plate
socket grid terminals are connected together to cathode capacitance permits a minimum of
with a short length of copper strap. A shield intercoupling on frequencies below 30 Mc.
is not required over the bottom of the chassis when inexpensive tetrode or pentode tubes are
since the grid circuit is untuned. used. No screen or bias supplies are required.
Figure 22
REAR VIEW OF
MULTI -BAND
MOBILE LINEAR
AMPLIFIER
The three amplifier tank
coils are connected be-
tween the variable va-
cuum capacitors and
chassis ground. Plate
voltage is shunt-fed to
the linear amplifier tubes
(4W- 300B's or 4X-
2508's). Antenna relay
is at left. Extremely low
harmonic content of class
ABI amplifier operation
requires no TV/ screen-
ing or other enclosure to
prevent radiation of un-
desired harmonics.
HANDBOOK Multi -Band Amplifier 627
Feedthrough A large portion of the exciting

Power power appears in the plate
circuit of the cathode driven
stage and is termed the feedthrough power.
In any amplifier of this type, whether it be
triode or tetrode, it is desirable to have a fairly
large ratio of feedthrough power to peak grid
driving power. The feedthrough power acts as
a swamping resistor across the driving circuit
to reduce the effect of grid loading. The ratio
of feedthrough power to driving power should
be at least 10 to I for best stage linearity.
Class AB1 Cathode The only way that the
Driven Amplifiers advantages can be taken
Figure 23
of the inherent feed-
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF MULTI -
back in a cathode driven amplifier is to drive BAND LINEAR AMPLIFIER
it with a source having a high internal im- Coaxial input receptacle is at left, with com-
pedance and to operate the stage class ABI position -type grid resistors. Simplicity of cir-
cuit requires relatively few components be-
without grid or screen current. It is a char- neath the chassis. Grid terminals of sockets
acteristic of class AB1 cathode driven (so- are connected with wide copper strap.
called "grounded grid ") amplifiers that a vari-
ation in load impedance on the stage reflects source impedance is then required to supply
back as a nearly proportional change at the grid driving power for class AB2 operation.
input because the input and output circuits The latter class of operation offers stage gain
are essentially in series. In the same manner, a figures of 10 to 25 with moderate values of
change in gain (such as may be caused by a cathode excitation voltage. The linearity, how-
nonlinearity of gain with respect to signal ever, is approximately the same as for con-
level) of a cathode driven stage reflects back ventional grid driven circuits having low
as a change in the input impedance of that
source impedance, and about 30 decibels sig-
stage. If the cathode driven stage is fed by a nal-to- distortion ratio is the maximum that
source having high internal impedance such can be achieved.
as a tetrode amplifier, changes in gain or non -
linearity in the cathode driven stage will be
compensated for. For example, if the gain of
the cathode driven stage drops slightly, the in-
put impedance of the stage will increase and
the load impedance on the driver stage will
rise. If the driver has high internal impedance
the output voltage will also rise when its load
impedance rises. The increased output voltage
will raise the output voltage of the cathode
driven stage so that the output is nearly up to
where it should be even though the gain of
the cathode driven stage is low. The equivalent
circuit for this action is shown in figure 24.
"True" class ABI cathode driven amplifiers, 0
however, have rather low stage gain and the Figure 24
use of low -mu triodes is required for reason- EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF CASCADE
able efficiency. Such low gain circuits require CLASS AB1 CATHODE DRIVEN
more stages to reach a given power level. High AMPLIFIERS
driving voltage is required which is difficult
A-Cathode driven amplifiers may be ar-
ranged in cascade to provide high output
to achieve in the cathode circuit. Since i t seems levels. Any variation in load impedance
(R) reflects back as nearly proportional
impractical to operate most available tubes change at the input, as input and output
class ABI in a cathode driven circuit (i.e., no circuits are essentially in series as shown
in figure B.
grid current and no screen current) the possi- B-Equivalent resistance,
circuit of figure
and R:
A. Rr has a
and R, have
bility of taking advantage of the inherent feed- very high
very low resistances compared to the
back in the circuit is lost because a low driver load R.
628 H.F. Power Amplifiers
with high frequency tubes such as the 813

and 7094, the use of filament chokes for op-
eration above 7 Mc. is recommended.
This type of amplifier has a tendency to-
ward parasitic oscillations in the 100 Mc. re-
gion at which point the inherent inductance of
the ground paths begins to affect operation.
Variations in grounding technique can elimin-
ate the parasitic, but the addition of parasitic
suppressors in the plate leads of the tubes
makes the circuit relatively insensitive to vari-
ations in the ground return path.
Amplifier The amplifier is built upon a
Construction 10" x 19" x 4" aluminum
chassis. The plate tuning ca-
pacitor C, is centered on the chassis with the
Figure 25 two 803 tubes mounted to one side. The tube
CATHODE DRIVEN KILOWATT sockets are recessed below the chassis to bring
AMPLIFIER FOR 40 AND 80 METERS the top of the tube base level with the top
Cathode driven amplifier presents ultimate in of the chassis. The plate r -f choke and bypass
simplicity and stability. Designed around two
803 tetrodes, this kilowatt amplifier for 40 capacitors are mounted between the tubes. On
and 80 meter operation has only plate tank the opposite side of the tank capacitor is the
tuning control and plate current meter on
panel. Amplifier is completely enclosed for tank coil and the r -f thermocouple (figure 27) .
reduction of spurious radiation. In the under -chassis area the only compon-
ents are the cathode current meter, the filament
A Practical Cathode Shown in figures 25, transformer, and the small parts associated
Driven Amplifier 27, and 28 is a cathode with the filament circuit. Pins 2, 3, and 4 of
driven amplifier de- each socket are grounded to the metal rods
signed for 40 and 80 meter operation. It is
capable of 1000 watts power input and may
be employed for SSB, c.w., or a.m. phone.
Combined grid driving and feedthrough power
is approximately 110 watts for 1 kilowatt in-
put. Actual grid driving power is of the order
of 9 to 10 watts, so the ratio of feedthrough to
drive power is about 10 to 1.
The schematic of the amplifier is shown in
figure 26. Two 803 tetrode tubes are used in
parallel in cathode driven configuration. These
tubes are available on the surplus market for a
dollar or so and perform very well up to ap-
proximately 10 Mc. All three grids of the
tubes are returned to ground and the tubes op-
erate in near zero bias condition. The internal 115V "\-
screening of the tubes begins to deteriorate
in the 15 Mc. region and amplifier instability Figure 26
may be encountered above 10 Mc. unless pre- SCHEMATIC, CATHODE DRIVEN
AMPLIFIER
cautions are taken to ensure that the grids re- C, -250 ',Aid., 5000 volt spacing
main close to r -f ground potential. L -40or 80 meter inductor. Cut to resonate
When operating in the 3.5 - 7 Mc. region to frequency with C, near full capacity.
Antenna coil S turns.
it is entirely possible to apply the r -f driving PC -40 ohm, 2 watt composition resistor
voltage directly to the filament circuit without wound with 6 turns =18 e. wire
TC -R.f. thermocouple, 0 -5 amperes
the necessity of adding filament r -f chokes to T. -10 volts at 10 amperes. Stancar P -6461
RFC -1.0 mh. Johnson 102 -752
isolate the driving voltage from the filament RFC. -Heavy duty plate choke. National R-
transformer. This makes for circuit simplicity
-0175A
-0 -500
M: d.c. milliamperes
and lower initial cost. If this circuit is used M: -S amperes, r.f. (Used with TC)
Figure 27
REAR VIEW, CATHODE DRIVEN
803 AMPLIFIER
Plate tuning capacitor is at the center, with
tank coil to left. The 803 tubes (right) are
mounted with sockets below deck, so that
tops of bases are level with chassis. Plate
ri. choke is placed between tubes, with para-
sitic chokes (PC) supported from top termi-
nal of choke.
supporting the sockets. The complete ampli-

fier is enclosed in a shield made of aluminum.
Holes are drilled above the 803 tubes in the
top sheet (figure 25) and in the rear plate to
permit circulation of air about the tubes.
Amplifier The resting plate current of the
Operation amplifier under quiescent condi-
tion is between 30 ma. and 75 29 -8 A Low Distortion
ma. depending upon the plate voltage, climb- Sideband Linear Amplifier
ing to 450 ma. or so under full excitation at a
plate potential of 2500 volts. Care should be A properly designed grounded grid linear
taken in tune -up and full excitation should amplifier is a very satisfactory high level stage
never be applied unless the amplifier is op- for a sideband transmitter, even though the
erating at rated plate voltage with maximum possibility of taking advantage of the inherent
antenna loading. Applying full drive to the feedback is lost because of the reasons explain-
tubes with no plate voltage will surely cause ed in Section 29 -7 of this chapter. With care,
damage to the grid structure of the tubes. a signal -to- distortion ratio of 30 decibels can
The meter indicates plate and screen cur- easily be achieved and the circuit is unsur-
rent; actual plate current is about 40 milliam- passed for stability and ease of operation.
peres lower than the meter reading. At 1000 Data given in the tube manuals and instruc-
watts p.e.p., the power output measures ap- tion sheets are usually derived for maximum
proximately 600 watts. Tuning of the plate tube output rather than the condition of min-
circuit is facilitated by means of a thermo- imum distortion. It is therefore necessary to
couple r -f meter placed in the coaxial lead to adjust circuit operating voltages to arrive at a
the antenna coaxial receptacle. satisfactory power output level consistent with
a pre -set value of maximum allowable distor-
tion. The maximum distortion level for this
amplifier was set at 30 db S/D. At this figure
350 watts output p.e.p. can be obtained at 3000
volts plate potential, and 680 watts output
p.e.p. can he obtained at 3500 volts.
The Grounded For maximum shielding with -
Screen in the tube, it is necessary to
Configuration operate both grid and screen
at r -f ground potential. At the
same time, the control grid has a negative op-
erating bias applied to it, and the screen has a
positive operating potential. Both elements of
the tube, therefore, must be bypassed to
ground over a frequency range that includes
the operating spectrum and the region of pos-
sible VHF parasitic oscillations. This is quite
Figure 28 a large order. The inherent inductance of the
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF CATHODE
usual bypass capacitors is sufficient to intro-
DRIVEN AMPLIFIER duce sufficient regeneration into the circuit to
Input coaxial connector is at the right on degrade the linearity of the amplifier at high
rear of chassis. Mica filament bypass capaci- signal levels even though the instability is not
tors are placed between the tube sockets,
with RFC, beneath them. great enough to cause parasitic oscillation. The
630 H.F. Power Amplifiers T H E R AD I O
placed at the screen terminal of the tube. Cir-

cuit operation is still the same, as all power
supply returns are still made to the cathode of
the tube. The only change is that the screen
r.f. ground and d.c. ground are now one and
the same. The cathode circuit is now at a
negative potential with respect to the chassis
ground by an amount equal to the screen
voltage. In addition, the return of the high
voltage plate supply is now negative with re-
spect to ground by an amount equal to the
screen voltage supply.
A practical version of this circuit is shown
in figure 29C. The grid bias and screen sup-
plies are incorporated in the amplifier and
separate terminals are provided for the posi-
B BIAS SUPPLY
tive and negative leads of the high voltage
S c SCREEN SUPPLY supply. A "tune -operate" switch S_ is added to
P. PLATE SUPPLY the circuit which removes the screen potential
for tune -up purposes. The negative of the
high voltage supply "floats below ground" at
the value of the screen voltage.
This circuit is unique in that it requires a
mental orientation of the user to accept the fact
OPERATE
that d.c. ground is no longer "ground." How-
TUNE ever, the circuit is no more complex than the
"COMMON
MINUS'
usual grounded cathode d.c. return circuit, and
LEAD the advantage of having the screen at r.f.
B- BI- ground potential far outweighs the unusual
Figure 29 aspects of the circuit. Operation of the circuit
GROUNDED SCREEN GRID is normal in all respects, and it may be applied
CONFIGURATION PROVIDES HIGH to any form of tetrode amplifier with good
ORDER OF ISOLATION IN TETRODE results.
AMPLIFIER STAGE
A- Typicalat amplifier circuit has cathode re-
ground potential. All circuits re-
The Amplifier The circuit of an operation -
turn Circuit al cathode driven, grounded
turn to cathode.
B -All circuits return to cathode, but ground screen amplifier is shown in
point has been shifted to screen terminal
of tube. Operation of the circuit remains figure 30. A 4 -250A or 4 -400A tetrode tube
the same, as potential differences between is used with an untuned cathode circuit and a
elements of the tube are the same as in
circuit A. pi- network plate circuit. Bias and screen sup-
C- Practical grounded screen circuit. "Com- plies are included in the amplifier. The im-
mon minus" lead returns to negative of
plate supply, which cannot be grounded. portant operating parameters are also shown
Switch S. removes screen voltage for tune- in the diagram. P.e.p. excitation is 12 watts
up purposes.
(including losses) for 3000 volt operation
and about 22 watts (including losses) for
solution to this problem is to eliminate the 3500 volt operation.
screen bypass capacitors by actually grounding The resonant plate circuit is capacitively
the screen terminals of the amplifier to the coupled to the amplifier tube and consists of
chassis by means of a low inductance strap. It a 300 µµEd. variable vacuum capacitor, a kilo-
is possible to do this by juggling the ground watt tapped -coil turret, and a 1500 µµfd. var-
return of the amplifier, as shown in figure 29. iable air -type loading capacitor. D.c. ground
Circuit A shows the conventional d.c. return is established by returning the output section
paths wherein all power supplies are returned of the network to ground by means of choke
to the grounded cathode of the stage. Meters RFC -3. Three .001 pfd., 5 KV ceramic capaci-
are placed in the common return leads, and tors in parallel form the plate blocking capaci-
each meter reads only the current flowing in tor. The high voltage is applied to the tube
the singular circuit. The d.c. ground lead is via a Raypar heavy duty r.f. choke in series
removed from the cathode in circuit B and with two air wound VHF choke coils. Escape
HANDBOOK SSB Linear Amplifier 631
OUTPUT
4 -400A Ja
00,
511v 111 1.111
100 GICI SI C2 - 3FC

.NPUT 2W
JI SNV 300 1500
HII
y 001
l
20 RFC2 3743(
C
Sllv
Ds C3 H)I
10 o0 001
5 KV
J 3 3311
J RFC2
ALC .IH
OUT 470
R c
001 0C1
HI,
Oo1
001 SXv
° - B+3000-3500 V.
C
Je J9 NOTES
T2 ALC BIAS
BIAS 1. ALL RES /STORS 1 WATT UNLESS
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
i0
DI 600
1500 TI
ó 9 D2 zow #375 V
3
CLASS ABI OPERATING CONDITIONS,
4 -250A/ 4 -400A
111 F D3 J7
D.C. PLATE VOLTAGE
b
o 04
SCREEN 3000 3500
'o
D.C. SCREEN VOLTAGE 300 300
STATIC PLATE CURRENT (MA.) B0 60

40LF
400
OPERATE
O.C. GRID BIAS VOLTAGE -60 -60
"COMMON TU
E S2
MINUS' MAX. SIG. GRID CURRENT (MA.) 3.6 10
LEAD
SK MAX. SIG. SCREEN CURRENT (MA) 4.5 20
4W
MAX. SIG. PLATE CURRENT (MA) 495 265
CHI
i 000 -375 R2 R
MAX. SIG. PLATE DISSIP (WATTS) 23S 235
ADJ. ADJ. STATIC PLATE DISSIPATION(WATTS) 160 210
+ ALC eus Je
0,1 J10
COM- GND
MON
GRID DRIVING POWER (WATTS) 0.63 3.
GO
FEED TNRU POWER (WATTS) 6.6 15.6
0.1 C4 BLOWER
(WATTS)
POWER OUTPUT 350 690
B-
O EFFICIENCY (9b) 60 70
RFC2 RFC2 RFC 2
EA. C=O.111F- C7 Cs© C6(ÚI

RELAY IIS V
CONTROL 'V
Figure 30
SCHEMATIC, LOW DISTORTION LINEAR AMPLIFIER
C: -300 p, -fd., 10KV variable vacuum capacitor. Jennings UCS -300
C; -1500 I,1.fd., variable capacitor. Cardwell 8013
CI -100 1,I.fd. variable ceramic
C.- C --0.1 pfd., 600 volt bulkhead-type capacitor. Sprague "Hypass"
L, -S:- Barker B Williamson =850 pi-network inductor. Inductances: 80 meters, 13.5
ph.; 40 meters, 6.5 ph.; 20 meters, 1.75 ph.; 15 meters, 1 ph.; 10 meters,
0.8 1 h.
L: -Dual winding filament choke. BBW FC -15, IS amperes capacity
-5
T. volts at 10.5 amperes. Stancor P -6135
T-335 0 - 335 volts, 75 ma. Chicago PSC -70
-
CH -8 henry, 85 ma. Stancor C -1709
D; -D. -500 ma. silicon rectifier. Sorkes- Torzinn M -500
-Diode, type or equivalent
D
M -0 800 ma. 1N67
d.c. meter. Marion type MM3
-
M: -0 50 ma. d.c. meter. Marion type MM3
-
M -0 50 ma. d.c. meter. Marion type MM3
-
duty wide band ri. choke, 800 ma. Raypar RL -100
=
RFC; -Heavy
RFC. -20 turns o20e, airwound, 1/2" diem, 1" long
RFC -2.5 mh. National R -100
Figure 31
KILOWATT CATHODE -DRIVEN
AMPLIFIER
Careful arrangement of components permits
symmetrical panel layout. Grid, screen, and
plate current meters are spaced across top
of panel, with amplifier loading control (Cr)
at left, and plate bandswitch (Si) at right.
Counter dial at center drives variable vacuum
capacitor C,. Tune-operate switch S: is at
lower right, balanced on left by pilot light.
Amplifier is completely screened to reduce
spurious energy radiation. Screened area on
top of shield allows circulation of air around
tube.
of bias voltage may be set by adjusting po-

tentiometer R..
A simple automatic load control circuit is
of r.f. energy through this lead is thus held incorporated in the input circuit of the ampli-
to an absolute minimum value. fier. A diode samples the incoming signal and
Driving power is coupled to the filament produces a d.c. signal proportional to the input
circuit of the tube through two .001 pfd. cer- signal. This control voltage may be applied to
amic capacitors. The filament transformer is an amplifier tube in the sideband exciter in
isolated from the exciting voltage by means of such a way as to limit the incoming signal to
a bifilar wound r.f. choke coil, capable of car- a predetermined value which may be set by
rying the filament current of the tube (10.5 adjustment of capacitor G and potentiometer
amperes) . Ra. This circuit is analogous to the automatic
A dual purpose power supply delivering volume control circuit in a receiver. The time
375 volts serves as screen and bias source. The constant of the a.l.c. circuit is determined by
output voltage of the supply is held constant the 0.1 pfd. capacitor and 33K resistor across
by three regulator tubes in series. The "com- the output jack, Ja.
mon minus" lead (see figures 29 and 30) is
at the juncture of the regulated -75 volts and Amplifier The amplifier is built upon an
the regulated 300 volts. The supply thus de- Construction aluminum chassis measuring
livers -75 volts for the bias circuit and plus 13" x 17" x 4 ". The front
300 volts for the screen circuit. The exact value panel is 133/4'' high, and the above-chassis
Figure 32
TOP VIEW OF
KILOWATT
AMPLIFIER USING
4 -400A TETRODE
Plate circuit inductor is
placed parallel to panel
and driven by right -angle
irive unit. Loading ca-
pacitor is at right, with
'arioble vacuum capaci-
tor mounted vertically at
ear of chassis. 4 -400A
tube and air socket are
at rear right corner of
:hassis, with bias trans-
former in left corner.
elate blocking capaci-
tors are placed between
aluminum plates and
mounted atop vacuum
:apacitor. Plate r -f choke
is hidden between tube
and variable vacuum ca-
pacitor. At base of ca-
pacitor are the B -plus
VHF filter chokes and
bypass capacitors.
Meters are isolated by
aluminum shield running
full length of chassis.
Meter leads pass down
conduit (left corner) to
under -chassis area. Shield
plate covers entire en-
closure.
Figure 33 SSB Linear Amplifier 633
UNDER -CHASSIS
VIEW OF
CATHODE- DRIVEN
AMPLIFIER
Bias and screen supply,
and input circuits are
placed in the under -
chassis area. Filament
transformer and filament
choke are at left, with
tube socket next to the
choke. Screen terminals
of socket are grounded
with wide aluminum
strap passing ucross ter-
minals to socket shell
and chassis. Grid termin-
al is bypassed to center
of strap. Input capaci-
tors mount between fil-
ament terminals and co-
axial input receptacle on
rear of chassis.
At right are power sup-
ply compartment (see
figure 34) and voltage
regulator tubes. Vacuum
capacitor gear drive and
output circuit voltmeter
are at center of chassis.
Blower motor is next to
filament transformer.
Under- chassis area is
pressurized so that air
escapes through tube
socket vent. After bot-
tom plate is in place,
seam around plate is
sealed with cellophane
tape to provide air -tight
enclosure.
shield is 9S8 high. This shield is made of one

"" ly in front of the tube is the panel driven 1500
piece of aluminum, bent into a U- shape, hav- µµfd. loading capacitor C:, mounted on two
ing 1/2 -inch flanges on all sides. The open heavy aluminum brackets, bringing its shaft
side of the "U" is bolted to the front panel as in line with that of the variable inductor,
shown in the photographs. Elastic stop -nuts Plate inductor L1 is affixed to the chassis
are affixed to the shield every 11/2" along the parallel to the front panel, and is driven
flange, or it may be drilled and tapped for through a miniature right angle drive, as seen
6 -32 machine screws. A shield of this type in figure 32, making the control knobs of Lt
can be homemade, or it may be fabricated in and C= occupy symmetrical positions on the
any large sheet metal shop for a small sum. panel.
The three indicating meters are mounted The variable vacuum capacitor is centered
on the top front of the panel and are shielded between the sides of the chassis and is panel
from the intense r.f. field of the amplifier by driven by a counter dial and a right angle
a half -box section of shielding bent to fit drive unit. To preserve the panel appearance,
around the rear of the meter cases. The meter the counter dial is mounted with its shaft
shield measures 2½" deep, 41/4" high, and is about 2Sá "" above the lower edge of the panel.
long enough to make a close fit with the outer The center -line of the right angle drive unit,
shield at each end. Meter leads pass from the however, falls about 1 above the panel
under -chassis area through the upper deck via edge. Two 11/4" brass gears are used to couple
a short section of 1/2 -itch pipe, threaded at the shafts, as seen in figure 34. The gears are
each end and bolted between the chants deck held in position by an angle plate cut from a
and the meter shield. soft aluminum sheet.
The major components are mounted with
an eye towards panel symmetry and short leads. The Tube Socket An Eimac air cooled socket
The vacuum tube socket and variable vacuum is used for the amplifier
capacitor CI are placed to the rear of the chas- tube. The small 115 volt a.c. blower motor is
sis. The capacitor is mounted in a vertical po- mounted near the socket, and the entire under -
sition, gear driven from the under -chassis area chassis area is sealed air -right with a bottom
(figure 33). Plate choke RFC -1 is placed be- plate. A 34" wide aluminum strap passes
tween the air socket and the capacitor. Direct- across the center of the socket, extending down
Figure 34
CLOSE UP OF POWER SUPPLY
COMPARTMENT AND GEAR
DRIVE SYSTEM
Off- center shafts of capacitor and counter
dial are ganged by two gears held in position
by triangular plate bolted to chassis. Enclo-
sure below holds power supply components.
Silicon rectifiers are mounted in fuse clips
attached to enclosure wall. All power leads
leaving enclosure pass through small, bulk-
head -type ceramic capacitors. Primary leads
pass through "Hypass" capacitors on rear
wall of chassis. Potentiometers R. and R, are
in corner of chassis.
to the chassis on both sides. This strap is bolt- mum conduit, and each meter is bypassed as
ed to the two screen terminals of the socket, shown in the schematic. Small insulated tip
and to the two diagonal assembly screws of the jacks (J.-J..) are mounted on the rear of the
socket frame. The ends of the strip are fas- chassis to facilitate voltage measurements. In
tened to the chassis, forming a low impedance addition, two insulated, closed- circuit jacks
return path for the screen circuit. The .001 (Je, Js) allow the voltage regulator currents to
µfd., 5 KV ceramic grid bypass capacitor is be read.
mounted directly between the ground strap and Choke coils RFC -2 are wound on a 3/8 -inch
the grid terminal of the tube socket. wooden dowel rod which is removed, leaving
The r.f. input jack J, is mounted to the rear the coils self -supporting. Plate circuit wiring
wall of the chassis directly behind the tube above the deck is done with silver plated cop-
socket and two .001 µfd. ceramic capacitors per strap.
are connected between the center terminal of When the amplifier wiring is completed the
J, and each filament terminal of the tube sock- power supply should be checked. The regula-
et. Short leads connect the filament terminals tor tubes are inserted in the correct sockets and
to the filament choke coil L_ mounted on the the current flowing through the regulator cir-
side wall of the chassis, directly above the tube cuit is measured. The 1500 ohm series resistor
socket. The power supply components are en- in the power supply is adjusted to provide 40
cased within an auxiliary shield measuring milliamperes of screen regulator current. If the
5" x 7½" ( figure 34). All leads leaving this correct current value is obtained with less han
enclosure pass through .001 pfd. ceramic feed - 500 ohms of series resistance, the 1 µfd. input
through capacitors mounted on the wall of the filter capacitor should be increased in value to
enclosure. The four silicon rectifiers are mount- 8 µfd. to boost the supply voltage. The regu-
ed in a multiple fuse clip holder placed on the lator current divides between the VR -75 and
side wall, and the three regulator tubes are the bias adjust potentiometer R,, and 25 mil-
mounted on the adjacent wall. liamperes of regulator current is measured at
Amplifier Wiring The power circuits of the J, when the supply is adjusted for 40 ma.
and Tuning amplifier may be wired at jack J.. After final adjustment has been
with unshielded wire since completed, the variable series resistor in the
the r.f. field beneath the chassis is extremely supply may be replaced with a fixed one if
low. All d.c. leads are cabled and laced as may desired. Finally, bias control potentiometer R,
be seen in the under -chassis photograph. Leads is set for -60 volts as measured between J.
to the meter deck pass through the area above (minus) and J. (plus).
the chassis in a short section of 1/2-inch alum- Switch S should be placed in the "tune"
HANDBOOK Kilowatt Amplifier 635
Figure 35
GENERAL PURPOSE AMPLIFIER
OPERATES IN CLASS A, B, OR C
MODE
This kilowatt amplifier employs a pair of
4- 250A's in o pi- network circuit. Mode of op-
eration may be set by selection of proper
screen and bias voltages. Grid, plate, and
screen current meters are mounted on plastic
plate behind panel cut -out, and tubes are
visible through shielded panel opening. Across
bottom of panel (left to right) are band -
switch, grid tuning, plate tuning, loading, and
primary power control circuits. Plate tuning
knob is attached to small counter dial.
position before voltages are applied to the

tube. A suitable antenna load should be placed
on the amplifier; bias, screen, and plate volt-
age are applied. The bias control should be var-
ied slightly to produce the correct resting plate
current as indicated in figure 30. Excitation 29 -9 Kilowatt
should never be applied without plate voltage
on the amplifier, or without an external an- Amplifier for Linear or
tenna load, since the resultant high grid and Class C Operation
screen current would damage the tube. In ad-
dition, screen voltage should never be applied A pair of 4 -250A or 4 -400A tetrode tubes
without plate voltage. The combination screen may be employed in a pi- coupled amplifier
and bias supply of the amplifier is designed capable of running one kilowatt input, c -w or
to be turned on with the plate supply through plate modulated phone, or two kilowatts
the "relay control" terminal. All voltages may p.e.p. for sideband operation. Correct choice of
be left on the amplifier during "VOX" oper- bias, screen, and exciting voltages will permit
ation, or the supplies may be turned on by the the amplifier to function in either class A, B,
"VOX" circuit. The "tune -operate" switch S: or class C mode. The amplifier is designed
should not be thrown when excitation is ap- to operate at plate potentials up to 4000 volts,
plied to the tube, since the momentary break- and excitation requirements for class C oper-
ing of the screen to ground path will apply ation are less than 25 watts.
the full excitation power to the control grid of A bandswitching type of pi- network is em-
the tube during the moment the switch is in ployed in the plate circuit of such an ampli-
transition from one position to the other. In fier, shown in figure 35. The pi- network is
practice, this switching action has been done an effective means of obtaining an impedance
with full excitation applied to the tube, but match between a source of r.f. energy and a
it is not recommended. low value of load impedance. A properly de-
The exciter should now be connected and signed pi- network is capable of transformation
a small amount of carrier is inserted. The plate ratios greater than 10 to 1, and will provide
resonant point is found with tuning capacitor approximately 30 decibels or more attenuation
G and the amplifier loading adjustments are to the second harmonic output of the amplifier
made, gradually increasing the excitation and as compared to the desired signal output. Since
loading until the single tone conditions out- the second harmonic level of the amplifier
lined in figure 30 are met. Speaking into the tube may already be down some 20 db, the
microphone should produce approximately the actual second harmonic output of the network
same peak conditions as obtained with carrier will be down perhaps 50 db from the funda-
insertion. The linearity of the amplifier may be mental power level of the transmitter. Atten-
checked with the use of two envelope detectors uation of the third and higher order harmonics
as described in an earlier chapter. will be even greater.
Le
EACH
4 -250A 4 -250A 001
4 -400A 4 -4OOA 5 CV
L1 Le L3 La L5 H
RFC2
NOTE SCREEN BYPASS CAPACITORS

ARE CENTRAL AB TYPE 858
H'I
Ts, L, 1
-BIAS CON- 4-SCREEN GND 11SV 1,SV. 8+2500 -

TROL ti ti 3500 v
Figure 36
SCHEMATIC, GENERAL PURPOSE KILOWATT AMPLIFIER
C: -100 µµtd. Hammar- PC-47 ohm, 2 watt S: -Two pole, 6 position T; -S volt, 20 ampere.
lund HF -100 composition resistor switch. Two Centralab Stancor P -6492
C -200 µµid., 10KV var- wound with 6 turns PA -17 decks, with PA-
iable vacuum capaci- .718e. 301 index assembly MI -0 50
-
Triplett
ma. d.c.
tor. Jennings UCS -200
C, -1500 ppid., variable RFC; -2.5 mh. choke. -Two
capacitor. Cardwell National R -100
Se pole, 6 position
high voltage switch. M -0 150
Triplett
- ma. d.c.
8013 RFC: -Heavy duty, wide - Communication Prod-
C.-Neutralizing capaci- band r.i. choke. Bar- ucts Co. type 88 two - 750 ma. d.c.
tor, disc. Millen 15011 ker 8 Williamson type gang switch Triplett
C,-300 µµtd., mica, 800
1250 volt
L, -LIU-See -VHF choke. Ohm -
S; -Four pole, three po-
sition switch. Centro -
Gears -2 required. Bos-
coil table, RFC ton Gear .7G -465 and
ligure 39 ite Z -144 lab .7G-466
The peak voltages encountered across the 500 µµfd. to 1500 µµEd., depending upon the
input capacitor of the pi- network are the same ratio of transformation. Design information
as would be encountered across the plate tun- covering pi- network circuits is given in an earl-
ing capacitor of a single -ended tank used in ier chapter of this Handbook.
the same circuit configuration. The peak volt- Illustrated in figures 35 - 41 is an up-to-
age to be expected across the output capacitor date version of an all -band pi- network ampli-
of the network will be less than the voltage fier, suited for sideband or class -C operation.
across the input capacitor by the square The unit is designed for TVI -free operation
root of the ratio of impedance transformation over this range.
of the network. Thus if the network is trans-
forming from 5000 ohms to 50 ohms, the ra- Circuit The schematic of the general
tio of impedance transformation is 100 and Description purpose amplifier is shown in
the square root of the ratio is 10, so that the figure 36. The symmetrical
voltage across the output capacitor is 1/10 panel arrangement of the amplifier is shown
that across the input capacitor. in the front view (figure 35) and the rear
A considerably greater value of maximum view (figure 37). A 200 µµfd. variable va-
capacitance is required of the output capacitor cuum capacitor is employed in the input side
than of the input capacitor of a pi- network of the pi- network, and a 1500 µµfd. variable
when transformation to a low impedance load air capacitor is used in the low impedance out-
is desired. For 3.5 Mc. operation, maximum put side. The coils of the network are switched
values of output capacitance may run from in and out of the circuit by a two pole, five
Figure 37
REAR VIEW OF GENERAL PURPOSE
AMPLIFIER WITH SHIELD
REMOVED
The pi- network circuit is built from an inex-
pensive high voltage rotary switch, and five
inductors. The switch is panel driven by a
gear and shaft system shown in figure 38.
Variable vacuum capacitor is mounted ver-
tically between the tubes, directly in back of
the plate r.f. choke. Neutralizing capacitor is
at right, connected to plates of tubes with a
wide, silver plated copper strap. Meters are
enclosed by aluminum shield partition running
the width of the enclosure, with conduit car-
rying meter loads to underchassis area at
left, front of chassis. Metal shells of tube
bases are grounded by spring contacts.
position high voltage ceramic rotary switch.

a
s
Each coil is adjusted for optimum circuit Q,
resulting in no tank circuit compromise in ef-
ficiency at the higher frequencies. A close -up
of the tank circuit is shown in the introductory
photograph at the chapter head, and complete pressor resistors are placed in the screen leads
coil data is given in figure 39. The plate after the bypass capacitor to isolate the sensi-
blocking capacitor is made of two .001 pfd., tive screen circuit from the external power
5 KV ceramic capacitors connected in series. leads. A third parasitic choke is placed between
Special precautions are taken to insure op- the grid terminals of the tubes and the tuned
erating stability over the complete range of grid circuit.
amplifier operation. The screen terminals of The five coils of the grid circuit are en-
each tube socket are jumpered together with closed in a small aluminum shield placed ad-
3
copper strap and a parasitic choke (PC) jacent to the rube sockets (figure 38 and figure
is inserted between the center of the strap and 40). The amplifier is neutralized by a capaci-
the screen bypass capacitor. In addition, sup- tive bridge system consisting of neutralizing
Figure 38
PLACEMENT OF
PARTS IN UNDER -
CHASSIS AREA
Grid tuned circuit is en-
closed in separate enclo-
sure at left. Bandswitch
projects out the rear of
case, and is gear driven
by same shaft that act-
uates the plate band -
switch. Switches are driv-
en through right -angle
gear drives and gears.
Output capacitor of pi-
network is shielded from
rest of underchassis
components.
The screen terminals of
each tube socket are
strapped together with
a" copper ribbon, and
low inductance screen
bypass capacitor is
grounded to socket
mounting bolt. Screen
parasitic choke mounts
between strap and ca-
pacitor terminal. All
power leads beneath the
chassis are run in shield-
ed braid, grounded to
chassis at convenient
points. B -plus lead is
made of section of RG-
8 U coaxial cable, with
outer sheath and braid
removed.
FIGURE 39
grid circuit components are mounted within
COIL TABLE FOR KILOWATT AMPLIFIER an aluminum box measuring 3" x 4" x 4".
GRID COILS Plate loading capacitor G, r.f. choke RFC -1,
Li- (9O METERS) : 49 TURNS 024 E, 3/4 D /A., 7 LONG ON and output connector J= are placed within an
AMPHENOL POLYSTYRENE FORM.
enclosure measuring 6" x 6" x 3", made up
L 2-010 M E T E RS) 30 TURNS 24 E, 3/4" D/A ., 3/4" LONG
:
ON AMPNENOL POLYSTYRENE FORM.

of aluminum angle sections and sheet material.
L3 -(20 METERS): 12 TURNS, SW 3071 M /N/DUCTOR, The plate circuit shielding is made of Reynold's
3/4" DIA., 3/4 LONG. "Do-it-yourself" aluminum stock, available at
L4 - (METERS): 7TURNS, 89W 3010 MINIOC/CTOR,
1 5 most hardware stores.
3/4" DrA., 7i9 "LONG.
L5 -(10 METERS): STURNS, AS .4801/E' Layout of the major components can be seen
ALL COILS HAVE 3 TURN LINKS MADE OF HOOKUP WIRE. in figure 37. The two tube sockets are placed
directly behind the panel opening, with the
PLATE COILS plate r.f. choke between them, and the variable
Le- (SO
L7- (40 METERS):

METERS) : 77
10 TURNS
rIRNSr 70, 3
10,
"0
3" OD.,
D., 0
5
r
ruRNS PER INCH
-A /R -DUX"
TURNS PER INCH
vacuum capacitor is mounted vertically to the
chassis directly behind the sockets, on the cen-
L9- (20 METERS): 9 TURNS, 3/19" COPPER TUB /NG, ter line of the chassis. To the right of the sock-
2 7/2 O.D., 3" LONG. ets is neutralizing capacitor C4. The high volt-
L9 -(15 METERS):7TURNS, 1/4" COPPER TURING. age ceramic coil switch S_A -B is placed directly
2 7 /4.0.0., .1" LONG.
L10 -(10 METERS): S TURNS, I /4" COPPER TURING,
behind the vacuum capacitor, mounted in a
2 7/4 "0.D., 3" LONG. vertical position.
The variable vacuum capacitor is panel driv-
capacitor C, and G, the grid circuit bypass ca- en by a counter -type dial, through a miniature
pacitor. right angle gear drive, as seen in the under-
Screen voltage may be removed for tune -up chassis view ( figure 38) . The plate and grid
purposes by control switch Si, section B. The band switches are ganged and switched in uni-
screen circuit is grounded in the "off" and son by means of a shaft acting through two
"fil" positions by means of switch section C. right angle gear drives and two bevel gears.
Both circuits are thus switched by the "Band -
Amplifier The complete amplifier is switch" control located in the lower left corner
Construction built upon an aluminum chas- of the front panel.
sis measuring 13" x 17" x 3" It is necessary to apply forced air to the
and has a 14" standard relay rack panel. The sockets of the amplifier tubes. A large 115
volt a.c. operated blower is therefore mounted
in the center of the bottom shield plate. The
under -chassis area is thus pressurized and the
majority of the air escapes through the socket
ventilation holes located near the pins of the
tubes.
All wiring beneath the chassis (with the
exception of the filament leads) is done with
5KV insulated wire, encased in metallic braid
which is grounded to the chassis every inch or
so. The B -plus wiring from the high voltage
terminal to the plate current meter is done
with a section of RG -8 /U coaxial line from
which the outer braid has been removed. A
similar piece of line is run from the meter to
the plate r.f. choke, RFC -2.
The three meters are mounted upon a lu-
cite sheet placed behind a second lucite sheet
mounted behind a cut-out in the front panel.
Figure 40 The meters are shielded from the plate circuit
GRID TANK CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY of the amplifier by an aluminum enclosure
Coils are mounted to the ceramic switch decks that covers the wiring and meters, running the
by their leads. A small aluminum plate at-
tached to rear of the switch assembly rods full length of the chassis. The meter leads pass
supports grid tuning capacitor which projects through the plate circuit area via a short length
out rear of shielded enclosure. Entire assembly
may be pre -wired before placing in enclosure. of !'2 -inch aluminum conduit that is threaded
HANDBOOK Kilowatt Amplifier 639
4- 250A/4 -400A OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS frequency of the exciting voltage with the aid
(2 r(IeES )
MODE
of a grid -dip meter. Next, a sensitive r.f. volt-
ITEM meter, such as a 0 - 1 d -c milliammeter in
55861 - b2 PHONE C.W
series with a 1N34 crystal diode is connected
PLATE VOLTAGE 3000 3000 2500 3000
PLATE CURRENT (MAI -420 260 -440 400
to the grid input receptacle (J.) of the am-
110 333
SCREEN VOLTAGE 600 500 500 500
plifier. The reading of this meter will indicate
SCREEN CURRENT (MA) 24 1.0 60 70
the degree of unbalance of the neutralizing
GRID BIAS -110 -60 -200 -200 circuit. Start with a minimum of applied r.f.
PROTECTIVE BIAS -110 -80 -120 -120 excitation to avoid damaging the meter or the
GRID CURRENT (MA.I 0 0 20 20 diode. Resonate the plate and grid circuits for
POWER OUTPUT (wArrs) 800 700 770 600 maximum meter reading, then vary the setting
of neutralizing capacitor C. until the reading
T1 SR4 -GY CHI se of the meter is a minimum. Each change in C4
RI 50 N RYI
6 i should be accompanied by re- resonating the
Ì
6
111
2 OIJF grid and plate tank circuits. When a point of
w. 4 Inv
minimum indication is found, the capacitor
+SC RÉEN
( VR -150 should be locked by means of the auxiliary set
4.
5
screw.
VR -150
(063v. H
t00WW
Complete neutralization is a function of the
50 efficiency of the screen bypass system, and
VR -105
OR substitution of other capacitors for those noted
VR -150
in the parts list is not recommended. Mica,
11511 T2 V OR90
ONO disc -type, or other form of bypass capacitor
ti VR -150 should not be substituted for the units speci-
106.3V CH2 2051F fied, as the latter units have the lowest value of
\\ I
+s- internal inductance of the many types tested

(O 5Y3 -GTF+ I R3 SW l + in this circuit.
,6
w 45ov R4
150 46
R2 2 25w Bias and The amplifier requires -60 to
42
l
211 St
-6
J2 -BIAS
Screen Supply -110 volts of grid bias, and
plus 300 to 600 volts of
screen potential for optimum characteristics
when working as a class AB1 linear ampli-
Figure 41 fier. Screen voltage for class C operation
OPERATING DATA AND SCHEMATIC, (phone) is 400 volts. The voltage may be
SCREEN AND BIAS SUPPLY raised to 500 volts for c.w. operation, if de-
T -870 -410 -0 -410 -870
volts at ISO ma. and
ma. S volts, 2 o., 6.3 v. 3.5 a.
60 sired, although the higher screen voltage does
Stanco, P -8307 little to enhance operation. Approximately -120
T. -235 -0 -235 volts at 40 ma. Stanco, PC-
8401 volts cut -off bias is required for either phone
CH.-7 henry at 150 ma. Stanco, C -1710 or c -w operation. A suitable bias and screen
CH -7 henry
RY -Overload
at 50 ma. Stanco, C -1707
power supply for all modes of operation is
relay, adjustable 100 -250 ma.
Note: J. is insulated from chassis. shown in figure 41, together with an operating
chart for all operating voltages. The supply
at each end and bolted to the chassis and the furnishes slightly higher than normal screen
meter shield. Plate circuit wiring above the voltage which is dropped to the correct value
chassis is done with -inch silver plated cop-
1 2 by an adjustable series resistor, R. This series
per strap as seen in the introductory photo- resistor is adjusted for 30 milliamperes of cur-
graph at the beginning of this chapter. rent as measured in meter jack J. when the
supply is disconnected from the amplifier.
Amplifier After the amplifier is wired Series bias resistor R2 is adjusted for the same
Neutralization and checked, it should be current in jack J= under the same conditions.
neutralized. This operation The value of protective bias may now be set
can be accomplished with no power leads at- by adjusting potentiometer R.
tached to the unit. The tubes are placed in Additional bias is required for class C oper-
their sockets, and about 10 warts of 30 Mc. ation which is developed across series resistor
r.f. energy is fed into the plate circuit of the R1. Switch S. is open for class C operation and
amplifier, via the coaxial output plug J.. The closed for sideband operation.
plate and grid circuits are resonated to the It is imperative that the screens of the tet-
Figure 42
4CX -1000A ALL BAND AMPLIFIER
PROVIDES TWO KILOWATT P.E.P.
FOR SIDEBAND, OR ONE KILOWATT
FOR PHONE C.W. OPERATION
Grid, plate, and output meters are across top
of panel. Counter dial at center drives var-
iable vacuum tuning capacitor, with loading
control directly beneath it. Meter switch is
at left, with bandswitch at right. Entire am-
plifier is screened to reduce unwanted radia-
tion.
circuit whenever the screen current reaches

approximately 100 milliamperes.
rode amplifier tubes be protected from exces-

29 -10 A 2 Kilowatt
sive current that could occur during tuning P.E.P. All -band Amplifier
adjustments, or during improper operation of
the amplifier. The safest way to accomplish Described in this section is an efficient all -
this is to include an overload relay that will band linear amplifier suited for SSB, phone,
open the screen circuit whenever the maximum and c.w. operation up to the maximum legal
screen dissipation point is reached. Two 4- power input limit. A 4CX -1000A ceramic
250A tubes or 4 -400A tubes have a total screen power tetrode is employed in the basic circuit
dissipation rating of 70 watts, therefore relay shown earlier in this chapter in figure 11C.
RY -1 should be adjusted to open the screen The Eimac 4CX -1000A is a ceramic and
2000 OUTPUT
4C X- 1000 A 20KV Lt J2
ttSV +SCR B- ONO

ti
Figure 43
SCHEMATIC, 4CX -1000A LINEAR AMPLIFIER
C, -500 ppfd., 10KV variable vacuum capacitor. Jennings UCSL 4 -500
C. -1500 ppfd. Cardwell 8013
L: -S,- High -C, all -band turret. Barker & Williamson 852
RFC.-Heavy duty plate choke. Raypar RL -100
T, -6volts, 12.5 amperes, with primary taps. Stancar P -6463
T. -125 volts, 15 ma. Stancor PS -8415
R: -100 ohm, 20 watt non -inductive resistor. May be made of o number of 2 or 4 watt composition
resistors connected in series parallel. Two Sprague type NIT, 10 watt "Cool-ohm" 200 ohm resistors
in parallel used.
- 1 d.c. milliammeter M.-0 - 1 d.c. ammeter Eimac SK -800 air socket
All -band Amplifier 641
Figure 44
END VIEW OF AMPLIFIER
4CX -1000A sub- chassis is shown, with plate
circuit choke mounted at rear. External blow-
er provides forced air to cool tube seals vio
entrance hole in rear of chassis. Bias adjust-
ment potentiometer is in foreground, between
tube and meter switch.
metal, forced air -cooled, radial beam tetrode

with a rated maximum plate dissipation of
a
1000 watts. It is a low voltage, high current
tube specifically designed for class ABI r -f
linear amplifier service where its high gain
and low distortion characteristics may be used
to advantage. At its maximum rated plate
voltage of 3000, it is capable of producing
1680 watts of single -tone output power in SSB
service. Maximum grid dissipation of the 4CX -
1000A is zero watts. The design features which
make the tube capable of maximum power op-
eration without driving the grid into the posi-
tive region also make it necessary to avoid posi-
tive grid operation.
Circuit The circuit of the all -band am-
Description plifier is shown in figure 43.
A resistance loaded, untuned
grid input circuit is employed in conjunction Screen Grid Tetrode tubes may exhibit re-
with a pi- network plate output circuit. Grid Operation versed (negative) screen current
driving requirements are 60 volts peak across to a greater or lesser degree de-
resistor R, which has a value of 100 ohms. pending upon individual tube design. This
This corresponds to 36 watts p.e.p. all of which characteristic is prominent in the 4CX -1000A
is dissipated in resistor R,. For normal voice and, under some operating conditions, indicat-
operation, a 20 watt non -inductive resistor may ed negative screen current of the order of 25
be used. A simple 1N66 diode voltmeter is milliamperes may be encountered. In general,
incorporated in the grid circuit to monitor the high values of negative screen current will be
excitation voltage. Grid and screen current are measured at the lower values of plate potential.
also measured. The d.c. grid bias voltage is It is difficult to measure screen dissipation
obtained from a small selenium -type half -wave in the presence of secondary emission of this
power supply contained within the amplifier. type. The usual product of current and voltage
The plate circuit is designed around the new may not provide an accurate picture of actual
Barker & Williamson type 852 bandswitching screen dissipation. Experience has shown that
turret, especially designed for high current, the screen will operate within the limits es-
low voltage tubes of this type. The input tun- tablished for this tube if the indicated screen
ing capacitor of the network is a 500 µµtd. current, plate voltage, and drive voltage ap-
variable vacuum unit, and the output loading proximate the values given in the operating
control is a 1500 wad. variable air capacitor. chart of figure 48.
For operation into low impedance loads in the The screen supply voltage must be main-
80 meter band, an additional 1500 µµfd. fixed tained constant for any values of negative and
mica capacitor may be placed in parallel with positive screen current that may be encount-
the output loading capacitor, G. A second ered. Dangerously high plate currents may flow
1N66 diode voltmeter is placed across the out- if the screen power supply exhibits a rising
put circuit as a tuning aid. voltage characteristic with negative screen cur-
rent. Stabilization may be accomplished in sev- Amplifier Layout of the amplifier may
eral ways. A combination of voltage regulator Construction be seen in figures 42, 44, 45,
tubes may be connected across the screen sup- 46, and 47. A 121/4" x 19"
ply, or a heavy bleeder resistor may be placed rack panel is employed to form the front of an
across the supply that will draw approximately enclosure 14" deep. The enclosure is built of
70 milliamperes at the operating potential of 1/2 -inch aluminum angle stock and the top,
the screen. Screen voltage is not particularly sides and back are covered with perforated
critical, especially at plate potentials of 2500 aluminum sheet. The bottom of the enclosure
volts and higher. However, the screen volAtge is formed from a solid sheet of aluminum.
should be adjusted for best linearity of the Only a very small chassis is required to mount
stage when the tube is operated at 2000 volts the 4CX -1000A tube socket, filament trans-
plate potential. A 350 volt, 150 ma. supply former, and grid circuit components. A chassis
utilizing choke input and bled to 70 milliam- measuring 6" x 3" x 14" with one end cut
peres, in conjunction with a 100 watt primary off is employed (figure 47) . This chassis is
"Variac" or variable voltage transformer is a mounted at one end of the enclosure and sup-
satisfactory source of screen voltage. Three VR- ports a small aluminum angle bracket holding
105 regulator tubes passing 40 ma. may he the two pi- network capacitors. The band -
employed for a fixed -voltage screen supply. switching plate tank inductor is mounted di-
Figure 45
TOP VIEW OF
4CX -1000A
AMPLIFIER
Tetrode tube fits in Ei-
mac air socket on small
chassis at one end of
enclosure. Pi- network
capacitors are mounted
on aluminum bracket at-
tached to chassis, and
are panel driven through
flexible shaft couplers.
Heavy duty, high -C band -
switching inductor is at
opposite side of assem-
bly, with output circuit
diode voltmeter mounted
above it on rear of en-
closure.
Extremely low harmonic
content of amplifier re-
moves need of meter
shields. Amplifier may be
run without enclosure
with no sign of TVI on
any band in normal TV
signal area.
Figure 46
REAR VIEW OF CHASSIS ASSEMBLY
Air inlet, power receptacle and coaxial input
jack are located on rear of amplifier chassis.
Pi- network capacitor assembly is at left, with
Raypar wideband plate r -f choke in fore-
ground. Plate blocking capacitor is made of
four 500 fd. TV -type capacitors mounted
in "sandwich" between stator plate of vacuum
capacitor and round aluminum plate.
rectly to the aluminum bottom plate of the

enclosure as seen in figure 45.
The low impedance plate tank circuit re-
quires a higher than normal value of plate
coupling capacitor. Four 500 µµtd., 20 KV
TV -type capacitors are therefore mounted be-
tween two aluminum plates to form a 2000
µµtd. "sandwich" which is bolted to the rear
stator terminal of tuning capacitor Cr. The 10 Amplifier Amplifier operating characteris-
meter inductor section of coil Li bolts directly Operation tics are given in figure 48. The
to the aluminum plate, as does the plate lead bias potentiometer Rt is adjusted
of the 4CX- 1000A. to provide a zero -signal plate current of 250
Special breechlock terminal surfaces are used milliamperes, At this value, the bias voltage
on the tube in place of the conventional hase. will be approximately -55 volts. Resting plate
Three tabs protrude through the ceramic en- current and screen voltage may both be varied
velope for each tube element, providing a low over small limits to provide the greatest lin-
inductance termination. The new Eimac SK- earity range. Maximum single tone plate cur-
800 socket having a built-in screen bypass rent is 1.0 ampere. Good linearity may be ob-
capacitor and an air vent should be employed tained at 2000 watts p.e.p. at a plate voltage of
with this rube. 2500 and maximum plate current of 800 ma.
The rated heater voltage for the 4CX -1000A Care should be taken not to apply excitation
is 6.0 volts and the operating voltage, as meas- to the amplifier in the presence of screen volt-
ured at the socket, should be maintained with- age but with no plate voltage present. A relay
in plus or minus 5% of this value if long life interlock may be applied to the screen circuit
operation is to be obtained. Note that the ca- to open it in the absence of plate voltage. Grid
thode and one side of the heater are internally exciting voltage should be limited to about 60
connected. volts, and grid current should be monitored to
Sufficient cooling must be provided for the see that it does not exceed 0.5 milliamperes
anode and ceramic -to -metal seals to maintain during tune -up.
operating temperatures below 200 degrees,
Centigrade. At sea level, with an inlet air tem-
perature of 20 °C., a minimum of 35 cubic
feet per minute of air flow is required. In this
case, the chassis is pressurized and a 50 cubic
foot /minute blower is connected to the air in-
let on the rear of the chassis by means of a
short length of automobile radiator hose. The
cooling air must be maintained on the ceramic
seals during standby periods when only heater
voltage is applied to the rube.
Figure 47
4CX -1000A AMPLIFIER
Bias supply is placed at one end of chassis.
Filament transformer is mounted next to air
socket and short, heavy strap leads are used
to eliminate voltage drop. Special air socket
has built -in screen bypass capacitor to ensure
low inductance ground path.
FIGURE 48 termined, steps must be taken to eliminate all

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS, 4CX -I000A AMPLIFIER tendencies towards parasitic oscillation.
PLATE VOLTAGE 2000 2500 3000 Described in this section is a push -pull am-
SCREEN VOLTAGE 325 325 325
plifier intended for operation in the 13 - 15
Mc. region. Push -pull 4 -1000A tubes are em-
GRID VOLTAGE -55 -S5 -SS
ployed, running at their maximum rated input.
ZERO SIGNAL:IP(MA.) 250 230 250 Other tubes, such as the 4 -400A, 4 -250A, or
SINGLE TONE: IP(MA.) 1000 1000 900 4 -125A may be substituted in the design, scal-
ZERO SIGNAL:IG2(MA) -2 -2 -2
ing down the various components to suitable
sizes for the reduced power level. This ampli-
SINGLE TONE. IG2(MA) 30 30 30
fier design is suitable for use in the 3 - 30 Mc.
SINGLE TONE PEAK
R-F GRID VOLTS
SS SS 55 frequency region. The lower limit of operation
SINGLE TONE DRIVING
POWER (WATTS) 0 O O is restricted by the amount of tuning capacity
SINGLE TONE POWER 1060 1460 1660
in the grid and plate tank circuits. Padding
OUTPUT (WATTS)
capacitors placed across the variable tuning ca-
NOTE: ADJUST GRID VOLTAGE TO OBTAIN SPECIFIED
ZERO -SIGNAL PLATE CURRENT. pacitors may be employed to reach the lower
frequency portions of the HF spectrum. The
29 -11 A High Power upper frequency limit of operation is deter-
mined by the residual screen lead inductance
Push -pull Tetrode Amplifier of the particular tubes used in the circuit. At
The push -pull tetrode amplifier still retains frequencies up to 30 Mc., no neutralizing dif-
a high degree of popularity in spite of the ficulties are encountered with any of the pre-
trend towards single -ended pi- network ampli- viously mentioned tubes.
fiers. Regardless of the power level of the
Circuit The complete schematic of the
push -pull amplifier, the physical design must
Description push -pull tetrode amplifier is
satisfy two important requirements. First, the
plate and grid circuits of the amplifier must be shown in figure 50. Grid, fila-
ment, and auxiliary metering circuits of the
symmetrical with respect to each tube; and
second, the input and output circuits must be
amplifier are enclosed beneath the chassis in
isolated from each other. Finally, after the an "electrically tight" box. All leads leaving
physical layout of the amplifier has been de- this box are suitably filtered to prevent leakage
of energy into (or out of) the enclosure. The
plate circuit of the amplifier is contained in a
separate enclosure above the main chassis.
A small degree of feedback exists within
the tetrode tubes due to the minute value of
grid -plate capacity. It is therefore necessary to
cross -neutralize the tubes by means of two
capacitor tabs mounted near the envelope of
the tube (figure 53). These capacitors are ad-
justed for minimum r -f feedback at the high-
est operating frequency of the amplifier.
Any tendency towards parasitic oscillation
is eliminated by the use of small parasitic
chokes placed in the grid and screen leads of
each tetrode tube. Excellent parasitic suppres-
sion is achieved by strapping the screen ter-
Figure 49
HIGH POWER PUSH -PULL AMPLIFIER
USES 4 -1000A TUBES
This amplifier design is typical of push -pull
stages regardless of power level. Tubes are
visible through screened openings in panel.
Controls are (top to bottom): Output link
tuning, variable link coupling, plate circuit
tuning, and grid circuit tuning. Amplifier is
housed in special 21" rack. Filament meters
for each tube are on auxiliary panel holding
bias and screen supply.
HANDBOOK P -P Tetrode Amplifier 645
C2 4-I000A/4-400A
2
J1 .IH L3 J2
NPUr L1
F/L CAP'S
5
- ANT.
A X X
EA .005
C3 4-1000A/4-400A 500
250
2Ó w RFC 2;r 20 KV
I elf
RFC16 500
B1 B2 RFC1 20 KV
"RFC,
T1
;;HIHI'
NOTE
SCREEN BYPASS CAPACITORS
1.
ARE CENTRALAF TYPE eye
Ce UCe R T
V 1, SCREE.
Figure 50
SCHEMATIC, PUSH -PULL HIGH POWER AMPLIFIER
C, -100 - 100 ppfd. "butter -fly" capacitor. Barker 8 Williamson type JCX
C.-Neutralizing capacitors. I" x 3" aluminum plate mounted near tube
envelope (figure 53)
C A -B-60 - 60 i,pld. split-stator variable vacuum capacitor. Eimac VVC- 60 -20. See
text for substitute
C -500 pvtd. Johnson 500E20
C pfd., 600 volt feedthrough capacitor. Centralab "NY- pass"
RFC- VHF -type choke. National R -60, or Ohmite Z -50
RFC -Heavy duty plate choke. Surplus choke from AN ART-I3 transmitter, or
Barker 8 Williamson type 800
PC- Parasitic suppressor. 3 turns =14 wire, 1/2-inch diam. in parallel with 47 ohm,
S watt carbon "Globar" resistor
minais of the tetrode socket together ( figure

52) and inserting a parasitic choke between
the screen terminal of the socket and the screen
bypass capacitor.
Eimac air sockets should be employed with
the larger tubes, and a blast of air directed at
the base seal of each tube is required. Two
small 115 -volt blower motors mounted on the
rear of the chassis direct air streams through
sections of radiator hose to the two tube sock-
Figure 51
REAR VIEW OF AMPLIFIER
Plate tank circuit is placed between tetrode
tubes which are mounted in air sockets. Split -
stator variable vacuum capacitor is panel
mounted and rotors are grounded to chassis
by heavy copper strap. Tank coil is mounted
on 10" ceramic insulators. Individual fila-
ment transformers for the 4 -1000A tubes are
at rear of chassis. Each tube requires 7.5 volts
at 21 amperes.
Swinging link is panel driven through Millen
right -angle drive unit, and flexible, braided
leads connect link to antenna resonating ca-
pacitor and coaxial receptacle mounted in
top screen of amplifier.
Dual blower motor is mounted to rear of
chassis. All power leads (including filament
leads to meters) are brought out through
bulkhead -type capacitors.
Figure 53
CLOSE -UP OF PLATE CHOKE AND
NEUTRALIZING CAPACITOR
Neutralizing capacitor is made of tab soldered
to threaded rod mounted in insulating button
affixed to chassis.
Amplifier If 4 -250A or 4 -125A tubes

Construction are employed, a 15" x 17" x
6" chassis may be used. The
4 -1000A tubes require a 17" x 19" x 6"
chassis. Panel height is determined by the com-
ponents mounted above the chassis deck. The
top of the amplifier compartment should clear
the plate coil by at least the diameter of the
coil to prevent flash-over and to hold the coil
Q to the highest possible value. The amplifier
enclosure is made of 1/2-inch aluminum angle
stock covered with perforated aluminum. The
under -chassis area of the amplifier is sealed
with a piece of solid aluminum sheet.
Plate circuit wiring is done with 1/2 -inch
silver plated copper strap, and for the higher
ets. It is necessary to ground the metal base power levels all connections in this circuit
ring of each tube to the chassis, since this ring should either be bolted or silver -soldered. All
forms part of the screen shielding circuit. If grid circuit wiring is done with #10 copper
grounding clips are not furnished with the wire, and all low voltage d.c. leads and a.c.
tube socket, they may be made from a short wiring is done in shielded braid, the braid be-
length of 3/8 -inch wide brass strap formed to ing grounded to the chassis at each end of
spring against the base ring. the lead. A short length of RG -8 /U coaxial
Excellent circuit symmetry is achieved by line is used for the connection between the co-
the use of "butter -fly" -type tuning capacitors axial input plug and the link circuit of the
in the grid and plate circuits. A 100 -watt grid coil.
plug -in coil may be employed in the grid cir- The reactance of the antenna link is tuned
cuit, while heavy -duty plug -in coils will suf- out by means of a 500 p zfd. variable capaci-
fice in the plate circuit up to the kilowatt level. tor placed in the ground return of the link
If extremely high plate voltage is to be line. This capacitor is adjusted for maximum
used, the Eimac dual vacuum variable capacitor loading with the loosest possible degree of
(VVC- 60 -20) should be employed to prevent link coupling to the amplifier tank coil.
flash -over. The less expensive Barker & Wil- Amplifier Excitation and grid bias are ap-
liamson "butter -fly" capacitor may be employed Operation plied to the amplifier and a
for plate voltages of 3500 or less.
flashlight lamp is connected to
the link output connections. The neutralizing
tabs are varied in position with respect to the
envelope of the tube after the grid and plate
circuits have been tuned to resonance. Adjust-
ments are made to the capacitors until the de-
gree of feedback is reduced to a minimum.
Figure 52
UNDER -CHASSIS AREA OF
PUSH -PULL AMPLIFIER
Blower motors are connected to air sockets
by short lengths of radiator hose. Filament
leads are run in braid, grounded at each end.
Shield plate is used over bottom of chassis to
provide "electrically tight" enclosure. Screen
terminals of each socket are strapped to-
gether, and choke PC attaches to center of
strap.
CHAPTER THIRTY
Speech and
Amplitude Modulation Equipment
Amplitude modulation of the output of a Two trends may be noted in the design of
transmitter for radiotelephony may be accom- systems for obtaining high -level AM of the
plished either at the plate circuit of the final final stage of amateur transmitters. The first
amplifier, commonly called high -level AM or is toward the use of tetrodes in the output
simply plate modulation of the final stage, or stage of the high -power audio amplifier which
it may be accomplished at a lower level. Low - is used as the modulator for a transmitter. The
level modulation is accompanied by a plate - second trend is toward the use of a high -level
circuit efficiency in the final stage of 30 to 45 splatter suppressor in the high -voltage circuit
per cent, while the efficiency obtainable with between the secondary of the modulation trans-
high -level AM is about twice as great, running former and the plate circuit of the modulated
from 60 to 80 per cent. Intermediate values of ;rage.
efficiency may be obtained by a combination
of low -level and high -level modulation; cath- 30 -1 Modulation
ode modulation of the final stage is a common Tetrodc In regard tu the use of tetrodes,
way of obtaining combined low -level and high -
Modulators the advantages of these tubes
level modulation. have long been noted for use in
High -level AM is characterized by a require- modulators having from 10 to 100 watts out-
ment for an amount of audio power approxi- put. The 6V6, 6L6, and 807 tubes have served
mately equal to one-half the d -c input to the well in providing audio power outputs in this
plate circuit of the final stage. Low -level mod- range. Recently the higher power tetrodes such
ulation, as for example grid -bias modulation of as the 4 -65A, 813, 4 -125A, and 4 -250A have
the final stage, requires only a few watts of come into more general use as high -level au-
audio power for a medium power transmitter dio amplifiers. The beam tetrodes offer the
and 10 to 15 watts for modulation of a stage advantages of low driving power (even down
with one kilowatt input. Cathode modulation to zero driving power for many applications)
of a stage normally is accomplished with an as compared to the moderate driving power re-
audio power capability of about 20 per cent quirements of the usual triode tubes having
of the d -c input to the final stage. A detailed equivalent power- output capabilities.
discussion of the relative advantages of the On the other hand, beam tetrode tubes re-
different methods for accomplishing amplitude quire both a screen -voltage power supply and
modulation of the output of a transmitter is a grid -bias source. So it still is expedient in
given in an earlier chapter. many cases to use zero -bias triodes or even
647
648 Speech and A. M. Equipment T H E R A D I O
low -mu triodes such as the 304TL in many assymetrical speech which has been discussed
modulators for the medium -power and high - and illustrated in an earlier chapter.
power range. A list of suggested modulator The simplest method of attaining a high
combinations for a range of power output capa- average level of modulation without negative
bilities is given in conjunction with several peak clipping may be had merely by insuring
of the modulators to be described. that these high -amplitude peaks always are
poled in a positive direction at the secondary
Increasing the It has long been known of the modulation transformer. This adjust-
Effective Modu- that the effective modu- ment may be achieved in the following man-
lation Percentage lation percentage of a ner: Couple a cathode-ray oscilloscope to the
transmitter carrying un- output of the transmitter in such a manner that
altered speech waves was necessarily limited the carrier and its modulation envelope may
to a rather low value by the frequent high - be viewed on the scope. Speak into the micro-
amplitude peaks which occur in a speech phone and note whether the sharp peaks of
waveform. Many methods for increasing the modulation are poled upward or whether these
effective modulation percentage in terms of peaks tend to cut the baseline with the 'bright
the peak modulation percentage have been spot" in the center of the trace which denotes
suggested in various publications and subse- negative -peak clipping. If it is not obvious
quently tried in the field by the amateur whether or not the existing polarity is correct,
fraternity. Two of the first methods suggested reverse the polarity of the modulating signal
were Automatic Modulation Control and Vol- and again look at the envelope. Since a push -
ume Compression. Both these methods were pull modulator almost invariably is used, the
given extensive trials by operating amateurs; easiest way of reversing signal polarity is to
the systems do give a degree of improvement reverse either the leads which go to the grids
as evidenced by the fact that such arrangements or the leads to the plates of the modulator
still are used in many amateur stations. But tubes.
these systems fall far short of the optimum be- When the correct adjustment of signal po-
cause there is no essential modification of the larity is obtained through the above procedure,
speech waveform. Some method of actually it is necessarily correct only for the specific
modifying the speech waveform to improve the microphone which was used while making the
ratio of peak amplitude to average amplitude tests. The substitution of another microphone
must be used before significant improvement may make it necessary that the polarity be re-
is obtained. versed, since the new microphone may be con-
It has been proven that the most serious ef- nected internally in the opposite polarity to
fect on the radiated signal accompanying over- that of the original one.
modulation is the strong spurious-sideband ra-
Low-Level The low -level speech clip -
diation which accompanies negative -peak clip-
ping. Modulation in excess of 100 per cent in Speech Clipping per is, in the ideal case, a
the positive direction is accompanied by no very neat method for ob-
undesirable effects as far as the radiated sig- taining an improved ratio of average -to -peak
nal is concerned, at least so long as the linear amplitude. Such systems, used in conjunction
modulation capability of the final amplifier is with a voice - frequency filter, can give a very
not exceeded. So the problem becomes mainly worthwhile improvement in the effective mod-
one of constructing a modulator -final amplifier ulation percentage. But in the normal amateur
combination such that negative -peak clipping transmitter their operation is often less than
(modulation in excess of 100 per cent in a ideal. The excessive phase shift between the
negative direction) cannot normally take place low -level clipper and the plate circuit of the
regardless of any reasonable speech input final amplifier in the normal transmitter re-
level. sults in a severe alteration in the square -wave
output of the clipper -filter which results from
Assymetrical The speech waveform of the a high degree of clipping. The square -wave
Speech normal male voice is charac- output of the clipper ends up essentially as a
terized, as was stated before, double saw-tooth wave by the time this wave
by high -amplitude peaks of short duration. But reaches the plate of the modulated amplifier.
it is also a significant characteristic of this The net result of the rather complex action of
wave that these high- amplitude peaks are poled the clipper, filter, and the phase shift in the
in one direction with respect to the average am- succeeding stages is that the low -level speech
plitude of the wave. This is the 'lopsided" or clipper system does provide an improvement
HANDBOOK Design 649
MODULATOR R F FINAL High -Level One practicable method

5R4 -GY Splatter Suppressor for the substantial elim-
OR 836
ination of negative -peak
2 clipping in a high -level AM transmitter is the
so- called high -level splatter suppressor. As
figure 1 shows it is only necessary to add a
high- vacuum rectifier tube socket, a filament
transformer and a simple low -pass filter to an
existing modulator -final amplifier combination
B IB I A C to provide high -level suppression.
MOD. B F.
FINAL
115 V
The tube, V1, serves to act as a switch to
Figure 1 cut off the circuit from the high -voltage power
supply to the plate circuit of the final ampli-
HIGH -LEVEL SPLATTER SUPPRESSOR
The high -vacuum diode acts as a series lim-
ter as soon as the peak a -c voltage across
iter to suppress negative-peak clipping in the secondary of the modulation transformer
the modulated r -f amplifier as a result of has be-orne equal and opposite to the d -c volt-
large amplitude negative-peak modulating age be_ng applied to the plate of the final am-
signals. In addition, the low -pass filter fol-
lowing the diode suppresses the transients
plifier stage. A single -section low -pass filter
which result from the peak -clipping action of serves to filter out the high - frequency compo-
the diode. Further, the filter attenuates all nents resu!t:'ng from the clipping action.
harmonics generated within the modulator Tube VI may be a receiver rectifier with a
system whose frequency lies above the cut-
off frequency of the filter. The use of on 5 -volt filament for any but the highest power
appropriate value of capacitor, determined transmitters. The 5Y3 -GT is good for 125 ma.
experimentally as discussed in Chapter p!ate current to the final stage, the 5R4 -GY
Fifteen, across the primary of the modulation
transformer (C,) introduces further attenua- and the 5U4 -G are satisfactory for up to 250
tion to high -frequency modulator harmonics. ma. For high -power high-voltage transmitters
Chokes suitable for use at L are manufactured the best t ibe is the high-vacuum transmitting
by Chicago Transformer Corp.. The correct tube type 836. This tube is equivalent in
values of capacitance for C,, Cr, Cr, and C 4
are specified on the installation sheet for the shape, filament requirements, and average -cur-
splatter suppressor chokes for a wide variety rent capabilities to the 866A. However, it is
of operating conditions. a vacuum rectifier and utilizes a large -size
heater -type dual cathode requiring a warm -up
in the effective modulation percentage, but it time of at least 40 seconds before current
does not insure against overmodulation. An should be passed, The tube is rated at an
extensive discussion of these factors, along average current of 250 ma. For greater current
with representative waveforms, is given in drain by the final amplifier, two or more 836
Chapter Fifteen. Circuits for some recommend- tubes may be placed in parallel.
ed clipper -filter systems will also be found The filament transformer for the cathode of
in the same chapter. the splatter- suppressor tube must be insulated
Figure 2
TOP VIEW OF THE
6L6 MODULATOR
Figure 3
UNDERCHASSIS
OF THE
6L6 MODULATOR
A 4- connector
plug is
used filaments and
for
plate voltage to the
speech amplifier, while a
6 -wire terminal strip is
used for the high- voltage
connectio is and the trans -
mittercontrol switch.
for somewhat more than twice the operating the design of such amplifiers, and for tabular
d -c voltage on the plate modulated stage, to material on recommended operating conditions
allow for a fact or of safety on modulation for voltage and power amplifiers.
peaks. A filament transformer of the type nor-
mally used with high -voltage rectifier tubes 10 to 120 Watt It
is difficult to surpass
will be suitable for such an application. Modulator with the capabilities of the
Beam Power Tubes reliable beam power
30 -2 Design of Speech tube when an audio
Amplifiers and Modulators power output of 10 to 120 watts is required
of a modulator. A pair of 6L6 tubes operating
A number of representative designs for in such a modulator will deliver good plate
speech amplifiers and modulators is given in circuit efficiency, require only a very small
this chapter. Still other designs are included amount of driving power, and they impose no
in the descriptions of other items of equipment serious grid -bias problems.
in other chapters. However, those persons who
wish to design a speech amplifier or modulator Circuit Included on the chassis of the
to meet their particular needs are referred to Description modulator shown in figures 2
Chapter Six, Vacuum Tube Amplifiers, for a and 3 are the speech amplifier,
detailed discussion of the factors involved in the driver and modulation transformers for the
6SJ7 6.15 T2
00S
C ',J/N
CRYSTAL L
MIC.
J 1
4 7 11
4 7 10LF
Ta
POWER CONNECTIONS SI SIA

A- GROUND 63V
B- 6.3 v.
C - 04-250-300 V w= MATCHED PAIR OF RESISTORS, 1%
D -BIAS PL
E -64- 250 -750 V. A B C D . E B4- TO
(SEE FIGURE ) FINAL
Figure 4
SCHEMATIC OF BEAM POWER TUBE MODULATOR
M -0 - 250 d.c. milliommeter T.- "Poly -pedance" Modulation t,ansfort116Y
60 -watt level Stancor A -3893, or UTC S-20
T,- Driver transformer. Stancor A -4701, or UTC 5 -10. 125 -watt level Stancor A -3894
General Purpose Modulator 651
output tubes, and a plate current milliammeter. FIGURE 5

The power supply has not been included. The RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITIONS FOR
MODULATOR OF FIG.4 FOR DIFFERENT TUBE TYPES
6SJ7 pentode first stage is coupled through TUBES CLASS PLATE SCREEN GRID PLATE -TO PLATE POWER
VOLTS VOLTS BIAS PLATE tLAD CURRENT OUTPUT
the volume control to the grid of a 6J5 phase V1. V2
(EI (CI (DI (OHMS) (MA.1 (WATTS)
inverter. The output of the phase inverter is 70 -60
6V6GT AIS 1 250 250 -15 10,000 10
capacitively coupled to the grids of a 6SN7 -GT
which acts as a push -pull driver for the output 6V6GT ARI 265 265 -16 6000 70 -95 IS
tubes. Transformer coupling is used between

the driver stage and the grids of the output 6L6 All 360 270 -23 6.600 65-135 27
tubes so that the output stage may be operated 6L6 A132 360 270 -23 5,600 65 -205 47
either as a class AB: or class AB_ amplifier.
807 A B 1 600 300 -34 10,000 35.140 56
-35 12,000 30 -140 75

The Output Either 6L6, 6L6 -G or 807 807 A151 750 300
Stage tubes may be used in the out- -35 30 -240 120

807 A152 750 300 7,300
put stage of the modulator. As
a matter of fact, either 6V6 -GT or 6F6 -G
tubes could be used in the output stage if creased plate current with signal but with no
somewhat less power output is required. The grid current. Other operating conditions speci-
807 tube is the transmitting-tube counterpart fy class AB_ operation, in which the plate cur-
of the 6L6 and carries the same ratings and rent increases with signal and grid current
recommended operating conditions as the 6L6 flows on signal peaks. Either type of operation
is satisfactory for communication work.
within the ratings of the 6L6. But the 807
does have somewhat greater maximum ratings
when the tube is to be used for ICAS (Inter- 30 -3 General Purpose
mittent Commercial and Amateur Service) op-
eration. The 6L6 and 807 retail to the amateur
Triode Class B Modulator
for essentially the same price, although the 807 High level class B modulators with power
is available only from transmitting tube dis- output in the 125 to 500 watt level usually
tributors. The 6L6 -G tube retails for a some- make use of triodes such as the 809, 811,
what lower price; hence it is expedient to pur- 8005, 805, or 810 tubes with operating plate
chase 6L6 -G tubes if 360 to 400 volts is the voltages between 750 and 2000. Figures 6,
maximum to be used on the output stage, or 7, and 8 illustrate a general purpose modula-
807 tubes if up to 750 volts will be applied. tor unit designed for operation in this power
Tabulated in figure 5 are a group of recom- range. Figure 8 gives a group of suggested
mended operating conditions for different tube operating conditions for various tubes. The
types in the output stage of the modulator. In size of the modulation transformer will of
certain sets of operating conditions the tubes course be dependent upon the amount of audio
will be operated class AB,, that is with in- power developed by the modulator. In the case
Figure 6
REAR VIEW OF THE
GENERAL -PURPOSE MODULATOR
652 Speech and A. M. Equipment
6SJ' 6N7 6B4 -G Ti V1 T2

005
CRYSTAL
C GAIN
MIC. 3 TO RF
J1 4.711
a70
22M
4¡°" O B+
Ót
3
6B4-G
10 .UF
450 ¡ 4.76
1Vv
10 .UF
450 T 5N
2
I
~BIAS SUPPLY
6+1000 -1250
IF USED,
OTHERWISE SHORT
V.
TERMINALS.
CH,
5Y3 -GT
,1To _/35DV Y Y
*
6527
9 2
20LF
450
V 1¡20ÚF
450
= MATCHED PAIR
RESISTORS, 11b
6N 7
R 1
E, a
9' Q.
OUF T3 Ta
150 /7CX1Cl
115 V. 1,
Figure 7
SCHEMATIC OF GENERAL PURPOSE MODULATOR
M -0
- 500 ma.
T,- Driver transformer. Stancor A -4761
T.-Suitable for tubes used.
For 811 -A's6.3 volt, 8 amp. Stancor P -6308
T:- "Poly- pedance" Modulation transformer. For 810's 10 volt, 10 amp. Stancor P -6461
300 watt rating, Stancor A -3898. CH, -14 henry, 100 ma. UTC S -19. Stancor C -1001
T3-360
500 watt rating, Stancor A -3899.
- 0 - 360 volts, 150 ma. Stancor PC -84 10
R, -1 K, 10 watts, adjustable. Set for plate current
of 80 ma. (no signal) to 6B4 -G tubes
(approximately 875 ohms).
V,,V: -See figure 8.
of the 500 watt modulator ( figures 9 and 10) Circuit Description The modulator unit
the size and weight of the components require of General Purpose shown in figure 6 is
that the speech amplifier be mounted on a Modulator complete except for the
separate chassis. For power levels of 300 watts high voltage supply re-
or less it is possible to mount the complete quired by the modulator tubes. A speech am-
speech system on one chassis. plifier suitable for operation with a crystal
microphone is included on the chassis along
FIGURE 8 with its own power supply. A 6SJ7 is used
SUGGESTED OPERATING CONDITIONS
v v r. as a high gain preamplifier stage resistance
TUBES V PLATE ` ^ GRID ^ PLATE m PLATE TO SINE WAVE
coupled to a 6N7 phase inverter. The audio
V1, V a VOLTAGE BIAS CURRENT PLATE LOAD POWER OUTPUT
1-
,
(VOLTS) (MA.) (OHMS) (WATTS) level is controlled by a potentiometer in the

809 700 0 70 -250 6,200 120 input grid circuit of the 6N7 stage. Push -pull
6B4 -G low g triodes serve as the class B driver
811 -A 750 0 30 -350 5,100 175
,
stage. The 6B4's are coupled to the grids of

611 -A 1000 0 45 -350 7,400 245 the modulator tubes through a conventional
multi -purpose driver transformer. Cathode bias
811-A 1250 O 50 -350 9,200 310 1
is employed on the driver stage which is capa-

811 -A 1500 -4.5 32 -315 12,400 340
ble of providing 12 watts of audio power for
the grid circuit of the modulator.
805 1250 0 146 -400 6,700 300 The modulator illustrated in figures 9 and
10 is designed for use with class B 810 triode
805 1500 -16 64- 400 6.200 370
tubes operating at a plate potential of 2500
volts. Maximum audio power available is 500
1
810 2000 -50 60 -420 12p00 450

Í watts, sufficient to 100% modulate a transmit-
810 2500 -75 50 -420 17,500 500 ter running one kw. input. The modulator may
8005 1500 -67 40-330 9.800 330 be driven by the simple speech amplifier of fig-
ure 12, or by the clipper -amplifier of figure 15.
Figure 9
REAR VIEW OF 810
500 -WATT CLASS B
MODULATOR
Bias control is directly be-
low the 810 tubes with bias
supply to right.
The modulator chassis includes a small low generated in the audio system which would
impedance bias supply capable of delivering normally show up as side -band "splatter" on
approximately -75 volts under the changing the phone signal. Frequencies above 3500
load conditions imposed by the varying grid
circuit impedance of the class B modulator. cycles are attenuated 15 decibels or more by
A low pass audio filter network is placed the simple pi- network filter shown in figure
after the modulator stage to reduce harmonics 10.
DRIVER
TRANSFORMER 810 C2 9-9.25
T ra
TO R-F AMP
ZS -
ZP=16aá p6.Sa^ CH, Cw
p ON
SEE FIG 72 .
bO
p C, 006
54V
C006
5145
q S,A
I
-65 TO 15 V -- B+ 2500 v
5Y3GT
2 40LF 505
A DJUST ,50
l
BIAS
ce5
R'sow
CH a 400 To
SOW
01501-01W-
13 11
00) 2áuT«
350
CA,
'5v
ti 7 )-y
1¡¡¡SIB"' 7, I T4 2
Figure 10
SCHEMATIC OF 500 WATT TRIODE MODULATOR WITH BIAS SUPPLY
T,- Drivertransformer, IS watts. Stancor A -4761
T- Modulation transformer, 500 watt. Chicago Transformer Co. CMS -3
T,-5 volts, amp. Stancor -6467
3 P
T.- Tapped bias transformer, 15 -100 volts. UTC S -51
T -10 volt, 10 amp. Stancor P -6461
CH: -S00 ma. "splatter choke" Chicago Transformer Co. -500
CH
M
-7
-0 henry, 150 ma. Stancor C-1710
- S00 d.c. milliammeter
SR
S;A -B -High voltage switch (see text)
654 Speech and A. M. Equipment T H E R A D I O
tors which make up the high level filter net-

work. Two .003 µfd., 5000 volt mica capacitors
are paralleled for C. and also for Cs. C_ is made
from a .001 pfd. capacitor and a .0015 pfd. ca-
pacitor which are connected in parallel. All
of these capacitors are mounted upon a ply-
wood bracket which insulates them from the
metal chassis. This prevents insulation break-
down within the capacitors which might occur
if they were fastened directly to the metal
a- e. TO
2500 v O5C ILLOSC OPE chassis.
Figure 11 The bias supply components are mounted
TEST SETUP FOR 500 -WATT beneath the four -inch deep chassis. Placement
MODULATOR of these parts is not critical. The bias adjust-
ment control, R,, is mounted on the back lip
For c-w operation the secondary of the class of the chassis as are the two high voltage ter-
B modulation transformer is shorted out and minals. Millen 37001 high voltage connectors
the filament and bias circuits of the modulator are used for the two high voltage leads. High -
are disabled. Switch S.A must have 10,000 voltage TV wire should be employed for all
volt insulation rating. A suitable switch may leads in the 810 plate circuit.
be found in the war surplus BC -306A antenna
Modulator When the modulator has been
loading unit. Adjustment wired and checked, it should be
All low voltage connections to the modula-
tor are brought out to a six terminal phenolic tested before being used with
an r -f unit. A satisfactory test set -up is shown
strip on the back of the chassis. A 0 -500 ma.
d -c meter is placed in the filament circuit of
in figure 11. A common ground lead should
the 810 tubes. The meter is placed across a be run between the speech amplifier and the
modulator. Six 1000 ohm 100 watt resistors
50 ohm, 1 watt resistor so that the filament
return circuit of the modulator is not broken should be connected in series and placed across
if the meter is removed.
the high voltage terminals of the modulator
The modulation transformer, T_, is designed unit to act as an audio load. The first step is to
for plate -to -plate loads of either 12,000 ohms place the 810 tubes in their sockets and turn
or 18.000 ohms when a 6250 ohm load is switch S. to the "phone" position. The 810
placed across the secondary terminals. The 810 filaments should light, and switch section S,.,
tubes are correctly matched when the 18,000 should remove the short across the secondary
ohm taps are used at a plate potential of of T.. R. should be adjusted to show -75
2500 volts, or when the 12,000 ohm taps are volts from each 810 grid terminal to ground
as measured with a high resistance voltmeter.
used at a plate potential of 2000 volts or 2250
volts. If an oscilloscope is available, it should be cou-
pled to point "A" on the load resistor (figure
Modulator Because of the great weight of 11) through a 500 gpfd. ceramic TV capacitor
Construction the modulator components it is of 10,000 volts rating. The case of the oscil-
best to use a heavy -duty steel loscope should be grounded to the common
chassis. A 13" x 17" x 4" chassis (Bud CB- ground point of the modulator.
643), a 14" steel panel (Bud PS- 1257G) and A plate potential of 2500 volts is now ap-
a pair of Bud MB -449 mounting brackets make plied to the modulator, and R. adjusted for
up the assembly for this particular modulator. a resting plate current of 50 milliamperes as
As seen in figure 9, the CMS -3 modulation read on the 500 milliampere meter in the cath-
transformer is mounted in the left -front corner ode circuit of the modulator. Be extremely
of the unit. The secondary terminals of T2 are careful during these adjustments, since the
to the front of the chassis, clearing the front plate supply of the modulator is a lethal weap-
/
panel by about t ". To the right of T2 is
placed the high level audio filter choke, CH,.
on. Never touch the modulator when the plate
voltage supply is on! Be sure you employ the
The two 810 tubes are mounted in back of T_. TV blocking capacitor between the oscillo-
To the right of the 810 tubes is the 10 volt scope and the plate load resistors, as these
filament transformer, T+. To the right of T5 is load resistors are at high voltage potential!
the 5Y3 -GT bias rectifier tube. Between T5 If a high resistance a -c voltmeter is available
and CH. are mounted the mica bypass capaci- that has a 2000 volt scale, it should be clipped
HANDBOOK 10 -Watt Amplifier - Driver 655
6B4G
6SJ7 6J5 DRIVER
TRANSFORMER
M IC,
JACK
-Ili
t> e-
cr
r>11
Y>
c./11),>_
x n'>
c4 Ur>
-n-
MEASURE 884-K PLATE
CURRENT NERE
T4230 0V.
CHI
+350 V.
NOTE: ADJUST POI PLATE {
CURRENT OP 80 MA.
T01184-6 ruais. 6J3
(APPROX.. 575 ONMS) TEA. 20 450 V.
6646 1
ÌK,IOW 6646 ALL RESISTORS 0.9 WATT UNLESS
OTHERWISE NOTED.
71.360 -0 -360 VOLTS AT ISO MA.
STANCOR PC -8410
00ó4o,
12. SIIINTERSTAGETNANSPOAMER
10,
SW 0N VOL.
CONTROL
00-0] Í I STANCO# A -4210
110 0'1, _t) CH 1 T-NENxT AT 140 MA.

STANCOR C-1421
Figure 12
10 -WATT SPEECH AMPLIFIER DRIVER
between the high voltage terminals of the mod- tiun at a plate potential of 2500 volts. With
ulator, directly across the dummy load. Do not speech waveforms and moderate clipping the
touch the meter when the high voltage supply modulator meter will swing to about 300 ma.
is in operation! An audio oscillator should be under 100% modulation.
connected to the audio input circuit of the ex-
citer- transmitter and the audio excitation to 30 -4 A 10 -Watt
the high level modulator should be increased Amplifier - Driver
until the a -c voltmeter across the dummy load
resistor indicates an R -M -S reading that is A simple speech amplifier -driver for a medi-
equal to 0.7 (70 %) of the plate voltage applied um powered class B modulator is shown in fig-
to the modulator. If the modulator plate volt- ure 12. The amplifier is designed to work with
age is 2500 volts, the a -c meter should indi- a crystal microphone. The first stage utilizes
cate 1750 volts developed across the 6090 a 6SJ7. The gain control is between the 6SJ7
ohm dummy load resistor. This is equivalent plate circuit and the grid of the 6J5 second
to an audio output of 500 watts. With sine stage amplifier. The output tubes are a pair
wave modulation at 1000 c.p.s. and no speech of 6B4 -G low-mu tubes operating with a self -
clipping ahead of the modulator, this voltages bias resistor in their common filament return
should be developed at a cathode meter cur- circuit. Operating in this manner the 6B4's
rent of about 350 ma. when the plate -to -plate have an undistorted output of approximately
modulator impedance of the modulator is 18,- 10 watts. This is sufficient power to drive
000 ohms. Under these conditions, the oscillo- most class -B modulators whose output is 500
scope may be used to observe the audio wave- watts or less. The driver transformer for cou-
form of the modulator when coupled to point pling the plates of the 6B4 -G tubes to the
"A" through the 10,000 volt coupling capac- grids of the Class B stage is not shown, as
itor. it had been found more convenient to locate
When the frequency of the audio oscillator this transformer at the grids of the modulator
is advanced above 3500 cycles the output level tubes rather than in the speech amplifier. The
of the modulator as measured on the a -c volt- correct transformer step -down ratio for driving
meter should drop sharply indicating that the most class B tubes has been set down in tabular
low pass audio network is functioning properly. form by the various transformer manufacturers.
With speech waveforms and no clipping the When the driver transformer is purchased one
modulator meter will swing to approximately should be obtained which has the proper turns
150 - 200 milliamperes under 100% modula- ratio for the class B tubes to be used.
656 Speech and A. M. Equipment THE RADIO
I NTE RSTAGE
TRANSFORMER
1.3 STEP -UP 304TL
STANCOR A -4210
65J7 nl 6J5 TI 2
CRYSTAL e
MIC. ]A
300 -700 WATT

MODULATION
TRANSFORMER
70 1W
4
By250V. BIAS B 1500-3000V.

AT I 5 MA ( 5 E E T4 R L E I)
Figure 13
PUSH -PULL 304TL CLASS AB,, MODULATOR
A three wire shielded cable should be used amateur transmitters. In fact, with the use of
to connect the 6B4 -G tubes to the driver trans- these 304TL's the cost of heating power for
former located at the grids of the class B filaments becomes a much more significant
tubes. This cable may be any reasonable figure than the cost of the tubes.
length up to 25 or 30 feet. Any of the modula- The 304TL is ideally suited for use as a
tor configurations shown in figure 8 may be modulator for a high -power amateur transmit-
driven with this simple speech amplifier. ter. In fact, due to the relatively low amplifi-
cation factor of the tube ( about 12) the
30 -5 500 -Watt 304TL may even be used as a class A triode
304TL Modulator Heising modulator. Such an arrangement is
practicable for modulating a medium -power
Ordinarily, few amateurs would be inclined transmitter when a 1500 to 2000 volt plate
to design the high -level stages of their trans- supply is available.
mitters around type 304TL tubes. Although the The class AB, operating characteristics of
304TL unquestionably is an excellent tube, the 304TL tube are shown in figure 14. An in-
with its extremely high transconductance and teresting fact to be observed is that under
power sensitivity, its price and capabilities these conditions no grid driving power is re-
are in excess of those required even for a kilo- quired by the 304TL tubes. It is necessary
watt amateur transmitter. But with enormous only to supply the correct amount of grid driv-
supplies of these tubes available at a relative- ing voltage. The amounts shown may easily
ly low price on the surplus market it becomes be obtained from a single 6J5 tube, and the
economical to consider their use in high -power usual push -pull triode driver stage for the high
powered modulator may be eliminated. A suit-
TABLE I able modulator- driver unit which will deliver
304TL OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS. CLASS AB I
500 watts of audio from two 304TL tubes op-
(NO DRIVING POWER REOU RED)
erating class AB, is shown in figure 13.
D.C. VOLTS 1500 2000 2500 3000
The filaments of the 304TL tubes may be
GRID BIAS * -118 -170 -220 -290 connected either in series or parallel for either
ZERO- SIGNAL 5 volt, 50 ampere operation, or 10 volt, 25 am-
CURRENT 270 200 ISO ISO
(MA.) pere operation. To conserve filament power
MAX. SIGNAL
PLATE CURRENT 572 548 483 444 during standby periods, the filaments of the
(91A.)** 304TL tubes may be either turned off, or may
PLATE-TO-
US)
LOAD (ONUS)
2540 9300 8500 02000 be dropped to one -half voltage by means of a
PEAN A.F. dropping resistor in the primary circuit of the
GRID VOLTS 118 170 230 290
(PER TUSE) filament transformer. This resistor may be
MAX. POWER
298 490 810 730 shorted out during periods of transmission by
OUTPUT (WATTS)
a small relay actuated by the transmitting con-
* ADJUST TO GIVE STATED ZERO- SIGNAL PLATE CURRENT trol system.
* * VALUES GIVEN POR SINE -WAVE MODULATION. POR VOICE
WAVE FORMS. MAX /MUM CURRENT WILL DE APPROXIMATELY
The gain of the speech amplifier is suffi-
TWO-THIRDS SINE -WAVE VALUES. cient so that an inexpensive crystal micro-
Figure 14 phone may be used with the modulator. The
HANDBOOK 15 -Watt Clipper -Amplifier 657
I2AX7 6AL5 12AÚ7 684 -G Tz
.05 0.1
CRYSTAL
MIC.
JACKS
K 2
330
TO
CLASS!
MODULATOR
+ UNLESS OTNERw /SE INDICATED;
I
GRID CIRCUIT
ALL RESISTORS 0.5 WATT
EA. 162
ALL CAPACITORS IN LIP
áK
8.450V MAX. RESISTORS MARKED WITH ASTERISK >r
ADJUST ARE BALANCED PAIRS.
CLIPPING
-68V
5U4 -G
FILS. 2245
T1 -450 -0 -450 VOLTSAT 'OS MA
CHICAGO TRANSFORMER PSR -105 22K,2W.
Ta- CLASS! DRIVER TRANSFORMER 430 V. 2201,284 >EA. 40
CHICAGO TRANSFORMER CDS -I Z V. 250
RS
T3-125 V. AT IS MA.
STANCOR PS-811S SO
a t W.
LPF-2 -LOW PASS FILTER UNIT
Z SR
CN /CAGO TRANS. LPF -2
Lt- 12 N, ISO MA.
CHICAGO TRANS. RC -12130
SR -50 MA. REPLACEMENT TYPE

T3(ISÒO
SELENIUM RECTIFIER
11OVti
o
GND
Figure 15
SCHEMATIC, 15 WATT CLIPPER- AMPLIFIER
"phone -c.w." switch is connected so as to by R., in the grid circuit of the second section
short the modulation transformer and to open of the 12AX7. A low pass filter having a 3500
the filament circuit of the 304TL tubes during cycle cut -off follows the 6AL5 clipper stage,
c -w operation. with an output of 5 volts peak audio signal
under maximum clipping conditions. A double -
30-6 A 15 -Watt triode 12AU7 cathode follower phase- inverter
follows the clipper stage and delivers a 125
Clipper - Amplifier volt r.m.s. signal to the push -pull grids of the
The near -ultimate in "talk power" can be 6B4 -G audio driver tubes. The 6B4 -G tubes
obtained with low level clipping and filtering operate at a plate potential of 330 volts and
combined with high level filtering. Such a have a -68 volt bias voltage developed by a
modulation system will have real "punch," small selenium rectifier supply applied to their
yet will sound well rounded and normal. The grid circuit. An audio output of 15 watts is de-
speech amplifier described in this section veloped across the secondary terminals of the
makes use of low level clipping and filtering class B driver transformer with less than 5 per
and is specifically designed to drive a pair of cent distortion under conditions of no clipping.
push -pull 810 modulators such as shown in A 5U4 -G and a choke input filter network pro-
Section Three. vide unusually good voltage regulation of the
high voltage plate supply.
Circuit The schematic of the speech
Description amplifier -clipper is shown in Amplifier The clipper-amplifier may be
figure 15. A total of six tubes, Construction built upon the same chassis as
including a rectifier are employed and the unit the power supply, provided
delivers 15 watts of heavily clipped audio. the low level stages of the amplifier are spaced
A 12AX7 tube is used as a two stage mi- away from the power transformers and filter
crophone preamplifier and delivers approxi- chokes of the supply. All capacitors and resis-
mately 20 volts (r.m.s.) audio signal to the tors of the audio section should be mounted as
6AL5 series clipper tube. The clipping level close to the respective sockets as is practical. For
is adjustable between 0 db and 15 db by clip- minimum hum pickup, the filament leads to the
ping control, R1. Amplifier gain is controlled low level stages should be run in shielded braid.
Those resistors in the 12AU7 phase inverter tested and is connected with the modulator,
plate circuit and the grid circuit of the 6B4 -G R: should be set so that it is impossible to over -
tubes should be matched to achieve best phase modulate the transmitter regardless of the set-
inverter balance. The exact value of the paired ting of R,. The gain control (R,) may then be
resistors is not important, but care should be adjusted to provide the desired level of clip-
taken that the values are equal. Random re- ping consistent with the setting of Ri.
sistors may be matched on an ohmmeter to find
two units that are alike in value. When these 30 -7 A 200 -Watt
matched resistors are soldered in the circuit, 811 -A De -luxe Modulator
care should be taken that the heat of the sol-
dering iron does not cause the resistors to One of the most popular medium power r -f
shift value. The resistors should be held firm- amplifier stages consists of a single tetrode
ly by the lead to be soldered with a long nose tube, such as the 4 -125A, 813, or 7094 oper-
pliers, which will act as a heat -sink between ating at a plate potential of 1200 - 1700 volts
the soldered joint and the body of the resistor. and a plate current of 150 - 275 milliamperes.
If this precaution is taken the two phase in- Such an amplifier requires a minimum of r -f
verter outputs will be in close balance. driving power, allows an input of 300 to 400
watts, and yet employs power supply com-
Adjustment of When the wiring of the ponents that are relatively modest in cost. The
the Speech speech amplifier has been 5 -db signal increase between a 300 watt trans-
Amplifier completed and checked, the mitter and a 1000 watt transmitter is very
unit is ready to be tested. expensive when one considers the additional
Before the tubes are plugged in the amplifier, cost of modulator and power supply equipment.
the bias supply should be energized and the Additional economy may be achieved if
voltage across the 600 ohm bleeder resistor the modulator and final amplifier are operated
should be measured. It should be -68 volts. from the same power supply. The new series of
If it is not, slight changes in the value of the Chicago- Standard plate transformers provide
series resistor, R., should be made until the voltage ranges in the 1000 to 1500 volt re-
correct voltage appears across the bleeder region and are well suited for the combination
sistor. The tubes may now be inserted in the of this modulator and the aforementioned r -f
amplifier and the positive and cathode voltages tubes. Within this voltage range, the 811 -A
checked in accordance with the measurements triode is an excellent choice for the modulator
given in figure 15. After the unit has been tubes. Zero bias operation may be had up to
Figure 16
REAR VIEW OF
811 -A MODULATOR
Modulator tubes and voltage
regulator are at right with
high level filter at center of
chassis. Plug -in speech am-
plifier is to left of clipper.
Gain and clipping controls
are atop the small chassis.
6L6 5881 is used as cathode
follower driver stage for
modulator.
HANDBOOK 81 1 -A Modulator 659
PLUG -IN SPEECH AMPLIFIER
01 si
CRYSTAL 12AX7 G
6A L5 P
L,
MIC
S03 SOI.PL1
-* OH
= T -
330 6
576
1006 R2 CLIPPER
1OUF 1 6
25 w
eUF
450 I
+
450
feL,F-
6 3
v
1.en
T
11IH
C_ PL2
NOTES SO2 SO4 CONNECTIONS
1-ALL RESISTORS I/2 WATT UNLESS
OTHERWISE SPECIFIED. 1 ? 6 3 V. A. OUT
2- SWITCH SI (PHONE-CW) SHOWN 2 -1
SO4 IN PHONE POSITION. 6L6GB/5881 3- GROUND. II-
12
3- RV, SHOWN ENERGIZED.
3 115 V IN
e 6- BEJSOV 70 EXCITER
7-
6L6GB
-CW -PHONE
SWITCH
AND 101JF e
2 2021 FILS. 9 -111 GROUND, B-
330 10-
3 4W RY, CONTROL
11-
7
12 -MIC. CONTROL PUSH -TO-TALN C,NCw r
e 004
811 -A 3EV
10
+HV ()Jr T)
AMPLIFIER
9
4
+HV IN
J 2A
811 -A RYI
T5 2D21
Figure 17
SCHEMATIC, 200 WATT 811 -A MODULATOR
Interstage Transformer. Stancor A -53
Te- "Poly -pedance" class B driver transformer. 2:1 ratio. Stancor A -4761
T,-200 watt modulation transformer. 9 K primary. 5K secondary. Stancor A -3829
T.-400 - 0 - 400 volts, 250 ma., 6.3 volts, 5 amperes. Stancor PC -8413
T: -6.3 volts, 10 amperes. Stancor P -6308
CH,
L1
-4 henry,
-Low
250 ma. Stancor C-1412
pass filter, 3000 cycle cut off. Chicago LPF -2.
L,--SPDT
"Splatter" filter, 300 ma. Stancor C -2317
RY, relay, high voltage insulation, 115 volt coil. Leach o 1723 with 374 coils, or equivalent
1250 volts, and only -4.5 volts is required stages of R -C amplification driving a 6ÁL5
for 1500 volt operation. Bias voltage may be speech clipper tube. A 3500 cycle low pass
obtained from flashlight batteries or other low filter follows the clipper, removing all high
impedance source. order products of clipping action. A parallel -
Modulator The 200 watt de -luxe modulator connected 12ÁU7 follows the filter and is
Circuit is illustrated in figures 16 and transformer -coupled to a 5881 (6L6 -GB) ca-
18 and the schematic is given thode follower driver stage. The impedance of
in figure 17. The low level audio stages are the cathode circuit of the driver stage is ex-
similar to those of the speech amplifier shown tremely low; it provides an excellent driving
in Section Six. A 12AX7 is employed as two source for the class B modulator grid circuit.
Two 811 -A tubes are employed in the class to the voltage drop across the 2D21 regulator
B stage. When operated at 1000 volts, no bias tube in the cathode circuit of the class B stage.
supply is needed. At voltages of 1200 or above, The plate to plate load impedance of the
approximately 9 volts of bias is required. This 811 -A tubes when operating at 1500 volts is
is supplied by a voltage divider composed of approximately 12,000 ohms. A multi -match
a 20K, 10 watt resistor and a 2D21 thyratron type modulation transformer may be employed
tube. When the miniature 2D21 is connected if desired, but in this case a Stancor A -3829
as a triode, it acts as a voltage regulator tube unit was used. This transformer is designed to
with a constant voltage drop of almost 9 volts match the plate -to -plate load impedance of
from plate to cathode. The tube will regulate 9,000 ohms to a secondary load of 5000 ohms.
over 300 milliamperes of current while main- With the 12,000 ohm load of the 811 -A tubes,
taining a reasonably constant voltage drop a secondary load of 7,500 ohms must be used
across its terminals. The center tap of the to maintain the same primary to secondary im-
811 -A filament transformer (Ta) is thus held pedance ratio. This secondary load can be ob-
at a positive potential with respect to ground. tained with a single 7094 tube operating at
Since the center tap of the 811 -A driver trans- 1500 volts and 200 milliamperes of plate cur-
former (Ti) is grounded, the modulator tubes rent (300 watts input) . Other tubes and load
are biased at a constant negative voltage equal impedances can also be used, providing the
r-f input to the modulated stage does not ex-
ceed 400 watts. For example, a 4 -125A tube
' operating at 2000 volts and 165 ma. (330
watts) may be modulated by this audio unit.
The secondary winding of the modulation
transformer can pass a maximum of 300 mil-
liamperes with safety.
The audio output from the 811 -A stage is
passed through a high level low-pass "splatter
suppressor" which attenuates all audio fre-
quencies above 3500 cycles. The use of both
low level and high level audio filters does
much to reduce the broad sidebands and co-
channel interference that seems to be so com-
mon on the amateur phone bands.
A high voltage relay RY» is employed to
short the secondary of the modulation trans-
former and remove plate potential from the
modulator tubes for c -w operation. The relay
is actuated by the "phone -c.w." switch on the
front panel of the modulator. Other segments
of this switch turn off the modulator fila-
ments and provide extra contacts to control
auxiliary equipment.
A 350 volt supply is incorporated in the
modulator unit to power the speech amplifier
and driver stage and to provide power for
the r -f exciter stages of the transmitter. The
various power and control leads are brought
out to a multi -connector plug mounted on the
rear of the modulator deck.
Figure 18
811 -A MODULATOR
High voltage relay is between 811 -A tube
sockets, and low voltage components are at
opposite end of chassis.
HANDBOOK 81 1 -A Modulator 661
Modulator The modulator is constructed filter choke which is mounted above the chas-
Construction upon a steel chassis measur- sis on -inch ceramic insulators. High voltage
ing 8" x 17" x 2 ". A 101/2"" connections to the modulator are made through
aluminum panel is bolted to the chassis with Millen 37001 safety terminals.
two mounting brackets to form a rugged as- When the wiring has been completed and
sembly. Placement of the major parts may be checked, the 12AX7, 6AL5, 12AÚ7, 5881,
seen in figures 16 and 18. The modulation and 5V4 -GB tubes should be inserted in their
transformer T. and the 811 -A tubes occupy sockets and the speech amplifier is plugged
the right end of the chassis, balanced in weight into the modulator receptacles. The vertical
by the power transformer T. and modulator amplifier of an oscilloscope should be connect-
filament transformer T5 at the opposite end of ed to one grid terminal of the 811 -A stage.
the chassis. The center space is taken by the Plate voltage of the 5881 should be approxi-
plug -in speech amplifier, the high level splat- mately 370 volts. A low level 1000 cycle tone
ter filter assembly and the 5881 driver stage. (approximately 0.05 volts, r.m.s.) is applied
The speech amplifier is constructed as a sep- to the amplifier input. The output level of the
arate unit on a small aluminum utility box speech amplifier is controlled by the setting
measuring 5" x 3" x 2 ". The bottom of the of the clipping control R. and the audio gain
box holds two male plugs which match two is controlled by potentiometer IL in the grid
receptacles mounted on the amplifier chassis. circuit of the 12AX7. The clipping control
The speech amplifier, therefore, may be wired should be set so that not more than 60 volts
and tested as a separate unit. Clipping and r.m.s. is developed from one 811 -A grid to
audio level controls are mounted atop the ground. The modulator tubes may now be
amplifier box as long usage of clipper circuits plugged in their sockets. A 7K, 200 watt re-
has proven that these controls need not be resistor should be placed between the "H.V.
adjusted once they are properly set. Out" and "H.V. In" terminals, serving as a
The phone -c.w. switch, relay RY and var- dummy load, and 1500 volts applied to the
ious small components are mounted beneath latter terminal. With no audio signal the
the chassis ( figure 18) . The input receptacle resting plate current of the modulator stage
for the speech amplifier box is located adja- should be approximately 15 milliamperes,
cent to the microphone receptacle on the front kicking up to about 160 milliamperes under
panel of the modulator making the intercon- full output conditions. Final adjustment of the
necting lead less than two inches long. Also clipping control may be made when the mod-
placed beneath the chassis are the filter choke ulator is placed in use with the r -f section of
for the low voltage supply and the various by- the transmitter. Potentiometer R. is then ad-
pass and filter capacitors. justed to limit the peak modulation level under
sine wave modulation to approximately 90%.
Wiring and Testing The speech amplifier
the Modulator should be wired first.
The small resistors and
capacitors are mounted either between the tube
socket pins, or between terminals of small
TO
phenolic tie-point strips. Transformer T, is DRIVER
STAGE
fastened within the amplifier box and is wired
in the circuit after all other wiring is com-
pleted. Plugs PL» and PL: are mounted on the
bottom portion of the box; the plug pins are
wired to the proper points of the speech am-
plifier with short lengths of wire that allow Figure 19
the bottom plate to be removed for inspection ZERO BIAS TETRODE MODULATOR
and testing without the necessity of unsolder- ELIMINATES SCREEN AND BIAS
ing any connections to the plugs.
SUPPLIES
The modulator chassis should be wired next.
All leads to T KY-4 and the low pass filter Low driving power and simplicity are key
features of this novel modulator. Tubes rang-
should be carefully insulated from the chassis. ing in size from 6AQ5's to 813's may be
employed in this circuit.
High voltage "5000 volt test" cable should be
employed for these connections. The capaci- T -Class B driver transformer
tors that make up the high level audio filter T:- Modulation transformer
V V. -6AQ5, 6L6, 807, 803, 813, etc.
,
are mounted directly to the terminals of the R:, R. -Not used with 803 and 813
662 Speech and A. M. Equipment
803's supply is required. The drive requirements

are low and the tubes operate with excellent
Ti 2 4
plate circuit efficiency. The series grid resis-
ZS =6 25K
6 -WATT
SPEECH
To tors for the small tubes are required to balance
AMP. MODULATOR
LOAD the current drawn by the two grids, but are not
(FIG 72 )
needed in the case of the 803 and 813 tubes.
2 Of great interest to the amateur is the cir-
OPERATING CHAR ACTERI ST CS B2500V. cuit of figure 20, wherein 803 tubes are used
EG -G (RAM. 170 VOLTS
X X as high level modulators. These tubes will de-
DRIVING POWER = 7 -8 WATTS liver 500 watts of audio in this configuration,
RESTING PLATE CUR. = SOMA. yet they require no screen or bias supply, and
MAX. PLATE CUR. ° 340 MA. can be driven by an 8 watt amplifier stage.
POWER OUTPUT = 510 WATTS The use of 803 tubes (in contrast to 813's)
SUPPRESSOR VOLT = 280 -340V requires a higher level of driving power which
115 V.ti is offset by the fact that these tubes can often
Figure 20 be purchased "surplus" for less than four dol-
lars. A pair of 6134 tubes operating with ca-
INEXPENSIVE 500 WATT
MODULATOR USING 803 TUBES
thode bias (figure 12) will suffice as a driv-
ing stage for the 803's. The power supply of
T;-"Poly -pedance" Class B driver transform- the speech amplifier provides high voltage for
er 2: ratio. Stancor A -4761
1
T -500 watt output transformer. 18K primary, the suppressors of the modulator stage.
6.25K secondary. Chicago CMS -3
T,-10 volts, 10 amperes. Stancor C -6461
Shown in figure 21 is a high level modu-
M-0 - 500 ma. lator using 813 tubes. A full 500 watts of
audio may be obtained at 2500 volts plate po-
tential. Grid driving power is 5.5 watts. A
30-8 Zero Bias single 807 operating as a cathode follower
Tetrode Modulators at 400 volts will provide sufficient drive for
the modulator stage. Plate to plate load im-
Class B zero bias operation of tetrode tubes pedance for the 813's is not critical. The Chi-
is made possible by the application of the cago CMS -3 500 watt modulation transformer
driving signal to the two grids of the tubes as having a primary impedance of 18,000 ohms
shown in figure 19. Tubes such as the 6AQ5, has been used with success, although the opti-
6L6, 807, 803, and 813 work well in this mum plate load impedance of the modulator
circuit and neither a screen supply nor a bias is closer to 20,000 ohms.
807
6C4, 8.15 ETC TI
813's
To
MODULATOR
LOAD
15R
1051F
4SG -= 7617
+400
NOTES
DRIVER STAGE,OPERATING VOLTS.
MEASURED TO GROUND. 1 -EXACT VALUE OF 807 CATHODE RESISTOR
DEPENDS UPON RESISTANCE OF PRIMARY
PIN 2 300 WINDING OF T2. ADJUST RESISTOR FOR
CATHODE 81ÁS OF 26.5 VOLTS, PLATE CUR-
807 PIN 3 RENT OF 53 -55 MA.
PINO 26.5 2-RAIS OPERATING VOLTAGES AT MAXIMUM
OUTPUT SHOWN ON SCHEMATIC.
ISV 1.
Figure 21
500 WATT MODULATOR USING 813 TUBES
-1:3 interstage transformer. Stancor -53 2:1 ratio. Stancor A -4761 A
T-
T;
T
"Poly -pedance" Class driver transformer. B
-500 watt output transformer. 18K primary, 6.25K secondary. Chicago CMS -3
T,-10 volts, 10 amperes, Stancor C -6461
M-0 - 500 ma.
350 watts of audio are obtainable from this circuit at plate potential of 2000 volts.
CHAPTER THIRTY -ON E
Despite the fact that complete transmitters 31 -1 A 300 Watt

may be purchased at moderate cost many ama-
teurs still prefer to build their station equip-
Phone C -W Transmitter
ment. The experience gained in constructing for 50 ' 144 Mc.
such equipment cannot be duplicated by any
other means. Transmitters operating in the VHF region pre-
Shown in this chapter are two complete sent some specialized design problems that must
phone and c.w. transmitters that are well suit- be solved before reliable, efficient operation
ed as "building projects" for the advanced can be obtained. The first problem concerns
amateur who has had experience building other the relative inefficiency of tuned and coupled
equipment. The transmitter designs are unique circuits in this region. The amount of r -f power
in that equipment of this type and power that can be lost in simple circuits is extremely
rating is not readily available on the commer- high unless special pains are taken in the design
cial market. The first transmitter covers the 50 and layout of the VHF stages. Radiation loss,
Mc. and 144 Mc. VHF bands and is capable skin effect, dielectric losses, lead inductance,
of 300 watts input (phone) and 450 watts distributed capacity, and parasitic ground re-
input (c.w.). The second transmitter covers turns all exist at the lower frequencies, but only
the 3.5 Mc.-29.7 Mc. amateur bands and runs in the higher portion of the spectrum do their
375 watts input (phone) and 500 watts input effects assume such vital importance, and only
(c.w.). Both transmitters are complete, includ- at these frequencies does their cure and elimin-
ing modulators and power supplies and are ation become so essential. As a result, the
system -designed for ease of operation and re- necessity for close correlation between the elec-
liability. The cost of either unit is quite low, trical design and the mechanical properties of
considering the power level involved. the VHF circuit cannot be overemphasized.
663
Figure 1
COMPACT
300 WATT
TRANSMITTER FOR
SIX AND TWO
METERS IS IDEAL
FOR VHF
ENTHUSIAST
The transmitter is built
in two sections. Upper
deck contains VFO, r.f.
stages and push -pull 826
amplifier. VFO tuning
dial is at right, with
bandswitch and meter
selector switch below it.
At center are the multi-
plier tuning controls,
with buffer and final
amplifier tuning controls
at the left.
Lower deck holds modu-
lator and power supply.
Transmitter c o n t r o l
switches are along lower
edge of the panel.
The second problem concerns the vacuum The triode tube, on the other hand, has no
tube. A combination of factors is at work in frequency of self -neutralization. The maximum
the common tube which tend to limit the ef- frequency at which neutralization is effective
ficiency of the tube as the frequency of opera- is dependent upon the inductance of the tube
tion is raised. Inter -electrode capacitance, lead leads, the electron transit time, and the inter -
inductance, transit time, and input circuit load- electrode capacitance. Rather than a point in
ing are some of the factors that cripple va- the spectrum at which the neutralization prob-
cuum tube performance in the VHF region. lems abruptly change, the neutralization point
The drop in tube operation efficiency shows of the triode tube merely grows more obscure
up in the form of plate dissipation. Reducing as the operating frequency is raised, until
the size of the vacuum tube to combat the above a certain frequency neutralization is no
various operational problems reduces its power longer possible. Fortunately, small, compact,
handling capability, since only small element inexpensive triode tubes exist that are capable
areas are then present for heat dissipation. of efficient operation well into the VHF re-
gion, and two tubes of this general type are
Tetrode vs. The combination of inter -elec- employed in this transmitter. Special circuits
Triode trode capacitance and lead in- are also used to ensure that the tubes remain in
ductance in the simple tetrode neutralization over the operating range.
tube produce a phenomenon called self -neu-
tralization. At some one particular frequency Transmitter A block diagram of the r -f
in or near the VHF region the tetrode tube is Circuitry circuitry is shown in figure 2.
inherently self -neutralized due to the circuit The transmitter is divided into
elements within the tube structure and the ex- two sections. The exciter section (V1 -V1) de-
ternal inductance of the screen -to- ground path. livers about ten watts of power over the fre-
Below this frequency normal neutralizing pro- quency ranges of 50 - 54 Mc. and 144 - 148
cedures apply; but above this frequency special Mc. A 5763 is employed either as a crystal
neutralizing circuits are required. These circuits controlled oscillator or as a variable frequency
are usually frequency sensitive. The self -neu- oscillator, operating in the 8 - 9 Mc. region.
tralizing frequency of the less expensive screen Two separate oscillator tuned circuits are em-
grid tubes usually falls between 20 - 50 Mc., ployed as the tuning rates for the two bands
requiring that the tubes be re- neutralized when are different. The "2 meter" VFO covers the
the frequency of operation is changed from range of 8.0 - 8.222 Mc., and the "6 meter"
50 Mc. to 144 Mc., and often when the oper- VFO tunes 8.333 - 9.0 Mc. The tuning capaci-
ating frequency is moved about within one tors of the two circuits are ganged for tuning
of these bands. The newer external anode ease. Tubes V. and V3 multiply the overall
tetrodes are free of this problem as their self - VFO range to the 48 - 54 Mc. spectrum. At
neutralization frequency falls well above the this point a simple switching system permits
144 Mc. amateur band. V. to drive either the intermediate amplifier
HANDBOOK 50/144 Mc. Transmitter 665
V4
6360 4744-14eMC)
/"."1
VI V2 V3 TRIP _
(e-a MC.) 5763 5783 1
(e-aMC.) (7e-reMC.) 6380 (48 -94
ñTAL
Illol-st
VFO
TRI P.
z r- (744- L4e MC.)
/1
(020 MC.) Ve (/44-14eMC.) Vs
50 MC. 826 (50-54 Arc ) 9903/5894
744 MC. J
Ln,L12 La, Lio
826
V7
L1fA L9A ve
826
V6
826
Ce
y_ t 44 MC.
SHORTING B+
L12 vs
9903/1 L
(50 MC.) (sOMC.)
5894
826
V7
-- 2
Lae
144 MC.
J
F--- 1828
V7
Figure 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VHF TRANSMITTER
A- General transmitter circuit, showing operating frequencies of the various stages. V; is a plug -in
frequency multiplier.
B- Quarter -wove tank circuit is employed in amplifier plate configuration at 144 Mc. Shorting bar
is removed for 50 Mc., and C, -L,: resonates at this frequency.
C- Linear half -wave tank section is employed as interstage coupler at 144 Mc. Inductor L. resonates
circuit to 50 Mc.
tube Vs directly for 50 - 54 Mc. operation, or The power amplifier stage employs two type
via a tripler stage (V1) for 144 - 148 Mc. 826 tubes in push -pull. These compact triode
operation. A 9903/5894 (Vs) is employed tubes are well suited to VHF work as their
as the driver stage for the push -pull triode lead inductance is small and their inter -elec-
final amplifier. This driver rube operates as a trode capacitance is reasonably low. The tubes
straight amplifier on both bands. have adequate plate dissipation and a high re-
A unique coupling circuit, shown in figure serve of filament emission. The amplifier has
2C, is employed between the 9903/5894 and been run at one kilowatt input (2000 volts
the push -pull 826 stage. The plates of the at 500 milliamperes) for c.w. operation for
buffer and grids of the final stage are coupled extended periods of time without apparent
to the ends of a loaded, half -wave 144 Mc. damage to the tubes, but this practice is not
transmission line. The 50 Mc. coil is placed recommended for maximum tube life.
at the electrical center of the 144 Mc. line. A modified form of two band plate .circuit
Tuning capacitor C7 is tapped on the line at a is employed in the amplifier stage, as shown
point which permits each circuit to be resonat- in figure 2B. A quarter -wave 144 Mc. trans-
ed. Thus the combination LA-B, Lts, C7 is mission line is employed, tuned to frequency
capable of tuning the 2 meter and 6 meter by "butter -fly" capacitor C.. The "cold" end
ranges simultaneously, eliminating the need of the line is shorted by a heavy strap which
for plug -in coils or coil switching. Neutraliza- is removed for 50 Mc. operation. At the latter
tion of the 9903/5894 is not required if ade- frequency, resonance is established by capaci-
quate inter -stage shielding is used. tor Cs and coil L.2 which is mounted at the
666 Transmitter Construction THE R A D I O
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HANDBOOK 50,144 Mc. Transmitter 667
Figure 4
REAR VIEW OF VHF TRANSMITTER
Final amplifier compartment is at right with
antenna receptacles and loading capacitors on
rear of enclosure. Ventilation holes are drilled
above 826 tubes to aid air circulation. Entire
top should be replaced with perforated ma-
terial if extended periods of operation are
encountered. Buffer compartment is to left
of large enclosure, with 9903 5894 tube
mounted in inverted position. Grid coil (L.,
see figure 7) plugs in holder at top of com-
partment. Grid tuning capacitor is panel driv-
en by phenolic shaft extension. The 144 Mc.
multiplier box is in position behind buffer
compartment
Variable frequency oscillator is at left of
chassis, with plug -in crystals mounted on the
side. Oscillator tube V can be seen in front
of enclosure. Low voltage power supply com-
ponents are in left corner of chassis.
ual cross -neutralization system is not effective

over the range of 50 - 148 Mc. The amplifier
may easily be neutralized at either end of the
spectrum, but the correct capacitor settings at
50 Mc. are not the same as the settings for
144 Mc. In either case, however, one setting
of the capacitors is sufficient for the stage to
B -plus end of the transmission line. The 144 remain in complete neutralization across one
Mc. linear lines (LA -B) serve merely as con- amateur band. For a time the amplifier was
nections between the tubes and the coil at 50 re- neutralized each time the frequency of op-
Mc. An attempt was made to do away with eration was shifted from band to band, but
the shorting bar, permitting the amplifier tank this chore was finally eliminated by the use
circuit to operate in the same manner as the of the neutralization system shown in the sche-
buffer circuit which requires no component matic of figure 3. Conventional cross- neutrali-
changes when the operating frequency is zation (capacitors CL, C,:) is employed at 144
changed from band to band. It was found that
the resulting drop in plate circuit efficiency
was so high as to be unacceptable. Wing nuts
are therefore provided to permit rapid re-
moval of the shorting bar when 50 Mc. oper-
ation is desired.
Amplifier Because of electron transit
Neutralization time, and the combination of
Circuit lead inductance and inter -
electrode capacitance the us-
Figure 5
CLOSE -UP OF INTERIOR OF
VHF FINAL AMPLIFIER
Two 826 triode tubes are used in unique push -
pull circuit for 50 Mc. and 144 Mc. operation.
Linear tank circuit is employed for 144 Mc.
with removcable shorting bar in foreground.
"Butterfly" tuning capacitor is mounted on
ceramic insulators above linear tank and con-
nected to it by means of copper straps on rear
stator terminals. SO Mc. inductor is placed at
"cold" end of 2 -meter tank.
Air is drawn into enclosure through ventila-
tion holes drilled below 826 sockets. Note that
the sockets are split to reduce possibility of
flash -over.
At left of enclosure are 6360 (V -3) and
sockets SO -1 and 50 -2 for 144 Mc. plug -in
frequency multiplier. The SO Mc. adapter
PL -3 is in place. Oscillator tuning slugs are
seen on right side of oscillator compartment
at left. 50 Mc. coil is in place atop buffer
compartment.
Figure 6
UNDER -CHASSIS
VIEW OF 300
WATT VHF
TRANSMITTER
Small 115 -volt blower
motors for 826 tubes are
in upper left corner of
chassis. Buffer plate line
L A-B occupies left -hand
portion of chassis. All
leads are kept clear of
this area. Under- chassis
power leads are run in
shielded braid to reduce
r -f pick -up. An "L "-
shaped shield partition
isolates frequency doub-
ler stages from buffer
plate line. Capacitors C_
and C. are ganged, as
are capacitors C- and C .
Power supply components

occupy lower right -hand
corner of chassis.
The top of the 9903 -
5894 buffer tube pro-
jects through hole at
center of chassis.
Mc.,, and a simple link neutralization circuit Power Supply The low voltage supplies are
(L.- L..) is employed to complete neutrali- and Modulator located on the rear of the r -f
zation at 50 Mc. This double neutralization deck, and are diagrammed in
circuit results in absolute stability of opera- figure 8. A voltage doubler selenium supply
tion on both bands. Since the 50 Mc. plate provides 600 volts for the 9903/5894 stage
coil L. is decoupled from the 144 Mc. tank and 270 volts for the exciter. A second sele-
circuit by the shorting bar, very little spurious nium rectifier supply provides negative bias
coupling exists between the two neutralizing for the buffer and final amplifier stages. Iso-
circuits and adjustments are simple and may lating diodes D. and D, reduce interaction be-
be made once and then forgotten. tween the two bias voltages.
The high voltage plate supply and modula-
tor are located on a separate deck. The supply
The Bond- A frequency shift between
provides 1500 volts at 500 ma. for the modu-
changing System 50 Mc. and 144 Mc. may
lator and final amplifier stage. The modulator
be made in a matter of
consists of a pair of 811 -A tubes, operating
minutes. Switch S. selects the correct crystal or
VFO range. The plate coil L. is broadly re-
sonant over the 8 - 9 Mc. range and requires
no adjustment after initial setting. The 5763
and 6360 plate circuits may be resonated to
the correct frequency for either band without
the necessity of coil changing. For 144 Mc.
operation, however, it is necessary to remove
the 50 Mc. plug, PL -3 (figure 7) and insert
in its place the 144 Mc. triplet box (figure 3) .
In addition, grid coil L. of the 9903/5894
stage must be changed. The amplifier plate
circuit shorting strap is removed for 144 Mc.
Figure 7
Finally, the buffer and amplifier plate tank
CLOSE UP OF PLUG -IN
circuits must be resonated to frequency. COMPONENTS
Separate antenna coupling systems are em- 144 Mc. plug -in tripler box containing 6360
(V -4) is at center. Tube is mounted at ongle
ployed for each band. Two coupling loops are on small plate with ventilation holes drilled
in box above top of tube. 9 -pin plug PL, is
used, the 144 Mc. loop (L..) is coupled to made from portion of a Vector socket. 50 Mc.
the quarter -wave tank circuit, and the 50 Mc. plug PL, is at upper left, with 144 Mc. coil
L. directly below it. 50 Mc. coil L. is at right.
loop (L..) is coupled to plate coil L... See figure 12 for coil data.
50/144 Mc. Transmitter 669
Io
$03 T 25 W D3 D4
8+600 V.
251
50w
8+270 V.
e0 F
CH, 4011F 50K
a50LV T 1450v
51l
T2 5 20w e
3iAS is t
0, -60V)
-30 LF
+T 250V. T+
BIAS ,r2
(-35V.)
T o,
z (roVe,V7)
METER SWITCH, S2
POSITION CIRCUIT READING
T4 I A -G 12,11,
PEn
TO VI -V] 2 e -G V3,1P
AND PIN 5. 3 C -G V4,IP
SO2 4 0-14 V5,IG
-J
-
.I (PLACE .01 CERAMIC 5 E VS,IG
01 CAPACITOR AT EACH
FILAMENT PIN.) e F -J V7,IG
Figure 8
SCHEMATIC, LOW VOLTAGE SUPPLIES AND METER SWITCHING CIRCUIT
Tr-600 /300 v., c.t., 360 ma. Use 300 volt taps for voltage doubler service. Triad P -3.
T,-125 volts, 50 ma. Stancor PA -8421
T,-7.5 volts, 8 a. Stancor P-6138
-6.3 volts, 6 a. Stancor P -3036
T4
D,-s -, -1-Selenium rectifier, 100 ma., RMS input voltage: 175. Maximum peak inverse voltage: 495.
Sarkes - Torzian Model 108
D: -, -,- Selenium rectifier, 75 ma., RMS input voltage: 130. Sarkes - Torzian Model 75
B,, Br -Small 115 -volt blower motor.
5,-2 pole, 6 position rotary switch.
50,-8 prong octal socket (see figures 3 and 10)
class B. Any one of the speech amplifiers consists of a 13" x 17" x 3" aluminum chassis
shown in chapter 30 is suitable for use with firmly fastened to a 121/4" x 19" relay rack
the modulator. The complete schematic of this panel. The oscillator compartment (figure 9)
deck is shown in figure 10. measures 2" x 4" x 6 ". The grid circuit com-
High voltage primary circuits are energized partment for the 9903/5894 is 3" x 4" x 5"
by relay RYI after the plate circuit control in size, and the plug -in 144 Mc. tripler box
switch S: is closed. External relay control ter- measures 2" x 3" x 31/2 ". The push -pull 826
minals are provided for auxiliary circuits. final amplifier is enclosed in an aluminum
Metering A 0 -100 d.c. milliammeter (M_, box measuring 6" x 7" x 12 ". This compart-
Circuits figure 10) is employed to monitor ment is mounted clear of the chassis on 1/2-
the low voltage circuitry. A six inch metal posts. Care must be taken to see
position switch (S2, figure 8) places the meter that each corner of the box makes a good elec-
across 150 ohm shunts in the plate and grid trical ground with the chassis. The plug -in
circuits as shown in the table of figure 8. tripler box fits into two tube sockets (SO-1
Meter MI reads plate current of the modulator and SO -2) placed in line with the extension
and final r -f amplifier. This meter is placed shaft that drives buffer grid capacitor G. The
in a high potential circuit, and should have a special sockets with 50 Mc. plug PL -3 inserted
bakelite case and an insulated zero -set control. in SO-1 can be seen in figure 5.
The 9903/5894 buffer socket is mounted to
Transmitter The overall layout of the r -f the "top" of the grid circuit compartment with
Construction section can be seen in figures the plate leads projecting out of matching holes
4, 5, and 6. The foundation cut in the "bottom" of the box and the chassis.
670 Transmitter Construction T H E R A D I O
Figure 9
INTERIOR,
HIGH STABILITY
VFO FOR VHF
TRANSMITTER
Two gong oscillator tun-
ing capacitor C A -B is
panel mounted at top of
enclosure. Variable trim-
ming capacitors are at
the right, with slug -tuned
coils directly below.
Bandswitch S,A -B is
placed at bottom of front
panel, with crystal sock-
ets at left. The two leads
to oscillator tube socket
pass through large rubber
grommet mounted on
chassis deck.
After alignment is com-
pleted, a drop of nail
polish is placed on end
of coil slug to eliminate
mechanical vibration of
slug. Note that rear of
case is bolted in place
with eight sheet metal
screws to provide rigidity
to enclosure. Oscillator
tube socket is in fore-
ground, partially hidden
by selenium rectifier.
Ventilation holes are drilled in the top of this

box, and grid coil L mounts in banana plugs
mounted on a polystyrene plate atop the box.
Two 826 sockets are mounted at the front
end of the amplifier box on metal spacers.
Trouble occurred with the sockets flashing
over on occasional modulation peaks. Accord-
ingly, that portion of the socket holding the
two plate pins was cut away and the pin con-
nectors were bolted directly to the ends of the
plate circuit straps, LIA and L>>B. The back
of a hacksaw blade and cutting compound
are used to cut grooves across the top and
bottom surfaces of the socket. A sharp blow
with a hammer will fracture the socket along
the groove lines.
Ventilation holes are drilled in the box and
chassis directly below the tubes and are covered 0
with window screen to reduce spurious energy
radiation through the openings. Figure 11
The two 11/2" wide aluminum straps that REAR VIEW,
serve as the 144 Mc. tuned circuit are support- POWER SUPPLY CHASSIS
ed at the "B- plus" end on two solid ceramic Power supply is built upon steel chassis. Power
transformer and modulation transformer are
insulators. Two more insulators of the same at rear of chassis. Three 4 fd., 2KV filter
height serve to mount the "butter -fly" capaci- capacitors are connected in parallel to pro-
vide adequate dynamic reserve. One capacitor
tor to the box. Small copper strips connect the is placed under the chassis. Insulated, high
tank straps to the stator terminals of the vari- voltage terminal is employed for B -plus lead.
Rectifiers are at right, front of chassis, with
able capacitor. The 50 Mc. coil and the re- modulator tubes at left -front.
HANDBOOK 50 144 Mc. Transmitter 671
B+ TO
866 FI AL Bt TO
n SPEECH
AMPLIFIER
T4 T5
CH,
SAA
S4B
11
AEI 10
tO W
811-A
73 SO4
TO R F. DECK. SOS
RYt
S2
CONTROL
S1
FILAMENT
16
E
0I
STERNAL
115V. I RELAY CONTROL
Figure 10
SCHEMATIC, POWER SUPPLY AND MODULATOR DECK
T: -1775 1500 each side c.t., 625 ma., ICAS. 115 230 volt primary. Stancor P -8029
T, -2.5
v., 70 a., 10KV insulation. Stancor P -3060
y., 10 a. Stancor P -6308
T. -300
watt "polypedance" modulation transformer. Stancor A -3898. Primary impedance 12K,
secondary impedance 6K
T -"Polypedance" driver transformer. Stancor A -4762
RY: -DPDT relay, 10 ampere contacts, 115 v. a.c. coil
M:
M,
-0
- 500 mo.
--0
- 100 ma.
S.A -B -2 pole, 3 position high voltage switch. (Found in "war surplus" BC -306A antenna tuning unit),
or equivalent
CH: -500 ma. swinging choke, 2 -16 h. Stancor C -1405
pilot lamps
B
50. -8 prongcoltoctal socket
movable shorting bar are mounted at the "B- Placement of the major components beneath
plus" end of the assembly. The rotor of the the chassis may be seen in figure 6. The linear
"butter -fly" capacitor is left floating and is tank circuit LA-B runs in zig -zag fashion
panel driven through a high voltage shaft from the plate terminals of the buffer tube Vs
coupling. The neutralizing capacitors (C11, C,_) to two ceramic standoff insulators mounted on
are mounted on a triangular piece of poly- the bottom plate of the power amplifier en-
styrene or other good insulating material and closure. Spacing between the lines is held con-
placed between the tube sockets. Construction stant, and they are supported at the buffer
of these capacitors is shown in figure 13. end on two 1" ceramic insulators. The buffer
The 144 Mc. antenna link "coil" is a U- tuning capacitor CT is mounted to the chassis
shaped pickup loop mounted beneath the linear between the lines and panel driven with a
tank circuit, while the 50 Mc. pickup coil is phenolic shaft. The rotor of this capacitor is
inserted between the turns of plate coil L1:. not grounded. The stators of CT are connected
The single turn neutralizing coil L. is placed to the lines with short lengths of flexible strap.
near one end of L,. as shown in the photo- Any grid current unbalance in the final am-
graph. plifier stage can be corrected by varying the
672 Transmitter Construction THE RADIO
FIGURE 12 6 -32 BOLT
COIL CHART FOR 50 -144 MC. TRANSMITTER
Ls-(144 MC. COIL) 36 T.924 E., 7/2" DIA. MILLEN 69046 COPPER STRAP POLYSTYRENE
FORM
LEAD TO PLATE a lJ
-
SHEET
L2- (50MC. COIL) 267.924 E., /2 "DIA. MILLEN 69046 FORM N
o--B
1
L3- 52 TURNS 9 26 E. MILLEN 69016 FORM.

L4- 22 T. CENTER TAP, 3/4- DIA., 32 T.P.I. BS 3072
L5 -15 T. CENTER TAP, 1/2" DIA., 76 T.P.I. 86W 3003
LINK COIL: ONE TURN HOOKUP WIRE.
Le -2 7/2 T. CENTER TAP, 7/2" DIA. 16 T.P.I 86W 3003
COPPER STRAP E
L7- 7 T. CENTER TAP, S /6" DIA., 16 T.P.I. 88W 3007 LEAD TO GRID
LINK COIL:ONE TURN HOOKUP WIRE. C
Le- (SO MC. I CENTER TAP, 3/4" DIA., 6 T.

T T.
P. I. 84W 3070 "- D
CHA IS
(744 MC.) 3 1/4X .02"X .725" COP. STRAP BENT "U-(SEE FIG. 7)
LINK I TURN HOOKUP WIRE BENT TO FIT LB. '6 -32 BOLT
L9A -B- 11. 915 COPPER WIRE, OR .125" DIA. ROD. PLUS 3. OF
1/2 "WIDE FLEXIBLE COPPER STRAP (GPIO LEAD) PLUS A- 3 /B' X 2" CERAMIC INSULATOR, TAPPED AT EACH
3/4 " FLEXIBLE COPPER STRAP (PLTE LEAD). ADJUST END FOR 6 -32 MACHINE SCREWS.
SPACING FOR RESONANCE. (SEE FIG. 6 FOP LAYOUT)
B.0 -1 1/6 DI A. BRASS DISC WITH 3 /8" CLEARANCE HOLE
L10- ST., 3/4" DIA. , *14E. WIRE. ADJUST SPACING OF TURNS FOR CERAMIC INSULATOR. LOWER DISC SUPPORTED ON
FOR RESONANCE AT SO MC. WITH C7 AT FULL CAPACITY. 3/6" CERAMIC INSULATORS. USE FLAT HEAD SCREWS.
L11A-B- IO" OF /B' X 1 I/O' ALUMINUM STRAP, SPACED 3 3 /8"

1 D- 3/B CERAMIC INSULATORS.
CENTER TO CENTER. SHORTING BAR MADE OF SAME MAT-
ERIAL, ATTACHED 6 7 /B" FROM PLATE END TO CENTER E- I /B" DISC MADE OF TWO LAYERS
1 OF .0150 THICK
TEFLON HELD ATOP C BY CELLOPHANE TAPE.
OF BAR. PLATE PIN RECEPTACLES REMOVED FROM SOCKET
AND ATTACHED TO ENDS OF LINES (SEE FICUPE 3 ) F- TWO 6/32 NUTS PLACED UNDER STRAP. STRAP AND
NUTS SOLDERED TO BRASS PLATE. HOLE IN PLATE
L12-(S0 MC. COIL) 1/4 DIA. *6 COPPER WIRE, OR .125"
6 T., 1
PASSES 6/32 BOLT.
TUBING. SPACE TURNS TO RESONATE TO SO MC. WITH
CeNEAR FULL CAPACITY.
Figure 13
L13 -19. OF *12 E. WIRE BENT TO "U
SHAPE TO FORM 5X 2" CONSTRUCTION OF
LOOP WITH 31/2" LEADS. PLACE UNDER Li IA-6
NEUTRALIZING CAPACITOR
L14 -1 TURN, 2" DIA., 10 KV HOOKUP WIRE
FOR 826 STAGE
LIS -I TURN, 1/2' DIA. RIO E., WITH INSULATED SLEEVING.
PLACE AT CENTER OF L,o. Two capacitors are required (C:: and C
have top brace plate made of
L16- 2TURNS, 1 1/4" DIA., 10 KV HOOKUP WIRE. polystyrene sheet or other good VHF insulat-
ing material. Plate is supported on two cer-
amic insulators which form center support for
capacitors. Plates of neutralizing capacitors
position of the taps on the lines until balanced are made of brass discs. The grid disc is sup-
ported on short ceramic insulators, and the
current is obtained. The tuning range of the plate disc is supported from the polystyrene
plate by 6 -32 machine screw. Plate encircles
capacitor on 144 Mc. is reduced by moving ceramic insulator with a close fit. Plate lead
the taps closer to the electrical center of the and two 6 -32 nuts are soldered to top plate.
Mounting screw passes through this assembly,
line. and also through hole drilled in top plate.
An "L "- shaped shield plate passes around After capacitors have been adjusted, top plate
is cemented to center ceramic insulator with
the edge of tripler capacitor C1 -05 to shield the clear nail polish to retain adjustment.
low power stages from the buffer plate lines.
The under -chassis shielding is completed when 17" x 3 ", as shown in figure 11. The modu-
a bottom plate is bolted to the chassis. lator and rectifier tubes are placed near the
The power supply section occupies the rear front panel, with the modulation transform-
portion of the chassis. High voltage rectifiers er and power transformer to the rear of
D, -2-3 -. are mounted above the deck (figure the chassis. The swinging choke is placed be-
4) and the diodes of the bias supply are tween the tubes at the front -center of the
mounted below the chassis. chassis. Smaller components are mounted be-
Figure 9 shows the interior of the VFO neath the chassis. High voltages are applied to
compartment. The two oscillator coils are the transmitter by primary relay RYA, con-
mounted on the side of the box, across from trolled by switch S_ and an optional external
the four crystal sockets. The trimmer capacitors relay control circuit.
are mounted above their respective coils. The
Transmitter The tuned circuits of the trans-
grid and cathode leads to oscillator tube V,
Adjustment mitter can be set to their pro-
pass through a large rubber grommet mounted
in the bottom of the enclosure. per operating range with the
aid of a grid -dip oscillator. All r -f tubes must
The Power and The power supply is be in their sockets. Coil L3 is set to 8.5 Mc.,
Modulator Deck mounted upon a steel and circuit C_ -L, is adjusted to 17 Mc. with
chassis measuring 13" x C_ set at half- capacity. The 7 µµfd. trimmer
HANDBOOK De Luxe All -Band Transmitter 673
capacitor across L is adjusted to resonate the the settings of G. and G..

plate circuit of the first tripler stage to 50 Mc. Reduced voltage is now applied to the am-
with G at half -capacity, and G -Lr is tuned to plifier stage and it is loaded into a suitable an-
the same frequency in the same manner with tenna system. The links of coils L, L. L7, and
50 Mc. plug PL-1 placed in socket SO-1. The L, should be adjusted for maximum grid drive.
grid coils of the buffer stage are next adjusted Loose coupling should be used as overcoupling
to frequency. reduces excitation to the power amplifier and
The next step is to adjust the plate circuit of results in "double tuning" of the stages. Buf-
the buffer stage. Coil Leo is attached to the fer plate current runs about 100 milliamperes,
transmission line about 2" from the feed - and each amplifier tube should develop ap-
through terminals, and capacitor C, is tapped proximately 35 milliamperes of grid current.
on the line about 1" closer to the buffer tube The 144 Mc. antenna link (L73) is adjusted
than is the coil. Resonance of the lines can be by varying the length of the loop and its po-
adjusted by changing the length of the flexi- sition to the lines. It is mounted beneath the
ble plate leads to the buffer tube, by varying lines and spaced about 3/4" away from them.
the spacing of the lines, or by changing the Fine antenna loading may be controlled by
spacing between the chassis and the lines. The loading capacitors G and Go. The amplifier
tuning range of C, may be varied by shifting may be loaded to 200 ma. for phone operation,
the position of the taps on the lines. Coil L. or 250 ma. for c.w. operation. The overall am-
is placed at the "cold" point of the line, which plifier efficiency is better than 50 %, delivering
may be found by touching the line with a pen- 160 watts to a dummy load with a power in-
cil lead when the transmitter is operating. put of 300 watts at 144 Mc. Efficiency is bet-
Place the coil at the spot on the line that has ter than 60% at 50 Mc.
the least "fire" when the transmitter is op- Modulator plate current rises to about 150
erating on 144 Mc. ma. on peaks for 100% modulation of the final
As soon as grid current can be measured amplifier.
on the power amplifier, the stage may be neu-
tralized. The transmitter is first neutralized 31 -2 A De -Luxe
on 144 Mc. by adjusting capacitors C71 and C.:. Transmitter for the
The B -plus lead should be removed for this 3.5 - 29.7 Mc. Range
operation. Operating frequency is then changed
to 50 Mc. and link coils L. and Lea are adjust- Shown in this section is a de-luxe phone/
ed for complete neutralization on the six meter c.w. transmitter for operation in the 80, 40,
band. The 144 Mc. neutralization should then 20, 15, and 10 meter amateur bands. The
be rechecked. The links have very little ef- transmitter runs 500 watts input on c.w. and
fect at 144 Mc., since the shorting bar effec- 375 watts input on phone, and is completely
tively removes L. and L. from the circuit. self-contained in two small relay tacks as il-
However, the adjustment of the capacitors af- lustrated in figure 14. The r.f. section of the
fects the setting of the 50 Mc. links, so the transmitter is designed to be virtually TVI-
latter must be readjusted after each change in proof, and modern techniques such as speech
Figure 14
DE -LUXE STATION
FOR THE DX MAN
Employes VFO- controlled,
bandswitching, Phone -CW
transmitter running up to
500 watts.
This compact, all -band
transmitter employs a
7094 tetrode in a pi -net-
work amplifier, modulat-
ed by 81I -A's. Clickless,
break -in keying is used
for c.w., and speech
clipping and limiting are
employed for AM phone.
Modulator and power
supply are in the rack
at left, and entire r -f
section is in right -hand
rack. High stability VFO
ensures drift -free fre-
quency control. Transmit-
ter is designed for max-
imum harmonic suppres-
sion and is virtually TVI-
proof
Vi V2 V3 V4 Vs AN -i
6u9 6AC7 2E26 7094
o"
(1. 75 MC. 1 (3.5MC.)
L _ _
SIA
(7. 10.5. l MC. )
SID
(3.5-30MC. ) (3.5-50 Mc.)I
T
V7 V6
12ÁU7 6AL5
V12
e11-A
Ve V9 Via Vi,
12.437 6AL5 i2AU7 566,/eL6
HIC. AUDIO
FILTER
el I-A
L.V.
V13
Via VIS Vie V17 vie Vie

OB2 062 2021 5V4 -G8 666 -A 966 -A
POWER
SUPPLY
)
i 5/230 V 1,
Figure 15
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ALL -BAND 500 WATT TRANSMITTER
R -fsection employs bandswitching exciter for coverage of 10, 15, 20, 40, and 80 meter bands. Variable
frequency oscillator operates in 1.7 Mc. region to achieve maximum isolation. Tuning and antenna
loading are aided by 6AL5 vacuum tube voltmeter monitoring output of amplifier stage.
Low level speech clipping and filtering, combined with high level audio filter imports "punch" to phone
signal, yet holds sidebands to a minimum. Single high voltage supply powers modulator and final amplifier.
clipping and clickless, break-in keying are in- The RCA 7094 beam power tube is em-
corporated in the transmitter. ployed in the final amplifier stage. This com-
A high stability variable frequency oscilla- pact tube has high perveance and high power
tor is employed for frequency control, the dial gain. It can be operated at full input to 60
of which is directly calibrated for each band. Mc., and has a maximum plate dissipation of
Band changing is a simple operation and may 125 watts. In addition, it has triple base -pin
be accomplished in a few seconds.
connections for the screen grid to permit good
Transmitter Circuitry A block diagram of the r -f grounding and large plate radiating fins
and Layout transmitter is given in for effective cooling. The compact size makes
figure 15. Nineteen it especially effective in the high frequency
tubes are used in the equipment: seven in the portions of the communication spectrum. Driv-
r -f section, six in the audio section, and six in ing requirements are modest and permit the
the power supply. use of a simplified bandswitching exciter.
Figure 16
VFO- EXCITER DECK CONTAINS
ALL IMPORTANT OPERATING
CONTROLS
Low level r -f stages are built upon 8 "x17 "x2"
aluminum chassis. Keyer timing potentiometer
R, at left, with excitation potentiometer
is
R., control switch S -, and bandswitch S: in
line, left to right. VFO dial is centered on the
panel.
Output connector P. is mounted on polystyrene
Plate atop shielded enclosure at right. Shield-
ing is made from Reynold's "Do -it- yourself"
perforated aluminum sheet.
I.- ì
f
0f .
2
Z
o
LLo; 0 a Z ó
ati ._ 0 N
ä1 - N a m CO. 441
LL ~N m
8I
n aú a + g
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Q Îp R
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Y ÓIY
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tN
00
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III o
r $
NU ,
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N
Figure 18
INTERIOR OF VFO
SHOWING
PLACEMENT OF
MAJOR
COMPONENTS
The VFO is built upon
two 18 -inch dura) plates,
one forming the base
and the other forming
the front of the oscillator
enclosure. Inductor L,
and padding capacitors
are mounted to front
wall, and the variable
tuning capacitor is bolt-
ed to base. Oscillator
tube (V -1) projects from
far wall of enclosure to
remove os much heat
from tuned circuit as
possible. Entire VFO is
mounted upon miniature
shock mounts and dial is
attached to VFO unit,
rather than to rack
panel. 6AC7 and 2E26
tubes are at left, with
2E26 plate choke and
5KV coupling capacitor
in foreground.
The variable frequency oscillator and exci- Three tubes are employed in the multiplier
ter stages are built upon one chassis deck, as and driver stages of the transmitter. The first
shown in figures 16, 18, 19, and 20. The 6AC7 doubler stage (V2) operates into a
complete schematic of this unit is given in broadly resonant slug -tuned coil L2. When
figure 17. The variable oscillator covers the tuning the exciter unit, this coil is peaked at
range of 1.75 Mc. - 1.85 Mc., permitting full 3.6 Mc. The stage will then deliver substan-
coverage of all amateur bands except the ex- tially constant output over the range from 3.2
treme top of the 28 Mc. band, and the top to 4.0 Mc. The 2E26 stage (V.) operates as
portion of the 80 meter band. Readjustment an amplifier on the 3.5 Mc. band and as a
of the oscillator padding capacitor provides doubler on the 7 Mc. band, driven directly
complete coverage of these segments, if de- from the 6AC7 buffer -doubler.
sired. The VFO consists of a 6U8 pentode -
triode (VI) operating as a "hot cathode" oscil-
lator and triode cathode follower. Extremely
high -C is employed in the tuned circuit of the
VFO to obtain a good order of stability. A
2000 µµtd. precision ceramic capacitor G,
forms the large portion of the tuning capaci-
tance, and the coil L. is wound upon a ceramic
form having a very low temperature coeffi-
cient. The cathode follower stage provides
excellent circuit isolation for the oscillator,
combined with a minimum of plate circuit
loading. Figure 18 shows the layout of the ma-
jor oscillator components. The circuit is built
upon an %8" thick aluminum plate, bolted to
a small panel of the same material. The sides,
back, and top of the oscillator enclosure are
made of aluminum sheet. The complete unit Figure 19
is mounted upon miniature rubber shock REAR VIEW OF EXCITER DECK
mounts. The VFO dial is firmly affixed to the Multiplier tubes are in the foreground. Ad-
justment holes for the multiplier trimmer ca-
enclosure and actually does not make physical pacitors are on side of chassis. I ' -inch angle
contact with the panel at all. The frequency stock is run around chassis and panel to form
foundation to which the perforated enclosure
determining unit is thereby protected from jolts is attached. Royer tube V- is placed in rear
corner. Potentiometer R. and auxiliary key
and jars which might cause a "warble" in the jack are on chassis wall below keyer tube.
transmitter frequency. The r -f output from the Short lead extends from 2E26 blocking ca-
pacitor up to connecting plug P mounted on
cathode follower is 5 volts, r.m.s. enclosure.
De Luxe All -Band Transmitter 677
For operation on 20, 15, and 10 meters,

switch S,D disconnects the 2E26 from the
6AC7 stage, and connects it to an auxiliary
6AG7 frequency multiplier (V3) . The multi-
plier operates as either a doubler, a tripler, or
as a quadrupler. Its output circuit, therefore, is
either tuned to 7 Mc., 10.5 Mc., or 14 Mc.
Coil L3 in the plate circuit of the 6AG7 re-
sonates with residual circuit capacities to 14
Mc. Switch section SsC of the bandswitch adds
additional capacity to lower the resonant fre-
quency of this circuit to 10.5 Mc. or 7 Mc.
The 2E26 stage operates as a doubler to 14
Mc., receiving 7 Mc. excitation from the 6AG7
stage. When the 6AG7 is tuned to 10.5 Mc.,
the 2E26 serves as a doubler to the 21 Mc.
band. For 28 Mc. output from the 2E26, 14
Mc. excitation is received from the 6AG7
stage, and the 2E26 again functions as a
doubler.
Keying and A simplified schematic of the

Control Circuit keying and control circuit
for the exciter is shown in
figure 21. A break -in type keyer is employed
for c.w. operation. The unit is completely actu-
Figure 20
ated by the transmitter key. When the key is
UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW OF EXCITER
All power wiring is run in shielded braid, grounded to
pressed the transmitter is energized and may
the chassis at convenient points. Voltage regulator be keyed in a normal manner. The keyer
tube V is mounted beneath the chassis on small
"holds" the transmitter power supplies on
angle brackets. RI', and RY. are mounted to the inner
chassis wall, directly behind keyer panel control R.. while the key is manipulated. When the op-
R -f circuits are at the opposite end of chassis, grouped
around bandswitch S The slugs of coils L, and L. are
.
erator stops, the keyer turns off the transmitter
adjustable from atop the chassis. Metal plate covers after a short pause. Thus, the transmitter re-
bottom of chassis to reduce spurious radiation from
r.f. circuits. mains on between keyed characters and words,
7094 SCREEN CIRCUIT (SEE F /G. 23)

V2 B+TOVFO
VFO 6AC7 57
47 It
+300 V. RYz
b +ISOV REG.
too
003
Sr.v
A l B J . SWITCH 52
S2 B A = TRANSMIT RYs
B. STANDBY
C' TUNE
TO METER
TC 2E26 GRID
RY3B CH,
+370V-cA
B
S2A
-105V R Y3
PLATE RELAY
NOTES: SOs RYA PRI.
RELAY CONTACTS RY3A (51A IN MOD I
PL3
NORMALLY OPEN. Cw SW1
115 V.
RELAY CONTACTS RY3B PH.
NORMALLY CLOSED. AUTOMATIC
(S3 IN POWER SUPPLY )
11SV.
SO4 PL4
Figure 21
KEYER AND CONTROL CIRCUITS
Clickless, break -in keying is provided by this simple control circuit. See text for full details of operation
678 Transmitter Construction T H E R A D I O
Figure 22
500 WATT POWER
AMPLIFIER HAS
SYMMETRICAL
PANEL LAYOUT
The 7094 amplifier stage
is enclosed in a separate
deck. Plate milliammeter
is at left, with O -1 d.c.
milliammeter at right
which may be inserted in
various power leads in
exciter or amplifier.
Large center knobs are
(left) pi- network switch
and (right) main ampli-
fier tuning control.
Controls across the bot-
tom are (left to right):
Pi- network loading ca-
pacitor, auxiliary pi -net-
work capacitor switch,
grid circuit tuning ca-
pacitor, and meter
switch. Pi- network switch
S is ganged with grid
turret switch S, elimin-
ating one panel control.
but will return to a stand -by position after the the high voltage primary circuit relay cir-
keying action has been completed. The "turn- cuit. This circuit may be rendered inoper-
off" time may be varied to suit the operator's ative on "standby" position by switch S:B,
taste. For phone operation, the time delay cir- enabling VFO to be used for frequency
cuit is eliminated, and the push -to -talk circuit check or "spotting" purposes.
actuates the keyer and control relays directly. 3 -Key is released .
The whole sequence may be over -ridden and Right -hand section of V, cuts off immed-
manual operation restored by means of a "man- iately. Left -hand section draws 1 ma. and
ual- automatic" switch on the power supply cuts off 6AC7 buffer tube. The 1N92 is
chassis. Finally, a "transmit - tune - standby" back -biased by rise in 12AU7 plate volt-
switch S:A removes screen voltage from the age, keeping charge on 40 µfd. capacitor.
final amplifier stage for tune-up purposes. Relay RI': remains closed until capacitor
is discharged through shunting resistances.
Referring to figure 21, the sequence of op-
Relay then opens, turning off high voltage
eration is as follows:
supplies of transmitter. "Release" delay is
1 -Key up, switch S :B on "transmit." controlled by potentiometer Ra.
The right -hand section of the keyer tube 4-Phone Operation
V: is cut off by the negative bias on the Switch St on modulator deck is closed for
cathode. Potentiometer R. is adjusted for phone operation, placing the coil of relay
1 ma. current through 15K resistor to RY: in the circuit. When the key is closed,
ground ( -15 volts to chassis at point A) . or the press-to -talk circuit activated, RYA
6AC7 (V2) is cut off. shorts out the time delay circuit of RY2,
2 -Key is depressed. and at the same time RY:B removes a
Right-hand section of V: conducts heavily short across the screen modulation choke
and cathode voltage rises quickly, cutting in the final amplifier.
off left section of V: and removing block- Exciter plate voltage is obtained from the
ing bias of 6AC7 (V:) . Plate current of modulator power supply (See Chapter 30,
right -hand section of V, operates RY2 and figure 17), and bias and amplifier voltage are
charges 40 µfd. capacitor through 1N92 derived from the main power supply, located
diode. The relay closes, placing B -plus on a separate chassis. The plate relay RY4 may
voltage on oscillator stage and operating be actuated by switch S: or by the keyer circuit.
VS 001
7094 Sñv J2
PC
11/ a ANTENNA
JI I
3 5.7
TO EXCITER e RFC 3 C10 C11 SS
FIGURE 17 C L4 o 000
S4
T1000
2.SK
S3 -C12 100 .001
.003 SÑV
° C7 C9 3.tv Ve
150 RFC4 6AL5
RY5
Ce { RFC 2 20K
io'
2201_ 1K 39K RFC2
M SK C SKV E
w 20 1K 10K
K
A , F/L, D + KV
001 F
SO
NOTES ICH, RFC4 RY5

1 -C 007, 600V CERAMIC
=
CAPACITOR. 1.2 M
2 -ALL RESISTORS I-WATT
HA/LESS OTHERWISE
0
8+1500V
2W
Ti A B
SPECIFIED.
RFC4 RFC4
FAG
.6101
/_ C KV ñT.
v
SSA SSS
SO7 f111M1111!!!!
2 3 4 5 6
Figure 23
SCHEMATIC, 500 WATT POWER AMPLIFIER
cl -150
C,, -220 ,.;.Id., 1250 volt fixed mica capacitor
C, -Disc -type neutralizing capacitor. National NC -800 or equivalent.
C, -I5O
,,,Jd., 3000 volt. Johnson 150E30
C1, -900
Il1.ld. Two gang broadcast capacitor (see text).
C,: -Three .001, 5KV ceramic capacitors. Centralab type 850. Place one capacitor on each screen terminal.
L4- Composed of two coils mounted on back of S and connected in series.
80 meter coil: 28 turns, 1" diem., 13/4" long. 40 meter tap at 18th turn from "cold" end.
20 meter coil: 7 turns, 1" diam., 11/ " long. 15 meter tap at 4 turns, 10 meter tap at 3 turns from
"cold" end. Adjust taps with grid -dip oscillator.
L, -S_- Barker 8 Williamson r3850, 500 watt turret for 10 -80 meters.
5,- Single pole, 6 position ceramic switch, progressively shorting. Centralab PA -2042.
RFC -2.5
mh. choke. National R -100
RFC- -Heavy duty choke for 3 -30 Mc. range, 500 ma. Roypar RL -102
RFC, -VHF Choke, Ohmite Z -144, or equivalent
PC -50
ohm composition resistor wound with 3 turns 20 e.
T, -6.3
volts at 4 a. Rancor P -4019
CH, -7
h. at 50 ma. Stancor C -1707
RY. -SPST sensitive relay, with 1 milliampere d.c. coil
M, -0
- 500 d.c. milliammeter with insulated zero -set and bakelite case.
B -Small 115 -volt a.c. blower motor.
The Amplifier The schematic of the ampli - to each of the screen socket terminals. A VHF
Stage fier is shown in figure 23, and parasitic choke (PC) is included in the lead
various layout photographs are to the control grid of the tube. As a result of
given in figures 22, 24, 25, and 26. Par- these precautions, the amplifier is completely
ticular attention is given to TVI- reduction stable over the whole operating range.
measures in the construction of the unit. A A sensitive relay RY5 is incorporated in the
single 7094 beam power tube is used in a pi- screen circuit to protect the tube under condi-
network circuit. The grid circuit (L, -C,) is tions of low plate potential. The relay will
common to the plate circuit of the 2E26 and open the screen circuit when the plate poten-
is capable of complete frequency coverage by tial is removed from the amplifier stage. By
virtue of the tapped coil assembly shown in far the most frequent type of damage to a
the under -chassis view. Bridge neutralization tetrode tube is caused when full screen volt-
is employed to achieve maximum stability. age is applied in the absence of plate voltage.
Variable capacitor C9 and the grid bypass ca- The screen relay protects the tube from this
pacitor CF form two legs of the bridge. type of damage. Self-modulation of the screen
To take advantage of the triple base -pin is accomplished by an iron core choke CH. in
connections to the screen of the 7094 three the screen circuit. This choke is shorted out
separate low inductance bypass capacitors (C05) by relay RY,B ( figure 21) for c.w. operation.
are used in the screen circuit, one attached A pi- network configuration is used in the
means of a dial cord and drum from the plate
bandswitch inductor shaft (L) atop the chas-
sis. The cord passes through two holes in the
chassis deck. The main bandswitch control on
the amplifier panel thus actuates both the
grid and plate switches. Safety relay RY. is
mounted on the rear apron of the chassis, and
an aluminum plate covers the complete under -
chassis area. A one -inch hole is cut in this
plate directly below the stator terminal of grid
tuning capacitor G, and a banana jack is
mounted to a polystyrene plate bolted in
place over the hole. This forms the low capaci-
ty input terminal, Js. A mating hole is cut in
the top of the exciter screen and covered with
a second polystyrene plate having a banana
Figure 24 plug mounted in the center. When the ampli-
REAR OBLIQUE VIEW OF fier is slipped in the rack the plug and jack
PI- COUPLED AMPLIFIER mate, forming the connection between the
Dural ongle strips are mounted around edge 2E26 plate and the tuned tank in the grid
of 8 "x17 "x2" aluminum chassis and panel to
which TVI enclosure is attached with self - circuit of the final amplifier.
tapping sheet metal screws. Meters are en-
cased in aluminum cups, with r.f. filters
mounted on the back of each case. Meter Power Supply The power supply is built
leads are 10 KV television cable, enclosed in
shielded braid. The 7094 tetrode is mounted and Modulator upon a separate chassis, as
at rear of chassis, with neutralizing capacitor shown in figure 27. Two
C. to left, and plate choke at right. Connec-
tions to plate of tube are made with flexible 866A rectifier tubes are employed with a
copper strap.
Filament transformer is at left of chassis, with choke input filter to supply 1500 volts at
blower motor hidden behind it. Output capaci- 500 milliamperes for the r -f amplifier and
tor of pi- network is below deck.
modulator. "Hash" suppression chokes are
placed in the rectifier plate leads to reduce the
plate circuit of the amplifier, employing one high frequency "buzz" sometimes super-im-
of the new Barker & Williamson 500 watt posed upon the carrier by mercury vapor tubes.
band -switching assemblies. A two -gang broad- Sufficient capacity must be used in the filter
cast capacitor is employed for the low im- system to afford good dynamic stability to the
pedance output loading control. Switch S. al- supply under keyed loads, or under conditions
lows the insertion of an extra 1000 µµE& ca-
pacitor for operation into low impedance loads
at 3.5 Mc. The output circuit of the network
is monitored by a 6AL5 vacuum -tube volt-
meter (V.) which may be employed during
tune-up and loading adjustments.
All power leads beneath the chassis are
shielded in flexible braid, grounded at con-
venient points to the chassis. The meters are
enclosed in spun aluminum cups that are bolt-
ed to the panel of the stage. Each meter lead
is bypassed to the chassis with a .001, 5KV
ceramic capacitor and a VHF choke is placed
in series with the meter terminal. A small 115 -
volt blower motor is mounted at one end of
the chassis (figure 25) to direct a cooling
movement of air across the envelope of the Figure 25
tube. LEFT OBLIQUE VIEW OF
Placement of the major components beneath PI- COUPLED AMPLIFIER
the chassis may be seen in figure 26. An Blower motor to cool 7094 tube is located
between front panel and filament transform-
aluminum partition separates the pi- network er. High voltage and coaxial antenna terminals
components from the tube socket and the grid are on right of rear wall of chassis. Addition
of perforated screen makes enclosure radia-
circuit. The grid coil switch (S.) is driven by tion- proof.
HANDBOOK O a
of heavy modulation. Eight 60 pfd., 450 volt

tubular electrolytic capacitors are connected in
series parallel to form a 30 pfd., 1800 volt
unit. A small bias supply delivering -105
volts for the 7094 amplifier and keyer is also
included on the chassis. Layout and wiring of
_,
the supplies are shown in figures 27 and 29.
The modulator has been previously shown
in Chapter 30, figure 17. The speech amplifier
supply provides 370 volts for exciter operation.
One section of the "phone -c.w." relay (RY3A)
shorts out the time delay circuit on the exci-
ter deck for phone operation, and a high volt-
!
:-
age relay RY, is employed to remove the mod-
ulator for c.w. operation. Six volts is also sup- ;.a. Illlll.lnlilllll'llllli
a,p
plied to the exciter for filament service. This

filament circuit is balanced to ground to re- }- -=,
duce residual hum in the speech amplifier, so
the ground circuit cannot be employed as a
filament return in the exciter.
Exciter Tune -up Each deck of the transmitter
and Operation should be tested as an indi-
vidual unit before the trans-
mitter is tested in entirety. Screen voltage of
the 2E26 stage should always be set at zero Figure 26
by means of potentiometer R, ( figure 17) UNDER-CHASSIS VIEW OF
when the exciter is operated without the final POWER AMPLIFIER
amplifier, since the 2E26 plate circuit is in- All power wiring beneath the chassis is placed
within braid to reduce pickup of r.f. energy.
complete, and excessive screen current will be Note that shield divides area into two sections.
Smaller area contains output capacitor of pi-
drawn by the 2E26 unless the, screen potential network, 6AL5 diode voltmeter and high volt-
is removed. age leads. Larger area contains grid circuit
components and meter switch. Sensitive relay
Oscillator calibration may be adjusted by RY is mounted to wall of the chassis behind
varying the spacing of the turns of coil L,, or the grid tuning capacitor. Three .001, 5 Kv.
ceramic screen bypass capacitors are mounted
close to socket terminals. Grid turret switch is
driven from plate turret atop chassis.
by changing the value of the auxiliary padding

capacitor C.. Alignment of the 6ÁC7 and
6ÁG7 stages is done by observation of the
grid current of the 2E26 stage, as measured
across shunt resistor R4 in the grid return cir-
cuit. This circuit is not connected to the meter
switch, since it requires only one preliminary
reading during initial tune -up. Coil L. is
peaked at about 3.6 Mc. with padding capaci-
tor about half meshed. If grid current to the
2E26 is excessive, the 15K resistor shunted
across coil L. may be reduced in value. Grid
current should remain between 2 and 3 mil-
liamperes across any band.
After 80 meter alignment is completed,
bandswitch S, is set to the 10 meter position.
Figure 27 The slug of coil Lr is adjusted for maximum
REAR VIEW OF POWER SUPPLY grid current across the 28 Mc. band. Coil Lr
Primary power leads pass through bulkhead- resonates to 14 Mc. for this operation. The
type filter capacitors to prevent radiation of
TVI- producing harmonics from power line. bandswitch is next set to the 15 meter position
Voltage regulator tube for bias supply is
visible in corner of chassis. and the VFO tuned to 21.2 Mc. Padding ca-
866 -A CHI
T, RFC
Br í500V
10A 354
FUSE 50 w
60 AF
450 V. 4
EACH 35R
R Y4A SO w
2
T3 N92
za OB2
SO6
1
zw -ros V.
-< 1
r
SW, RYA
AC ON-OFF
<
S3
O.t
600V
Figure 28
SCHEMATIC, TRANSMITTER POWER SUPPLY
C,, Cr- Bulkhead type, 0.1 N td. 600 volt capacitor. Sprague "Hypass," or equivalent
CH,-10 henry at 300 ma. Chicago R -103
RFC -"Hash" suppression choke. Millen 77866
RY; DPDT relay, 20 amp. contacts, IIS v. a -c coil
5O Eight pin receptacle, Cinch-Jones
T,- 1710/1430 each side c.t. 300 ma., CCS. Chicago P -1512
T2-2.5 v., 10 a., 10 KV insulation. Stanco, P -3060
T,-125 v., 50 ma., 6.3 v., 2a. Rancor PA -8421
pacitor G is adjusted for correct grid current tors of the right -hand section of keyer tube
across the 21 Mc. band. As a last step, the V2. The plate load resistor is made up of a
bandswitch is set to 20 meters, the VFO tuned 15K and a 10K resistor. The 10K resistor may
to 14.2 Mc. and capacitor G adjusted for uni- be removed and a 10K relay coil may be in-
form grid drive across the 20 meter band. serted in its place if an extra relay is desired
The consistency of grid drive across the for operation of auxiliary circuits. Spring ten-
various amateur bands is controlled by the sion of relay RY_ may be varied for optimum
shunt resistors placed across coils L, and L2. relay operation after the circuit has been ad-
The lower the value of these resistors, the more justed.
uniform is the grid drive across the various Exciter keying should be relatively soft as
bands. At the same time, the grid current of the addition of the amplifier stage will sharp-
the 2E26 stage drops as these resistors are en it to some extent. The 0.1 pfd. waveform -
lowered in value. The values given in the sche- ing capacitor in the bias return lead of the
matic give good results on all bands, since 2E26 may be increased in value to soften the
the grid current of the 2E26 may vary over exciter keying to compensate for the sharpen-
a 2:1 ratio across an amateur band with little ing action of the class -C amplifier following
change in output from the stage. the keyed stage. In actual practice, the keying
Keying of the exciter is smooth and click - of the exciter should be adjusted so that dots
less. Buffer keying is controlled by the ad- run together when sent on a bug at a rate of
justment of potentiometer R2. The buffer about 25 w.p.m.
should turn on before the 2E26 stage ,and re- The keyer may be disabled if it is desired
main on after the 2E26 has been cut -off. Time to make adjustments to the r.f. section of the
delay before the transmitter is turned off after exciter. Keyer tube V; is removed from the
keying is controlled by potentiometer R. Cur- socket and pins 1 and 7 are grounded. Relay
rent flowing through relay coil RY2 may be RY_ is then held closed by placing a piece of
varied by changing the two plate load resis- cardboard under the back contacts.
w
1
R F.
2 3 4
PL7
AMPLIFIER
S 6 7
1.4/14..T.T/ {Z111111111,iiii1
6
`r/4
iiJ 2 3 4 5 6
PL4
MODULATOR
7 6 9 10 It 12
, 1111111
m111111111118111e1
rRE
e
S
IIU.iuiuuii
Ii'-"
11M 3
2
POW R
Y
ì1111
!!!!!!f
2 3 4 5 6
1uuINIPuu.1
7 6 9 tO 11 12 13 14 15
EXCITER EXC TER
PLe PLS
OA NOTE ALL CRASS /S OF TRANSMITTER ARE
BONDED TOGETHER WITH SEPARATE
Í
GROUND LEAD.
J
R Y2
!!!f
SEE FIG 17
AND 27
S2 RY3
SEE FIG. 28 SOS
LI t2 7 1
II SOe PLe PLS

RYa ~ ~ RY4
e
11SV
SW1
MIEii, e
T2 T3 SEE FIG. 17 SEE

CRAP 30 F/G
23
Figure 29 i
PL7
PHONE -CW SWITCH Si La
UNDER -CHASSIS LAYOUT OF 10 4 6 4
SECTION A- CONTROLS RY3
5 7
PARTS IN POWER SUPPLY (PA. SCREEN RELAY& T/MEDE(AY) SO7

The 866 -A sockets are sub -mounted on 1f- SECTION B- CONTROLS RY,
w
inch ceramic insulators. Eight electrolytic ca- (MOO. BN SNORTING RELAY )
pacitors are mounted on phenolic plate and
banded with insulated strap to form high SECTION C - CONTROLS ¡1 11
Sic
voltage filter capacitor. Bias transformer is MODULATOR FIL. CIRCUIT RY1 51e
next to rectifier tube sockets. All high voltage SECTION D- CONTROLS 6+
connections are made with S KV television - TO SPEECH AMPLIFIER T4 Ts
type wire.
Preliminary The amplifier stage may be Figure 30

Amplifier neutralized by supplying exci- INTERCONNECTING
Adjustment CABLES FOR
tation to the input circuit until TRANSMITTER
rectified grid current flows. A
jumper is placed across the antenna output
jack J: and plate tuning capacitor G. is reson- Control Cables After testing is completed,
ated to frequency. Neutralizing capacitor G and Power Leads the units should be placed
is now adjusted until the tuning of the plate in the racks or cabinets and
capacitor has no effect upon the reading of control cables made up as shown in figure 30.
the rectified grid current. Wire sizes should be observed, as several of the
Preliminary tune -up into an antenna may leads carry large values of filament current. In
be done with the control switch (S1, figure 17) addition, a separate grounding lead should be
in the "stand -by" position. Screen voltage is run between the individual chassis as a safety
removed from the final amplifier screen circuit. measure. Do not depend upon a metal relay
Also, screen voltage cannot be applied to the rack for a ground return. All external cables
tube unless relay RYa ( fig. 23) is closed by should be laced for neat appearance. A typical
applying plate voltage to the amplifier stage. layout of this equipment is shown in figure 14.
CHAPTER THIRTY -TWO
In view of the high cost of iron-core com- job, and that none of the components shall be
ponents such as go to make up the bulk of a overloaded with the type of operation contem-
power supply, it is well to consider carefully plated.
the design of a new or rebuilt transmitter in The meeting of all the requirements of the
terms of the minimum power supply require- previous paragraph is not always a straight-
ments which will permit the desired perform- forward and simple problem. In many cases
ance to be obtained from the transmitter. Care- compromises will be involved, particularly
ful evaluation of the power supply require- when the power supply is for an amateur sta-
ments of alternative transmitter arrangements tion and a number of components already on
will permit the selection of that transmitter hand must be fitted into the plan. As much
arrangement which requires the minimum of thought and planning should be devoted to the
power supply components, and which makes power-supply complement of an amateur sta-
most efficient use of such power supplies as tion as usually is allocated to the r -f and a -f
are required. components of the station.
The arrival at the design for the power sup-
32 -1 Power Supply ply for use in a particular application may best
Requirements be accomplished through the use of a series
of steps, with reference to the data in this
A power supply for a transmitter or for a chapter by determining the values of compo-
unit of station equipment should be designed nents to be used. The first step is to estab-
in such a manner that it is capable of deliver- lish the operating requirements of the power
ing the required current at a specified voltage, supply. In general these are:
that it has a degree of regulation consistent 1. Output voltage required under full load.
with the requirements of the application, that 2. Minimum, normal, and peak output cur-
its ripple level at full current is sufficiently rent.
low for the load which will be fed, that its in- 3. Voltage regulation required over the cur-
ternal impedance is sufficiently low for the rent range.
684
Requirements 685
Figure 1
POWER SUPPLY FILAMENT °LINE VOLTALE p PLATE

CONTROL PANEL VOLTAGE
0 2500 fè?
VOLTAGE
A well designed supply con-

ON ON
trol panel has separate primary
switches and indicator lamps 4000 -- -- 3000
for the filament and plate cir-
cuits, overload circuit breaker,
plate voltage control switch
and primary circuit fuses.
0 3500 410
PLATE VOLTAGE
OVERLOAD EMISSION
RELAY FINAL BIAS SCREEN MOD FD4iE CW
2AMP 2 AMP 2 AMP 2 AMP
i m.
4. Ripple voltage limit. mum drain as that of the bleeder. The mini-
5. Rectifier circuit to be used. mum current drain from a power supply is of
The output voltage required of the power importance since it, in conjunction with the
supply is more or less established by the oper- nominal voltage of the supply, determines the
ating conditions of the tubes which it will sup- minimum value of inductance which the input
ply. The current rating of the supply, however,
is not necessarily tied down by a particular
choke must have to keep the voltage from soar-
tube combination. It is always best to design ing when the external load is removed.
a power supply in such a manner that it will The normal current rating of a power supply
have the greatest degree of flexibility; this usually is a round -number value chosen on the
procedure will in many cases allow an exist- basis of the transformers and chokes on hand
ing power supply to be used without change or available from the catalog of a reliable man-
as a portion of a new transmitter or other item ufacturer. The current rating of a supply to
of station equipment. So the current rating of feed a steady load such as a receiver, a speech
a new power supply should be established by amplifier, or a continuously -operating r -f stage
taking into consideration not only the require- should be at least equal to the steady drain of
ments of the tubes which it immediately will the load. However, other considerations come
feed, but also with full consideration of the into play in choosing the current rating for a
best matching of power supply components in keyed amplifier, an amplifier of SSB signals,
the most economical current range which still or a class B modulator. In the case of a sup-
will meet the requirements. It is often long- ply which will feed an intermittent load such
run economy, however, to allow for any likely as these, the current ratings of the transform-
additional equipment to be added in the near ers and chokes may be less than the maximum
future. current which will be taken; but the current
ratings of the rectifier tubes to be used should
Current- Rating The minimum current drain be at least equal to the maximum current which
Considerations which will be taken from a will be taken. That is to say that 300 -ma.
power supply will be, in most transformers and chokes may be used in the
cases, merely the bleeder current. There are supply for a modulator whose resting current
many cases where a particular power supply is 100 ma. but whose maximum current at
will always be used with a moderate or heavy peak signal will rise to 500 ma. However, the
load upon it, but when the supply is a portion rectifier tubes should be capable of handling
of a transmitter it is best to consider the mini- the full 500 ma.
686 Power Supplies T H E R A D I O
The iron-core components of a power supply value of bleeder at the output of the power
which feeds an intermittent load may be cho- supply. The calculations are simple: the in-
sen on the basis of the current as averaged ductance of the power- supply input choke at
over a period of several minutes, since it is minimum current drain from the supply should
heating effect of the current which is of great- be equal in henries to the load resistance on
est importance in establishing the ratings of the supply (at minimum load current) divided
such components. Since iron -core components by 1000. This value of inductance is called
have a relatively large amount of thermal in- the critical inductance and it is the minimum
ertia, the effect of an intermittent heavy cur- value of inductance which will keep the out-
rent is offset to an extent by a key -up period put voltage from soaring in a choke-input
or a period of low modulation in the case of a power supply with minimum load upon the
modulator. However, the current rating of a output. The minimum load current may be
rectifier tube is established by the magnitude that due to the bleeder resistor alone, or it
of the emission available from the filament of may be due to the bleeder plus the minimum
the tube; the maximum emission must not be drain of the modulator or amplifier to which
exceeded even for a short period or the recti- the supply is connected.
fier tube will be damaged. The above consider- The low- voltage low-current supply, such as
ations are predicated, however, on the assump- would be used for a v.f.o. or the high- frequen-
tion that none of the iron -core components will cy oscillator in a receiver, usually is regu-
become saturated due to the high intermittent lated with the aid of glow -discharge gaseous-
current drain. If good -quality components of regulator tubes. These regulators are usually
generous weight are chosen, saturation will called "VR tubes." Their use in various types
not be encountered. of power supplies is discussed in Section 32 -7.
The electronically -regulated power supply,
Voltage The general subject of voltage such as is used in the 10 to 100 watts power
Regulation regulation can really be divided output range, also is discussed later on in this
into two sub -problems, which dif- chapter and examples are given.
fer greatly in degree. The first, and more
common, problem is the case of the normal Ripple The ripple - voltage limitation
power supply for a transmitter modulator, Considerations imposed upon a power supply
where the current drain from the supply may is determined by the load
vary over a ratio of four or five to one. In which will be fed by the supply. The tolerable
this case we desire to keep the voltage change ripple voltage from a supply may vary from
under this varying load to a matter of 10 or perhaps 5 per cent for a class B or class C
15 per cent of the operating voltage under full amplifier which is to be used for a c -w stage
load. This is a quite different problem from or amplifier of an FM signal down to a few
the design of a power supply to deliver some hundredths of one per cent for the plate-volt-
voltage in the vicinity of 250 volts to an os- age supply to a low-level voltage amplifier in
cillator which requires two or three milliam- a speech amplifier. The usual value of ripple
peres of plate current; but in this latter case voltage which may be tolerated in the supply
the voltage delivered to the oscillator must be for the majority of stages of a phone transmit-
constant within a few volts with small varia- ter is between 0.1 and 2.0 per cent.
tions in oscillator current and with large varia- In general it may be stated that, with 60-
tions in the a -c line voltage which feeds the cycle line voltage and a single -phase rectifier
oscillator power supply. An additional voltage circuit, a power supply for the usual stages in
regulation problem, intermediate in degree be- the amateur transmitter will be of the choke -
tween the other two, is the case where a load input type with a single pi- section filter fol-
must be fed with 10 to 100 watts of power at lowing the input choke. A c -w amplifier or
a voltage below 500 volts, and still the voltage other stage which will tolerate up to 5 per cent
variation with changes in load and changes ripple may be fed from a power supply whose
in a -c line voltage must be held to a few filter consists merely of an adequate -size in-
volts at the output terminals. put choke and a single filter capacitor.
These three problems are solved in the nor- A power supply with input choke and a
mal type of installation in quite different man- single capacitor also will serve in most cases
ners. The high -power case where output volt- to feed a class B modulator, provided the out-
age must be held to within 10 to 15 per cent is put capacitor in the supply is sufficiently large.
normally solved by using the proper value of The output capacitor in this case must be
inductance for the input choke and proper capable of storing enough energy to supply the
HANDBOOK Requirements 687
RIPPLE IN TERMS OF C AT FULL LOAD

peak- current requirement of the class B tubes TOFULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER
PERCENT RIPPLE
on modulation peaks. The output capacitor for CAPACITANCE, C
2 LW 13.1
such a supply normally should be between 4 5-25 3 OF e.5
HY 25000 4 LF 6.2
pfd. and 20 pfd. 6 Li 4.0
Capacitances larger than 20 pfd. involve a
high initial charging current when the supply FIGURE 2
is first turned on, so that an unusually large
input choke should be used ahead of the ca-
TO FULL-WAVE RIPPLE IN TERMS OF LOAD RESISTANCE
pacitor to limit the peak- current surge through RECTIFIER
LOAD, OHMS PERCENT RIPPLE
the rectifier tubes. A capacitance of less than 25000 (BLEEDER ONLY) 0.02
4 pfd. may reduce the power output capability 25000
15000 0.04
10000 0.06
of a class B modulator when it is passing the 5000 0.1
lower audio frequencies, and in addition may 3000 017
2000 0.25
superimpose a low - frequency "growl" on the FIGURE 3
output signal. This growl will be apparent only
when the supply is delivering a relatively high
power output; it will not be present when mod- TO FULL-WAVE RIPPLE IN TERMS OF Cl AND C2 AT FULL LOAD
RECTIFIER
Cl C2 PERCENT RIPPLE
ulation is at a low level. 2 2 1.2
When a stage such as a low-level audio am- 25000
3
4 42
0.7
0.25
plifier requires an extremely low value of rip- e e 0.06
ple voltage, but when regulation is not of im-
portance to the operation of the stage, the high FIGURE 4
degree of filtering usually is obtained through
the use of a resistance- capacitance filter. characteristic of offering a low value of rip-
This filter usually is employed in addition to ple across their output terminals. The elec-
the choke -capacitor filter in the power supply tronic -type of voltage -regulated power supply
for the higher -level stages, but in some cases is capable of delivering an extremely small
when the supply is to be used only to feed value of ripple across its output terminals,
low- current stages the entire filter of the pow- even though the rectifier- filter system ahead
er supply will be of the resistance -capacitance of the regulator delivers a relatively high
type. Design data for resistance- capacitance value of ripple, such as in the vicinity of 5 to
filters is given in a following paragraph. 10 per cent. In fact, it is more or less self
When a low -current stage requires very low evident that the better the regulation of such
ripple in addition to excellent voltage regula- a supply, the better will be its ripple charac-
tion, the power supply filter often will end teristic. It must be remembered that the ripple
with one or more gaseous -type voltage- regula- output of a voltage -regulated power supply of
tor tubes. These VR tubes give a high degree any type will rise rapidly when the load upon
of filtering in addition to their voltage -regu- the supply is so high that the regulator begins
lating action, as is obvious from the fact that to lose control. This will occur in a supply of
the tubes tend to hold the voltage drop across the electronic type when the voltage ahead of
their elements to a very constant value regard- the series regulator tube falls below a value
less of the current passing through the tube. equal to the sum of the minimum drop across
The VR tube is quite satisfactory for improv- the tube at that value of current, plus the out-
ing both the regulation and ripple character- put voltage. In the case of a shunt regulator
istics of a supply when the current drain will of the VR -tube type, the regulating effect will
not exceed 25 to 35 ma. depending upon the fail when the current through the VR tube
type of VR tube. Some types are rated at a falls below the usual minimum value of about
maximum current drain of 30 ma. while others 5 ma.
are capable of passing up to 40 ma. without
damage. In any event the minimum current Calculation Although figures 2, 3 and 4
through the VR tube will occur when the as- of Ripple give the value of ripple volt-
sociated circuit is taking maximum current. age for several more or less
This minimum current requirement is 5 ma. standard types of filter systems, it is often of
for all types of gaseous -type voltage -regulator value to be able to calculate the value of rip-
tubes. ple voltage to be expected with a particular
Other types of voltage -regulation systems, set of filter components. Fortunately, the ap-
in addition to VR tubes, exhibit the added proximate ripple percentage for normal values
9Nr excessive, a filter system made up of resistors

TO FULL-WAVE and capacitors only may be used to advantage.
R ECTI FIEP
In the normal case, where the reactance of the
shunting capacitor is very much smaller than
the resistance of the load fed by the filter sys-
tem, the ripple reduction per section is equal
Figure 5 to 1/ (2ITRC). In terms of the 120 -cycle ripple
SAMPLE FILTER FOR from a full -wave rectifier the ripple -reduction
CALCULATION OF RIPPLE factor becomes: 1.33 /RC where R is expressed
in thousands of ohms and C in microfarads.
of filter components may be calculated with For 60 -cycle ripple the expression is: 2.66/RC
the aid of rather simple formulas. In the two with R and C in the same quantities as above.
formulas to follow it is assumed that the line
frequency is 60 cycles and that a full wave or Filter System Many persons have noticed,
a full -wave bridge rectifier is being used. For
Resonance particularly when using an in-
the case of a single -section choke-input filter
put choke followed by a 2 -0d.
as illustrated in figure 2, or for the ripple at
first filter capacitor, that at some value of
the output of the first section of a two -section
load current the power supply will begin to
choke input filter the equation is as follows,
118 hum excessively and the rectifier tubes will
tend to flicker or one tube will seem to take
Per cent ripple =
all the load while the other tube dims out. If
LC -1 the power supply is shut off and then again
where LC is the product of the input choke
inductance in henrys (at the operating current
started, it may be the other tube which takes
the load; or first one tube and then the other
to be used) and the capacitance which follows
will take the load as the current drain is
this choke expressed in microfarads.
varied. This condition, as well as other less
In the case of a two -section filter, the per
obvious phenomena such as a tendency for the
cent ripple at the output of the first section is
first filter capacitor to break down regardless
determined by the above formula. Then this
of its voltage rating or for rectifier tubes to
percentage is multiplied by the filter reduction
have short life, results from resonance in the
factor of the following section of filter. This
filter system following the high -voltage rec-
reduction factor is determined through the use
tifier.
of the following formula:
LC -1 The condition of resonance is seldom en-
Filter reduction factor - 1.76
countered in low -voltage power supplies since
the capacitors used are usually high enough
Where LC again is the product of the in- so that resonance does not occur. But in high -
ductance and capacitance of the filter section. voltage power supplies, where both choke in-
The reduction factor will turn out to be a deci- ductance and filter capacitance are more ex-
mal value, which is then multiplied by the per- pensive, the condition of resonance happens
centage ripple obtained from the use of the frequently. The product of inductance and ca-
preceding formula. pacitance which resonates at 120 cycles is
As an example, take the case of the filter 1.77. Thus a 1-pfd. capacitor and a 1.77 henry
diagrammed in figure 5. The LC product of the choke will resonate at 120 cycles. In almost
first section is 16. So the ripple to be expected any normal case the LC product of any section
at the output of the first section will be: 118/ in the filter system will be somewhat greater
(16 -1) or 118/15, which gives 7.87 per cent. than 1.77, so that resonance at 120 cycles will
Then the second section, with an LC product seldom take place. But the LC product for
of 48, will give a reduction factor of: 1.76/ resonance at 60 cycles is about 7.1. This is a
(48 -1) or 1.76/47 or 0.037. Then the ripple value frequently encountered in the input sec-
percentage at the output of the total filter will tion of a high -voltage power supply. It occurs
be: 7.87 times 0.037 or slightly greater than with a 2-pfd. capacitor and a choke which has
0.29 per cent ripple. 3.55 henrys of inductance at some current
value. With a 2 -0d. filter capacitor following
Resistance - In many applications where the this choke, resonance will occur at the current
Capacitance current drain is relatively small, value which causes the inductance of the choke
Filters so that the voltage drop across to be 3.55 henrys. When this resonance does
the series resistors would not be occur, one rectifier Tube (assuming mercury-
HANDBOOK Rectification Circuits 689
vapor types) will dim and the other will be-

come much brighter.
Thus we see that we must avoid the LC
products of 1.77 and 7.1. With a swinging -type
input choke, whose inductance varies over a
5 -to -1 range, we see that it is possible for
resonance to occur at 60 cycles at a low value
of current drain, and then for resonance to oc-
cur at 120 cycles at approximately full load
on the power supply. Since the LC product
must certainly be greater than 1.77 for satis-
factory filtering along with peak -current limi-
tation on the rectifier tubes, we see that with
a swinging -type input choke the LC product
must still be greater than 7.1 at maximum cur-
rent drain from the power supply. To allow a
reasonable factor of safety, it will be well to
keep the LC product at maximum current drain
above the value 10.
From the above we see that we can just get
by with a'2 -µfd. first capacitor following the
input choke when this choke is of the more -
or -less standard 5 -25 henry swinging variety.
Some of the less expensive types of chokes
swing from about 3 to 12 henrys, so we see
that the first capacitor must be greater than 2
µfd. to avoid resonance with these chokes. A
3-pfd. capacitor may be used if available, but
a standard 4 -µfd. unit will give a greater safe-
ty factor.
32 -2 Rectification
Circuits
There are a large number of rectifier circuits
that may be used in the power supplies for sta-
tion equipment. But the simpler circuits are Figure 6
more satisfactory for the power levels up to MOST COMMON RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
the maximum permitted the radio amateur. Fig- (A; shows a half -wave rectifier circuit, (B) is
the standard full -wave rectifier circuit used
ure 6 shows the three most common circuits with a dual rectifier or two rectifier tubes,
used in power supplies for amateur equipment. and (C) if the bridge rectifier circuit.
Half -Wave A half -wave rectifier, as shown in

Rectifiers figure 6A, passes one half of the half of the rectified a -c wave is combined in
wave of each cycle of the alter- the output as shown in figure 7. This pulsat-
nating current and blocks the other half. The ing unidirectional current can be filtered to
output current is of a pulsating nature, which any desired degree, depending upon the par-
can be smoothed into pure, direct current by ticular application for which the power supply
means of filter circuits. Half -wave rectifiers is designed.
produce a pulsating current which has zero A full -wave rectifier may consist of two
output during one -half of each a -c cycle; this plates and a filament, either in a single glass
makes it difficult to filter the output properly or metal envelope for low -voltage rectification
into d.c. and also to secure good voltage regu- or in the form of two separate tubes, each hav-
lation for varying loads. ing a single plate and filament for high -voltage
rectification. The plates are connected across
Full -Wave A full -wave rectifier consists of the high -voltage a -c power transformer wind-
Rectifiers a pair of half -wave rectifiers ing, as shown in figure 6B. The power trans-
working on opposite halves of the former is for the purpose of transforming the
cycle, connected in such a manner that each 110 -volt a -c line supply to the desired second-
690 Power Supplies THE RADIO
Direct current can be considered as alternat-
TRANSFORMER
SECONDARY
ing current of zero frequency; this passes
VOLTAGE through the low-pass filter. The 12Q -cycle pul-
sations are similar to alternating current in
characteristic, so that the filter must be de-
signed to have a cutoff at a frequency lower
aEPLATE[DDrvoLTAGE than 120 cycles (for a 60 cycle a -c supply) .
° FIER VOLTAGE Bridge The bridge rectifier (figure 6C)
PLATE N- 2
Rectification is a type of full -wave circuit
in which four rectifier elements
COMBINED RECTIFIED or tubes are operated from a single high -volt-
VOLTAGE
PLATES M 1 2 age winding on the power transformer.
While twice as much output voltage can be
obtained from a bridge rectifier as from a cen-
AFTER FIRST SECTON
OF FILTER ter- tapped circuit, the permissible output cur-
o
rent is only one -half as great for a given power
D.C. VOLTAGE
transformer. In the bridge circuit, four recti-
AVAILABLE FOR
RADIO USE fiers and three filament heating transformer
o
windings are needed, as against two rectifiers
Figure 7 and one filament winding in the center -tapped
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION full -wave circuit. In a bridge rectifier circuit,
Showing transformer secondary voltage, the the inverse peak voltage impressed on any one
rectified output of each tube, the combined rectifier tube is halved, which means that tubes
output of the rectifier, the smoothed voltage
after one section of filter, and the substan- of lower peak inverse voltage rating may be
tially pure d.c. output of the rectifier - filter used for a given voltage output.
after additional sections of filter.
ary a -c voltages for filament and plate sup-

32 -3 Standard Power
plies. The transformer delivers alternating cur- Supply Circuits
rent to the two plates of the rectifier tube; one Choke input is shown for all three of the
of these plates is positive at any instant dur- standard circuits of figure 6, since choke input
ing which the other is negative. The center gives the best utilization of rectifier -tube and
point of the high -voltage transformer winding power transformer capability, and in addition
is usually grounded and is, therefore, at zero
gives much better regulation. Where greater
voltage, thereby constituting the negative B output voltage is a requirement, where the load
connection. is relatively constant so that regulation is not
While one plate of the rectifier tube is con- of great significance, and where the rectifier
ducting, the other is inoperative, and vice ver- tubes will be operated well within their peak -
sa. The output voltages from the rectifier tubes current ratings, the capacitor -input type of fil-
are connected together through the common ter may be used.
rectifier filament circuit. Thus the plates al- The capacitor -input filter gives a no -load
ternately supply pulsating current to the out- output voltage equal approximately to the peak
put (load) circuit. The rectifier tube filaments voltage being applied to the rectifier tubes.
or cathodes are always positive in polarity At full -load, the d -c output voltage is usually
with respect to the plate transformer in this slightly above one -half the secondary a -c volt-
type of circuit. age of the transformer, with the normal values
The output current pulsates 120 times per of capacitance at the input to the filter. With
second for a full -wave rectifier connected to large values of input capacitance, the output
a 60 -cycle a -c line supply; hence the output of voltage will run somewhat higher than the
the rectifier must pass through a filter to r -m -s secondary voltage applied to the tubes,
smooth the pulsations into direct current. Fil- but the peak current flowing through the rec-
ters are designed to select or reject alternating tifier tubes will be many times as great as the
currents; those most commonly used in a -c d-c output current of the power supply. The
power supplies are of the low -pass type. This half -wave rectifier of figure 6A is commonly
means that pulsating currents which have a used with capacitor input and resistance-capaci-
frequency below the cutoff frequency of the tance filter as a high- voltage supply for a
filter will pass through the filter to the load. cathode -ray tube. In this case the current drain
HANDBOOK Standard Circuits 691
o = VOLTS
pA HALF AND FULL VOLTAGE BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY

O TWO VOLTAGE BRIDGE POWER SUPPLY
Eoo.o
on
T
o.oE_
Eo oo
© TWO TRANSFORMER POWER SUPPLY OD CENTER TAPPED METHOD FOR UNTAPPED TRANSFORMERS
© TWO VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY p SPECIAL FILTER CIRCUIT FOR BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Figure 8
SPECIAL SINGLE -PHASE RECTIFICATION CIRCUITS
A description of the application and operation of each of these special circuits is given in the
accompanying text.
is very small so that the peak -current rating former designed for a full-wave rectifier, in
of the rectifier tube seldom will be exceeded. order to obtain doubled output voltage, make
The circuit of figure 6B is most commonly sure that the insulation rating of the trans-
used in medium -voltage power supplies since former to be used is adequate. In the bridge
this circuit is the most economical of filament rectifier circuit the center of the high-voltage
transformers, rectifier tubes and sockets, and winding is at a d -c potential of one-half the
space. But the circuit of figure 6C, commonly total voltage output from the rectifier. In a
called the bridge rectifier, gives better trans- normal full -wave rectifier the center of the
former utilization so that the circuit is most high- voltage winding is grounded. So in the
commonly used in higher powered supplies. bridge rectifier the entire high-voltage second-
The circuit has the advantage that the entire ary of the transformer is subjected to twice
secondary of the transformer is in use at all the peak- voltage stress that would exist if the
times, instead of each side being used alter- same transformer were used in a full -wave rec-
nately as in the case of the full -wave rectifier. tifier. High -quality full -wave transformers will
As a point of interest, the current flow through withstand bridge operation quite satisfactorily
the secondary of the plate transformer is a sub- so long as the total output voltage from the
stantially pure a -c wave as a result of better supply is less than perhaps 4500 volts. But
transformer utilization, instead of the pulsat- inexpensive transformers, whose insulation
ing d -c wave through each half of the power is just sufficient for full -wave operation, will
transformer secondary in the case of the full - break down when bridge rectification of the
wave rectifier. entire secondary is attempted.
The circuit of figure 6C will give the great-
est value of output power for a given trans- Special Single - Figure 8 shows six cir-
former weight and cost in a single -phase power Phase Rectification cuits which may prove
supply as illustrated. But in attempting to Circuits valuable when it is de-
bridge -rectify the whole secondary of a trans- sired to obtain more than
= I D.c.-+
PRIMARY
Eo 1.17 Es
Is =O.577IOC.
RIPPLE FREQUENCY 3F
RIPPLE PERCENT 16.3
PEAK INVERSE 2.09 EO
TUBE VOLTAGE 2.44 Es
OA 3 -PHASE STAR
Figure 9
COMMON
Eo 1.3s Es POLYPHASE -
IS 0.4os I D.c. RECTIFICATION
RIPPLE FREQUENCY OF CIRCUITS
RIPPLE PERCENT 4.2
PEAK INVERSE 2.09 Eo These circuits are used
TUBE VOLTAGE D 2.63 Es
when polyphase power is
available for the plate
supply of a high -power
transmitter. The circuit
at (B) is also called a
OB 6 -PHASE STAR three -phase full -wave
rectification system. The
+Eo circuits are described in
the accompanying text.
PRIMARY Eo 2.34 Es
Is 0.616 I D.C.
RIPPLE FREQUENCY 6F
RIPPLE PERCENT 4.2
PEAK INVERSE -1. 1.05 Eo
TUBE VOLTAGE 2.44 Es
© 6-PHASE BRIDGE
one output voltage from one plate transformer winding is required for the circuit however.
or where some special combination of voltages With the circuit arrangement shown the volt-
is required. Figure 8A shows a more or less age from the tap will be greater than one -half
common method for obtaining full voltage and the voltage at the top. If the circuit is changed
half voltage from a bridge rectification circuit. so that the plates of the two rectifier tubes
With this type of circuit separate input chokes are connected to the outside of the winding
and filter systems are used on both output instead of to the taps, and the cathodes of the
voltages. If a transformer designed for use other pair are connected to the taps instead
with a full -wave rectifier is used in this cir- of to the outside, the total voltage ouput of
cuit, the current drain from the full -voltage the rectifier will be the same, but the voltage
tap is doubled and added to the drain from the at the tap position will be less than half the
half -voltage tap to determine whether the rat- top voltage.
ing of the transformer is being exceeded. Thus An interesting variable -voltage circuit is
if the transformer is rated at 1250 volts at 500 shown in figure 8C. The arrangement may be
ma. it will be permissible to pull 250 ma. at used to increase or decrease the output volt-
2500 volts with no drain from the 1250 -volt age of a conventional power supply, as repre-
tap, or the drain from the 1250 -volt tap may sented by transformer T1, by adding another
be 200 ma. if the drain from the 2500 -volt filament transformer to isolate the filament
tap is 150 ma., and so forth. circuits of the two rectifier tubes and adding
Figure 8B shows a system which may be another plate transformer between the filaments
convenient for obtaining two voltages which of the two tubes. The voltage contribution of
are not in a ratio of 2 to 1 from a bridge -type the added transformer T2 may be subtracted
rectifier; a transformer with taps along the from or added to the voltage produced by T1
simply by reversing the double-pole double- more common polyphase rectification circuits
throw switch S. A serious disadvantage of this with their significant characteristics are
circuit is the fact that the entire secondary shown in figure 9. The increase in ripple fre-
winding of transformer T2 must be insulated quency and decrease in percentage of ripple
for the total output voltage of the power sup- is apparent from the figures given in figure 9.
ply. The circuit of figure 9C gives the best trans-
An arrangement for operating a full -wave former utilization as does the bridge circuit
rectifier from a plate transformer not equipped in the single -phase connection. The circuit
with a center tap is shown in figure 8D. The has the further advantage that there is no aver-
two chokes L, must have high inductance rat- age d -c flow in the transformer, so that three
ings at the operating current of the plate sup- single -phase transformers may be used. A tap
ply to hold down the a -c current load on the at half -voltage may be taken at the junction
secondary of the transformer since the total of the star transformers, but there will be d -c
peak voltage output of the plate transformer flow in the transformer secondaries with the
is impressed across the chokes alternately. power supply center tap in use. The circuit of
However, the chokes need only have half the figure 9A has the disadvantage that there is an
current rating of the filter choke L2 for a cer- average d-c flow in each of the windings.
tain current drain from the power supply since Rectifiers Rectifying elements in high -volt-
only half the current passes through each
age plate supplies are almost in-
choke. Also, the two chokes L2 act as input
variably electron tubes of either the high -vacu-
chokes so that an additional swinging choke um or mercury-vapor type, although selenium
is not required for such a power supply.
or silicon rectifier stacks containing a large
A conventional two-voltage power supply
number of elements are often used. Low -volt-
with grounded transformer center tap is shown
age high -current supplies may use argon gas
in figure 8E. The output voltages from this
rectifiers (Tungar tubes), selenium rectifiers,
circuit are separate and not additive as in
or other types of dry -disc rectification ele-
the circuit of figure 8B. Figure 8F is of ad-
ments. The xenon rectifier tubes offer some
vantage when it is desired to operate Class B advantage over mercury -vapor rectifiers for
modulators from the half -voltage output of a high -voltage applications where extreme tem-
bridge power supply and the final amplifier perature ranges are likely to be encountered.
from the full voltage output. Both L2 and L2 However, such rectifiers (3B25 for example)
should be swinging chokes but the total drain are considerably more expensive than their
from the power supply passes through L while mercury-vapor counterparts.
only the drain of the final amplifier passes
through L2. Capacitors C, and C2 need be rated Peak Inverse Plate In an a -c circuit, the maxi -
only half the maximum output voltage of the Voltage and Peak mum peak voltage or cur -
power supply, plus the usual safety factor. Plate Current rent is V 2 or 1.41 times
This arrangement is also of advantage in hold- that indicated by the a -c
ing down the "key-up" voltage of a c -w trans- meters in the circuit. The meters read the root -
mitter since both L, and L2 are in series, and mean- square (r.m.s.) values, which are the
their inductances are additive, insofar as the peak values divided by 1.41 for a sine wave.
"critical inductance" of a choke -input filter If a potential of 1,000 r.m.s. volts is ob-
is concerned. If 4 izfd. capacitors are used at tained from a high -voltage secondary winding
both C2 and C2 adequate filter will be obtained of a transformer, there will be 1,410-volts peak
on both plate supplies for hum-free radiophone potential from the rectifier plate to ground. In
operation. a single -phase supply the rectifier tube has
this voltage impressed on it, either positively
Polyphase It is usual practice in commer- when the current flows or "inverse" when the
Rectification cial equipment installations current is blocked on the other half- cycle. The
Circuits when the power drain from a inverse peak voltage which the tube will stand
plate supply is to be greater safely is used as a rating for rectifier tubes.
than about one kilowatt to use a polyphase rec- At higher voltages the tube is liable to arc
tification system. Such power supplies offer back, thereby destroying or damaging it. The
better transformer utilization, less ripple out- relations between peak inverse voltage, total
put and better power factor in the load placed transformer voltage and filter output voltage
upon the a -c line. However, such systems re- depend upon the characteristics of the filter
quire a source of three -phase (or two -phase and rectifier circuits (whether full- or half-
with Scott connection) energy. Several of the wave, bridge, single -phase or polyphase, etc.).
- HEATER VOLTS Mercury -Vapor The inexpensive mercury -va-
R- LINE VOLTS
HEATER AMPERES Rectifier Tubes por type of rectifier tube is
e
LINE RECTIFIER
almost universally used in
the high -voltage plate supplies of amateur and
commercial transmitters. Most amateurs are
quite familiar with the use of these tubes but
it should be pointed out that when new or
+
+ + SELENIUM
long -unused mercury -vapor tubes are first
C, C2
placed in service, the filaments should be op-
T T. LINE RECTIFIER
erated at normal temperature for approxi-
mately twenty minutes before plate voltage
is applied, in order to remove all traces of
VOLTAGE DOUBLER
mercury from the cathode and to clear any
FULL -WAVE mercury deposits from the top of the envelope.
After this preliminary warm -up with a new
tube, plate voltage may be applied within 20
to 30 seconds after the time the filaments
are turned on, each time the power supply
e
VOLTAGE DOUBLER
is used. If plate voltage should be applied
before the filament is brought to full tem-
HALF -WAVE perature, active material may be knocked from
the oxide -coated filament and the life of the
tube will be greatly shortened.
Small r -f chokes must sometimes be con-
e nected in series with the plate leads of mer-
cury -vapor rectifier tubes in order to prevent
SELENIUM the generation of radio -frequency hash. These
RECTIFIER
VOLTAGE r -f chokes must be wound with sufficiently
QUADRUPLER heavy wire to carry the load current and must
have enough inductance to attenuate the r -f
parasitic noise current to prevent it from flow-
ing in the filter supply leads and then being
Figure 10
radiated into nearby receivers. Manufactured
TRANSFORMERLESS POWER-SUPPLY mercury-vapor rectifier hash chokes are avail-
CIRCUITS able in various current ratings from the James
Circuits such as shown above are also fre- Millen Company in Malden, Mass., and from
quently called line -rectifier circuits. Seleni- the J. W. Miller Company in Los Angeles.
um rectifiers, vacuum diodes, or gas diodes When mercury -vapor rectifier tubes are op-
may be used as the rectifying elements in
these circuits. erated in parallel in a power supply, small
resistors or small iron -core choke coils should
be connected in series with the plate lead of
Rectifier tubes are also rated in terms of each tube. These resistors or inductors tend
peak plate current. The actual direct load cur- to create an equal division of plate current be-
rent which can be drawn from a given rectifier tween parallel tubes and prevent one tube from
tube or tubes depends upon the type of filter carrying the major portion of the current.
circuit. A full -wave rectifier with capacitor in- When high vacuum rectifiers are operated in
put passes a peak current several times the parallel, these chokes or resistors are not re-
direct load current. quired.
In a filter with choke input, the peak cur- Transformerless Figure 10 shows a group of
rent is not much greater than the load current Power Supplies five different types of trans -
if the inductance of the choke is fairly high formerless power supplies
(assuming full -wave rectification). which are operated directly from the a -c line.
A full -wave rectifier with two rectifier ele- Circuits of the general type are normally found
ments requires a transformer which delivers in a.c. -d.c. receivers but may be used in low -
twice as much a -c voltage as would be the powered exciters and in test instruments. When
case with a ' if-wave rectifier or bridge rec- circuits such as shown in (A) and (B) are
tifier. operated directly from the a -c line, the rec-
tifier element simply rectifies the line voltage

OUTSIDE COLLECTOR
and delivers the alternate half cycles of energy
to the filter network. With the normal type INSIDE COLLECTOR
of rectifier tube, load currents up to approxi- NENOLIC WASHER
mately 75 ma. may be employed. The d -c

voltage output of the filter will be slightly
less than the r -m -s line voltage, depending BASE PLATE
upon the particular type of rectifier tube em-

ployed. With the introduction of the miniature SELENIUM COAT
selenium rectifier, the transformerless power SELENIUM RECTIFIER CELL
-
supply has become a very convenient source
of moderate voltage at currents up to perhaps ,00
J 3 PHASE
500 ma. A number of advantages are offered 90
T1
¡/
by the selenium rectifier as compared to the ISO i

PHASE
vacuum tube rectifier. Outstanding among $t 70
60
these are the factors that the selenium recti- > r/
U 50
fier operates instantly, and that it requires no
W 40
heater power in order to obtain emission. The U 30
amount of heat developed by the selenium rec- L. 20
tifier is very much less than that produced by w
,D
an equivalent vacuum -tube type of rectifier. 0
50 100 ISO 200
In the circuits of figure 10 (A) , (B) and 0 250 300
RELATIVE LOAD CURRENT,
(C) , capacitors C. and G should be rated PERCENT OF FULL LOAD
at approximately 150 volts and for a normal Figure 11
degree of filtering and capacitance, should be THE SELENIUM RECTIFIER
between 15 to 60 µfd. In the circuit of figure A -The selenium rectifier Is a semiconductor
10D, capacitor CI should be rated at 150 stack built up of nickel plated aluminum
discs coated on one side with selenium
volts and capacitor C. should be rated at 300
volts. In the circuit of figure 10E, capacitors B-alloy.
Rectifier efficiency Is high, reaching 70%
for single phase service, dropping slightly
C. and G should be rated at 150 volts and at high current densities.
G and C. should be rated at 300 volts.
The d -c output voltage of the line rectifier
Voltage The circuit of figure 10E illus-
may be stabilized by means of a VR tube.
Quadrupler trates a voltage quadrupler cir-
However, due to the unusually low internal
resistance of the selenium rectifier, transform - cuit for miniature selenium rec-
erless power supplies using this type of rectifiers. In effect this circuit is equivalent to
tifying element can normally be expected to two voltage doublers of the type shown in fig-
give very good regulation. ure 10D with their outputs connected in series.
The circuit delivers a d -c output voltage under
Voltage- Doubler Figures 10C and 10D illus- light load approximately equal to four times
Circuits trate two simple voltage - the r -m -s value of the line voltage. The no-
doubler circuits which will load d -c output voltage delivered by the quad-
deliver a d -c output voltage equal approximate- rupler is equal to 5.66 times the r -m -s line
ly to twice the r -m -s value of the power line voltage value and the output voltage decreases
voltage. The no -load d -c output voltage is rather rapidly as the load current is increased.
equal to 2.82 times the r -m -s line voltage In each of the circuits in figure 10 where
value. At high current levels, the output volt- selenium rectifiers have been shown, conven-
age will be slightly under twice the line volt- tional high -vacuum rectifiers may be substi-
age. The circuit of figure 10C is of advantage tuted with their filaments connected in series
when the lowest level of ripple is required and an appropriate value of the line resistor
from the power supply, since its ripple fre- added in series with the filament string.
quency is equal to twice the line frequency.
The circuit of figure IOD is of advantage when 32-4 Selenium and
it is desired to use the grounded side of the Silicon Rectifiers
a -c line in a permanent installation as the re-
turn circuit for the power supply. However, Selenium rectifiers are characterized by long
with the circuit of figure IOD the ripple fre- life, dependability, and maintenance -free op-
quency is the same as the a -c line frequency. eration under severe operating conditions. The
e POSITIVE TERMINAL NEGATIVE TERMINAL
CONTACT
r\>\S2\`Yo\y
a--
H
e
i ..,...;,./
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Im1Ii
II
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oO
W
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0
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'llll.%
..\CG(VC.l'\.\\\\\A\W.
z
<
2
-4
SILICON CELL SPRING
x Figure 13
u
-6 30 100 150 200 250 300
THE SILICON CELL
LOAD CURRENT, PERCENT OF FULL LOAD
The common silicon rectifier is a p
contact device capable of operation in am-
Figure 12 bient temperatures as high as 150 °C. Heavy
VOLTAGE REGULATION OF end ferrules that fit standard fuse clips are
large enough to provide "heat sink" action.
SELENIUM CELL The positive ferrule is grooved to provide
This graph applies to single phase full wave polarity identification and p t into t
bridge, and center -tap circuits which utilize mounting.
both halves of the input wave. In single phase
half wave circuits the regulation will be poorer.
tremely low ( less than one volt) applications.
selenium rectifier consists of a nickel- plated The threshold voltage will vary with tem-
aluminum base plate coated with selenium perature and will increase with a decrease in
over which a low temperature alloy is sprayed. temperature.
The base plate serves as the negative electrode Under operating conditions, and to a lesser
and the alloy as the positive, with current extent when idle, the selenium rectifier will
flowing readily from the base plate to the age. During the aging period the forward
alloy but encountering high resistance in the resistance will gradually increase, stabilizing
opposite direction (figure 11A). This action at a new, higher value after about one year.
results in effective rectification of an alternat- This aging will result in approximately a 7%
ing input voltage and current with the efficien- decrease in output voltage.
cy of conversion dependent to some extent
Voltage The selenium rectifier has ex-
upon the ratio of the resistance in the con- Regulation tremely low internal impedance
ducting direction to that of the blocking di- which exhibits non -linear charac-
rection. In normal power applications a ratio
teristics with respect to applied voltage. This
of 100 to 1 is satisfactory; however, special
results in good voltage regulation even at large
applications such as magnetic amplifiers often
overload currents. Figure 12 shows that as the
require ratios in the order of 1000 to 1.
load is varied from zero to 300% of normal,
The basic selenium rectifier cell is actually
the output voltage will change about 10 %.
a diode capable of half wave rectification.
It should be noted that because of non -linear
Since many applications require full wave rec-
characteristics, the voltage drop increases rapid-
tification for maximum efficiency and mini-
ly below 50% of normal load.
mum ripple, a plurality of cells in series, paral-
lel, or series- parallel combinations are stacked Silicon Of all recent developments in the
in an assembly. Rectifiers field of semi -conductors, silicon
Selenium rectifiers are operated over a wide rectifiers offer the most promising
range of voltages and currents. Typical appli- range of applications; from extreme cold to
cations range from a few volts at milliamperes high temperature, and from a few watts of
of current to thousands of amperes at rela- output power to very high voltage and cur-
tively high voltages. rents. Inherent characteristics of silicon allow
The efficiency of high quality selenium rec- junction temperatures in the order of 200 °C
tifiers is high, usually in the order of 90% before the material exhibits intrinsic proper-
in three phase bridge circuits and 70% in ties. This extends the operating range of sili-
single phase bridge circuits. Of particular incon devices beyond that of any other efficient
terest is the very slight decrease in efficiency semi -conductor and the excellent thermal range
even at high current overloads (figure 11B). coupled with very small size per watt of out-
put power make silicon rectifiers applicable
Threshold Voltage minimum voltage is re-
A where other rectifiers were previously con-
and Aging quired to permit a selen- sidered impractical.
ium rectifier to conduct
in the forward direction. This voltage, com- Silicon The current density of a sili-
monly known as the threshold voltage, pre- Current Density con rectifier is very high, and
cludes the use of selenium rectifiers at ex- on present designs ranges
HANDBOOK Mobile Power Supply 697
from 600 to 900 amperes per square inch of

effective barrier layer. The usable current den-
sity depends upon the general construction of
the unit and the ability of the heat sink to
conduct heat from the crystal. The small size
of the crystal is illustrated by the fact that a
rectifier rated at 15 amperes d.c., and 150
amperes peak surge current has a total cell
volume of only .00023 inches. Peak currents
are extremely critical because the small mass
of the cell will heat instantaneously and could
reach failure temperatures within a time lapse
of microseconds. The assembly of a typical
silicon cell is shown in figure 13.
Operating The reverse direction of a sili-

Characteristics con rectifier is characterized Figure 14
by extremely high resistance, MINIATURE SEMI- CONDUCTOR
up to 10" ohms below a critical voltage point. TYPE RECTIFIER
This point of avalanche voltage is the region Raytheon CK -777 power rectifier bolts to
of a sharp break in the resistance curve, fol- chassis to gain large "heat sink" area. Low
internal voltage drop and high efficiency
lowed by rapidly decreasing resistance (figure permit small size of unit.
15A). In practice, the peak inverse working
voltage is usually set at least 20% below the operating in parallel to balance the load cur-
avalanche point to provide a safety factor. rents.
The forward direction, or direction of low Some interesting and practical semi- conduc-
resistance determines the majority of power tor power supplies are shown in figure 16.
loss within the semi -conductor device. Figure Remember that the circuits of figure 16A and
15B shows the static forward current charac- B, and those of figure 10 are "hot" with re-
teristics versus applied voltage. The threshold spect to one side of the power line.
voltage is about 0.6 volts.
Since the forward resistance of a semi-con- 32 -5 100 Watt Mobile
ductor is very low, any unbalance between Power Supply
threshold voltages or internal voltage drop
would cause serious unbalance of load distri- High efficiency and compact size are the
bution and ultimate failure of the overloaded most important factors in the design of mobile
section. A small resistance should therefore power supplies. The power package described
be placed in series with each half wave section in this section meets these stringent require-
100
ú
ò
l00 t r O
75
w
so
,
a1
10 'CZ 50
4w
,/I ,, O 0'
F
au
Zu 25---
UO
a.1(
w0
0. J
0 25 50 75 100 125 ISO °O 0.5 1.0 1 2 0
PERCENT RATED PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP

VOLTS, D.C.
Figure 15
SILICON RECTIFIER CHARACTERISTICS
A-avalanche
Reverse direction of silicon rectifier is characterized by extremely high resistance up to point of
voltage.
B- Threshold voltage of silicon cell is about 0.6 volt. Once device starts conducting the current in-
creases exponentially with small increments of voltage, then nearly linearly on a very steep slope.
698 Power Supplies
+265 V.
150 MA.
265 V.
150 MA.
O DUAL VOLTAGE DOUBLER
WITH COMMON B -MINUS
300LF
111-67 eM,450MA
¡ 03
4-325V.
50MA.
150 UF
450 V.
- 40E-
45L0VT
© HIGH CURRENT SUPPLY © 900 WATT HIGH VOLTAGE SUPPLY
Figure 16
SEMI- CONDUCTOR POWER SUPPLIES
A-530
Voltage quadrupler
volts at
circuit. If point "A" is taken as ground instead of point "B," supply will deliver
ISO ma. from 115 volt a -c line. Supply is "hot" to line.
8- Voltage triple, delivering 325 volts at 450 ma. Supply is "hot" to line.
C-900 watt supply for sideband service may be made from two voltage quadruplers working in series
from inexpensive "distribution-type" transformer. Supply features good dynamic voltage regulation.
PARTS LIST:
DI- Sarkes TarsianModel ISO selenium cell or Model M -500 silicon cell.
Dr-Sarkes Tarsian Modal S00 selenium cell or Model M -S00 silicon cell.
Ti -Power distribution transformer, used backwards. 230/460 primary, 11S/230 secondary, 0.7S KVA.
Chicago PC8- 24750.
ments, delivering 100 watts at various voltages a square -wave a.c. voltage in the secondary.
to run both the mobile transmitter and re- This a.c. secondary voltage is then rectified by a
ceiver. The input power required by the sup- second set of contacts on the vibrator arma-
ply is almost directly proportional to the out- ture. The limitations of this circuit are low
put power drain, and only a small amount of power handling capacity and the need to use
power is wasted to actuate the vibrator reeds. a different number of turns on the transformer
The large demand for efficient and power- primary when the battery voltage is changed
ful mobile radio equipment has led to the from six to twelve volts.
development of new heavy -duty, vibrator -type In the split -reed vibrator (figure 18B), two
power supply components; these are used to sets of double-throw contacts are electrically
advantage in this unique design. isolated from each other. Each set has much
The Split -Reed
greater current carrying capacity than the
The new split -reed dual- inter-
Vibrator synchronous vibrator. However, a power trans-
rupter vibrator overcomes the former having two center - tapped primary
power capacity limitations of windings is required. One set of contacts
the older type vibrators. In addition, this vi-
switches the d.c. power alternately between
brator permits the design of power supplies halves of one primary winding, and the other
requiring no component changes for operation
set simultaneously switches the other winding.
from either the 6- or 12 -volt d.c. power sys-
Therefore, the primaries can be connected in
tems with which most automobiles are
parallel for 6 -volt operation, or in series for
equipped.
12 -volt operation. No wiring changes are
Until recently, the majority of vibrator sup-
needed in the supply if the battery is properly
plies have been designed around the synchon-
connected to the power input terminals.
ous type vibrator. A simplified diagram of
such a vibrator is shown in figure 18A. One The Selenium A selenium rectifier system
set of vibrator contacts switches the battery Rectifier System is employed in this supply.
current alternately through two opposed pri- Since the vibrator contacts
mary windings of a transformer, thus inducing open and close abruptly, the periodically in-
Figure 17
100 WATT MOBILE
POWER SUPPLY
This high efficiency mo-
bile supply features 6 or
12 volt input, and will
completely power both
the mobile transmitter
and receiver. 450, 300,
and 240 volts are avail-
able. At right is control
box for complete mobile
system. Overall size of
supply is only 6 "x6 "x6 ".
terrupted voltage impressed on the transform- Note that each rectifier has two sections. The
er primary has practically a square waveform. part numbers correspond to the markings
The secondary voltage also has nearly a square shown in the complete schematic of figure
waveform as a result and thus the peak volt- 20. In the 250 volt circuit, the full trans-
age on the rectifiers is only slightly higher former secondary voltage is applied to a full
than the average voltage of the waveform. wave rectifier consisting of half of rectifiers
This means that the rectifiers in a vibrator - SR, and SR. These two rectifiers form a com-
type power supply can be operated on a square mon portion of all three rectifier circuits. The
wave voltage close to their maximum peak junction of the two rectifiers is grounded and
inverse voltage rating, instead of considerably the positive 250 volt output is taken from
below this rating, as when a sine wave a.c. the center -tap transformer lead. This is the
voltage is applied to them. opposite of the usual full wave rectifier cir-
cuit.
Power Supply This power supply has three The 300 volt d.c. output is obtained from
Circuit high voltage sections as shown a bridge rectifier circuit (figure 19B) con-
in figure 19. The 250 volt sisting of one -half of SR, and SR: in the
receiver supply is shown in figure 19A, the ground legs, plus SR, in the two bridge legs
300 volt low voltage transmitter supply in from which the positive voltage is obtained.
figure 19B, and the 450 volt high voltage Another bridge rectifier circuit is employed
transmitter supply is shown in figure 19C. for the 450 volt d.c. output, again with the
SYNCHRONOUS VIBRATOR SPLIT REED DUAL PRIMARY

VIBRATOR TRANSFORMER VIBRATOR VIBRATOR TRANSFORMER
+H. V
OUT.
_IIIIIF+
I I
t
I
6 VOLT CONNECTIONS
1
t f f
rlIIIIIIIIIh J
12 VOLT CONNECTIONS
Figure 18
SUPPLY FEATURES THE NEW SPLIT -REED VIBRATOR CAPABLE OF HANDLING
100 WATTS OF POWER AT EITHER 6 OR 12 VOLTS
A- Simplified diagram of typical synchronous vibrator and rectifier circuit.
B- Simplified diagram of typical split -reed vibrator and 6 - 12 volt d -c. changeover system.
T
3 SRIA SR IA
3 250 VOLT SUPPLY

SR 2A
300 VOLT SUPPLY

SR2A
450 VOLT SUPPLY
Figure 19
SIMPLIFIED CIRCUITS OF RECTIFIER SYSTEMS USED IN HIGH EFFICIENCY
MOBILE SUPPLY
A -Full wave, 250 volt rectifier.
B -300 volt bridge circuit tapped across portion of the high voltage winding.
C-450 volt bridge rectifier circuit.
two grounded legs of the circuit passing A separate low voltage input cable is used
through SR, and SR:. The other two sections for each voltage as shown in figure 20. Leads
of these rectifiers form the legs of the bridge from P1 to the main power relay RY5 should
from which the positive d.c. voltage is taken. be made as short as possible to reduce the
Since there is little ripple voltage in the voltage drop. This is particularly important
d.c. output from the rectifiers, a single 40 with a six volt power source, where a cable
pfd. filter capacitor on the 300 volt section resistance of only 0.04 ohm will cause a one
of the supply is adequate. Two 100 pfd. ca- volt primary drop when the power supply
pacitors are placed in series across the 450 is operating at full load.
volt section and a capacitor input filter is The six volt input plug connects the alter-
employed for the low voltage section. nate pairs of vibrator contacts and the halves
The Control A "push -to- talk" power switch- of the transformer primary windings in paral-
Circuit ing circuit is included in the lel. These units are connected in series for
power supply so that the 250 twelve volt operation as shown in figure 18B.
volt output may be applied to a mobile re- Six volts for the relay coils is supplied from
ceiver or converter. This is accomplished with the power cable through pin 6 on J1. With the
one pair of contacts on a d.p.d.t. relay, RY1, twelve volt plug, a voltage dropping resistor,
which also turns on the 300 volt output to a R1, is connected in series with the relay coils.
transmitter exciter when its relay coil is en- If the power supply is to be operated exclu-
ergized. A second d.p.d.t. relay, RY2, turns sively from the higher primary voltage, re-
on the 450 volt output to a transmitter final lays having twelve volt coils should be used,
amplifier and modulator when its coil is ener- thus eliminating R,.
gized. It also provides a power- reducing fea- There usually is sparking at the vibrator
ture when the coil is not energized by apply- contacts so various capacitors and resistors
ing 300 volts to the 450 volt output terminal are incorporated in the primary circuit to sup-
and 250 volts to the 300 volt output terminal. press any radio noise generated by vibrator
Since all rectifiers have high voltage on action. These components are placed close
them continuously when the supply is operat- to the pins of the vibrator socket.
ing, the idling current flow through the un-
used rectifiers when receiving is reduced to Component The heart of this power supply
almost zero by disconnecting them from the Parts is the vibrator transformer de-
filter capacitors and bleeder resistors by the signed specially for two -way mo-
action of the relays. bile radio equipment. It is readily available
A special 20 volt secondary winding on the from many of the 3000 General Electric Co.
transformer provides transmitter negative bias mobile radio service stations, or it may be
through rectifier SR. and a 50 pfd. filter ca- ordered from the address given in the parts
pacitor. list of figure 20.
Circuit Details- In this power supply, Power Supply All components except the
Low Voltage Section changing from 6- to 12- Construction power transformer are enclosed
volt operation is accom- inside a 6 "x6 "x6" aluminum
plished with a 12 -pin Cinch -Jones type 300 utility box for maximum protection against
power plug and socket, P, and J,, respectively. dirt and dust. A sub-chassis made from 1/16-
HANDBOOK Mobile Power Supply 701
10
Ti TV) T S+
-0 25V BIAS
4
E SOLF 3,ON
b° 50vT ,w
s;)"
. 1
SR4
+
25LJF ìk SR1A SRia
25 V.
O +450/300 V.
6 TRANSMIT.
251JF
25V
GROUND
L,
+ 300V
TRANSMIT.
401JiT T40LF
J1 POWER INPUT 450V j_ 450V
1 2 3 5 6 7 6 9 10 11 12
+250 V.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 11 12 TRANSMIT.
Pi e VOLT PLUG
F1
GND TO AUTO
RY3 kp-44. TO 6 VOLTS 250V
6V.TOP2 RECEIVER
RYI
1U TO S 3. P2
2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 I 1 12 (SEE F/G. 238) TO S I
RI 12 VOLT PLUG
RY2
j=t=?___;or TO S2
GND TO AUTO
F2
V RY3M- TO 12 VOLTS NOTES
12v TO P2
1- RELAYS SHOWN IN UNENERG /ZED POS /T/ON.
TO S3,P2 2 -ALL RES /SrORS 1 WATT UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED
(SEE FIG. 230)
IF- MOUNT AT TRANSFORMER TERMINAL
Figure 20
SCHEMATIC, 6 -12 VOLT MOBILE SUPPLY
E,- Vibrator, dual interrupter, split -reed; 6 volt coils, 116,c.p.s. reed frequency, 7 pin base. Mallory type
1701,
Oak V -6853, Radiart 5722, or
G.E. A- 7141584 -P3.
F -30 ampere cartridge fuse.
F -15 ampere cartridge fuse.
J, -12pin male chassisplug. Cinch -Jones P- 312 -AB
P, -12 pin female cable socket. Cinch -Jones S- 312 -CCT
L,-7.5 henry, 100 ma. Stancor C -1421
L
RY,,
-7 RY-
ph., amp. Ohmite 2 -50 r -f choke
1
D.P.D.T. relay, 6 volt coil. Advance MG /2c /6VD, Potter ß Brumfield MR- 11D -6V, Guardian
200 -6D Coil and 200 -2 assembly, or Ohmite DOSX -158T, or equiv.
SR,, SR --Two section selenium rectifier, ISO ma., 380 volts peak inverse per section, connected for
doubler service. G.E. A-7144141-P2, or two Federal 1005-A rectifiers in series for each leg (8 in all).
SR, -Two section selenium rectifier, ISO ma., 380 volts peak inverse per section, connected for center-top
service. G.E. A- 7144141 -P1, or two Federal 1005 -A rectifiers with red terminals connected together.
SR. -150 mo., 64 volt peak inverse selenium rectifier. G. E. A- 7140806-P1 or Federal 1015.
T,- Vibrator -type power transformer. Dual center- tapped 6 volt primaries. Secondaries: 420 volts c.t.
with 150 volt taps, 300 ma. and 20 volt, 150 ma. bias voltage winding. G.E. B- 7486449-P1.
TS,-8 terminal barrier strip. Cinch -Jones 8- 141 -Y.
Note: General Electric parts may be ordered from: D. S. Clark, G.E. Co., Product Service Renewal Parts
Section of Communication Products 509 Kent St., Utica, N.Y. Current prices plus shipping charges
are: T,, $ 14.70; E,, $5.75; SR,, SRI, SR,, $7.75 each; SR:, $ 1.40.
inch thick aluminum is cut as shown in fig- ly fastened in place with small aluminum
ures 21 and 22. A cut -out in one corner is angle brackets, two inches from the bottom of
necessary to clear the lower portion of the the box.
power transformer. All chassis drilling and One electrolytic capacitor, C1, is mounted
the cutouts for the power transformer, power on an insulated plate furnished with the ca-
input plug, and output terminal strip should pacitor. When twisting the locking lugs, make
be completed before the chassis is permanent- sure that they do not come near the metal
Figure 21
UNDER -CHASSIS
VIEW OF
POWER SUPPLY
The vibrator socket is
hidden by the resistors
and disc ceramic capaci-
tors of the hash filter.
R -F choke L and the
25 ;.fd. capacitors are
above these parts on the
wall of the case. Resis-
tor R. is mounted to the
wall, with SR., SR,, and
SR, in line below it.
chassis. The can of this capacitor is more than The transformer primary leads are wired
200 volts "above ground" and should be in- to the input plug and vibrator socket with
sulated with a fibre sleeve. shortest possible leads before other parts are
The large seven pin socket into which the wired. Placement of the under -chassis parts
vibrator plugs should have two soldering lugs may be seen in figure 21. Layout of the parts
placed under each mounting bolt for the by- is not critical.
pass capacitors which are later wired to the
socket pins. If the power supply is to be Testing the After the wiring has been
mounted with the chassis in a vertical plane, Supply checked, the power supply should
pins 1 and 4 of the vibrator socket should be be checked zt half input voltage,
in a vertical plane. The smaller components but with full voltage applied to the vibrator
below the chassis should not be installed until coil. This is done by temporarily removing
parts above the chassis have been assembled the jumper between pins 7 and 8 on the
and wired. twelve volt power plug, R. Pin 8 is then
Figure 22
TOP VIEW OF
POWER SUPPLY
INTERIOR
Relays RYA and RYr are
at center above choke L..
Power transformer T, is
mounted on end of cab-
inet. Across top of
chassis (left to right) are
vibrator and filter ca-
pacitors
Transistorized Power Supply 703
2 WIRE CABLE
POWER M 6 FOR 6 V.
FROM RELAY 10 FOR 12 V Pw Ji MOBILE
BATTERY AND SUPPLY
FUSE 7-51
3 WIRE CABLE SWIPE

6V -66 -+ Hi-VOLTAGE
12V -12 _pi. J2 J3 3
l BIAS CABLE
CONTROL
4 WIRE CABLE BOX 4 WIRE HEATER
TO RECEIVER P5 , J4. P4 L RELAY CABLE
LOW VOLTAGE INPUT PLUG J2 J3 FROM H.V. SUPPLY

2 3 4 5 6 7 6
1 1 2 3 4
Figure 24
CABLE HARNESS, MAIN POWER
RELAY, RY , AND REAR OF
52 POWER CONTROL BOX
HI -LO High voltage for the receiver, plus the control
TRANS switch circuits for RY and RY,, are brought
' MIT into the control box from the power supply
through J-.
High voltage leads for the transmitter are
run directly from the supply, but the trans-
mitter heater power and transmit -receive"
control circuit is run to the transmitter
Al through control box circuit J. (figure 23A).
JS
1
TO
2 3
RECEIVER
4
J 1 2 3 4
TO TRANSMITTER
any hash still present during reception. Every
experienced "mobileer" will agree that noise
in each mobile installation usually must be
6 VOLT POWER CABLE 12 VOLT POWER CABLE eliminated on a "search and filter" basis.
2 3 4 5 6 7 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 Installation This power supply may be op-
I' 11V J in the Car erated in conjunction with the
suggested configuration shown in
TO HEATERS, figure 23A. Note that a separate cable is
TO
CO L
RY3 6 VOLTS
FROM Pi
TO
COIL "3 FROM
HEATERS,
12 VOLTS
Pi recommended for the heater power circuit to
(PIG 2o) (Frs SO 1 (F /G.20) (F /G.20) reduce vibrator hash pickup, and to minimize
heater voltage variations when the supply is
switched from receive to transmit.
Figure 23 Provision has been made for changing the
CONTROL WIRING mobile receiver and transmitter power circuits
A -Block diagram of suggested power and
control cables and switching system for for either six or twelve volt operation as shown
mobile power supply. in the schematic of the control box in figure
B- Schematic diagram of suggested control
23B. An eight contact plug and socket auto-
box including power plugs for changing
heaters for 6 or 12 volt operation. S: is matically make the proper connections when
"transmit- receive switch," S, is "high -low"
switch, and 5 is main power switch for the six or twelve volt plug is attached.
C -6RY,.and 12 volt power cables.
32-6 Transistorized
jumped to pin 9. The cable is attached to J, on
Power Supplies
the supply and to a six volt power source. Ap- The vibrator type of mobile supply achieves
proximately half the rated voltage should be an overall efficiency in the neighborhood of
measured at the output terminal strip if the 70 %. The vibrator may be thought of as a
supply has been properly wired. mechanical switch reversing the polarity of
Replace the original connections on the the primary source at a repetition rate of 120
power plug and test the supply with full transfers per second. The switch is actuated by
input voltage. A 2500 ohm, 100 watt resistor, a magnetic coil and breaker circuit requiring
or four 25 watt 115 volt lamp bulbs in series appreciable power which must be supplied by
make a good load resistance. The output volt- the primary source.
ages should measure close to 450, 300, and One of the principal applications of the
240 volts under load. Additional .02 pfd. by- transistor is in switching circuits. The tran-
pass capacitors at RY3, the output terminal sistor may be switched from an "off" con-
strip, and the control box should eliminate dition to an "on" condition with but the ap-
Figure 25
TRANSISTORS CAN REPLACE VIBRATOR IN MOBILE POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM
A-Vibrator
B- Typical vibrator circuit.
be represented by two single-pole single throw switches, or transistors.
C- Push -pull cansquare "oscillator" is driven by special feedback windings on power transformer.
D- Addition of bias wavein base -emitter circuit results in oscillator capable of starting under full load.
plication of a minute exciting signal. When former provides 180 degree phase shift volt-
the transistor is nonconductive it may be con- age necessary to maintain oscillation. In this
sidered to be an open circuit. When it is in application the transistors are operated as on-
a conductive state, the internal resistance is off switches; i.e., they are either completing
very low. Two transistors properly connected, the circuit or opening it. The oscillator output
therefore, can replace the single pole, double voltage is a square wave having a frequency
throw mechanical switch representing the vi- that is dependent upon the driving voltage,
brator. The transistor switching action is many the primary inductance of the power trans-
times faster than that of the mechanical vi- former, and upon the peak collector current
brator and the transistor can switch an ap- drawn by the conducting transistor. Changes
preciable amount of power. Efficiencies in the in transformer turns, core area, core material,
neighborhood of 95% can be obtained with 28 and feedback turns ratio have an effect on the
volt primary -type transistor power supplies, frequency of oscillation. Frequencies in com-
permitting great savings in primary power mon use are in the range of 120 c.p.s. to
over conventional vibrators and dynamotors. 3,500 c.p.s.
The power consumed by the transistors is
Transistor The transistor operation resembles relatively independent of load. Loading the
Operation a magnetically coupled multi -vi- oscillator causes an increase in input current
brator, or an audio frequency that is sufficient to supply the required power
push -pull square wave oscillator (figure 25C). to the load and the additional losses in the
A special feedback winding on the power trans- transformer windings. Thus, the overall effi-
Lai
ciency actually increases with load and is great-
Q
est at the heaviest load the oscillator will sup-
RISE TIME =702/5
~
J q0 2.5 VOLTS ply. A result of this is that an increase in load
tT
-
O r' 200 -2000 +

35 h us produces very little extra heating of the tran-
CC
O 30 - sistors. This feature means that it is impossi-
W
25 ble to burn out the transistors in the event of
20 a shorted load since the switching action mere-
O 15
ly stops.
O
F
io--
w 5
Transistor The power capability of the
á Power Rating transistor is limited by the
m
0.5 VOLT -*200-2000
uS
J amount of heat created by the
current flow through the internal resistance
TIME-
of the transistor. When the transistor is con-
Figure 26 ducting the internal resistance is extremely
BASE- COLLECTOR WAVEFORM OF low and little heat is generated by current
SWITCHING CIRCUIT,
FOR 12 VOLT CIRCUIT flow. Conversely, when the transistor is in a
Square waveshape produces almost
ideal cut -off condition the internal resistance is very
switching action. Small "spike" on leading high and the current flow is extremely small.
edge of pulses may be reduced by proper
transformer design. Thus, in both the "on" and "off" conditions
HANDBOOK Transistorized Power Supplies 705
2N278
+ 250V AT 50 MA 712 WATTS
+500 V. AT 150 MA. c 75 WATTS
TOTAL POWER = e7 WATTS
2W
2N278 OR 2N301A
Ta
D2
+275 V. AT 125 MA = 35 WATTS
Figure 27
PRACTICAL TRANSISTOR POWER SUPPLIES
T,- Chicago DCT -2 transistor transformer
T,-Chicago DCT -I transistor transformer
D,-D,- Sarkes - Tarzian M -500 silicon rectifier or equivalent.
the transistor dissipates a minimum of power. in an oscillator that is capable of starting

The important portion of the operating cycle under full load. RI is usually of the order of
is that portion when the actual switching from 10 -50 ohms while R: is adjusted so that ap-
one transistor to the other occurs, as this is proximately 100 milliamperes flows through
the time during which the transistor may be the circuit.
passing through the region of high dissipation. The current drawn from the battery by this
The greater the rate of switching, in general, network flows through R_ and then divides
the faster will be the rise time of the square between RI and the input resistances of the
wave ( figure 26) and the lower will be the two transistors. The current flowing in the
internal losses of the transistor. The average emitter -base circuit depends upon the value
transistor can switch about eight times the of input resistance. The induced voltage across
power rating of class A operation of the the feedback winding of the transformer is a
unit. Two switching transistors having 5 watt square wave of such polarity that it forward -
class A power output rating can therefore biases the emitter -base diode of the transistor
switch 80 watts of power when working at that is starting to conduct collector current,
optimum switching frequency. and reverse-biases the other transistor. The
forward -biased transistor will have a very low
Self -Starting The transistor supply shown in input impedance, while the input impedance
Oscillators figure 25C is impractical be- of the reversed -biased transistor will be quite
cause oscillations will not start high. Thus, most of the starting current drained
under load. Base current of the proper po- from the primary power source will flow
larity has to be momentarily introduced into in RI and the base -emitter circuit of the for-
the base -emitter circuit before oscillation will ward- biased transistor and very little in the
start and sustain itself. The addition of a bias other transistor. It can be seen that R, must not
resistor (figure 25D) to the circuit results be too low in comparison to the input re-
because there is no conducting transistor to
sustain the magnetizing current. This change
of flux induces a voltage of the opposite po-
larity in the transformer. This voltage turns
the first transistor off and holds the second
transistor on. The transistor instantly reaches
a state of maximum conduction, producing a
state of saturation in the transformer. This
action repeats itself at a very fast rate. Switch-
ing time is of the order of 5 to 10 micro-
seconds, and saturation time is perhaps 200
to 2,000 microseconds. The collector wave-
form of a typical transistor supply is shown
in figure 26. The rise time of the wave is
about 5 microseconds, and the saturation time
is 500 microseconds. The small "spike" at
the leading edge of the pulse has an ampli-
tude of about 21/2 volts and is a product of
switching transients caused by the primary
Figure 28
leakage reactance of the transformer. Proper
35 WATT TRANSISTOR
POWER SUPPLY transformer design can reduce this "spike" to
Two 2N301A power transistors are used in a minimum value. An excessively large "spike"
this midget supply. Transistors are mounted can puncture the transistor junction and ruin
on sanded portion of chassis deck which acts
as "heat sink." See text for details. the unit.
sistance of the conducting transistor, or else 32 -7 Two

it will shunt too much current from the tran- Transistorized
sistor. When switching takes place, the trans- Mobile Supplies
former polarities reverse and the additional
current now flows in the base -emitter circuit The new Chicago -Standard Transformer Co.
of the other transistor. series of power transformers designed to work
in transistor -type power supplies permits the
The Power The power transformer in a amateur and experimenter to construct ef-
Transformer transistor -type supply is designed ficient mobile power supplies at a fraction
to reach a state of maximum flux of their former price. Described in this section
density (saturation) at the point of maximum are two power supplies designed around these
transistor conductance. When this state is efficient transformers. The smaller supply de-
reached the flux density drops to zero and livers 35 watts (275 volts at 125 milliam-
reduces the feedback voltage developed in the peres) and the larger supply delivers 85 watts
base winding to zero. The flux then reverses (500 volts at 125 milliamperes and 250 volts
2N301 A
Figure 29
SCHEMATIC, TRANSISTOR
POWER SUPPLY FOR
12 VOLT AUTOMOTIVE
SYSTEM
T,- Transistor power transformer.
12 volt primary, to provide 275
volts at 125 ma. Chicago Stand-
ard DCT -1.
D,- D,- Sarkes- Tarzian silicon recti-
fier, type M -500, or equivalent.
HANDBOOK Components 707
at 50 milliamperes, simultaneously). Both

power units operate from a 12 volt primary
source.
The 35 Watt The 35 watt power unit uses
Supply two inexpensive RCA 2N301A
P -N -P -type power transistors
for the switching elements and four silicon
diodes for the high voltage rectifiers. The
complete schematic is shown in figure 29.
Because of the relatively high switching fre-
quency only a single 20 pfd. filter capacitor
is required to provide pure d.c.
Regulation of the supply is remarkably good.
No load voltage is 310 volts, dropping to
275 volts at maximum current drain of 125
milliamperes.
The complete power package is built upon Figure 30
an aluminum chassis -box measuring 51/4"x
UNDER -CHASSIS LAYOUT OF PARTS
3 "x2 ". Paint is removed from the center por- Two 10 ¡lid . capacitors are connected in
tion of the box to form a simple heat sink parallel for 20 pfd. output filter capacitor.
Silicon rectifiers are mounted in dual fuse
for the transistors. The box therefore conducts clips at end of chassis. Transistors are insu-
heat away from the collector elements of the lated from chassis with thin mica sheets and
fibre washers if supply is used with positive -
transistors. The collector of the transistor is grounded primary system.
the metal case terminal and in this circuit is
returned to the negative terminal of the pri- rectifier permits the choice of either 250 volts
mary supply. If the negative of the automobile or 500 volts, or a combination of both at a
battery is grounded to the frame of the car total current drain that limits the secondary
the case of the transistor may be directly power to 85 watts. Thus, 500 volts at 170
grounded to the unpainted area of the chassis. milliamperes may be drawn, with correspond-
If the positive terminal of the car battery is ingly less current as additional power is drawn
grounded it is necessary to electrically insulate from the 250 volt tap.
the transistor from the aluminum chassis, yet The supply is built upon an aluminum box -
at the same time permit a low thermal barrier chassis measuring 7 "x5 "x3 ", the layout close-
to exist between the transistor case and the ly following that of the 35 watt supply. Delco
power supply chassis. A simple method of 2N278 P -N -P -type transistors are used as the
accomplishing this is to insert a thin mica switching elements and eight silicon diodes
sheet between the transistor and the chassis. form the high voltage bridge rectifier. The
"Two Mil" (0.002 ") mica washers for tran- transistors are affixed to the chassis in the
sistors are available at many large radio sup- same manner as the 2N301A mounting de-
ply houses. The mica is placed between the scribed previously.
transistor and the chassis deck, and fibre wash-
ers are placed under the retaining nuts hold- 32 -8 Power Supply
ing the transistor in place. When the tran- Components
sistors are mounted in place, measure the
collector to ground resistance with an ohm- The usual components which make up a
meter. It should be 100 megohms or higher power supply, in addition to rectifiers which
in dry air. After the mounting is completed, have already been discussed, are filter ca-
spray the transistor and the bare chassis sec- pacitors, bleeder resistors, transformers, and
tion with plastic Krylon to retard oxidation.. chokes. These components normally will be
Several manufacturers produce anodized alumi- purchased especially for the intended appli-
num washers that serve as mounting insula- cation, taking into consideration the factors
tors. These may be used in place of the mica discussed earlier in this chapter.
washers, if desired. The under -chassis wiring Filter There are two types of filter ca-
of the supply may be seen in figure 30. Capacitors pacitors: (1) paper dielectric
The 85 Watt Figure 31 shows the schematic type, (2) electrolytic type.
Supply of a dual voltage transistorized Paper capacitors consist of two strips of
mobile power supply. A bridge metal foil separated by several layers of special
2N278
Figure 31
250,
SCHEMATIC,
85 WATT
TRANSISTOR
POWER SUPPLY
FOR 12 VOLT
AUTOMOTIVE
500 ,,
SYSTEM
T -Transistor power
transformer. 12 volt
primary to provide 275
volts at 125 mo.
Chicago Standard
DC T -7.
D -D -Sarkes -Torsion
silicon rectifier, type
M -500
paper. Some types of paper capacitors are pacitors are used in filter circuits of high -
wax- impregnated, but the better ones, especial- voltage supplies, the capacitors should be con-
ly the high- voltage types, are oil -impregnated nected in series. The positive terminal of one
and oil -filled. Some capacitors are rated both capacitor must connect to the negative ter-
for flash test and normal operating voltages; minal of thé other, in the same manner as
the latter is the important rating and is the dry batteries are connected in series.
maximum voltage which the capacitor should It is not necessary to connect shunt resis-
be required to withstand in service. tors across each electrolytic capacitor section
The capacitor across the rectifier circuit in as it is with paper capacitors connected in
a capacitor -input filter should have a working series, because electrolytic capacitors have
voltage rating equal at least to 1.41 times the fairly low internal d -c resistance as compared
r -m -s voltage output of the rectifier. The re- to paper capacitors. Also, if there is any varia-
maining capacitors may be rated more nearly tion in resistance, it is that electrolytic unit
in accordance with the d -c voltage. in the poorest condition which will have the
The electrolytic capacitor consists of two highest leakage current, and therefore the volt-
aluminum electrodes in contact with a conduct- age across this capacitor will be lower than
ing paste or liquid which acts as an electro- that across one of the series connected units
lyte. A very thin film of oxide is formed on the in better condition and having higher internal
surface of one electrode, called the anode. resistance. Thus we see that equalizing re-
This film of oxide acts as the dielectric. The sistors are not only unnecessary across series -
electrolytic capacitor must be correctly con- connected electrolytic capacitors but are ac-
nected in the circuit so that the anode always tually undesirable. This assumes, of course,
is at a positive potential with respect to the similar capacitors by the same manufacturer
electrolyte, the latter actually serving as the and of the same capacitance and voltage rat-
other electrode (plate) of the capacitor. A re- ing. It is nit advisable to connect in series
versal of the polarity for any length of time electrolytic capacitors of different make or
will ruin the capacitor. ratings.
The dry type of electrolytic capacitor uses There is very little economy in using elec-
an electrolyte in the form of paste. The die- trolytic capacitors in series in circuits where
lectric in electrolytic capacitors is not perfect; more than two of these capacitors would be
these capacitors have a much higher direct required to prevent voltage breakdown.
current leakage than the paper type. Electrolytic capacitors can be greatly re-
The high capacitance of electrolytic ca- duced in size by the use of etched aluminum
pacitors results from the thinness of the film foil for the anode. This greatly increases the
which is formed on the plates. The maximum surface area, and the dielectric film covering
voltage that can be safely impressed across it, but raises the power factor slightly. For
the average electrolytic filter capacitor is be- this reason, ultra -midget electrolytic capacitors
tween 450 and 600 volts; the working voltage ordinarily should not be used at full rated d -c
is usually rated at 450. When electrolytic ca- voltage when a high a -c component is present,
HANDBOOK Special Supplies 709
such as would be the case for the input ca- Filter Choke Filter inductors consist of a
pacitor in a capacitor -input filter. Coils coil of wire wound on a lami-
nated iron core. The size of
Bleeder ,1 heavy duty resistor should be wire is determined by the amount of direct
Resistors connected across the output of a current which is to flow through the choke
filter in order to draw some load coil. This direct current magnetizes the core
current at all time. This resistor avoids soar- and reduces the inductance of the choke coil;
ing of the voltage at no load when swinging therefore, filter choke coils of the smoothing
choke input is used, and also provides a means type are built with an air gap of a small frac-
for discharging the filter capacitors when no tion of an inch in the iron core, for the pur-
external vacuum -tube circuit load is connected pose of preventing saturation when maximum
to the filter. This bleeder resistor should nor- d.c. flows through the coil winding. The "air
mally draw approximately 10 per cent of the gap" is usually in the form of a piece of fiber
full load current. inserted between the ends of the laminations.
The power dissipated in the bleeder resistor The air gap reduces the initial inductance of
can be calculated by dividing the square of the choke coil, but keeps it at a higher value
the d -c voltage by the resistance. This power under maximum load conditions. The coil must
is dissipated in the form of heat, and, if the have a great many more turns for the same
resistor is not in a well -ventilated position, initial inductance when an air gap is used.
the wattage rating should be higher than the The d -c resistance of any filter choke should
actual wattage being dissipated. High -voltage, be as low as practicable for a specified value
high -capacitance filter capacitors can hold a of inductance. Smaller filter chokes, such as
dangerous charge if not bled off, and wire - those used in radio receivers, usually have
wound resistors occasionally open up without an inductance of from 6 to 15 henrys, and a
warning. Hence it is wise to place carbon re- d -c resistance of from 200 to 400 ohms. A
sistors in series across the regular wire -wound high d -c resistance will reduce the output volt-
bleeder. age, due ro the voltage drop across each choke
When purchasing a bleeder resistor, be sure coil. Large filter choke coils for radio trans-
that the resistor will stand not only the re- mitters and Class B amplifiers usually have
quired wattage, but also the voltage. Some re- less than 100 ohms d -c resistance.
sistors have a voltage limitation which makes
it impossible to force sufficient current through 32-9 Special Power
them to result in rated wattage dissipation. Supplies
This type of resistor usually is provided with
slider taps, and is designed for voltage divider A complete transmitter usually includes one
service. An untapped, non -adjustable resistor or more power supplies such as grid -bias
is preferable as a high voltage bleeder, and is packs, voltage -regulated supplies, or trans-
less expensive. Several small resistors may be formerless supplies having some special char-
connected in series, if desired, to obtain the acteristic.
required wattage and voltage rating.
Regulated Where it is desired in a circuit
Transformers Power transformers and fila- Supplies- to stabilize the voltage supply
ment transformers normally V -R Tubes to a load requiring not more than
will give no trouble over a period of many perhaps 20 to 25 ma., the glow -
years if purchased from a reputable manufac- discharge type of voltage -regulator tube can
turer, and if given a reasonable amount of be used to great advantage. Examples of such
care. Transformers must be kept dry; even a circuits are the local oscillator circuit in a
small amount of moisture in a high -voltage receiver, the tuned oscillator in a v -f -o -, the
unit will cause quick failure. A transformer oscillator in a frequency meter, or the bridge
which is operated continuously, within its circuit in a vacuum -tube voltmeter. A num-
ratings, seldom will give trouble from mois- ber of tubes are available for this applica-
ture, since an economically designed trans- tion including the 0A3 /VR75, OB3 /VR90,
former operates at a moderate temperature 0C3 /VR105, OD3 /VR150, and the 0A2
rise above the temperature of the surrounding and OB2 miniature types. These tubes stabil-
air. But an unsealed transformer which is ize the voltage across their terminals to 75,
inactive for an appreciable period of time in 90, 105, or 150 volts. The minature types
a highly humid location can absorb enough 0A2 stabilize to 150 volts and OB2 to 108
moisture to cause early failure. volts. The types 0A2, OB2 and OB3 /VR90
have a maximum current rating of 30 ma. If a high resistance is connected across the
and the other three types have a maximum VR tube, it will not impair its ability to main-
current rating of 40 ma. The minimum curtain a fixed voltage drop. However, if the load
rent required by all six types to sustain a is made too low, a variable 5000 to 30,000
constant discharge is 5 ma. ohm shunt resistance (the VR -150) will not
A VR tube (common term applied to all exert sufficient effect upon the resulting re-
glow- discharge voltage regulator tubes) may sistance to provide constant voltage except
be used to stabilize the voltage across a vari- over a very limited change in supply voltage
able load or the voltage across a constant load or load resistance. The tube will supply maxi-
fed from a varying voltage. Two or more VR mum regulation, or regulate the largest load,
tubes may be connected in series to provide when the source of supply voltage has high
exactly 180, 210, 255 volts or other combi- internal cr high series resistance, because a
nations of the voltage ratings of the tubes. variation in the effective internal resistance
It is not recommended, however, that VR of the VR tube will then have more control-
tubes be connected in parallel since both the ling effect upon the load shunted across it.
striking and the regulated voltage of the In order to provide greatest range of regu-
paralleled tubes normally will be sufficiently lation, a VR tube (or two in series) should be
different so that only one of the tubes will used with a series resistor (to effect a poorly
light. The remarks following apply generally regulated voltage source) of such a value that
to all the VR types although some examples it will permit the VR tube to draw from 8 to
apply specifically to the OD3 /VR150 type. 20 ma. under normal or average conditions
A device requiring say, only 50 volts can of supply voltage and load impedance. For
be stabilized against supply voltage variations maximum control range, the series resistance
by means of a VR -105 simply by putting a should be not less than approximately 20,000
suitable resistor in series with the regulated ohms, which will necessitate a source of volt-
voltage and the load, dropping the voltage age considerably in excess of 150 volts. How-
from 105 to 50 volts. However, it should be ever, where the supply voltage is limited, good
borne in mind that under these conditions control over a limited range can be obtained
the device will not be regulated for varying with as little as 3000 ohms series resistance.
load; in other words, if the load resistance If it takes less than 3000 ohms series resist-
varies, the voltage across the load will vary, ance to make the VR tube draw 15 to 20
even though the regulated voltage remains at ma. when the VR tube is connected to the
105 volts. load, then the supply voltage is not high
To maintain constant voltage across a vary- enough for proper operation.
ing load resistance there must be no series Should the current through a VR -150, VR-
resistance between the regulator tube and the 105, or VR -75 be allowed to exceed 40 ma.,
load. This means that the device must be the life of the tube will be shortened. If the
operated exactly at one of the voltages ob- current falls below 5 ma., operation will be-
tainable by seriesing two or more similar or come unstable. Therefore, the tube must op-
different VR tubes. erate within this range, and within the two
A VR -150 may be considered as a stubborn extremes will maintain the voltage within 1.5
variable resistor having a range of from 30,000 per cent. It takes a voltage excess of at least
to 5000 ohms and so intent upon maintaining 10 to 15 per cent to "start" a VR type regu-
a fixed voltage of 150 volts across its ter- lator; and to insure positive starting each time
minals that when connected across a voltage the voltage supply should preferably exceed
source having very poor regulation it will in- the regulated output voltage rating about 20
stantly vary its own resistance within the lim- per cent or more. This usually is automatically
its of 5000 and 30,000 ohms in an attempt taken care of by the fact that if sufficient
to maintain the same 150 volt drop across its series resistance for good regulation is em-
terminals when the supply voltage is varied. ployed, the voltage impressed across the VR
The theory upon which a VR tube operates is tube before the VR tube ionizes and starts
covered in an earlier chapter. passing current is quite a bit higher than the
It is paradoxical that in order to do a good starting voltage of the tube.
job of regulating, the regulator tube must be When a VR tube is to be used to regulate
fed from a voltage source having poor regula- the voltage applied to a circuit drawing less
tion (high series resistance) . The reason for than 15 ma. normal or average current, the
this presently will become apparent. simplest method of adjusting the series resist-
RS, SERIES RESISTOR Because it is necessary that there always be

a moderate voltage drop through the 6AS7 -G
Es RL in order for it to have proper control, the rest
C. SUPPLY LOAD
D
VOLTAGE of the power supply is designed to deliver as
much output voltage as possible. This calls
o for a low resistance full -wave rectifier, a high
Figure 32 capacitance output capacitor in the filter sys-
STANDARD VR -TUBE REGULATOR tem and a low resistance choke.
CIRCUIT Reference voltage in the power supply is
The VR -tube regulator will maintain the volt-
age ccross its terminals constant within a
obtained from a VR -150 gaseous regulator.
few volts for modecte variations in R, or V. Note that the 6.3 -volt heater winding for the
See text for discussion of the use of VR 6SH7 and the 6AS7 -G tubes is operated at
tubes in various circuit applications. a potential of plus 150 volts by connecting
the winding to the plate of the VR -150. This
ance is to remove the load and vary the series procedure causes the heater- cathode voltage
resistor until the VR tube draws about 30 ma. of the 6SH7 to be zero, and permits an out-
Then connect the load, and that is all there is put voltage of up to 450 since the 300 -volt
to it. This method is particularly recommended heater -to-cathode rating of the 6AS7 -G is not
when the load is a heater type vacuum tube, exceeded with an output voltage of 450 from
which may not draw current for several sec- the power supply.
onds after the power supply is turned on. The 6SH7 tube was used in place of the
Under these conditions, the current through more standard 6SJ7 after it was found that
the VR tube will never exceed 40 ma. even the regulation of the power supply could be
when it is running unloaded (while the heater improved by a factor of two with the 6SH7
tube is warming up and the power supply in place of the 6SJ7. The original version of
rectifier has already reached operating tem- the power supply used a 5R4 -GY rectifier
perature) . tube in place of the 816's which now are
Figure 32 illustrates the standard glow dis- used. The excessive drop of the 5R4 -GY re-
charge regulator tube circuit. The tube will sulted in loss of control by the regulator por-
maintain the voltage across RL constant to 6AS7G
within 1 or 2 volts for moderate variations in 3
Rt. or Es. 39Y.,2w
Voltage Regulated When it is desired to sta-

1o0 To K. w.w.
Power Supplies bilize the potential across 7.7"Too
a circuit drawing more

than a few milliamperes it is advisable to
use a voltage -regulated power supply of the
type illustrated in figure 33 rather than glow
CH
'°° - .
discharge tubes.
A 6AS7 -G is employed as the series control
element, and type 816 mercury vapor rectifiers
are used in the power supply section. The
6AS7 -G acts as a variable series resistance 6.3 V. HEATER
which is controlled by a separate regulator
tube much in the manner of a -v -c circuits or
inverse feedback as used in receivers and a -f
amplifiers. A 6SH7 controls the operating bias
on the 6AS7 -G, and therefore controls the in- 4- JUMPER IN
((SW. VR TUBE
ternal resistance of the 6AS7 -G. This, in turn,
controls the output voltage of the supply, which 115 V. PLATE 115vr_ .325
O
TO
0
GN01
1
450 _ J
controls the plate current of the 6SH7, thus
V.
completing the cycle of regulation. It is ap- Figure 33

parent that under these conditions any change SCHEMATIC OF VOLTAGE
in the output voltage will tend to "resist it- REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
self," much as the a -v -c system of a receiver
T -615 or 520 volts each side of c.t., 300
ma. Stancor P -8041.
resists any change in signal strength delivered -5 volts Pat-5009.amp., 6.3 volts
T. 3 at 6 amp.
Stancor
to the detector. CH -4 henry at 250 ma. Stancor C -1412.
V,
115V
50 -00%
o
6.3V.
O
APPROXIMATE
COMPONENTS OUTPUT VOLTAGE
MAX. 6.3V.
NO FULL CURREKTIILAAtIRNT
Ti VI CHI CM2 C/ C2 R1 LOAD LOAD
10 N. 10 N. 450 V. 2010,450
350-0-350 STANCOR STANCOR
101.11%
CORNELL-
V.
STANCORPC-6406 5Y3-GT CORNELL-
C-7007 C-1001 0118/LIER DUfIUER 3516.10W 310 240 ROMA. 3A.
MERIT P-3752 MERIT MERIT IR-70I! 8R-5013
C-2663 C-2903
373-O-37S
3-13N 7 N. 1o1F,4SOV. 201f 450V.
STANCOR STANCOR
STANCORPC.6417
MERIT P-2654
5Y3-GT C-171
MERIT
C-1421
MERIT
0,,,,E,
CORNELL- CORNELL-
OUI/L/FR 3511.10W 330 230 140MA. 4.5A.
C-3787 C-3780 ER-1045 8R-2043
2-12 N. 4 N. 1011F 450 V. 101F,450 V.
400-0-400 STANCOR STANCOR CORNELL- CORNELL-
STANCOYPk-64/7
SU4-G C-140E C-7412 pus/Lag DU/L/ER 35110W 360 270 250MA. SA.
MERIT MERIT ER-1045 8R-1045
C-3789 C-3162
525-0-325 5-25 M. 20N. 10./10,600V. 1010,600V.
UTC S-40 5U4-G6 UTC S-]2 MALLORY MALLORY 35K,10 W 410 375 240MA. 4 A.
UTC 5-31 TC-62 TC-92
600-0-100 5-25 N. 20 N. 6U0.600 V. 61F, 600 V.

UTC S-IJ 564-GY UIC S-]2 UTC 5-37 SPRAGUE SPRAGUE 35 K,25w 540 410 200MA. A.
CR-68 CR-86
41)17, 1KV. 81.10,1 KV.
600-0-600
¿ITC S-IS 5114-05
3-25N.
UTC 5-32
20H.
UTC J-3! SPRAGUE
CR-4I
SPRAGUE
CR-67
5011,25W 630 950 175MA. -
Figure 34
DESIGN CHART FOR CHOKE -INPUT POWER SUPPLIES
tion with an output voltage of about 390 should be connected to the 816's. Some varia-
with a 225 -ma. drain. Satisfactory regulation tion in the output range of the power supply
can be obtained, however, at up to 450 volts may be obtained by varying the values of the
if the maximum current drain is limited to resistors and the potentiometer across the out-
150 ma. when using a 5R4 -GY rectifier. If put. However, be sure that the total plate
the power transformer is used with the taps dissipation rating of 26 watts on the 6AS7 -G
giving 520 volts each side of center, and if series regulator is not exceeded at maximum
the maximum drain is limited to 225 ma., current output from the supply. The total dis-
a type 83 rectifier may be used as the power sipation in the 6AS7 -G is equal to the cur-
supply rectifier. The 615 -volt taps on the rent through it (output current plus the cur-
power transformer deliver a voltage in excess rent passing through the two bleeder strings)
of the maximum ratings of the 83 tube. With multiplied by the drop through the tube (volt-
the 83 in the power supply, excellent regu- age across the filter capacitor minus the out -
lation may be obtained with up to about 420 put voltage of the supply).
volts output if the output current is limited
to 225 ma. But with the 816's as rectifiers 32 -10 Power Supply
the full capabilities of all the components Design
in the power supply may be utilized.
If the power supply is to be used with an Power supplies may either be of the choke
output voltage of 400 to 450 volts, the full input type illustrated in figure 34, or the ca-
615 volts each side of center should be ap- pacitor input type, illustrated in figure 35. Ca-
plied to the 816's. However, the maximum pacitor input filter systems are characterized
plate dissipation rating of the 6AS7 -G will by a d-c supply output voltage that runs from
be exceeded, due to the voltage drop across 0.9 to about 1.3 times the r.m.s. voltage of
the tube, if the full current rating of 250 ma. one-half of the high voltage secondary wind-
is used with an output voltage below 400 ing of the transformer. The approximate regu-
volts. If the power supply is to be used with lation of a capacitor input filter system is
full output current at voltages below 400 volts shown in figure 36. Capacitor input filter
the 520 -volt taps on the plate transformer systems are not recommended for use with
Ti V
115 V.
50 -50 '1,
O
6.3 V.
o
APPROXIMATE
COMPONENTS OUTPUT VOLTAGE 4.3V
MAX.
NO PULL Cfl FILAMENT
T 1 VI CHI C 1 C2 R 1
LOAD LOAD
10 N. 2011F,450 V. 2011, 450 V.
260-0 -260 STANCOR
STA NCO*PCd10I 5T3 -CT CORNELL- CORNELL-
0-7001 OUI /LIER OUI /LIER 351710W 340 240 SOMA. 3A.
MERIT P -3111 MERIT IR-2043 IR-2045
C -2993
7 M.
375-0 -375 STANCOR IOLf,400 V. 10.1.1f, 600 V.
STANCOR PC-11411 5Y3-GT C-7427 MALLORY MALLORY 33N,IOW 450 350 123MA. .S A.
MERIT P -2934 MERIT TC -92 TC-92
C -3190
4 N.
435 -0 -435 STANCOR I1/F, 600 V. 617P,600 V.
SU4 -G 0-7472 SPRAGUE SPRAGUE 3511,25W 900 400 223 MA. 6A.
MERIT P-3751 MERIT
C -3792
CR -II CR-01
4 N.
600 -0-600 STANCOR 41/P, 111V. II LIP. IRV.
C-7472 SPRAGUE SPRAGUE 5011.25W 600 600 20014A. 4A.
STANCOR PC-1474 MERIT
C -3712
CR -41 CR -Il
900 -0 -900
UTC 5-43 5R4-GY
20 N.
UTC S -37
411F, 1.511V.
SPRAGUE
CR -475
6LIF, 1.6 RV.
SPRAGUE
CR -173
7511 25W 1200 910 150 MA -
Figure 35
DESIGN CHART FOR CAPACITOR -INPUT POWER SUPPLIES
mercury vapor rectifier tubes, as the peak rec- circuit of figure 6 are illustrated in figures 39
tifier current may run as high as five or six and 40. In many instances a transmitter or
times the d -c load current of the power sup- modulator requires two different supply volt-
ply. It is possible, however, to employ type ages, differing by a ratio of about 2:1. A
872 -A mercury vapor rectifier tubes in ca- simple bridge supply such as shown in figure
pacitor input circuits wherein the load cur- 39 will provide both of these voltages from
rent is less than 600 milliamperes or so, and a simple broadcast "replacement -type" power
where a low resistance bleeder is used to hold transformer. The first supply of figure 39 is
the minimum current drain of the supply to ample to power a transmitter of the 6CL6 -807
a value greater than 50 milliamperes or so. type to an input of 60 watts. The second sup-
Under these conditions the peak plate current ply will run a transmitter running up to 120
of the 872 -A mercury vapor tubes will not watts, such as one employing a pair of 6146
be exceeded if the input filter capacitor is
4 pfd. or less. MAX
Choke input filter systems are characterized
by lower peak load currents (1.1 to 1.3 times
the average load current) than the capacitor
input filter, and by better voltage regulation.
Design Charts for capacitor and choke input
filter supplies for various voltages and load
currents are shown in figures 34, 35, and 37.
The construction of power supplies for trans-
mitters, receivers and accessory equipment is
a relatively simple matter electrically since
lead lengths and placement of parts are of MIN
minor importance and since the circuits them- 0.9
RATIO
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
OF D OUTPUT VOLTAGE TO R.M.S VOLTAGE
selves are quite simple. Under -chassis wiring
.
OF íf SECONDARY WINDING OF PLATE TRANSFORMER.

of a heavy -duty supply is shown in figure 38.
Figure 36
Bridge Supplies Some practical variations of APPROXIMATE REGULATION OF
the common bridge rectifier CAPACITOR -INPUT FILTER SYSTEM
5/2]O V
50-60
To
APPROAINATE MA%.
COMPONENTS OUTPUT VOLTAGE
CURRENT
NO FULL (ICAS)
TI Ta Vi-V2 CHI CH2 C1 Ca RI LOAD LOAD
1150-0 -1150 2.5V,IO A. 666-A
614. 10M. 4UF, 1.511V. 61/F,1.5KV.
CN /CACO TRANS. CNI. TRAN. CN /. THAN CHI. TRAN. SANIAMO SANIAMO 4011,75W I ISO 1000 350 MA.
P -107 P -210 666 -A R-63 R -103 7115 -4 7113-6
1710-0 -1710 2.SV.,10 A. 6M. 10 M. 4UF, 2KV. 611F,2KV.
CH /CACO TRANS. CHI. THAN.
666 -A CN/. TRAN. CNI. TRAN. SANIAMO SANIAMO 50K,75W 1700 1500 25 MA.
P -1312 P-210N
666 -A R -63 R -103 7110-I 7720 -6
2600 -0 -2900 5 V., 10 A. 6M. 6 M. 411F, 3KV. 4LF, 311V.
672-A CNI. TRAN. CN /. TRAN. SANIAMO SANIAMO 7411 amo 2500 700 MA
CN /CAGO TRANS.
P -2126
CHI. THAN.
P -370N 72-A R -67 R -67 7150 -I7/30 200 WI
S V., 10 A. 10 M. IOM. 4UF, 4KV. 4117 411V.
SSOO -O -5500 672-A UTC OTC CORNELL- CORNELL- 100 K 3400 3000 1000 MA.
(ITC 972-A Du! /L /ER OfOIL /ER 200 W
are CC -309 LS-U Ci-IS CI-IS 710040 -A T40040 -A
4600 -0 -4600 SV.,20A. 10 N. 10 M. 4LF, 5KV. 4UF,!KV.
UTC CI-370 575-A 10011
OTC ¡ITC OTC AEROVOX AEROVOX JOO W
4400 4000 600 MA.
CN /CACO TRANS. 575-A CI-IS CI-IS JP -09 JP -OP
LS -63
P -4353
Figure 37
DESIGN CHART FOR CHOKE -INPUT HIGH VOLTAGE SUPPLIES
tetrodes in the power amplifier stage. It is Bridge supplies may also be used to ad-
to be noted that separate filament transform- vantage to obtain relatively high plate volt-
ers are used for rectifier tubes V1 and V2, and ages for high powered transmitting equip-
that one leg of each filament is connected to ment. Type 866 -A and 872 -A rectifier tubes
the cathode of the respective tube, which is can only serve in a supply delivering under
at a high potential with respect to ground. 3500 volts in a full -wave circuit. Above this
The choke CH1 in the negative lead of the voltage, the peak inverse voltage rating of the
supply serves as a common filter choke for rectifier tube will be exceeded, and danger
both output voltages. Each portion of the sup- of flash -back within the rectifier tube will be
ply may be considered as having a choke in- present. However, with bridge circuits, the
put filter system. Filaments of V1 should be same tubes may deliver up to as much as 7000
energized before the primary voltage is ap- volts d.c. without exceeding the peak inverse
plied to T1. voltage rating.
The bridge circuit also permits the use of
the so- called "pole transformer" in high volt-
age power supplies. Two KVA transformers of
this type having a 110/220 volt secondary
winding and a split 2200 volt primary wind-
ing may often be picked up in salvage yards
for a dollar or two. If reversed, and either
110 or 220 volts applied to the "primary"
winding approximately 2200 volts r.m.s. will
be developed across the new "secondary" wind-
ing. If used in a bridge circuit as shown in
Figure 38
UNDER -CHASSIS
POWER SUPPLY ASSEMBLY
All components are firmly mounted to the
steel chassis and all wiring is cabled. High
voltage leads are run in automobile ignition
cables. Heavy -duty terminal strips are mounted
along the rear edge of the chassis. The con-
trol panel of this supply is shown in figure 1
of this chapter.
CH 2
Ti rN V. 2
V. s ,
o
6 3 V.
o
COMPONENTS FULL LOAD VOLT. MAX. CURRENT

T2
T, V1-V2 V3 CI-C2 C3 -C4 CHI CH2 R, -R2 R3 HV*1 ,HVS2 s1 s2
V2
360-0-360 6X5-GT SV4 -G 161F. 1611F. ION. 6H. 100N
S rANCOR PC0410 450 V. 430 V. 120 MA. SOMA.
20X,IOW.
I W
600 240 100 MA. 40 MA
T3
T2,T3=6.3 V., A.
00-0 -400 6AXS-GT 5U4-G6 16.UF. 1 {LF. ION. 6N. 100
1
STANCOR PC -6412 450 V. 430 V. 225MA. 7SMA. 20610W W
625 260 175 MA SOMA.
STANCOR P-6134 1
15 V.
50-60 ti
Figure 39
DUAL VOLTAGE BRIDGE POWER SUPPLIES
figure 40, a d -c supply voltage of about 1900 age before a full wave -type transformer is
volts at a current of 500 milliamperes may be utilized in bridge rectifier service.
drawn from such a transformer. Do not at-
tempt to use a smaller transformer than the 32-11 300 Volt,
2 -KVA rating, as the voltage regulation of 50 Ma. Power Supply
the unit will be too poor for practical pur-
poses. There are many applications in the labora-
tory and amateur station for a simple low
For higher voltages, a pole transformer with
drain power supply. The most common appli-
a 4400 volt primary and a 110/220 volt sec-
ondary may be reversed to provide a d -c plate
supply of about 3800 volts. TI V,
Commercial plate transformers intended for

full wave rectifier service may also be used
in bridge service provided that the insulation
at the center-tap point of the high voltage
winding is sufficient to withstand one -half of
the r.m.s. voltage of the secondary winding.
Many high voltage transformers are specifical-
ly designed for operation with the center-tap
of the secondary winding at ground potential;
consequently the insulation of the winding at
this point is not designed to withstand high
voltage. It is best to check with the manufac-
turer of the transformer and find out if the Tz
insulation will withstand the increased volt-
COMPONENTS FULLLOA FULL LOAD

VOLTAGE
OLTAGECURRENT
T2 VI-V4 CHI C1 RI (UCAS)
2200-VOLT 20N.
Figure 40 'POLE TRANSFORMER
f/rC e6MA SOOMA.
10.11F. 73N_
1900 500 MA.
KV ore 5.37 2500 V. 200 W.
2
HIGH -VOLTAGE
POWER SUPPLY 3500-0-3500 OTC
10 M.
500 MA. 6LF 200N 6000 500M A
LS- 12I-r 672-A 6600 300 W.
OTC CC-301 urcac-/aa V.
Figure 41
TYPICAL LIGHT DUTY
POWER SUPPLY
This 300 volt, SO milliampere power supply
may be used to run signal generators, fre-
quency meters, small receivers, etc. Switch S:
(see schematic) is placed on the rear of the
chassis near the line cord.
components makes possible the construction

of a sturdy 100 watt power supply at a rela-
tively modest price. This power unit is suit-
able for operating a 50 watt phone /c -w trans-
mitter, a small modulator, or a 100 watt side -
band linear amplifier. Maximum intermittent
output rating is 500 volts at 200 milliamperes
and 6.3 volts at 7 amperes.
The circuit of the supply is shown in fig-
cation in the amateur station for such a sup-
ure 44 and is designed around a voltage-
ply is for items of test equipment such as the doubler type power transformer (Stancor
type LM and BC -221 frequency meters, for P -8336) having a 117 volt, 280 milliam-
frequency converters to be used in conjunction pere secondary and three 6.3 volt filament
with the station receiver, and for auxiliary windings. The transformer has a 140 watt
equipment such as high selectivity i -f strips core and is conservatively rated. In quadrupler
or variable frequency oscillators. Equipments service, 100 watts of power may be taken
such as these may be operated from a supply from the high voltage secondary winding pro-
delivering 250 to 300 volts at up to 50 milli- vided the filament current drain is held to
amperes of plate current. A filament source of 40 watts. Under these limitations, the trans-
6.3 or 12 volts may also be required, as will former can run for an hour or so before
a source of regulated voltage.
the core becomes warm to the touch.
The simple power supply illustrated in fig- Four replacement -type selenium rectifiers
ures 41 and 42 is capable of meeting these are used in a simple quadrupler circuit. Al-
requirements. A two section capacitor input though 500 ma. rectifiers are shown, 200 ma.
filter system is employed to provide mini- units will work as well. Five ohm surge re-
mum ripple content and a switch (S:) is sistors are employed to limit the starting cur-
provided to insert a VR -150 regulator tube rent of the filter system. Regulation of the
in the circuit to provide 150 volts at ap-
T1 5Y3-GT
proximately 35 milliamperes. CH CH
A separate 6.3 volt filament transformer is 2 +325-
279 V.
connected in series with the 6.3 volt wind-
ing of power transformer T1 to provide 12.6 2010 20W
Rs
volts at 1.2 amperes for operating "12 volt" =
100 K
1W +19oV.
tubes or a string of two "6 volt" tubes con-
$2
nected in series. The secondary winding of 9
T2 must be polarized correctly to provide 12.6
R150
volts across the two windings.
2
Resistor R1 must be adjusted to "fire" the
voltage regulator tube. It should be adjusted 6.3 V.
so that approximately 15 milliamperes pass 12.6 V.

through the tube. For maximum permissible II
current drain from the high voltage tap of 1A S

the supply the VR tube should be switched
out of the circuit. 115V.1
32 -12 500 Volt, Figure 42

200 Milliampere SCHEMATIC, LIGHT DUTY SUPPLY
T; -350 - 0 - 350 volts at SO milliamperes, S
Power Supply volts at 2 amperes, 6.3 volts at 3 amperes,
"replacement" transformer.
T6.3 volts at 1.2 amp. Stancor P -6134
The availability of inexpensive "TV -type" CH-4.5 henry at 50 ma. Stancor C -1706
717
3 100ÚF T1
T tow 15óv. SRa CHI
_
+ +
+500V.
AT
SR3 eouF 200 MA.
350v
+ 20UF
SR2 ROUF e00V.
35Óv.
ONO.
6.3 V.
6.3V
REGULATION
LOAD(MA VOLTS
o 600
Figure 43 loo 550
100 WATT "ECONOMY MODEL" 115v.1, zoo 500
POWER SUPPLY
Employing a TV -type voltage doubler trans- Figure 44
former and inexpensive selenium rectifiers, SCHEMATIC, ECONOMY SUPPLY
this supply delivers 500 volts at 200 milli-
amperes with good regulation. T, -117 volt secondary rated at 280 ma. for
The selenium rectifiers are mounted on a doubler service. Three 6.3 volt filament
long 6 -32 bolt fastened to two upright posts windings. Stancor P -8336.
mounted at each front corner of the chassis. CH, -8.5 henry at 200 ma. Stancor C -1721.
SR, -SR, -500 ma. selenium rectifier. Sarkes-
Tarzian or equivalent.
supply is good, the voltage dropping from The schematic of a typical supply is shown
600 volts at no load to 500 volts at maximum in figure 46. Primary power source may be
current drain. either 115 or 230 volts, the latter providing
The supply is built upon a steel chassis
slightly better power supply regulation. The
measuring 9" x 6" x 2 ". The filter capacitors
two transformer primaries are connected in
are mounted in the under-chassis area on
series for 230 volt operation, or in parallel
phenolic tie -point strips. All transformer leads
for 115 volt operation. In addition the pri-
are left their full length so that the trans-
maries may be connected in series for half-
former will be in usable shape in the event
voltage operation on 115 volts as shown. The
it is eventually used in a different piece of
supply provides 750 volts at 400 ma. under
equipment.
this operating condition.
For optimum dynamic voltage regulation
32 -13 1500 Volt, under varying loads such as imposed by side -
425 Milliampere band or class B modulator equipment the
output filter capacitor of the supply should
Power Supply
One of the most popular and also one of
the most convenient power ranges for ama-
teur equipment is that which can be supplied
from a 1500 volt power unit with a current
capability of about 400 ma. The r-f amplifier
of an A -M phone transmitter (1500 volts
at 250 ma.) capable of 375 watts input and
its companion modulator (1500 volts at 20-
200 ma.) can both be run from a supply of
this rating. The use of this supply for SSB
work will permit a p.e.p. of about 600 watts
(1500 volts at 400 ma.) with the new low
voltage, high current RCA 7094 tetrodes.
This voltage will be found to be very eco-
nomical when the cost of power supply com-
ponents is computed. A jump in supply volt-
age to 2000 will almost double the cost of
the various components. Unless full kilowatt Figure 45
operation is intended, 1500 volts is a very UNDER -CHASSIS VIEW
OF ECONOMY SUPPLY
convenient and relatively economical compro- Two 20 pfd., 450 volt capacitors are connected
mise voltage. in parallel for each 80 pfd. unit.
RY1 866
T1 RFC
115 V.
N
CHI
RELAY 1500/750V
CONTROL AT 25 MA.
35K
T2 50 V/
EACM=
30LF
450v T 35 R
F5-W.
T _1_
l
Figure 46
SCHEMATIC, 1500 VOLT, 425 MILLIAMPERE SUPPLY
T,- 1710 - 0 - 1710 volts, 425 ma. 115/230 volt primary. Chicago P -1512
T -2.5 volt, 10 ampere, 10 KV insulation. Stancor P -3060
CH,-6 henry at 300 ma., CCS. Chicago R -63
RFC -"Hash' suppression choke. Millen 77866
be as large as is practical. Occasionally 60 figure 47. Separate rectifier and filter systems
pfd., 2000 volt capacitors can be picked up may be used with the transformer to provide
on the "surplus" market for a few dollars, two different output voltages provided the
although their new price would give most total wattage drain from the supply does not
amateurs pause for thought. An inexpensive exceed the wattage rating of the transformer.
and reliable substitute may be made up of a The drain may be divided between the two
group of replacement -type tubular electrolytic supply systems in any manner desired. The
capacitors connected in series -parallel as shown intermittent rating of T2 (figure 47) is 750
in the schematic. Eight 30 ofd., 450 volt watts and the continuous duty rating is 600
capacitors connected in series parallel will watts. Under CCS rating, the supply can pro-
provide an effective value of 15 ofd:, at a vide (for example) 2000 volts at 160 ma.
working voltage of 1800. This is the mini- for the operation of an 813 r -f amplifier at
mum value suitable for sideband operation. 320 watts input, and 1750 volts at 20 -150
Sixteen capacitors will provide 30 ofd., at ma. for the operation of 811 -A class B modu-
1800 volts. lators. Under intermittent duty rating, the
A power supply of this type should be 813 amplifier can run at 400 watts input
built upon a heavy steel chassis, and all wir- (phone) and 500 watts (c -w) without over-
ing must be done with 10,000 volt TV -type loading the supply.
plastic insulated wire. R -F chokes should be A remote switch is used to energize the
placed in the plate leads of the mercury vapor plate circuit relay of the supply. An auxiliary
rectifiers as shown, to reduce the tendency antenna relay is also operated by the "trans-
these tubes have of breaking into oscillation mit" switch.
over a portion of the operating cycle. Oscil-
lation of this type will produce a 120 cycle 32 -15 A Kilowatt
"buzz" on the sidebands of the signal. The Power Supply
parasitic is eliminated by the use of the
chokes. Shown in figure 48 is the schematic of a
power supply capable of delivering 2500 volts
32-14 A Dual Voltage at a continuous current drain of 500 milli-
Transmitter Supply amperes, or 700 milliamperes with an inter-
mittent load. The supply is designed to power
The majority of high voltage transformers a kilowatt amplifier operating at 2500 volts
have tapped secondary windings, similar to and 400 ma., in conjunction with a 500 watt
the transformer shown in the schematic of modulator operating at 2500 volts at a vary-
CHI
( MOD.)
+1750 V.
AT 150 MA.
2000V
IOA. FIL. ON PL. O
CH2
(R.F.)
+2000 V.
AT 160 MA.
2
2000 V.
TRANSMIT
SWITCH
ANTENNA
RELAY
R.F. FIL. MOD. FIL.
Figure 47
DUAL VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY
T1-2.5 volts at S amperes. Stancor P -6133
T.-2400-2100 volts each side center tap at 375 ma. ICAS. Stancor P -8032
CH, -3 to 17 henry, 300 ma. Stancor
CH1-8 henry, 300 ma., Stancor C -1413
C -1403
R,, R-70K., 100 watt

RFC,, RFC,- "Hash" suppression choke. J. W. Miller 7865 twin chokes (2 req.)
RY,-SPST relay, 115 volt coil.
ing current drain of 50 -300 ma. Specifically,

the supply is employed with a transmitter 872A 5
having a pair of 4 -250A tetrode tubes in the
class C stage, and a pair of 810 modulator
tubes. For sideband work, the supply may be
used to power a 1750 watt p.e.p. linear ampli-
fier, such as the 4CX -1000A amplifier shown
in an earlier chapter.
Because the total weight of the components
is over 150 pounds, the supply should be
built directly on the bottom of a relay rack
instead of upon a steel chassis. all
COIL
The r -f hash suppression chokes RFC, and TO EXCITER - 2500 v. +
CONTROL CIRCUIT
RFC_ are fastened directly to the high voltage
terminals of the plate transformer. The two T1- 2900 -0 -2900 VOLTS AT 700 MA., 'CAS. CHICAGO P-2126
T2 -S VOLTS, AMP., CHICAGO F -SION
872 -A rectifier tubes are so located that the 10
leads from the r -f chokes to the plate caps CHI -6 HENRIES, 700 MA. CHICAGO R -67
are only about three inches long. CI- 0. 1511F. 5000-VOLT.
A 0.15 pfd., 5000 volt paper capacitor is C2 - THREE -UF 3000 -VOLT
R1-100,000 OHMS, 200 -WATT.
used to resonate the filter choke to approxi-
mately 120 cycles at a bleeder current of 25 R2- ELEVEN 0.5 MEG. 2-WATT RESISTORS IN SERIES
milliamperes. When full load current is RYI - DPST RELAY, COIL, 20 A. CONTACTS P077ER 1 BRUMF/ELO
110 V.
PRIA
drawn, the inductance of the filter choke RFC,, RFC2 -HASH FILTER, J.W. MILLER CO N 7666
drops, detuning the parallel resonant circuit.

Improved voltage regulation is gained by this
action; the no load voltage increases only Figure 48
200 volts over the full load voltage. HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY
CHAPTER THIRTY -THREE
With a few possible exceptions, such as 33 -1 Tools

fixed air capacitors, neutralizing capacitors
and transmitting coils, it hardly pays one to Beautiful work can be done with metal
attempt to build the components required for chassis and panels with the help of only a
the construction of an amateur transmitter. few inexpensive tools. The time required for
This is especially true when the parts are of construction, however, will be greatly reduced
the type used in construction and replacement if a fairly complete assortment of metal -work-
work on broadcast receivers, as mass producing tools is available. Thus, while an array of
tion has made these parts very inexpensive. tools will speed up the work, excellent results
may be accomplished with few tools, if one
Transmitters Those who have and wish to has the time and patience.
spend the necessary time can The investment one is justified in making
effect considerable monetary saving in their in tools is dependent upon several factors. If
transmitters by building them from the com- you like to tinker, there are many tools use-
ponent parts. The necessary data is given ful in radio construction that you would prob-
in the construction chapters of this handbook. ably buy anyway, or perhaps already have,
To many builders, the construction is as such as screwdrivers, hammer, saws, square,
fascinating as the operation of the finished vise, files, etc. This means that the money
transmitter; in fact, many amateurs get so taken for tools from your radio budget can be
much satisfaction out of building a well -per- used to buy the more specialized tools, such
forming piece of equipment that they spend as socket punches or hole saws, taps and dies,
more time constructing and rebuilding equip- etc.
ment than they do operating the equipment The amount of construction work one does
on the air. determines whether buying a large assortment
720
Tools 721 -A
of tools is an economical move. It also deter- HIGHLY DESIRABLE HAND TOOLS

mines if one should buy the less expensive AND MATERIALS
type offered at surprisingly low prices by the 1 Bench vise (jaws at least 3 inch)
familiar mail order houses, "five and ten" 1 Spool plain wire solder
stores and chain auto -supply stores, or whether 1 Carpenter's brace, ratchet type
one should spend more money and get first- 1 Square -shank countersink bit
grade tools. The latter cost considerably more 1 Square -shank taper reamer, small
and work but little better when new, but will 1 Square -shank taper reamer, large (the two
outlast several sets of the cheaper tools. reamers should overlap; 1V2 inch and /8
Therefore they are a wise investment for the inch size will usually be suitable)
experimenter who does lots of construction 1 /8 inch tube- socket punch (for electrolytic
work (if he can afford the initial cash outlay) . capacitors)
The amateur who constructs only an occasional 1 1 -3/16 inch tube- socket punch
piece of apparatus need not be so concerned 1 5/8-inch tube- socket punch

with tool life, as even the cheaper grade tools 1 Adjustable circle cutter for holes to 3 inch
will last him several years, if they are given 1 Set small, inexpensive, open -end wrenches
proper care. 1 Pair tin shears, 10 or 12 inch
The hand tools and materials in the accom- 1 Wood chisel (1/2 inch tip)
panying lists will be found very useful around 1 Pair wing dividers
the home workshop. Materials not listed but 1 Coarse mill file, flat 12 inch
ordinarily used, such as paint, can best be 1 Coarse bastard file, round, 1/2 or 3/ inch
purchased as required for each individual job. 1 Set allen and spline -head wrenches
6 or 8 Assorted small files; round, half -round
ESSENTIAL HAND TOOLS AND or triangular, flat, square, rat -tail
MATERIALS 4 Small "C" clamps
1 Good electric soldering iron, about 100 Steel wool, coarse and fine
watts, Sandpaper and emery cloth, coarse, medium,
1 Spool rosin -core wire solder and fine
1 Each large, medium, small, and midget Duco cement
screwdrivers File brush
1 Good hand drill (eggbeater type), prefer- USEFUL BUT NOT ESSENTIAL TOOLS
ably two -speed AND MATERIALS
1 Pair regular pliers, 6 inch 1 Jig or scroll saw (small) with metal -cut-
1 Pair long nose pliers, 6 inch ting blades
1 Pair cutting pliers (diagonals), 5 inch or 1 Small wood saw (crosscut teeth)
6 inch 1 Each square -shank drills: /8, 7/16, and 1/2
1 11/2-inch tube -socket punch inch
1 "Boy Scout" knife 1 Tap and die outfit for 6 -32, 8 -32, 10 -32
and 10 -24 machine screw threads
1 Combination square and steel rule, 1 foot 4 Medium size "C" clamps
1 Yardstick or steel pushrule Lard oil (in squirt can)
1 Scratch awl or ice pick scribe Kerosene
1 Center punch Empire cloth
1 Dozen or more assorted round shank drills Clear lacquer ( "industrial" grade)
(as many as you can afford between no. Lacquer thinner
50 and 1/4 or 3/8 inch, depending upon
Dusting brush
size of hand drill chuck)
Paint brushes
Sheet celluloid, Lucite, or polystyrene
1 Combination oil stone 1 Carpenter's plane
Light machine oil (in squirt can) 1 Each "Spintite" wrenches, V4, 5/16, 11/32
Friction tape to fit the standard 6 -32 and 8 -32 nuts
1 Hacksaw and blades used in radio work
1 Medium file and handle 1 Screwdriver for recessed head type screws
1 Cold chisel (1/2 inch tip) The foregoing assortment assumes that the
1 Wrench for socket punch constructor does not want to invest in the
1 Hammer more expensive power tools, such as drill press,
THE RADIO
Figure 1
SOFT ALUMINUM
SHEET MAY BE CUT
WITH HEAVY
KITCHEN SHEARS
grinding head, etc. If power equipment is pur- tube sockets mount in a S/8 -itch hole, while
chased, obviously some of the hand tools and 9 -piu sockets mount in a 3/4-inch hole. Green-
accessories listed will be superfluous. A drill lee socket punches can be obtained in these
press greatly facilitates construction work, sizes, or a smaller hole may be reamed to the
and it is unfortunate that a good one costs as proper size. Needless to say, the punch is
much as a small transmitter. much the more satisfactory solution. Mounting
Not listed in the table are several special- screws for miniature sockets are usually of
purpose radio tools which are somewhat of a the 4 -40 size.
luxury, but are nevertheless quite handy, such
as various around - the -corner screwdrivers and Metal Chassis Though quite a few more tools
wrenches, special soldering iron tips, etc. and considerably more time
These can be found in the larger radio parts will be required for metal chassis construction,
stores and are usually listed in their mail or- much neater and more satisfactory equipment
der catalogs. can be built by mounting the parts on sheet
If it is contemplated to use the newer and metal chassis instead of breadboards. This type
very popular miniature series of tubes (6AK5, of construction is necessary when shielding of
6C4, 6BÁ6, etc.) in the construction of equip- the appartus is required. A front panel and a
ment certain additional tools will be required back shield minimize the danger of shock and
to mount the smaller components. Miniature complete the shielding of the enclosure.
Figure 2
CONVENTIONAL
WOOD EXPANSION
BIT IS EFFECTIVE IN
DRILLING SOCKET
HOLES IN REYNOLDS
DO -IT- YOURSELF
ALUMINUM
HANDBOOK Material 723 -A
Figure 3
SOFT ALUMINUM
TUBING MAY BE
BENT AROUND
WOODEN FORM
BLOCKS. TO PREVENT
THE TUBE FROM
COLLAPSING ON
SHARP BENDS, IT IS
PACKED WITH
WET SAND.
33 -2 The Material Dish type construction is practically the

same as metal chassis construction, the main
Electronic equipment may be built upon difference lying in the manner in which the
foundation of wood, steel or aluminum. The chassis is fastened to the panel.
choice of foundation material is governed by the
requirements of the electrical circuit, the weight Special For high - powered r -f stages,
of the components of the assembly, and the fin- Frameworks many amateur constructors pre-
ancial cost of the project when balanced against fer to discard the more conven-
the pocketbook contents of the constructor. tional types of construction and employ in-
stead special metal frameworks and brackets
Breadboard The simp'est method of con- which they design specially for the parts which
structing equipment is to lay it they intend to use. These are usually arranged
out in breadboard fashion, which consists of to give the shortest possible r -f leads and to
fastening the various components to a board fasten directly behind a relay rack panel by
of suitable size with wood screws or machine means of a few bolts, with the control shafts
bolts, arranging the parts so that important
leads will be as short as possible.
Breadboard construction is suitable for test-
ing an experimental layout, or sometimes for
assembling an experimental unit of test equip-
ment. But no permanent item of station equip-
ment should be left in the breadboard form.
Breadboard construction is dangerous, since
components carrying dangerous voltages are
left exposed. Also, breadboard construction is
never suitable for any r -f portion of a trans-
mitter, since it would be substantially impos-
sible to shield such an item of equipment for
the elimination of TVI resulting from har-
monic radiation.
Figure 4
A WOODWORKING
PLANE MAY BE USED
TO SMOOTH OR
TRIM THE EDGES OF
REYNOLDS
DO -IT- YOURSELF
ALUMINUM STOCK.
724 -A Workshop Practice THE RADIO
COMPONENT PARTS
I Legs and str ngers -
aluminum a gle K "s Y!'
DESK 2 Top -flush door
3 Shelves- V. plywood
6'O'
Figure 6
TVI ENCLOSURE MADE FROM
l--l'3^} 3'4'
SINGLE SHEET OF
PERFORATED ALUMINUM
-- 76'--{ Reynolds Metal Co. "Do- it- yourself" aluminum
r sheet may be cut and folded to form TVI -
proof enclosure. One -half inch lip on edges is
bolted to center section with 6 -32 machine
74"
screws.
í_
33 -3 TVI -Proof
Figure 5 Enclosures
INEXPENSIVE OPERATING DESK MADE
FROM ALUMINUM ANGLE STOCK, PLY- Armed with a right-angle square, a tin -snips
WOOD AND A FLUSH -TYPE DOOR and a straight edge, the home constructor will
find the assembly of aluminum enclosures an
projecting through corresponding holes in the easy task. This section will show simple con-
panel. struction methods, and short cuts in producing
enclosures.
Working with The necessity of employing The simplest type of aluminum enclosure
Aluminum "electrically tight enclosures" is that formed from a single sheet of per-
for the containment of TVI - forated material as shown in figure 6. The
producing harmonics has led to the general top, sides, and back of the enclosure are of
use of aluminum for chassis, panel, and en- one piece, complete with folds that permit
closure construction. If the proper type of the formed enclosure to be bolted together
aluminum material is used, it may be cut and along the edges. The top area of the enclosure
worked with the usual woodworking tools should match the area of the chassis to en-
found in the home shop. Hard, brittle alumi- sure a close fit. The front edge of the en-
num alloys such as 24ST and 61ST should be closure is attached to aluminum angle strips
avoided, and the softer materials such as 2S that are bolted to the front panel of the
or 1/2H should be employed. unit; the sides and back can either be bolted
A new market product is Reynold's Do -it- to matching angle strips affixed to the chassis,
yourself aluminum, which is being distributed or may simply be attached to the edge of the
on a nationwide basis through hardware stores, chassis with self- tapping sheet metal screws.
lumber yards and building material outlets. Enclosures of this type are used on the all -
This material is an alloy which is temper se- band transmitter described in chapter 31.
lected for easy working with ordinary tools. A more sophisticated enclosure is shown
Aluminum sheet, bar and angle stock may be in figure 7. In this assembly aluminum angle
obtained, as well as perforated sheets for ven- stock is cut to length to form a framework
tilated enclosures. upon which the individual sides, back, and
Figures 1 through 4 illustrate how this soft top of the enclosure are bolted. For greatest
material may be cut and worked with ordinary strength, small aluminum gusset plates should
shop tools, and fig. 5 shows a simple operating be affixed in each corner of the enclosure.
desk that may be made from aluminum angle The complete assembly may be held together
stock, plywood and a flush -type six foot door. by no. 6 sheet metal screws.
HANDBOOK Openings 725 -A
Regardless of the type of enclosure to be

made, care should be taken to ensure that all
joints are square. Do not assume that all pre-
fabricated chassis and panel are absolutely true
and square. Check them before you start to
form your shield as any dimensional errors in
the foundation will cause endless patching and
cutting alter your enclosure is bolted together.
Finally, be sure that paint is removed from
the panel and chassis at the point the en-
closure attaches to the foundation. A clean,
metallic contact along the seam is required
for maximum harmonic suppression.
33-4 Enclosure
Openings
Openings into shielded enclosures may be
made simply by covering them by a piece of
shielding held in place by sheet metal screws.
Openings through vertical panels, however,
usually require a bit more attention to pre-
vent leakage of harmonic energy through the
crack of the door which is supposed to seal
the opening. A simple way to provide a panel f,
opening is to employ the Bud ventilated door

rack panel model PS -814 or 815. The grille
opening in this panel has holes small enough
in area to prevent serious harmonic leakage.
Figure 7
The actual door opening, however, does not
seal tightly enough to be called TVI- proof. TVI -PROOF ENCLOSURE BUILT OF
PERFORATED ALUMINUM SHEET
In areas of high TV signal strength where AND ANGLE STOCK
a minimum of operation on 28 Mc. is con-
templated, the door is satisfactory as is. To
accomplish more complete harmonic suppres- Summation
sion, the edges of the opening should be lined
33 -5
with preformed contact finger stock manufac- of the Problem
tured by Eitel- McCullough, Inc., of San Bruno,
Calif. Eimac finger stock is an excellent means The creation of r -f energy is accompanied
of providing good contact continuity when by harmonic generation and leakage of funda-
using components with adjustable or moving mental and harmonic energy from the generator
contact surfaces, or in acting as electrical source. For practical purposes, radio frequen-
"weatherstrip" around access doors in enclo- cy power may be considered as a form of both
sures. Harmonic leakage through such a sealed electrical and r -f energy. As electrical energy,
opening is reduced to a negligible level. The it will travel along any convenient conductor.
mating surface to the finger stock should be As r -f energy, it will radiate directly from the
free of paint, and should provide a good elec- source or from any conductor connected to the
trical connection to the stock. source. In view of this "dual personality" of
A second method of re- establishing elec- r -f emanations, there is no panacea for all
trical continuity across an access port is to forms of r-f energy leakage. The cure involves
employ Metex shielding around the mating both filtering and shielding: one to block the
edges of the opening. Metex is a flexible knit- paths of conducted energy, the other to pre-
ted wire mesh which may be obtained in vent the leakage of radiated energy. The proper
various sizes and shapes. This r -f gasket ma- combination of filtering and shielding can re-
terial is produced by Metal Textile Corp., duce the radiation of harmonic energy from a
Roselle, N.J. Metex is both flexible and resili- signal source some 80 decibels. In most cases,
ent and conforms to irregularities in mating this is sufficient to eliminate interference caused
surfaces with a minimum of closing pressure. by the generation of undesirable harmonics.
726 -A Workshop Practice THE RADIO
33 -6 Construction
Practice
Chassis The chassis first should be covered
Layout with a layer of wrapping paper,
which is drawn tightly down on 1
O
all sides and fastened with scotch tape. This DRILL HOLES SLIGHTLY
INSIDE DASHED OUTLINE
BREAK OUT
PIECE INSIDE
PILE
SMOOTH
allows any number of measurement lines and OP DESIRED HOLE. DRILL HOLES.
hole centers to be spotted in the correct po- MAKING RECTANGULAR CUTOUT

sitions without making any marks on the
chassis itself. Place on it the parts to be Figure 8
mounted and play a game of chess with them,
trying different arrangements until all the grid off part of the die. This is easily avoided by
and plate leads are made as short as possible,
always making sure that the piece is parallel
tubes are clear of coil fields, r-f chokes are in to the faces of the punch, the die, and the
safe positions, etc. Remember, especially if
base. The latter should be an anvil or other
you are going to use a panel, that a good me-
solid base of heavy material.
chanical layout often can accompany sound A punch by Greenlee forces socket holes
electrical design, but that the electrical de- through the chassis by means of a screw turned
sign should be given first consideration. with a wrench. It is noiseless, and works much
All too often parts are grouped to give a
more easily and accurately than most others.
symmetrical panel, irrespective of the arrange- The male part of the punch should be placed
ment behind. When a satisfactory arrangement
in the vise, cutting edge up and the female
has been reached, the mounting holes may be
portion forced against the metal with a wrench.
marked. The same procedure now must be
These punches can be obtained in sizes to
followed for the underside, always being care-
accommodate all tube sockets and even large
ful to see that there are no clashes between
enough to be used for meter holes. In the
the two (that no top mounting screws come
octal socket sizes they require the use of a %8
down into the middle of a paper capacitor on
inch center hole to accommodate the bolt.
the underside, that the variable capacitor rotors
do not hit anything when turned, etc.) . Transformer Cutouts for transformers and
When all the holes have been spotted, they Cutouts chokes are not so simply han-
should be center -punched through the paper dled. After marking off the part
into the chassis. Don't forget to spot holes for to be cut, drill about a 1/4-inch hole on each
leads which must also come through the of the inside corners and tangential to the
chassis. edges. After burring the holes, clamp the piece
For transformers which have lugs on the and a block of cast iron or steel in the vise.
bottoms, the clearance holes may be spotted Then, take your burring chisel and insert it in
by pressing the transformer on a piece of pa- one of the corner holes. Cut out the metal by
per to obtain impressions, which may then hitting the chisel with a hammer. The blows
be transferred to the chassis. should be light and numerous. The chisel acts
Punching against the block in the same way that the two
In cutting socket holes, one can
blades of a pair of scissors work against each
use either a fly- cutter or socket
other. This same process is repeated for the
punches. These punches are easy to operate
other sides. A file is used to trim up the com-
and only a few precautions are necessary. The
pleted cutout.
guide pin should fit snugly in the guide hole. Another method is to drill the four corner
This increases the accuracy of location of the
holes large enough to take a hack saw blade,
socket. If this is not of great importance, one then saw instead of chisel. The four holes per-
may well use a drill of 1/32 inch larger di-
mit nice looking corners.
ameter than the guide pin. Some of the punches Still another method is shown in figure 8.
will operate without guide holes, but the latter
When heavy panel steel is used and a drill
always make the punching operations simpler
press or electric drill is available, this is the
and easier. The only other precaution is to be most satisfactory method.
sure the work is properly lined up before ap-
plying the hammer. If this is not done, the Removing In both drilling and punching, a
punch may slide sideways when you strike and Burrs burr is usually left on the work.
thus not only shear the chassis but also take There are three simple ways of
HANDBOOK Construction Practice 727 -A
removing these. Perhaps the best is to take a pieces of apparatus to chassis or breadboards.
chisel (be sure it is one for use on metal) and The first, using nuts and machine screws, is
set it so that its bottom face is parallel to the slow, and the commercial manufacturing prac-
piece. Then gently tap it with a hammer. This tice of using self -tapping screws is gaining
usually will make a clean job with a little favor. For the mounting of small parts such
practice. If one has access to a counterbore, as resistors and capacitors, "tie points" are
this will also do a nice job. A countersink will very useful to gain rigidity. They also con-
work, although it bevels the edges. A drill of tribute materially to the appearance of finished
several sizes larger is a much used arrange- apparatus.
ment. The third method is by filing off the Rubber grommets of the proper size, placed
burr, which does a good job but scratches the in all chassis holes through which wires are
adjacent metal surfaces badly. to be passed, will give a neater appearing job
and also will reduce the possibility of short
Mounting There are two methods in gen- circuits.
Components eral use for the fastening of
transformers, chokes, and similar Soldering Making a strong, low-resistance
solder joint does not mean just
dropping a blob of solder on the two parts to
NUMBERED DRILL SIZES be joined and then hoping that they'll stick.
Correct for There are several definite rules that must be
- --
Di- Tapping observed.
DRILL ameter Clean Steel or
NUMBER (In.) Sertes Brant All parts to be soldered must be absolutely
.228 clean. To clean a wire, lug, or whatever it may
--
1
..... .221 12-24

be, take your pocket knife and scrape it thor-
3
4
S
6
e
__
..
_
.213
.209
_. .205
.204
_. .201
.199
12-20
-
14 -24
oughly, until fresh metal is laid bare. It is not
enough to make a few streaks; scrape until the
part to be soldered is bright.
Make a good mechanical joint before apply-
9
100
11
12..
.196
.193
.191
.189 -
10-32
10-24
--
ing any solder. Solder is intended primarily
to make a good electrical connection; mechani-
13
14 ._
15 ..
16
.185
.182
.180
.177 -- 12-24
cal rigidity should be obtained by bending the
wire into a small hook at the end and nipping
it firmly around the other part, so that it will
17
18*
19
20
.173
.169
.166
.161
8 -32
--
12-20
hold well even before the solder is applied.
Keep your iron properly tinned. It is im-
21.
22
23
24
.159
.157
.154
.152
-- --
10 -32 possible to get the work hot enough to take
the solder properly if the iron is dirty. To tin
your iron, file it, while hot, on one side until
25_.
26
27 ..
28*
29
.149
.147
.144
.140
.136
--
6 -32 --
10-24
8 -32
a full surface of clean metal is exposed. Im-
mediately apply rosin core solder until a thin
layer flows completely over the exposed sur-
30
31
32
33*
34
35
.. _..
.128
.120
.116
.113
.111
.110
4 -36
--
4-40 --
6 -32
face. Repeat for the other faces. Then take a
clean rag and wipe off all excess solder and
rosin. The iron should also be wiped frequently
while the actual construction is going on; it
36 _. _..__ .106 helps prevent pitting the tip.
37
38
39.
40
41
42.
43
_.
_.
.104
.102
.100
.098
.096
__ .___ .093
.089
--
3 -48
2 -56
4 -36 4-40
-- Apply the solder to the work, not to the
iron. The iron should be held against the parts
to be joined until they are thoroughly heated.
The solder should then be applied against the
44 .086 parts, and the iron should be held in place
45 .082 3 -48
until the solder flows smoothly and envelopes
t Usenest size larger drill for tapping the work. If it acts like water on a greasy
bakelite and similar composition materials
(plastics, etc.). plate, and forms a ball, the work is not suf-
Sites most commonly used in radio con- ficiently clean.
struction. The completed joint must be held perfectly
still until the solder has had time to solidify.
Figure 9 If the work is moved before the solder has be-
728 -A Workshop Practice
PIPE OR ROD USED AS

TEMPORARY FORM
ion Dí111`
HOLD TIGHTLY
FORM Or BAKELITE OR
OTHER GOOD INSULATING
MATERIAL.
FINISHED
COI L WINO TURNS CLOSE TOGETHER
k
AND SPACE LATER.
WINDING COIL ON INSULATING FORM
WINDING "AIR -SUPPORTED, COIL

Figure 10 Figure 11
come completely solid, a "cold" joint will re- There are also several brands of dull gloss
sult. This can be identified immediately, be- black enamels on the market which adhere
cause the solder will have a dull "white" ap- well to metals and make a nice appearance.
pearance rather than one of shiny "silver." Airdrying wrinkle finishes are sometimes suc-
Such joints tend to be of high resistance and cessful, but a bake job is usually far better.
will very likely have a bad effect upon a cir- Wrinkle finishes, properly applied, are very
cuit. The cure is simple, merely reheat the durable and are pleasing to the eye. If you
joint and do the job correctly. live in a large community, there is probably
Wipe away all surplus flux when the joint an enameling concern which can wrinkle your
has cooled if you are using a paste type flux. work for you at a reasonable cost. A very at-
Be sure it is non -corrosive, and use it with tractive finish, for panels especially, is to
plain (not rosin core) solder. spray a wrinkle finish with aluminum paint.
In any painting operation (or plating, either,
Finishes If the apparatus is constructed on for that matter) , the work should be very
a painted chassis (commonly avail- thoroughly cleaned of all greases and oils.
able in black wrinkle and gray wrinkle) , there To protect brass from tarnish, thoroughly
is no need for application of a protective coat- cleanse and remove the last trace of grease by
ing when the equipment is finished, assuming the use of potash and water. The brass must
that you are careful not to scratch or mar the be carefully rinsed with water and dried; but
finish while drilling holes and mounting parts. in doing it, care must be taken not to handle
However, many amateurs prefer to use un- any portion with the bare hands or anything
painted (zinc or cadmium plated) chassis, be- else that is greasy. Then lacquer.
cause it is much simpler to make a chassis
ground connection with this type of chassis. Winding Coils Coils are of two general types,
A thin coat of clear "linoleum" lacquer may those using a form and "air -
be applied to the whole chassis after the wir- wound" types. Neither type offers any particu-
ing is completed to retard rusting. In localities lar constructional difficulties. Figure 10 il-
near the sea coast it is a good idea to lacquer lustrates the procedure used in form winding
the various chassis cutouts even on a painted a coil. If the winding is to be spaced, the
chassis, as rust will get a good start at these spacing can be done either by eye or a string
points unless the metal is protected where the or another piece of wire may be wound simul-
drill or saw has exposed it. If too thick a coat taneously with the coil wire and removed after
is applied, the lacquer will tend to peel. It the winding is in place. The usual procedure
may be thinned with lacquer thinner to permit is to clamp one end of the wire in a vise, at-
application of a light coat. A thin coat will taching the other end to the coil form and with
adhere to any clean metal surface that is not the coil form in hand, walk slowly towards the
too shiny. vise winding the wire but at the same time
An attractive dull gloss finish, almost vel- keeping a strong tension on the wire as the
vety can be put on aluminum by sand -blasting form is rotated. After the coil is wound, if
it with a very weak blast and fine particles there is any possibility of the turns slipping,
and then lacquering it. Soaking the aluminum the completed coil is either entirely coated
in a solution of lye produces somewhat the with a coil or Duco cement or cemented in
same effect as a fine grain sand blast. those spots where slippage might occur.
Figure 12
GOOD SHOP
LAYOUT AIDS
CAREFUL
WORKMANSHIP
Built in a corner of a
garage, this shop has all
features necessary for
electronic work. Test in-
struments are arranged
on shelves above bench.
Numerous outlets reduce
"haywire" produced by
tangled line cords. Not
shown in picture are drill
press and sander at end
of left bench
V -h -f and u -h -f coils are commonly wound framework made of 2 "x4" lumber. The top
of heavy enameled wire on a form and then of the workbench is covered with hard -sur-
removed from the form as in figure 11. If face Masonite. The edge of the surface is pro-
the coil is long or has a tendency to buckle, tected with aluminum "counter edging" strip,
strips of polystyrene or a similar material may obtainable at large hardware stores. Two wood-
be cemented longitudinally inside the coil. Due en shelves 12" wide are placed above the
allowance must be made for the coil springing bench to hold the various items of test equip-
out when removed from the form, when select- ment. The shelves are bolted to the wall studs
ing the diameter of the form. with large angle brackets and have wooden
On air wound coils of this type, spacing be- end pieces. Along the edge of the lower shelf
tween turns is accomplished after removal a metal "outlet strip" is placed that has an
from the form, by running a pencil, the shank 115 -volt outlet every six inches along its
of a screwdriver or other round object spirally length. A similar strip is run along the back
between the turns from one end of the coil to of the lower shelf. The front strip is used
the ocher, again making due allowance for for equipment that is being bench-tested, and
spring. the rear strip powers the various items of test
Air -wound coils, approaching the appearance equipment placed on the shelves.
of commercially manufactured ones, can be At the left of the bench is a storage bin
constructed by using a round wooden form for small components. A file cabinet can be
which has been sawed diagonally from end seen at the right of the photograph. This nec-
ro end. Strips of insulating material are tem- essary item holds schematics, transformer data
porarily attached to this mandrel, the wire sheets, and other papers that normally are
then being wound over these strips with the lost in the usual clutter and confusion.
desired separation between turns and cemented The area below the workbench has two
to the strips. When dry, the split mandrel may storage shelves which are concealed by sliding
be removed by unwedging it. doors made of 1/4-inch Maronite. Heavier tools,
and large components are stored in this area.
33 -7 Shop Layout On the floor and not shown in the photo-
The size of your workshop is relatively un- graph is a very necessary item of shop equip-
important since the shop layout will deter- ment: a large trash receptacle.
mine its efficiency and the ease with which A compact and efficient shop built in one-
you may complete your work. half of a wardrobe closet is shown in figure
Shown in figure 12 is a workshop built 13. The workbench length is four feet. The
into a 10'x10' area in the corner of a garage. top is made of 4 "x6" lumber sheathed with
The workbench is 32" wide, made up of four hard surface Masonite and trimmed with
strips of 2 "x8" lumber supported on a solid "counter edging" strip. The supporting struc-
729 -A
730 -A Workshop Practice
Figure 13
COMPLETE WORKSHOP IN A CLOSET!
Careful layout permits complete electronic
workshop to be placed in one -half of a word -
robe closet. Work bench is built atop an un-
painted three -shelf bookcase.
cure is made from an unpainted three-shelf a single shelf contains a 115 -volt "outlet strip."
bookcase. A 2 "x2" leg is placed under the The instruments at the top of the photo are
front corners of the bench to provide maxi- placed on the wardrobe shelf.
mum stability. When not in use, the doors of the ward-
Atop the bench, a small wooden framework robe are closed, concealing the workshop com-
supports needed items of test equipment and pletely from view.
CHAPTER THIRTY -FOUR
Electronic
Test Equipment
All amateur stations are required by law to variably requires the use of some type of field -
have certain items of test equipment available strength meter, and a standing -wave meter of
within the station. A c -w station is required some type is very helpful. Lastly, if much v -h -f
to have a frequency meter or other means in work is to be done, a simple grid -dip meter
will be found to be one of the most used items
addition to the transmitter frequency control
of test equipment in the station.
for insuring that the transmitted signal is on
a frequency within one of the frequency bands 34 -1 Voltage,
assigned for such use. A radiophone station is Current and Power
required in addition to have a means of deter-
mining that the transmitter is not being modu- The measurement of voltage and current in
lated in excess of its modulation capability, radio circuits is very important in proper main-
and in any event not more than 100 per cent. tenance of equipment. Vacuum tubes of the
Further, any station operating with a power types used in communications work must be
input greater than 900 watts is required to operated within rather narrow limits in regard
have a means of determining the exact input to filament or heater voltage, and they must
to the final stage of the transmitter, so as to be operated within certain maximum limits in
insure that the power input to the plate circuit regard to the voltage and current on other
of the output stage does not exceed 1000 electrodes.
watts. Both direct current and voltage are most
The additional test and measurement equip- commonly measured with the aid of an instru-
ment required by a station will be determined ment consisting of a coil that is free to rotate
by the type of operation contemplated. It is in a constant magnetic field (d'Arsonval type
desirable that all stations have an accurately instrument). If the instrument is to be used for
calibrated volt -ohmmeter for routine transmit- the measurement of current it is called an am-
ter and receiver checking and as an assistance meter or milliammeter. The current flowing
in getting new pieces of equipment into opera- through the circuit is caused to flow through
tion. An oscilloscope and an audio oscillator the moving coil of this type of instrument. If
make a very desirable adjunct to a phone sta- the current to be measured is greater than 10
tion using AM or FM transmission, and are a milliamperes or so it is the usual practice to
necessity if single -sideband operation is con- cause the majority of the current to flow
templated. A calibrated signal generator is al- through a by -pass resistor called a shunt, only
most a necessity if much receiver work is con- a specified portion of the current flowing
templated, although a frequency meter of LM through the moving coil of the instrument.
or BC -221 type, particularly if it includes in- The calculation of shunts for extending the
ternal modulation, will serve in place of the range of d -c milliammeters and ammeters is
signal generator. Extensive antenna work in- discussed in Chapter Two.
721 -B
722 -B Test Equipment THE RADIO
+10 +100 +250 +1000
100n 250n IMEG
+10 +100 +250 +1000

PIN JACKS
Figure 2
VOLT -OHMMETER CIRCUIT
With the switch In position I, the 0 -1 milliam-
meter would be connected directly to the
terminals. In position 2 the meter would read
from 0- 100,000 ohms, approximately, with a
resistance value of 4500 ohms at half scale.
(Note: The half -scale resistance value of an
1000
ohmmeter using this circuit is equal to the
10 I
resistance in series with the battery inside
the instrument.) The other four taps are volt-
MA 0 -1 D 100 250 age ranges with 10, 50, 250, and 500 volts
ION 90 150n 75011 full scale.
Where I is the full -scale current drain of the

Figure 1 indicating instrument in milliamperes.
MULTI -VOLTMETER CIRCUITS
(A) shows a circuit whereby individual multi- Multi-Range It
is common practice to connect
plier resistors are used for each range. (B) is Meters agroup of multiplier resistors
the more economical "series multiplier" cir-
cuit. The same number of resistors is rein the circuit with a single in-
quired, but those for the higher ranges have dicating instrument to obtain a multi -range
less resistance, and hence are less expen-
sive when precision wirewound resistors are voltmeter. There are several ways of wiring
to be used. (C) shows a circuit essentially
the same as at (A), except that a range such a meter, the most common ones of which
switch is used. With a 0 -500 d -c microam- are indicated in figure 1. With all these meth-
meter substituted for the 0 -1 milliammeter
shown above, all resistor values would be ods of connection, the sensitivity of the meter
multiplied by two and the voltmeter would in ohms per volt is the same on all scales.
have a "2000- ohm -per -volt" sensitivity. Simi-
larly, if a 0 -50 d -c microammeter were to be With a 0 -1 milliammeter as shown the sensi-
used, all resistance values would be multi- tivity is 1000 ohms per volt.
plied by twenty, and the voltmeter would
have a sensitivity of 20,000 ohms per volt. Volt- Ohmmeters An extremely useful piece of
test equipment which should
A direct current voltmeter is merely a d -c be found in every laboratory or radio station
milliammeter with a multiplier resistor in se- is the volt- ohmmeter. It consists of a multi -
ries with it. If it is desired to use a low -range range voltmeter with an additional fixed resis-
milliammeter as a voltmeter the value of the tor, a variable resistor, and a battery. A typical
multiplier resistor for any voltage range may example of such an instrument is diagrammed
be determined from the following formula: in figure 2. Tap 1 is used to permit use of
1000 E the instrument as an 0 -1 d-c milliammeter.
R Tap 2 permits accurate reading of resistors up
I to 100,000 ohms; taps 3, 4, 5, and 6 are
where: R = multiplier resistor in ohms for making voltage measurements, the full
E = desired full scale voltage scale voltages being 10, 50, 250, and 500
I = full scale current of meter in ma. volts respectively.
The 1000 -ohm potentiometer is used to
The sensitivity of a voltmeter is commonly bring the needle to zero ohms when the ter-
expressed in ohms per volt. The higher the minals are shorted; this adjustment should
ohms per volt of a voltmeter the greater its always be made before a resistance measure-
sensitivity. When the full -scale current drain ment is taken. Higher voltages than 500 can
of a voltmeter is known, its sensitivity rating be read if a higher value of multiplier resistor
in ohms per volt may be determined by: is added to an additional tap on the switch.
1000 The proper value for a given full scale read-
Ohms per volt - I
ing can be determined from Ohm's law.
Resistances higher than 100,000 ohms can-
HANDBOOK Ohmmeters 723 -B
SPOT
not be measured accurately with the circuit SWITCH
constants shown; however, by increasing the

ohmmeter battery to 45 volts and multiplying
the 4000 -ohm resistor and 1000 -ohm poten-
tiometer by 10, the ohms scale also will be
multiplied by 10. This would permit accurate
measurements up to 1 megohm.
0 -1 d -c milliammeters are available with
special volt -ohmmeter scales which make in-
dividual calibration unnecessary. Or, special
scales can be purchased separately and sub- Figure 3
stituted for the original scale on the milliam- SCHEMATIC OF A LOW -RANGE
meter. OHMMETER
A description of the operation of this circuit
Obviously, the accuracy of the instrument is given in the text. With the switch in the
either as a voltmeter or as an ammeter can be left position the half -scale reading of the
meter will occur with an external resistance
no better than the accuracy of the milliam- of 1000 ohms. With the switch in the right
meter and the resistors. position, holf -scale deflection will be ob-
Because volt -ohmmeters are so widely used tained with an external resistance equal to
the d -c resistance of the milliammeter (20 to
and because the circuit is standardized to a 50 ohms depending upon the make of in-
strument).
considerable extent, it is possible to purchase
a factory -built volt-ohmmeter for no more than
the component parts would cost if purchased 1.5 -ma. meter used. The instrument can be
individually. For this reason no construction calibrated by means of a Wheatstone bridge or
details are given. However, anyone already a few resistors of known accuracy. The latter
possessing a suitable milliammeter and de- can be series -connected and parallel- connected
sirous of incorporating it in a simple volt - to give sufficient calibration points. A hand -
ohmmeter should be able to build one from the drawn hand -calibrated scale can be cemented
schematic diagram and design data given here. over the regular meter scale to give a direct
Special, precision (accurately calibrated) mul- reading in ohms.
tiplier resistors are available if a high degree Before calibrating the instrument or using
of accuracy is desired. Alternatively, good it, the test prods should always be touched to-
quality carbon resistors whose actual resist- gether and the zero adjuster set accurately.
ance has been checked may be used as multi-
pliers where less accuracy is required. Measurement of The measurement of al-
Alternating Current ternating current and
Medium- and Most ohmmeters, including the and Voltage voltage is complicated
Low -Rcnge one just described, are not by two factors; first, the
Ohmmeter adapted for accurate measure- frequency range covered in ordinary communi-
ment of low- resistances -in the cation channels is so great that calibration of
neighborhood of 100 ohms, for instance. an instrument becomes extremely difficult; sec-
The ohmmeter diagrammed in figure 3 was ond, there is no single type of instrument
especially designed for the reasonably accu- which is suitable for all a-c measurements-as
rate reading of resistances down to 1 ohm. Two the d'Arsonval type of movement is suitable
scales are provided, one going in one direc- for d -c. The d'Arsonval movement will not
tion and the other scale going in the other operate on a -c since it indicates the average
direction because of the different manner in value of current flow, and the average value
which the milliammeter is used in each case. of an a -c wave is zero.
The low scale covers from 1 to 100 ohms and As a result of the inability of the reliable
the high scale from 100 to 10,000 ohms. The d'Arsonval type of movement to record an al-
high scale is in reality a medium -range scale. ternating current, either this current must be
For accurate reading of resistances over 10,000 rectified and then fed to the movement, or a
ohms, an ohmmeter of the type previously special type of movement which will operate
described should be used. from the effective value of the current can be
The 1 -100 ohm scale is useful for checking used.
transformers, chokes, r -f coils, etc., which often For the usual measurements of power fre-
have a resistance of only a few ohms. quency a.c. (25 -60 cycles) the iron -vane in-
The calibration scale will depend upon the strument is commonly used. For audio fre-
internal resistance of the particular make of quency a.c. (50- 20,000 cycles) a d'Arsonval
1G4 -G
This means that a v.t.v.m. may be used for
the measurement of a -v-c, a -f -c, and discrimina-
tor output voltages where no loading of the
circuit can be tolerated.
A -C V -T There are many different types
Voltmeters of a -c vacuum -tube voltmeters,
all of which operate as some
type of rectifier to give an indication on a d -c
Figure 4 instrument. There are two general types: those
SLIDE -BACK V -T VOLTMETER which give an indication of the r -m -s value of
By connecting a variable source of voltage
in series with the input to a conventional the wave (or approximately this value of a
v -t voltmeter, or in series with the simple complex wave), and those which give an in-
triode voltmeter shown above, a slide -back
a -c voltmeter for peak voltage measurement dication of the peak or crest value of the
con be constructed. Resistor R should be wave.
about 1000 ohms per volt used at battery B.
This type of v -t voltmeter has the advantage Since the setting up and calibration of a
that it can give a reading of the actual peak wide -range vacuum -tube voltmeter is rather
voltage of the wave being measured, without
any current drain from the source of voltage. tedious, in most cases it will be best to pur-
chase a commercially manufactured unit. Sev-
instrument having an integral copper oxide eral excellent commercial units are on the
or selenium rectifier is usually used. Radio fre- market at the present time; also kits for home
quency voltage measurements are usually made construction of a quite satisfactory v.t.v.m.
with some type of vacuum -tube voltmeter, are available from several manufacturers.
while r -f current measurements are almost in- These feature a wide range of a-c and d -c volt-
variably made with an instrument containing age scales at high sensitivity, and in addition
a thermo -couple to convert the r.f. into d.c. several feature a built -in vacuum -tube ohm-
for the movement. meter which will give indications up to 500
Since an alternating current wave can have or 1000 megohms.
an almost infinite variety of shapes, it can
easily be seen that the ratios between the Peak A -C V -T There are two common types
three fundamental quantities of the wave Voltmeters of peak-indicating vacuum -
(peak, r.m.s. effective, and average after rec- tube voltmeters. The first is
tification) can also vary widely. So it becomes the so- called slide -back type in which a sim-
necessary to know beforehand just which qual- ple v.t.v.m. is used along with a conventional
ity of the wave under measurement our in- d -c voltmeter and a source of bucking bias in
strument is going to indicate. For the purpose series with the input. With this type of ar-
of simplicity we can list the usual types of rangement (figure 4) leads are connected to
a -c meters in a table along with the charac- the voltage to be measured and the slider re-
teristic of an a -c wave which they will indi- sistor R across the bucking voltage is backed
cate: down until an indication on the meter (called
Iron -vane, thermocouple- r.m.s. a false zero) equal to that value given with
Rectifier type (copper oxide or selenium) the prods shorted and the bucking voltage
-average after rectification. reduced to zero, is obtained. Then the value
V.t.v.m.- r.m.s., average or peak, depend- of the bucking voltage (read on V) is equal
ing upon design and calibration. to the peak value of the voltage under meas-
urement. The slide -back voltmeter has the
Vacuum -Tube A vacuum -tube voltmeter is es- disadvantage that it is not instantaneous in its
Voltmeters sentially a detector in which indication-adjustments must be made for
a change in the signal placed every voltage measurement. For this reason the
upon the input will produce a change in the slide-back v.t.v.m. is not commonly used, be-
indicating instrument (usually a d'Arsonval ing supplanted by the diode -rectifier type of
meter) placed in the output circuit. A vacuum - peak v.t.v.m. for most applications.
tube voltmeter may use a diode, a triode, or a
multi -element tube, and it may be used either High_Voltage A diode vacuum -tube voltmeter
for the measurement of a.c. or d.c. Diode Peak suitable for the measurement
When a v.t.v.m. is used in d -c measurement Voltmeter of high values of a -c voltage is
it is used for this purpose primarily because diagrammed in figure 5. With
of the very great input resistance of the device. the constants shown, the voltmeter has two
HANDBOOK Power Measurement 725 -B
2X2/879 2x2/879
11S V.A.C.
A.C.
VOLTAGE A.C.
FROM VOLTAGE
SOURCE FROM
WITH SOURCE
$
O.C. WITH
RETURN O.0 CONVENTIONAL
PATH RETURN HIGH -SENSITIV IT Y
e
I
PATH VOLTMETER
e
Figure 5 Figure 6
SCHEMATIC OF A HIGH- VOLTAGE PEAK PEAK -VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT
VOLTMETER CIRCUIT
A peak voltmeter such diagrammed
as Through use of the arrangement shown above
above is convenient for the measure- it is possible to make accurate measurements
ment of peak voltages at fairly high of peak a -c voltages, such as across the sec-
power levels from a source of moder- ondary of a modulation transformer, with a
ately low impedance. conventional d -c multi -voltmeter. Capacitor
C,-.00 1 -I, Id. high- voltage mica C and transformer T should, of course, be In-
C,-1.O fd. high- voltage paper
L- 500,000 ohms (two 0.25 -megohm V2 -watt
in series)
sulated for the highest peak voltage likely to
be encountered. A capacitance of 0.25 -pfd.
at C has been found to be adequate. The
L-1.0 megohm (four 0.25- megohm /2 -watt higher the sensitivity of the indicating d -c
in series) voltmeter, the smaller will be the error be-
-2.5 v., 1.75 a. filament
T transformer tween the indication on the meter and the ac-
M-0 -1 d -c milliammeter
S,,,_,, S -p-d -t
toggle switch
tual peak voltage being measured.
S- S -p-s -t toggle switch
(Note: C, is a by -pass around C,, the induc- of the trace on the c -r tube screen. The peak
tive reactance of which may be appreciable positive excursion of the wave will be slightly
at high frequencies.)
flattened by the action of the v.t.v.m. Usually
this flattening will be so small as to be negli-
ranges: 500 and 1500 volts peak full scale. gible.
Capacitors CI and C2 should be able to with- An alternative arrangement, shown in figure
stand a voltage in excess of the highest peak 6, is quite convenient for the measurement of
voltage to be measured. Likewise, R, and R2 high a -c voltages such as are encountered in
should be able to withstand the same amount the adjustment and testing of high -power
of voltage. The easiest and least expensive audio amplifiers and modulators. The arrange-
way of obtaining such resistors is to use sev- ment consists simply of a 2X2 rectifier tube
eral low- voltage resistors in series, as shown and a filter capacitor of perhaps 0.25-pfd. ca-
in figure 5. Other voltage ranges can be ob- pacitance, but with a voltage rating high
tained by changing the value of these re- enough that it is not likely to be punctured
sistors, but for voltages less than several hun- as a result of any tests made. Cathode -ray
dred volts a more linear calibration can be ob- oscilloscope capacitors, and those for electro-
tained by using a receiving -type diode. A cali- static- deflection TV tubes often have ratings
bration curve should be run to eliminate the as high as 0.25 pfd. at 7500 to 10,000 volts.
appreciable error due to the high internal re- The indicating instrument is a conventional
sistance of the diode, preventing the capacitor multi -scale d -c voltmeter of the high-sensitivity
from charging to the full peak value of the type, preferably with a sensitivity of 20,000 or
voltage being measured. 50,000 ohms per volt. The higher the sen-
A direct reading diode peak voltmeter of sitivity of the d -c voltmeter used with the
the type shown in figure 5 will load the source rectifier, the smaller will be the amount of
of voltage by approximately one-half the value flattening of the a -c wave as a result of the
of the load resistance in the circuit (R1, or R2 rectifier action.
plus R2, in this case). Also, the peak voltage
reading on the meter will be slightly less than Measurement Audio frequency or radio fre-
the actual peak voltage being measured. The of Power quency power in a resistive
amount of lowering of the reading is deter- circuit is most commonly and
mined by the ratio of the reactance of the most easily determined by the indirect method,
storage capacitance to the load resistance. If i.e., through the use of one of the following
a cathode-ray oscilloscope is placed across the formulas:
terminals of the v.t.v.m. when a voltage is be- P =EI P =E2/R P =I °R
ing measured, the actual amount of the lower- These three formulas mean that if any two of
ing in voltage may be determined by inspection the three factors determining power are known
the exact resistance for different values of
current through the resistor.
Sine-wave power measurements (r -f or sin -
gle- frequency audio) may also be made
through the use of a v.t.v.m. and a resistor of
known value. In fact a v.t.v.m. of the type
shown in figure 6 is particularly suited to this
work. The formula, P = E' /R is used in this
case. However, it must be remembered that
a v.t.v.m. of the type shown in figure 6 indi-
cates the peak value of the a -c wave. This
reading must be converted to the r-m -s or
heating value of the wave by multiplying it
by 0.707 before substituting the voltage value
in the formula. The same result can be ob-
tained by using the formula P = E' /2R.
Thus all three methods of determining pow-
er, ammeter- resistor, voltmeter -resistor, and
voltmeter- ammeter, give an excellent cross-
check upon the accuracy of the determination
and upon the accuracy of the standards.
Power may also be measured through the
use of a calorimeter, by actually measuring the
amount of heat being dissipated. Through the
Figure 7 use of a water- cooled dummy load resistor this
method of power output determination is being
100 -WATT DUMMY LOAD SUITABLE FOR used by some of the most modern broadcast
RANGER, OR SIMILAR TYPE
TRANSMITTER stations. But the method is too cumbersome
for ordinary power determinations.
Power may also be determined photometri-
cally through the use of a voltmeter, ammeter,
(resistance, current, voltage) the power being incandescent lamp used as a load resistor, and
dissipated may be determined. In an ordinary a photographic exposure meter. With this
120 -volt a -c line circuit the above formulas method the exposure meter is used to deter-
the load must be multiplied into the result
or a direct method of determining power such
-
are not strictly true since the power factor of mine the relative visual output of the lamp
running as a dummy load resistor and of the
lamp running from the 120 -volt a -c line. A
as a wattmeter may be used. But in a resistive rheostat in series with the lead from the a -c
a -f circuit and in a resonant r -f circuit the line to the lamp is used to vary its light inten-
power factor of the load is taken as being sity to the same value (as indicated by the ex-
unity. posure meter) as it was putting out as a dum-
For accurate measurement of a -f and r -f my load. The a -c voltmeter in parallel with the
power, a thermogalvanometer or thermocouple lamp and ammeter in series with it is then
ammeter in series with a non -inductive resis- used to determine lamp power input by:
tor of known resistance can be used. The me- P = EI. This method of power determination
ter should have good accuracy, and the exact is satisfactory for audio and low frequency
value of resistance should be known with ac- r.f. but is not satisfactory for v -h -f work be-
curacy. Suitable dummy load resistors are cause of variations in lamp efficiency due to
available in various resistances in both 100 uneven heating of the filament.
and 250 -watt ratings. These are virtually non-
inductive, and may be considered as a pure Dummy Loads Lamp bulbs make poor dummy
resistance up to 30 Mc. The resistance of loads for r-f work, in general,
these units is substantially constant for all as they have considerable reactance above 2
values of current up to the maximum dissipa- Mc., and the resistance of the lamp varies with
tion rating, but where extreme accuracy is re- the amount of current passing through it.
quired, a correction chart of the dissipation A suitable r -f load for powers up to a few
coefficient of resistance (supplied by the manu- watts may be made by paralleling 2 -watt corn -
facturer) may be employed. This chart shows position resistors of suitable value to make
HANDBOOK Measurement of Constants 727 -B
a 50 -ohm resistor of 5 or 10 watts dissipation.

The resistors should be mounted in a compact
bundle, with short interconnecting leads.
For powers of 100 and 250 watts, the
Ohmite models D -101 and D -251 low in-
ductance resistors may be used as dummy an-
tennas. A D -101 resistor mounted on a small
metal chassis with a r-f ammeter and coaxial
plug is shown in figure 7. The Ohmite D -250
resistor may be employed in such a configura-
tion for higher power.
A dummy load capable of taking the output SHIELD ENCLOSURE
of a plate- modulated 1- kilowatt transmitter is

shown in figure 8. The load is made up of ten R - TEN 500 -OHM. 100 -WATT NON -INDUCTIVE RESISTORS
IN PARALLEL (OMM/TE 2409)
160 -watt, 500 -ohm Ohmite type 2409 non-
inductive resistors. These resistors are mounted
between two aluminum end plates measuring Figure 8
4 inches in diameter. The assembly is then 1.6- KILOWATT DUMMY LOAD SCHEMATIC
end mounted by means of 1" ceramic insula-
tors to an aluminum chassis containing the
r -f ammeter and an SO -239 coaxial receptacle. obtain the approximate value of the impedance
This dummy load presents a good approxi- directly from the scale of the meter. If the
mation of a 50 -ohm, 1600 -watt resistor up component is a capacitor, the value of im-
to approximately 8 Mc. Above this frequency, pedance may be taken as its reactance at the
it becomes increasingly reactive. It may be measurement frequency and the capacitance
used up to 30 Mc., if it is remembered that determined accordingly. But the d-c resistance
the reading of the r -f ammeter no longer is of an inductor must also be taken into con-
an absolute indication of the resistive power sideration in determining its inductance. After
dissipation of the load. For use on the 20, the d-c resistance and the impedance have
15 and 10 meter bands, it is recommended been determined, the reactance may be deter-
that the coaxial line coupling the dummy load mined from the formula: Xr. = V Z'-R'.
to the transmitter either be restricted to a Then the inductance may be determined from:
length of two feet or less, or else be made L = XI. /27rf.
an electrical half -wavelength long. This will
The Substitution The substitution method is
insure that a minimum of reactance will be
coupled back into the transmitter. Method satisfactory system for
a
obtaining the inductance or
Measurement capacitance of high -frequency components. A
34 -2 large variable capacitor with a good dial hav-
of Circuit Constants ing an accurate calibration curve is a neces-
The measurement of the resistance, capaci- sity for making determinations by this method.
tance, inductance, and Q (figure of merit) of If an unknown inductor is to be measured, it is
the components used in communications work connected in parallel with the standard capaci-
can be divided into three general methods: tor and the combination tuned accurately to
the impedance method, the substitution or reso- some known frequency. This tuning may be
nance method, and the bridge method. accomplished either by using the tuned circuit
as a wavemeter and coupling it to the tuned
The Impedance The impedance method of circuit of a reference oscillator, or by using
Method measuring inductance and the tuned circuit in the controlling position of
capacitance can be likened to a two terminal oscillator such as a dynatron
the ohmmeter method for measuring resistance. or transitron. The capacitance required to tune
An a-c voltmeter, or milliammeter in series this first frequency is then noted as G. The
with a resistor, is connected in series with circuit or the oscillator is then tuned to the
the inductance or capacitance to be measured second harmonic of this first frequency and
and the a -c line. The reading of the meter will the amount of capacitance again noted, this
be inversely proportional to the impedance of time as G. Then the distributed capacitance
the component being measured. After the me- across the coil (including all stray capaci-
ter has been calibrated it will be possible to tances) is equal to: C9= (C1- 4C=)/3.
terminations accurate to four significant fig-
ures. With an a -c bridge operating within its
normal rating as to frequency and range of
measurement it is possible to obtain results
accurate to three significant figures.
Both the a -c and the d -c bridges consist of
s2 s2 a source of energy, a standard or reference of
Rx_ R
RB
Rs Rx= Rg
Rs measurement, a means of balancing this stand-
ard against the unknown, and a means of in-
Figure 9
dicating when this balance has been reached.
The source of energy in the d -c bridge is a
TWO WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUITS battery; the indicator is a sensitive galvanome-
These circuits are used for the measurement ter. In the a -c bridge the source of energy
of d -c resistance. In (A) the "ratio arms" R,,
is an audio oscillator (usually in the vicinity
end R are fixed and balancing of the bridge
is accomplished by variation of the standard of 1000 cycles), and the indicator is usually
Rs. The standard in this case usually con- a pair of headphones. The standard for the d-c
sists of a decade box giving resistance in bridge is a resistance, usually in the form of
1 -ohm steps from 0 to 1110 or to 11,110 ohms. a decade box. Standards for the a -c bridge can
In (B) a fixed standard is used for each range
cnd the ratio arm is varied to obtain balance,
be resistance, capacitance, and inductance in
A calibrated slide -wire or potentiometer cali- varying forms.
brated by resistance in terms of degrees is Figure 9 shows two general types of the
usually employed as R, and Rh. It will be Wheatstone or d -c bridge. In (A) the so- called
noticed that the formula for determining the "ratio arms" Rs and RB are fixed (usually in
unknown resistance from Vie known is the
some in either case. a ratio of 1 -to -1, 1- to -10, 1 -to -100, or 1 -to-
1,000) and the standard resistor Rs is varied
until the bridge is in balance. In commercially
This value of distributed capacitance is manufactured bridges there are usually two or
then substituted in the following formula along more buttons on the galvanometer for progres-
with the value of the standard capacitance for sively increasing its sensitivity as balance is
either of the two frequencies of measurement: approached. Figure 9B is the slide wire type
1
of bridge in which fixed standards are used
L- and the ratio arm is continuously variable.
47rsfi'(Ci + Co) The slide wire may actually consist of a mov-
The determination of an unknown capaci- ing contact along a length of wire of uni-
tance is somewhat less complicated than the form cross section in which case the ratio of
above. A tuned circuit including a coil, the RA to Rn may be read off directly in centi-
unknown capacitor and the standard capacitor, meters or inches, or in degrees of rotation if
all in parallel, is resonated to some conveni- the slide wire is bent around a circular former.
ent frequency. The capacitance of the stand- Alternatively, the slide wire may consist of
ard capacitor is noted. Then the unknown ca- linear -wound potentiometer with its dial cali-
pacitor is removed and the circuit re-resonated brated in degrees or in resistance from each
by means of the standard capacitor. The dif- end.
ference between the two readings of the stand-
Figure l0A shows a simple type of a -c
ard capacitor is then equal to the capacitance
bridge for the measurement of capacitance and
of the unknown capacitor.
inductance. It can also, if desired, be used
34-3 Measurements for the measurement of resistance. The four
arms of the bridge may be made up in a va-
with a Bridge riety of ways. As before, Rn and Rs make up
Experience has shown that one of the most the ratio arms of the device and may be either
satisfactory methods for measuring circuit con- of the slide wire type, as indicated, or they
stants (resistance, capacitance, and inductance) may be fixed and a variable standard used to
at audio frequencies is by means of the a-c obtain balance. In any case it is always neces-
bridge. The Wheatstone (d -c) bridge is also sary with this type of bridge to use a standard
one of the most accurate methods for the which presents the same type of impedance as
measurement of d -c resistance. With a simple the unknown being measured: resistance stand-
bridge of the type shown at figure 9A it is ard for a resistance measurement, capacitance
entirely practical to obtain d -c resistance de- standard for capacitance, and inductance stand-
HANDBOOK Frequency Measurement 729 -B
and for inductance determination. Also, it is a

great help in obtaining an accurate balance of
the bridge if a standard of approximately the
same value as the assumed value of the un-
known is employed. Also, the standard should
be of the same general type and should have
approximately the same power factor as the un-
known impedance. If all these precautions are
observed, little trouble will be experienced in
the measurement of resistance and in the
measurement of impedances of the values
usually used in audio and low radio frequency
Zx=
á Zs X = RAB
X5 Rx=Rs
Z5= IMPEDANCE BEING MEASURED, Rs= RESISTANCE CO.PONENTOF Zs
work. Zs= IMPEDANCE OF STANDARD, Xx= REACTANCE COMPONENT OF Z
However, the bridge shown at l0A will R., RESISTANCE COMPONENT OF Zx, XS. REACTANCE COMPONENT OF Zs
not be satisfactory for the measurement of ca-
pacitances smaller than about 1000 µµfd. For
the measurement of capacitances from a few
micro-microfarads to about 0.001 tfd. a Wag-
ner grounded substitution capacitance bridge of
the type shown in figure 10B will be found
satisfactory. The ratio arms RA and RD should
be of the same value within 1 per cent; any
value between 2500 and 10,000 ohms for
both will be satisfactory. The two resistors
Re and RD should be 1000 -ohm wire -wound
potentiometers. Cs should be a straight -line
capacitance capacitor with an accurate vernier Figure 10
dial; 500 to 1000 µµfd. will be satisfactory. TWO A -C BRIDGE CIRCUITS
Ce can be a two or three gang broadcast ca- The operation of these bridges is essentially
pacitor from 700 to 1000 µµfd. maximum ca- the same as those of figure 9 except that
a.c. is fed into the bridge instead of d.c. and
pacitance. a pair of phones is used as the indicator in-
stead of the galvanometer. The bridge shown
The procedure for making a measurement at (A) can be used for the measurement of
is as follows: The unknown capacitor Cx is resistance, but it is usually used for the
measurement of the impedance and reactance
placed in parallel with the standard capacitor of coils and capacitors at frequencies from
Cs;. The Wagner ground RD is varied back and 200 to 1000 cycles. The bridge shown at í8)
is used for the measurement of small values
forth a small amount from the center of its of capacitance by the substitution method.
range until no signal is heard in the phones Full description of the operation of both
bridges is given in the accompanying text.
with the switch S in the center position. Then
the switch S is placed in either of the two out-
side positions, Ce is adjusted to a capaci- in terms of resistance and capacitance, and
tance somewhat greater than the assumed value so forth. Terman's Radio Engineers' Handbook
of the unknown Cx, and the bridge is brought gives an excellent discussion of common types
into balance by variation of the standard ca- of a -c bridge circuits.
pacitor C.. It may be necessary to cut some
resistance in at Re and to switch to the other 34 -4 Frequency
outside position of S before an exact balance Measurements
can be obtained. The setting of Cs is then
noted, Cx is removed from the circuit (but the All frequency measurement within the
leads which went to it are not changed in any United States is based on the transmissions of
way which would alter their mutual capaci- Station W WV of the National Bureau of
tance), and Cs is readjusted until balance is Standards. This station operates continuously
again obtained. The difference in the two set- on frequencies of 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30,
tings of Cs is equal to the capacitance of the and 35 Mc. The carriers of those frequencies
unknown capacitor Cx. below 30 Mc. are modulated alternately by
There are many other types of a -c bridge a 440 -cycle tone or a 600 -cycle tone for pe-
circuits in common use for measuring induct- riods of four minutes each. This tone is in-
ance with a capacitance standard, frequency terrupted at the beginning of the 59th minute
Li x
()
R,
1
-6BA6
- LZ
Ca
SIf.N11L OUT
6.3 V.A.C.
air trimmer
Cz,C,- 0.0003 -µfd. midget mica
C,-50-wild. midget mica
Ci-0.002 -µfd. midget mica
R,, Rr- 100,000 ohms /2 watt
+100- 200 V. Lt- 10 -mh. shielded r -/ choke
Lz-2.1 -mh. r -/ choke
O GROUND X- l00 -kc. crystal
Figure 11
SCHEMATIC OF A 100 -KC. FREQUENCY SPOTTER
of each hour and each five minutes thereafter the wrong harmonic of the oscillator to ob-
for a period of precisely one minute. Green- tain the beat, but with a self -excited oscillator
wich Civil Time is given in code during these it will be wise to insure that the reference
one -minute intervals, followed by a voice an- oscillator is operating exactly on 50, 100, or
nouncement giving Eastern Standard Time. 200 kc. (whichever frequency has been
The accuracy of all radio and audio frequen- chosen) by making sure that zero beat is ob-
cies is better than one part in 50,000,000. tained simultaneously on all the frequencies
A 5000 microsecond pulse (5 cycles of a 1000 - of WWV that can be heard, and by noting
cycle wave) may be heard as a tick for every whether or not the harmonics of the oscillator
second except the 59th second of each minute. in the amateur bands fall on the approximate
These standard -frequency transmissions of calibration marks of the receiver.
station WWV may be used for accurately de- A simple frequency spotter is diagrammed
termining the limits of the various amateur in figure 11.
bands with the aid of the station communica-
tions receiver and a 50 -kc., 100 -kc., or 200 - 34-5 Antenna and
kc. band -edge spotter. The low frequency oscil- Transmission
lator may be self- excited if desired, but low Line Measurements
frequency standard crystals have become so
relatively inexpensive that a reference crystal The degree of adjustment of any amateur
may be purchased for very little more than antenna can be judged by the study of the
the cost of the components for a self -excited standing -wave ratio on the transmission line
oscillator. The crystal has the additional advan- feeding the antenna. Various types nstru-
tage that it may be once set so that its har- ments have been designed to measure the
monics are at zero beat with WWV and then s.r.w. present on the transmission line, or to
left with only an occasional check to see that measure the actual radiation resistance of the
the frequency has not drifted more than a antenna in question. The most important of
few cycles. The self- excited oscillator, on the these instruments are the slotted line, the
other hand, must be monitored very frequent- bridge -type s -w -r meter, and the antennascope.
ly to insure that it is on frequency. The Slotted Line
It is obviously impractical
to measure the voltage -
Using a To use a frequency spotter it is standing-wave ratio in a length of coaxial line
Frequency only necessary to couple the out- since the voltages and currents inside the line
Spotter put of the oscillator unit to the are completely shielded by the outer conductor
antenna terminal of the receiver of the cable. Hence it is necessary to insert
through a very small capacitance such as might some type of instrument into a section of the
be made by twisting two pieces of insulated line in order to be able to ascertain the con-
hookup wire together. Station WWV is then ditions which are taking place inside the
tuned in on one of its harmonics, 15 Mc. shielded line. Where measurements of a high
will usually be best in the daytime and 5 or degree of accuracy are required, the slotted
10 Mc. at night, and the trimmer adjustment line is the instrument most frequently used.
on the oscillator is varied until zero beat is Such an instrument, diagrammed in figure 12,
obtained between the harmonic of the oscil- is an item of test equipment which could be
lator and WWV. With a crystal reference constructed in a home workshop which in-
oscillator no difficulty will be had with using cluded a lathe and other metal working tools.
HANDBOOK Antenna Measurements 731
TAPER PROBE INNER CO TAPER

f1 ING
C°AXNG
OUTRUT
TO
ANTENNA
FEED LINE
CARRIER SLOT IN OUTER
FOR PROBE SLIDER CONDUCTOR
CARRYING
PROBE
Figure 12
DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION
OF A SLOTTED LINE
The conductor ratios in the slotted line, in-
cluding the tapered end sections should be
such that the characteristic impedance of the Figure 13
equipment is the some as that of the trans-
mission line with which the equipment is to RESISTOR- BRIDGE
be used. The indicating instrument may be STANDING -WAVE INDICATOR
operated by the d -c output of the rectifier This type of test equipment is suitable
coupled to the probe, or it may be operated for use with coaxial feed lines.
by the a -c components of the rectified signal
if the signal generator or transmitter is am- C,- 0.001 -pfd. midget ceramic capacitor
plitude modulated by a constant percentage. C; C, -.001 disc ceramic
R,, R-22 -ohm 2 -watt carbon resistors
R,- Resistor equal in resistance to the charac-
teristic impedance of the coaxial transmis-
Commercially built slotted lines are very ex- sion line to be used (1 watt)
R. -5000 -ohm wire -wound potentiometer
pensive since they are constructed with a high R: 10,000 -ohm -watt resistor
RFC -R -f choke suitable for operation at the
1
degree of accuracy for precise laboratory work. measurement frequency

The slotted line consists essentially of a
section of air -dielectric line having the same
characteristic impedance as the transmission axial transmission lines. A simplified version
line into which it is inserted. Tapered fittings is available from M. C. Jones Electronics Co.,
for the transmission line connectors at each Bristol, Conn. ( "Micro- Match ") .
end of the slotted line usually are required due One type of bridge standing-wave indicator
to differences in the diameters of the slotted is diagrammed in figure 13. This type of in-
line and the line into which it is inserted. A strument compares the electrical impedance of
narrow slot from %g -inch to 1/4 -inch in width the transmission line with that of the resistor
is cut into the outer conductor of the line. A Rs which is included within the unit. Experi-
probe then is inserted into the slot so that it ence with such units has shown that the re-
is coupled to the field inside the line. Some sistor Rs should be a good grade of non- induc-
sort of accurately machined track or lead screw tive carbon type. The Ohmite "Little Devil"
must be provided to insure that the probe type resistor in the 2 -watt rating has given
maintains a constant spacing from the inner good performance. The resistance at R3 should
conductor as it is moved from one end of the be equal to the characteristic impedance of
slotted line to the other. The probe usually the antenna transmission line. In other words,
includes some type of rectifying element this resistor should have a value of 52 ohms
whose output is fed to an indicating instru- for lines having this characteristic impedance
ment alongside the slotted line. such as RG -8/U and RG-58/U. For use with
The unfortunate part of the slotted-line sys- lines having a nominal characteristic im-
tem of measurement is that the line must be pedance of 70 ohms, a selected "68 ohm" re-
somewhat over one-half wavelength long at sistor having an actual resistance of 70 ohms
the test frequency, and for best results should may be used.
be a full wavelength long. This requirement is Balance within the equipment is checked by
easily met at frequencies of 420 Mc. and above mounting a resistor, equal in value to the
where a full wavelength is 28 inches or less. nominal characteristic impedance of the line
But for the lower frequencies such an instru- to be used, on a coaxial plug of the type used
ment is mechanically impracticable. on the end of the antenna feed line. Then
this plug is inserted into the input receptacle
Bridge -Type The bridge type of standing- of the instrument and a power of 2 to 4 watts
Standing -Wave wave indicator is used quite applied to the output receptacle on the desired
Indicators generally for making meas- frequency of operation. Note that the signal
urements on commercial co- is passed through the bridge in the direction
732 Test Equipment THE RADIO
.49 REFLECTOMETER
23 OUTER SNELL
23
20
1e iNP. INNER CONDUCTOR OUT.
J1
15
12
109
e
7
e
5
4.3
4
3.5
3
51
-
2.5
2 A - ZR - ZO
FORWARD
POWER
REFLECTEDI
POWER
ZR+Zo
1.3 S W R- I
I
t- IAI
AI
INDICATOR
.25 COMPONENT PARTS
1 END DISC = 2 3/6" DIAMETER X 1/4" (2 REQ.)
0 01 02 03 04 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 09 10
OUTER SNELL= 2 3/8" I.D. z 6" (1 REQ. )
READING ON 0 -1 INSTRUMENT, OR FACTOR TIMES FULL SCALE ALIGNMENT ROD" 1/4 DIAMETER % S 1/2" (2 REQ )
(MAGNITUDE OF REFLECTION COEFFICIENT, A) INNER CONDUCTOR= 1/2" DIAMETER x 5 1/6 ", TAPER ENDS
TO SOLDER TO RECEPTACLES (2 REQ
Figure 14 )
RECEPTACLES = SO -239 (2 REQ.) (J,,J2 )
RELATION BETWEEN STANDING - BINDING POSTS= (3 REQ.)

WAVE RATIO AND REFLECTION
COEFFICIENT Figure 15
This chart may be used to convert reflection - SCHEMATIC, REFLECTOMETER
coefficient indications such as are obtained D.,
R,
D- Crystal
-270 ohm,
diode, 1N34A or 1N82
1 watt composition resistor.
with a bridge -type standing -wave indicator /RC type BTA, matched pair.
or an indicating twin lamp into values of M-0 -1 d.c. milliammeter
standing -wave ratio. J,, J:-
Coaxial receptacle, 50 -239.
opposite to normal for this test. The resistor figure 13 must be inserted into the line for a
R. is adjusted for full -scale deflection on the measurement, and then removed from the line
0 -100 microammeter. Then the plugs are re- when the equipment is to be operated. Also,
versed so that the test signal passes through the power input to the line feeding the input
the instrument in the direction indicated by terminal of the standing -wave indicator must
the arrow on figure 13, and the power level not exceed 4 watts. The power level which the
is maintained the same as before. If the test unit can accept is determined by the dissipa-
resistor is matched to R3, and stray capacitances tion limitation of resistors RI plus R.
have been held to low values, the indication It is also important, for satisfactory opera-
on the milliammeter will be very small. The tion of the test unir, that resistors R1 and R2
test plug with its resistor is removed and the be exactly equal in value. The actual resist-
plug fcr the antenna transmission line is in- ance of these two is not critically important,
serted. The meter indication now will read and deviations up to 10 per cent from the
the reflection coefficient which exists on the value given in figure 13 will be satisfactory.
antenna transmission line at the point where But the two resistors must have the same value,
the indicator has been inserted. From this whether they are both 21 ohms or 24 ohms,
reading of reflection coefficient the actual or some value in between.
standing-wave ratio on the transmission line
may be determined by reference to the chart 34 -6 A Simple
of figure 14. Coaxial Reflectometer
Measurements of this type are quite helpful
in determining whether or not the antenna is The reflectometer is a short section of co-
presenting a good impedance match to the axial transmission line containing two r -f volt-
transmission line being used to feed it. How- meters. One voltmeter reads the incident com-
ever, a test instrument of the type shown in ponent of voltage in the line, and the other
HANDBOOK Reflectometer 733
Figure 16
INTERIOR VIEW OF COAXIAL REFLECTOMETER
The Reflectometer is a short section of transmission line containing two r -f voltmeters. Center conductor
of line is o section of brass rod soldered to center pins of input and output receptacles. At either end
of unit are the crystal diodes, bypass capacitors and terminals. Diode load resistors are at center of
instrument, grounded to brass alignment rod.
reads the reflected component. The magnitude ponent. Careful attention to physical symmetry
of standing wave ratio on the transmission of the assembly insures accurate and complete
line is the ratio of the incident component separation of the voltage components by the
to the reflected component, as shown in fig- two voltmeters. The outputs of the two volt-
ure 14. In actual use, calibration of the re- meters may be selected and read on an ex-
flectometer is not required since the relative ternal meter connected to the terminal posts
reading of reflected power indicates the de- of the reflectometer.
gree of match or mis -match and all antenna Each r-f voltmeter is composed of a load
and transmission line adjustments should be resistor and a pickup loop. The pickup loop
conducted so as to make this reading as low is positioned parallel to a section of transmis-
as possible, regardless of its absolute value. sion line permitting both inductive and ca-
The actual meter readings obtained from pacative coupling to exist between the center
the device are a function of the operating fre- conductor of the line and the loop. The di-
quency, the sensitivity of the instrument being mensions of the center conductor and the
a function of transmitter power, increasing outer shield of the reflectometer are chosen
rapidly as the frequency of operation is in- so that the instrument impedance closely
creased. However, the reflectometer is inval- matches that of the transmission line.
uable in that it may be left permanently in
the transmission line, regardless of the power Reflectometer A view of the interior of the
output level of the transmitter. It will indi- Construction reflectometer is shown in fig-
cate the degree of reflected power in the an- ure 16. The coaxial input and
tenna system, and at the same time provide output connectors of the instrument are
a visual indication of the power output of mounted on machined brass discs that are
the transmitter. held in place by brass alignment rods, tapped
at each end. The center conductor is machined
Reflectometer The circuit and assembly in- from a short section of brass rod, tapered and
Circuit formation for the reflectometer drilled at each end to fit over the center pin
are given in figure 15. Two of each coaxial receptacle. The end discs, the
diode voltmeters are coupled back -to -back to rods, and the center conductor should be sil-
a short length of transmission line. The com- ver plated before assembly. When the center
bined inductive and capacative pickup between conductor is placed in position, it is soldered
each voltmeter and the line is such that the at each end to the center pin of the coaxial
incident component of the line voltage is bal- receptacles.
anced out in one case and the inductive com- One of the alignment rods is drilled and
ponent is balanced out in the other case. Each tapped for a 6 -32 bolt at the mid -point, and
voltmeter, therefore, reads only one wave -com- the end discs are drilled to hold 1/2 -inch
ceramic insulators and binding posts, as shown If a reflected reading of zero is not obtain-
in the photograph. The load resistors, crystal able, the harmonic content of the r-f source
diodes, and bypass capacitors are finally might be causing a slight residual meter read-
mounted in the assembly as the last step. ing. Coupling the reflectometer to the r -f
The two load resistors should be measured source through a tuned circuit ( "antenna
on an ohmmeter to ensure that the resistance tuner ") will remove the offending harmonic
values are equal. The exact value of resistance and permit an accurate null indication. Be
is unimportant as long as the two resistors sure to hold the r -f input power to a low
are equal. The diodes should also be checked value to prevent overheating the dummy load
on an ohmmeter to make sure that the front resistors.
resistances and back resistances are balanced
between the units. Care should be taken dur- Using the The bridge may be used up to
ing soldering to ensure the diodes and resis- Reflcctometer 150 Mc. It is placed in the
tors are not overheated. Observe that the re- transmission line at a conveni-
sistor leads are of equal length and that each ent point, preferably before any tuner, balun,
half of the assembly is a mirror -image of the or TVI filter. The indicator should be set to
other half. The body of the resistor is spaced read forward power, with a maximum of re-
about 1/2-inch away from the center conduc- sistance in the circuit. Power is applied and
tor. the indicator resistor is adjusted for a full
scale reading. The switch is then thrown to
Testing the The instrument can be ad- read reflected power ( indicated as A, figure
Reflcctometer justed on the 28 Mc. band. 14) . Assume that the forward power meter
An r -f source of a few watts reading is 1.0 and the reflected power read-
and nonreactive load are required. The con- ing is 0.5. Substituting these values in the
struction of the reflectometer is such that it SWR formula of figure 14 shows the SWR
will work well with either 52- or 72 -ohm to be 3. If forward power is always set to
coaxial transmission lines. A suitable dummy 1.0 on the meter, the reflected power (A)
load for the 52-ohm line can be made of four can be read directly from the curve of figure
220 ohm, 2 watt composition resistors (Ohm - 14 with little error.
ite "Little Devil ") connected in parallel. Clip If the meter is adjusted so as to provide a
the leads of the resistors short and mount half-scale reading of the forward power, the
them on a coaxial plug. This assembly pro- reflectometer may be used as a transmitter
vides an eight watt, 55 ohm load, suitable power output meter. Tuning adjustments may
for use at 30 Mc. If an accurate ohmmeter then be undertaken to provide greatest meter
is at hand, the resistors may be hand picked reading.
to obtain four 208 ohm units, thus making
the dummy load resistors exactly 52 ohms. 34 -7 Measurements
For all practical purposes, the 55 ohm load on Balanced
is satisfactory. A 75 ohm, eight watt load Transmission Lines
resistor may be made of four 300 ohm, 2
watt composition resistors connected in paral- Measurements made on balanced transmis-
lel. sion lines may be conducted in the same man-
R -f power is coupled to the reflectometer ner as those made on coaxial lines. In the
and the dummy load is placed in the "output" case of the coaxial lines, care must be taken
receptacle. The indicator meter is switched to to prevent flow of r -f current on the outer
the "reflected power" position. The meter read- surface of the line as this unwanted compo-
ing should be almost zero. It may be brought nent will introduce errors in measurements
to zero by removing the case of the instru- made on the line. In like fashion, the cur-
ment and adjusting the position of the load rents in a balanced transmission line must
resistor. The actual length of wire in the resis- be 180 degrees out of phase and balanced
tor lead and its positioning determine the meter with respect to ground in order to obtain a
null. Replace the case before power is applied realistic relationship between incident and re-
to the reflectometer. The reflectometer is now flected power. This situation is not always
reversed and power is applied to the "output" easy to obtain in practice because of the prox-
receptacle, with a dummy load attached to imity effects of metallic objects or the earth
the "input" receptacle. The second voltmeter to the transmission line. All transmission line
(forward power) is adjusted for a null read- measurements, therefore, should be conducted
ing of the meter in the same manner. with the realization of the physical limitations
HANDBOOK S.W.R. Indicator 735
tic t IL IL t lc
Figure 18
OPERATION OF THE "TWIN LAMP"
TWIN LEAD TRANSMISSION INDICATOR
LINE TO ANTENNA
Figure 17 Showing current flow resulting from inductive

and capacitive fields in a "twin lamp" attached
SKETCH OF THE "TWIN- LAMP" to a line with a low standing -wave ratio.
TYPE OF S -W -R INDICATOR
The short section of line with lamps of each
end usually taped to the main transmission
is
standing -wave ratio is high the twin -lamp
line with plastic electrical tope. merely indicates that they are high without
giving any idea of the actual magnitude.
of the equipment and the measuring technique Operation of The twin lamp operates by
that is being used. the Twin -Lamp virtue of the fact that the ca-
Measurements on One of the most satisfactory pacitive and inductive cou-
Molded Parallel- and least expensive devices pling of the wire making up one side of the
Wire Lines for obtaining a rough idea twin -lamp is much greater to the transmission -
of the standing -wave ratio line lead immediately adjacent to it than to
on a transmission line of the molded parallel - the transmission -line lead on the other side.
wire type is the twin -lamp. This ingenious in- The same is of course true of the wire on the
strument may be constructed of new compon- other side of the twin -lamp and the transmis-
ents for a total cost of about 25 cents; this sion -line lead adjacent to it. A further condi-
fact alone places the twin-lamp in a class by tion which must be met for the twin -lamp to
itself as far as test instruments are concerned. operate is that the section of line making up
Figure 17 shows a sketch of a twin -lamp in- the twin -lamp must be short with respect to a
dicator. The indicating portion of the system quarter wavelength. Then the current due to
consists merely of a length of 300 -ohm Twin - capacitive coupling passes through both lamps
Lead about 10 inches long with a dial lamp at in the same direction, while the current due to
each end. In the unit illustrated the dial lamps inductive coupling between the leads of the
are standard 6.3 -volt 150 -ma. bayonet -base twin -lamp and the leads of the antenna trans-
lamps. The lamps are soldered to the two leads mission line passes through the two lamps in
at each end of the short section of Twin -Lead. opposite directions. Hence, in a line without
To make a measurement the short section reflections, the two currents will cancel in
of line with the lamps at each end is merely one lamp while the other lamp is lighted due
taped to the section of Twin -Lead (or other to the sum of the currents (figure 18) .
similar transmission line) running from the The basic fact which makes the twin -lamp a
transmitter or from the antenna changeover re- directional coupler is a result of the condition
lay to the antenna system. When there are no whereby the capacitive coupling is a ¿calar
standing waves on the antenna transmission action not dependent upon the direction of the
line the lamp toward the transmitter will light waves passing down the line, yet the inductive
while the one toward the antenna will not coupling is a vector action which is dependent
light. With 300 -ohm Twin -Lead running from upon the direction of wave propagation down
the antenna changeover relay to the antenna, the line. Thus the capacitive current is the
and with about 200 watts input on the 28 -Mc. same and is in the same phase for energy
band, the dial lamp toward the transmitter will travelling in either direction down the line.
light nearly to full brilliancy. With a standing - But the inductive current travels in one direc-
wave ratio of about 1.5 to 1 on the transmis- tion for energy travelling in one direction and
sion line to the antenna the lamp toward the in the other direction for energy going the
antenna will just begin to light. With a high other direction. Hence the two currents add at
standing -wave ratio on the antenna feed line one end of the line for a wave passing toward
both lamps will light nearly to full brilliancy. the antenna, while the currents add at the
Hence the instrument gives an indication of other end of the twin -lamp for the waves re-
relatively low standing waves, but when the flected from the antenna. When the waves are
736 Test Equipment
Figure 19
SWR BRIDGE FOR BALANCED
TRANSMISSION LINE
A double bridge can be used for two wire
transmission lines. Bridge is inserted in line
and may be driven with grid -dip oscillator or
SET FULL other low power r -f source.
SCALE
show the degree of departure. When the line

currents are balanced and 180 degrees out of
phase, the meter will read the true value of
CALIBRATE
standing wave ratio on the line. If these con-
ditions are not met, the reading is not abso-
lute, merely giving an indication of the degree
of mis -match in the line. This handicap is not
important, since the relative, not the absolute,
degree of mis -match is sufficient for transmis-
sion line adjustments to be made.
strongly reflected upon reaching the antenna, Bridge A suggested method of con -
the reflected wave is nearly the same as the Construction struction of the balanced bridge
direct wave, and both lamps will light. This is illustrated in figures 19 and
condition of strong reflection from the antenna 21. The unit is constructed within a box mea-
system is that which results in a high stand- suring 4" x 6" x 2" in size. The 0 - 200 d.c.
ing- wave ratio on the antenna feed line. microammeter is placed in the center of the
4" x 6" side of the case. The input and output
Use of the The twin -lamp is best connectors of the instrument are placed on
Twin Lamp with suited for use with an- each end of the box and the internal wiring
Various Feed Lines tenna transmission lines is arranged so that the transmission line, in
of the flat ribbon type. effect, passes in one side of the box and out
Lines with a high power rating are available the other with as little discontinuity as possi-
in impedances of 75 ohms, 205 ohms, and 300 ble. The input and output terminals are mount-
ohms in the flat ribbon type. In addition, one ed on phenolic plates placed over large cut-
manufacturer makes a 300 -ohm line in two outs in the ends of the box, thus reducing
power -level ratings with a tubular cross sec- circuit capacity to ground to a minimum value.
tion. A twin -lamp made from flat 300 -ohm The "SWR -CAL" switch S, is located on one
line may be used with this tubular line by side of the meter and the "Calibrate" poten-
taping the twin -lamp tightly to the tubular tiometer R, is placed on the opposite side.
line so that the conductors of the twin -lamp The transmission line within the unit is
are as close as possible on each side of the con-
ductors of the antenna line. Ri
250
34 -8 A "Balanced"
SWR Bridge
Two resistor -type standing wave indicators
may be placed "back-to-back" to form a SWR
bridge capable of being used on two wire
balanced transmission lines. Such a bridge is
shown in figures 19 and 21. The schematic of
such an instrument (figure 20) may be com- 250
pared to two of the simple bridges shown in R,
figure 13. When the dual bridge circuit is Figure 20
balanced the meter reading is zero. This state SCHEMATIC OF BRIDGE FOR
is reached when the line currents are equal BALANCED LINES
and exactly 180 degrees out of phase and the M-0 -200 d -c microammeter
R, -Note: Six 250 ohm resistors are composi-
SWR unity.
is tion, non -inductive units. IBC type BT, or
As the condition of the line departs from Ohmite "Little Devil" 1 -watt resistors may
be used. (see text)
the optimum, the meter of the bridge will S -DPDT rotary switch. Centralab type 1464
Figure 21
INTERIOR VIEW OF
BALANCED BRIDGE
SHOWING PARTS
PLACEMENT
Diode rectifiers are placed
at right angles to the
short section of trans-
mission line. Both sides
of bridge are balanced
to ground by virtue of
symmetrical construction L
of unit.
broken by two 250 ohm composition resistors for the meter scale. The ratio of the external
and switch The line segments are made of resistor to the design value of the bridge will
short pieces of #10 copper wire, running be- provide the SWR value for any given meter
tween the various components. Spacing be- reading. For example, a 1000 ohm resistor
tween the wires is held close to three inches has a ratio of 1000/500, and will give an indi-
to approximate a 500 -600 ohm line.
cated SWR reading of 2. A 1500 ohm resistor
The small components of the bridge are
placed symmetrically about the 250 ohm series will give an indicated reading of 3, a 2000
line resistors and the calibrating potentiometer, ohm resistor will provide a reading of 4, and
as can be seen in figure 21. Exact parts place- so on. Before each measurement is recorded,
ment is not critical, except that the crystal the calibrate control should be set to a full
diodes should be placed at right angles to scale reading with SI open.
the wires of the transmission line to reduce This simple system of calibration will lead
capacative pickup. The two r -f chokes should to slight errors in calibration if the regulation
then be placed at right angles to the diodes. of the r -f source is poor. That is, a change in
The six 250 ohm resistors are checked on an the external calibrating resistance will produce
ohmmeter and should be hand- picked to ob- a varying load on the r -f generator which could
tain units that are reasonably close in value. easily cause a change in the power applied to
If it is desired to use the bridge with a 600 the bridge. A separate diode r -f voltmeter
ohm line, the value of these resistors should placed across the pickup loop will enable the
be increased to 300 ohms each. Excessive heat input voltage to be held to a constant value
should not be used in soldering either the re- and will provide somewhat more accurate
sistors or the diodes to ensure that their char- bridge calibration.
acteristics will not be altered by application of
Using the The bridge is placed in the trans -
high temperatures over an extended period.
Bridge mission line and driven from a
Testing the When the instrument is low powered source having a min-
Balanced Bridge completed, a grid -dip meter imum of harmonic content. Several measure-
may be coupled to the in- ments should be made at various frequencies
put terminals via a two turn link. Be careful within the range of antenna operation. The
not to pin the bridge meter. Place switch Si in selector switch is set to the "Cal." position and
the "Calibrate' (open) position. Set the grid the "Calibrate" potentiometer is adjusted for
dip meter in the 10 -Mc. to 20 -Mc. range and full scale meter reading. The switch is then
adjust the link and calibration control RI for set to the "SWR" position and a reading is
full scale meter reading. A 500 ohm carbon taken. This reading and others taken at various
resistor placed across the output terminals of frequencies may be plotted on a graph to pro-
the unit should produce a zero meter reading vide a "SWR curve" for the particular antenna
when S, is set to the "SWR" position. Various and transmission line. Antenna adjustments
values of resistance may now be placed across and line balancing operations may now be
the meter terminals to obtain calibration points conducted to provide a smooth SWR curve,
737
R 2
Figure 23
SCHEMATIC, ANTENNASCOPE
R. -1000ohm composition potentiometer ohm -
ite type AB or Allen Bradley typo J,
linear taper
Rr-50 ohm, -watt composition resistor, !RC
1
type BT, or ohmite "Little Devil" (see

M -0text)
-200 d -c microammeter
netted across the bridge, it will indicate a

voltage null at bridge balance. The radiation
resistance of the antenna may then be read di-
rectly from the calibrated resistor of the in-
strument.
When the antenna under test is in a non -
resonant or reactive state, the null indication
on the meter of the Antennascope will be in-
complete. The frequency of the exciting sig-
nal must then be moved to the resonant fre-
quency of the antenna to obtain accurate read-
ings of radiation resistance from the dial of
the instrument.
Figure 22 A typical Antennascope is shown in figures
THE ANTENNASCOPE 22 and 24, and the schematic is shown in fig-
The radiation resistance of r-f loads connected ure 23. A 1000 ohm non -inductive carbon po-
across the output receptacle may be quickly
determined by a direct dial reading. The An- tentiometer serves as the variable leg of the
tennascope may be driven with a grid -dip bridge. The other legs are composed of the 50
oscillator, covering r -f impedance range of S
to 1000 ohms. ohm composition resistor and the radiation re-
sistance of the antenna. If the radiation resis-
tance of the external load or antenna is 50
with the point of minimum SWR occuring at ohms and the potentiometer is set at mid -scale
the chosen design frequency of the antenna in- the bridge is in balance and the diode volt-
stallation. The complete adjustment and check- meter will read zero. If the radiation resistance
out procedure for an antenna and transmission of the antenna is any value other than 50
line system is covered in the Beam Antenna ohms, the bridge may be balanced to this new
Handbook, published by Radio Publications, value by varying the position of the potentio-
Inc., Wilton, Conn. meter. Bridge balance may be obtained with
non -reactive loads in the range of 5 ohms to
34 -9 The Antennascope 1000 ohms with this simple circuit. When
measurements are conducted at the resonant
The Antennascope is a modified SWR frequency of the antenna system the radiation
bridge in which one leg of the bridge is com- resistance of the installation may be read di-
posed of a non -inductive variable resistor. This rectly from the calibrated dial of the Anten-
resistor is calibrated in ohms, and when its nascope. Conversely, a null reading of the in-
setting is equal to the radiation resistance of strument will occur at the resonant frequency,
the antenna under test the bridge is in a bal- which may easily be found with the aid of a
anced state. If a sensitive voltmeter is con- calibrated receiver or frequency meter.
HANDBOOK Antennascope 739
Constructing the The Antennascope is built

Antennoscope within a sheet metal case
measuring 3" x 6" x 2 ".
The indicating meter is placed at the top of
the case, and the r -f bridge occupies the lower
portion of the box. The input and output co-
axial fittings are mounted on each side of the
box and the non -inductive 50 ohm resistor is
soldered between the center terminals of the
receptacles.
The calibrating potentiometer (Rt) is
mounted upon a phenolic plate placed over a
3/4-inch hole drilled in the front of the box.
This reduces the capacity to ground of the po-
tentiometer to a minimum. Placement of the
small components within the box may be seen
in figure 24. Care should be taken to mount
the crystal diode at right angles to the 50 ohm
resistor to reduce capacity coupling between
the components.
The upper frequency limit of accuracy of
the Antennascope is determined by the as-
sembly technique. The unit shown will work
with good accuracy to approximately 100 Mc.
Above this frequency, the self -inductance of the
leads prevents a perfect null from being ob-
tained. For operation in the VHF region, it
would be wise to rearrange the components to
reduce lead length to an absolute minimum, 411'0q.
and to use 1/4 -inch copper strap for the r-f

leads instead of wire.
Testing the When the instrument is corn -

Antennoscope pleted, a grid -dip meter may
be coupled to the input recep-
tacle of the Antennascope by means of a two
turn link. The frequency of excitation should
be in the 10 Mc. -20 Mc. region. Coupling Figure 24
should be adjusted to obtain a half -scale read- PLACEMENT OF PARTS WITHIN
ing of the meter. Various values of 1 -watt THE ANTENNASCOPE
composition resistors up to 1000 ohms are With the length of leads shown this model
is useful up to about 100 Mc. Crystal diode
then plugged into the 'output" coaxial recep- should be placed of right angles to 50 ohm
tacle and the potentiometer is adjusted for a composition resistor.
null on the meter. The settings of the poten-
tiometer may now be calibrated in terms of meter and may be employed to determine the
the load resistor, the null position indicating electrical length of quarter -wave lines, surge
the value of the test resistor. A calibrated scale impedance of transmission lines, and antenna
for the potentiometer should be made, as resonance and radiation resistance.
shown in figure 22. In general, the measuring terminals of the
Antennascope are connected in series with the
Using the The antennascope may be load at a point of maximum current. This
Antennascope driven by a grid -dip oscillator means the center of a dipole, or the base of a
coupled to it by a two turn vertical 1/4 -wave ground plane antenna. Exci-
link. Enough coupling should be used to obtain tation is supplied to the Antennascope, and the
at least a 3/4 scale reading on the meter of frequency of excitation and the resistance con-
the Antennascope with no load connected to trol of the Antennascope are both varied until
the measuring terminals. The Antennascope a complete null is obtained on the indicating
may be considered to be a low range r -f ohmmeter of the Antennascope. The frequency of
25
11,121
VOLTS
001
O -2 CCRAUIC
LOAD
R[5I3TOR
50 -300
NIlLDCDrNCLO URE
A SILICON CRYSTAL NOISE GENERATOR

Figure 26
A simple means of determining the degree

of actual sensitivity of a receiver is to inject
a minute signal in the input circuit and then
measure the amount of this signal that is
needed to overcome the inherent receiver
noise. The less injected signal needed to over-
ride the receiver noise by a certain, fixed
amount, the more sensitive is the receiver.
A simple source of minute signal may be ob-
tained from a silicon crystal diode. If a small
Figure 25 d-c current is passed through a silicon crystal
SIMPLE SILICON CRYSTAL NOISE in the direction of highest resistance, a small
GENERATOR but constant r -f noise (or hiss) is generated.
The voltage necessary to generate this noise
may be obtained from a few flashlight cells.
the source of excitation is now the resonant The generator is a broad band device and re-
frequency of the load, and the radiation resist- quires no tuning. If built with short leads, it
ance of the load may be read upon the dial of may be employed for receiver measurements
the Antennascope. well above 150 Mc. The noise generator should
On measurements on 80 and 40 meters, it be used for comparative measurements only,
might be found that it is impossible to obtain since calibration against a high quality com-
a complete null on the Antennascope. This is mercial noise generator is necessary for ab-
usually caused by pickup of a nearby broad- solute measurements.
cast station, the rectified signal of the broad-
cast station obscuring the null indication on
A Practical Shown in figure 25 is a sim-
the Antennascope. This action is only noticed Noise Generator ple silicon crystal noise
when antennas of large size are being checked. generator. The schematic of
this unit is illustrated in figure 26. The 1N21
crystal and .001 ofd. ceramic capacitor are
34 -10 A Silicon Crystal connected in series directly across the output
Noise Generator terminals of the instrument. Three small flash-
light batteries are wired in series and mounted
The limiting factor in signal reception above inside the case, along with the 0 -2 d -c milliam-
25 Mc. is usually the thermal noise generated meter and the noise level potentiometer.
in the receiver. At any frequency, however, To prevent heat damage to the 1N21 crystal
the tuned circuits of the receiver must be ac- during the soldering process, the crystal should
curately aligned for best signal -to -noise ratio. be held with a damp rag, and the connections
Circuit changes (and even alignment changes) soldered to it quickly with a very hot iron.
in the r -f stages of a receiver may do much to Across the terminals (and in parallel with the
either enhance or degrade the noise figure of equipment to be attached to the generator) is
the receiver. It is exceedingly hard to deter- a 1 -watt carbon resistor whose resistance is
mine whether changes of either alignment or equal to the impedance level at which meas-
circuitry are really providing a boost in signal - urements are to be made. This will usually be
to -noise ratio of the receiver, or are merely in- either 50 or 300 ohms. If the noise generator
creasing the gain (and noise) of the unit. is to be used at one impedance level only, this
HANDBOOK Noise Generator 741
a
NOISE RECEIVER erator is connected to the antenna terminals

GENERATOR
of the receiver under test. The receiver is
o turned on, the a.v.c. turned off, and the r -f
T. SPAR
o gain control placed full on. The audio volume
LTERIAINATING control is adjusted until the output meter ad-
RESISTOR vances to one -quarter scale. This reading is
TEST SET -UP FOR NOISE GENERATOR the basic receiver noise. The noise generator
is turned on, and the noise level potentiometer
Figure 27 adjusted until the noise output voltage of the
receiver is doubled. The more resistance in
resistor may be mounted permanently inside the diode circuit, the better is the signal -to-
of the case. noise ratio of the receiver under test. The r -f
circuits of the receiver may be aligned for
Using the The test setup for use of maximum signal -to -noise ratio with the noise
Noise Generator the noise generator is shown generator by aligning for a 2/1 noise ratio at
in figure 27. The noise gen- minimum diode current.
CHAPTER THIRTY -FIVE
Radio Mathematics
and Calculations
Radiomen often have occasion to cal- four tens, plus three units, which could be
culate sizes and values of required parts. This written as follows:
requires some knowledge of mathematics. The
following pages contain a review of those parts 8 thousands (l 0 x 10 x 101
of mathematics necessary to understand and 1 hundreds (10 x 101
apply the information contained in this book. 4 tens
3 units
It is assumed that the reader has had some
mathematical training; this chapter is not in- 8143
tended to teach those who have never learned
anything of the subject. The number in the units position is some-
Fortunately only a knowledge of fundamen- times referred to as a first order number, that
tals is necessary, although this knowledge must in the tens position is of the second order, that
include several branches of the subject. Fortu- in the hundreds position the third order, etc.
nately, too, the majority of practical applica- The idea of letting the position of the sym-
tions in radio work reduce to the solution of bol denote its value is an outcome of the aba-
equations or formulas or the interpretation of cus. The abacus had only a limited num-
graphs. ber of wires with beads, but it soon became
apparent that the quantity of symbols might
Arithmetic be continued indefinitely towards the left,
Notation of In writing numbers in the Ara - each further space multiplying the digit's
Numbers bic system we employ ten dif- value by ten. Thus any quantity, however
ferent symbols, digits, or fig- large, may readily be indicated.
ures: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0, and place It has become customary for ease of reading
them in a definite sequence. If there is more to divide large numbers into groups of three
than one figure in the number the position of digits, separating them by commas.
each figure or digit is as important in deter-
mining its value as is the digit itself. When we 6,000,000 rather than 6000000
deal with whole numbers the righthandmost
digit represents units, the next to the left rep- Our system of notation then is characterized
resents tens, the next hundreds, the next thou- by two things: the use of positions to indicate
sands, from which we derive the rule that ev- the value of each symbol, and the use of ten
ery time a digit is placed one space further to symbols, from which we derive the name dec-
the left its value is multiplied by ten. imal system.
Retaining the same use of positions, we
8
tt10YNIlAs
1
hundreds
4 3
tens units
might have used a different number of sym-
bols, and displacing a symbol one place to the
left might multiply its value by any other fac-
tor such as 2, 6 or 12. Such other systems have
It will be seen that any number is actually a been in use in history, but will not he discussed
sum. In the example given above it is the sum here. There are also systems in which displac-
of eight thousands, plus one hundred, plus ing a symbol to the left multiplies its value by
742
Decimal Fractions 743
o 0.5 1 3 4
I I
s-0.7-4 b
0
1 4
0.s 1 1 3 4
I l
Figure 1.
AN ILLUSTRATION OF LINEAR FRACTIONS.
varying factors in accordance with complicat- being the clearer. Every time a digit is placed
ed rules. The English system of measurements one space further to the right it represents a
is such an inconsistent and inferior system. ten times smaller part. This is illustrated in
Figure 1, where each large division represents
Decimal Fractions Since we can extend a a unit; each unit may be divided into ten parts
number indefinitely to although in the drawing we have only so di-
the left to make it bigger, it is a logical step to vided the first part. The length ab is equal to
extend it towards the right to make it smaller. seven of these tenth parts and is written as 0.7.
Numbers smaller than unity are fractions and The next smaller divisions, which should be
if a displacement one position to the right di- written in the second column to the right of
vides its value by ten, then the number is re- the decimal point, are each one -tenth of the
ferred to as a decimal fraction. Thus a digit small division, or one one- hundredth each.
to the right of the units column indicates the They are so small that we can only show them
number of tenths, the second digit to the right by imagining a magnifying glass to look at
represents the number of hundredths, the third, them, as in Figure 1. Six of these divisions is
the number of thousandths, etc. Some distin- to be written as 0.06 (six hundredths). We
guishing mark must be used to divide unit from need a microscope to see the next smaller divi-
tenths so that one may properly evaluate each sion, that is those in the third place, which will
symbol. This mark is the decimal point. be a tenth of one one- hundredth, or a thou-
A decimal fraction like four -tenths may be sandth; four such divisions would be written
written .4 or 0.4 as desired, the latter probably as 0.004 (four thousandths).
A t
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
G F
0 0 0 o
0 0 0 0 0
K J 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
ó ó ó
0 0 o O
D H C
Figure 2.
IN THIS ILLUSTRATION FRACTIONAL PORTIONS ARE REPRESENTED IN THE
ABCD = 1.0; GEED = 0.1; KJEH -
FORM OF RECTANGLES RATHER THAN LINEARLY.
0.01; each small section within KJEH equals 0.001
744 Radio Mathematics and Calculations THE RADIO
It should not be thought that such numbers The result of the operation is called the
are merely of academic interest for very small product.
quantities arc common in radio work. From the examples to follow it will be obvi-
Possibly the conception of fractions may be ous that there are as many partial products
clearer to some students by representing it in as there are digits in the multiplier. In the fol-
the form of rectangles rather than linearly lowing examples note that the righthandmost
(see Figure 2). digit of each partial product is placed one
space farther to the left than the previous one.
Addition When two or more numbers are
to be added we sometimes write 834 834
them horizontally with the plus sign between X 26 X 206
them. + is the sign or operator indicating ad-
dition. Thus if 7 and 12 are to be added to- 5004 5004
1668 000
gether we may write 7+12=19. 1668
But if larger or more numbers are to be added 21684
together they are almost invariably written one 171804
under another in such a position that the deci-
mal points fall in a vertical line. If a number In the second example above it will be seen
has no decimal point, it is still considered as that the inclusion of the second partial prod-
being just to the right of the units figure; such uct was unnecessary; whenever the multiplier
a number is a whole number or integer. Ex- contains a cipher (zero) the next partial prod-
amples: uct should be moved an additional space to
the left.
654 0.654 654
32 3.2 32 Numbers containing decimal fractions may
53041 53.041 5304.1 first be multiplied exactly as if the decimal
point did not occur in the numbers at all; the
53727 56.895 5990.1 position of the decimal point in the product is
determined after all operations have been com-
The result obtained by adding numbers is pleted. It must be so positioned in the product
called the rum. that the number of digits to its right is equal
to the number of decimal places in the multi-
Subtraction Subtraction is the reverse of plicand plus the number of decimal places in
addition. Its operator is (the - the multiplier.
minor sign). The number to be subtracted is This rule should be well understood since
called the minuend. the number from which it many radio calculations contain quantities
is subtracted is the subtrahend, and the result which involve very small decimal fractions. In
is called the remainder. the examples which follow the explanatory
notations "2 places," etc., are not actually
- subtrahend
minuend
written down since it is comparatively easy to
determine the decimal point's proper location
remainder mentally.
5.43 2 places
Examples:
X 0.72 2 places
65.4 65.4
-32 -32.21 1086
3 801
33.4 33.19
3.9096 2 +2 =4 places
Multiplication When numbers are to be mul-
tiplied together we use the x, 0.04 2 places
which is known as the multiplication or the X 0.003 3 places
times sign. The number to be multiplied is
known as the multiplicand and that by which
0.00012 2 +3=5 places
it is to be multiplied is the multiplier, which Division Division is the reverse of multi-
may be written in words as follows: plication. Its operator is the _,
which is called the division sign. It is also com-
multiplicand mon to indicate division by the use of the frac-
X multiplier tion bar (/) or by writing one number over
the other. The number which is to be divided
partial product
partial product is called the dividend and is written before
the division sign or fraction bar or over the
p r o d u c t horizontal line indicating a fraction. The num-
HANDBOOK Division 745
ber by which the dividend is to be divided is Another example: Divide 0.000325 by 0 -017.
called the divisor and follows the division Here we must move the decimal point three
sign or fraction bar or comes under the hori- places to the right in both dividend and di-
zontal line of the fraction. The answer or visor.
result is called the quotient. 0.019
17 0.325
quotient 17
divisor 5 dividend
155
or
153
dividend = divisor = quotient
2
or
dividend
= quotient In a case where the dividend has fewer deci-
divisor mals than the divisor the same rules still may
be applied by adding ciphers. For example to
Examples: divide 0.49 by 0.006 we must move the
126 49 decimal point three places to the right. The
0.49 now becomes 490 and we write:
834 105084 49 2436
834 196
81
2168 476 6)490
1668 441 48
5004 35 remainder 10
5004 6
4
Note that one number often fails to divide
into another evenly. Hence there is often a
quantity left over called the remainder. When the division shows a remainder it is
The rules for placing the decimal point sometimes necessary to continue the work so
are the reverse of those for multiplication. as to obtain more figures. In that case ciphers
The number of decimal places in the quotient may be annexed to the dividend, brought down
is equal to the difference between the number to the remainder, and the division continued
of decimal places in the dividend and that in as long as may be necessary; be sure to place
the divisor. It is often simpler and clearer a decimal point in the dividend before the
to remove the decimal point entirely from the ciphers are annexed if the dividend does not
divisor by multiplying both dividend and di- already contain a decimal point. For ex-
visor by the necessary factor; that is we move ample:
the decimal point in the divisor as many places 80.33
to the right as is necessary to make it a whole 6 482.00
number and then we move the decimal point 48
in the dividend exactly the same number of
places to the right regardless of whether this 20
18
makes the dividend a whole number or not.
When this has been done the decimal point 20
in the quotient will automatically come di- 18
rectly above that in the dividend as shown in
the following example. 2
Example: Divide 10.5084 by 8.34. Move the
decimal point of both dividend and divisor This operation is not very often required
two places to the right. in radio work since the accuracy of the mea-
surements from which our problems start
1.26 seldom justifies the use of more than three
834 1050.84 significant figures. This point will be cov-
834 ered further later in this chapter.
2168 Fractions Quantities of less than one

1668
(unity) are called fractions. They
5004 may be expressed by decimal notation as we
5004 have seen, or they may be expressed as vulgar
fractions. Examples of vulgar fractions:
numerator 3 6 1 the numerator is added. That is in the above
denominator 4 7 5 example we multiply 2 by 7 and then add 3
to obtain 17 for the numerator. The denomi-
The upper position of a vulgar fraction is nator is the same as is the denominator of
called the numerator and the lower position the original fraction. In the following ex-
the denominator. When the numerator is the ample we have added two mixed numbers.
smaller of the two, the fraction is called a
proper fraction; the examples of vulgar frac-
tions given above are proper vulgar fractions.
2+ 34= i+4= ix: + 4x7
3 3 17 13 17x4 15x7
When the numerator is the larger, the ex-

pression is an improper fraction, which can
be reduced to an integer or whole number
- - - 68
28
lOS
21
173
2i! 6 28
5
with a proper fraction, the whole being called Multiplying All vulgar fractions are multi -
a mixed number. In the following examples Fractions plied by multiplying the nu-
improper fractions have been reduced to merators together and the de-
their corresponding mixed numbers. nominators together, as shown in the follow-
ing example:
7 3
= =
4X5- 3x21
1
4 1 4 3 3 3 2 6 3
4x5J -20 -10
Adding or Subtracting Except when the
Fractions fractions are very As above, the step indicated in brackets is
simple it will usual- usually not written down since it may easily
ly be found much easier to add and subtract be performed mentally. As with addition and
fractions in the form of decimals. This rule subtraction any mixed numbers should be
likewise applies for practically all other oper- first reduced to improper fractions as shown
ations with fractions. However, it is occa- in the following example:
sionally necessary to perform various opera-
tions with vulgar fractions and the rules
should be understood.
3
23X43 -23
1 3
X
13
3 - 69-23
39 13
When adding or subtracting such fractions Division of Fractions may be most easily
the denominators must be made equal. This Fractions divided by inverting the di-
may be done by multiplying both numerator visor and then multiplying.
and denominator of the first fraction by the Example:
denominator of the other fraction, after
which we multiply the numerator and de-
2
S
3
4 - 2
5 X
4_-
3
8
15
nominator of the second fraction by the de-
nominator of the first fraction. This sounds In the above example it will be seen that to
more complicated than it usually proves in divide by 3/4 is exactly the same thing as to
practice, as the following examples will show. multiply by 4/3. Actual division of fractions
is a rather rare operation and if necessary is
I
2 +
1
3 - 1 x3
2 x 3 +
x 2
3x2]- 6+
1 3
6- 2 S
6
usually postponed until the final answer is se-
cured when it is often desired to reduce the
resulting vulgar fraction to a decimal frac-
_ 3xs_2x4 _1S
3
4
2
5 - 4x5 5x4]- 20 - - 20
8 7
20
tion by division. It is more common and
usually results in least overall work to re-
Except in problems involving large numbers duce vulgar fractions to decimals at the be-
the step shown in brackets above is usually ginning of a problem. Examples:
done in the head and is not written down.
Although in the examples shown above we = 0.375 32 = 0.15625
have used proper fractions, it is obvious that
the same procedure applies with improper 0.15625
fractions. In the case of problems involving 32 5.00000
mixed numbers it is necessary first to convert 32
i
them into improper fractions. Example: 1 80
1 60
2i = 2x7+3
3 17 200
y 192
80
The numerator of the improper fraction is 64
equal to the whole number multiplied by the 160
denominator of the original fraction, to which 160
HANDBOOK Division of Fractions 747
It will be obvious that many vulgar fractions In general terms, when a number is to be
cannot be reduced to exact decimal equiva- multipled by itself we speak of raising to a
lents. This fact need not worry us, however, power or involution; the number of times
since the degree of equivalence can always be which the number is to be multiplied by it-
as much as the data warrants. For instance, self is called the order of the power. The
if we know that one -third of an ampere is standard notation requires that the order of
flowing in a given circuit, this can be written the power be indicated by a small number
as 0.333 amperes. This is not the exact written after the number and above the line,
equivalent of 1/3 but is close enough since it called the exponent. Examples:
shows the value to the nearest thousandth of
an ampere and it is probable that the meter 2' = 2 X 2, or 2 squared, or the second
from which we secured our original data was power of 2
not accurate to the nearest thousandth of an
ampere.
2= 2 X
power of
2 X 2, or
2
2 cubed, or the third
Thus in converting vulgar fractions to a

decimal we unhesitatingly stop when we have
2' = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2, or the fourth pow-
er of 2
reached the number of significant figures war-
ranted by our original data, which is very Sometimes it is necessary to perform the
seldom more than three places (see section reverse of this operation, that is, it may be
Significant Figure, later in this chapter). necessary, for instance, to find that number
When the denominator of a vulgar fraction which multiplied by itself will give a product
contains only the factors 2 or 5, division can of nine. The answer is of course 3. This
be brought to a finish and there will be no process is known as extracting the root or
remainder, as shown in the examples above. evolution. The particular example which is
When the denominator has other factors cited would be written:
such as 3, 7, 11, etc., the division will seldom
Nri =3
'
come out even no matter how long it is con-
tinued but, as previously stated, this is of
no consequence in practical work since it may The sign for extracting the root is
be carried to whatever degree of accuracy is which is known as the radical sign; the order
necessary. The digits in the quotient will of the root is indicated by a small number
usually repeat either singly or in groups, al- above the radical as in which would mean
though there may first occur one or more the fourth root; this number is called the
digits which do not repeat. Such fractions index. When the radical bears no index, the
are known as repeating fractions. They are square or second root is intended.
sometimes indicated by an oblique line (frac- Restricting our attention for the moment
tion bar) through the digit which repeats, or to square root, we know that 2 is the square
through the first and last digits of a repeating root of 4, and 3 is the square root of 9. If
group. Example: we want the square root of a number between
3 and 9, such as the square root of 5, it is
3
= 0.3333 .... =0.3 obvious that it must lie between 2 and 3. In
general the square root of such a number can-
t
= 0.142857142857.... = 0.14285/ not be exactly expressed either by a vulgar
fraction or a decimal fraction. However, the
The foregoing examples contained only re- square root can be carried out decimally as
peating digits. In the following example a far as may be necessary for sufficient accur-
non- repeating digit precedes the repeating acy. In general such a decimal fraction will
digit: contain a never -ending series of digits with-
t out repeating groups. Such a number is an
= 0.2333.... =
7
30
0.23 irrational number, such as
While repeating decimal fractions can be
converted into their vulgar fraction equiva-
1/3 = 2.2361 ....
lents, this is seldom necessary in practical The extraction of roots is usually done by
work and the rules will be omitted here. tables or logarithms the use of which will
be described later. There are longhand meth-
Powers and When a number is to be mul- ods of extracting various roots, but we shall
Roots tiplied by itself we say that give only that for extracting the square root
it is to be squared or to be since the others become so tedious as to make
raised to the second power. When it is to be other methods almost invariably preferable.
multipled by itself once again, we say that Even the longhand method for extracting the
it is cubed or rai,ed to the third power. square root will usually be used only if loga-
rithm tables, slide rule, or table of roots are found and annex the cipher (2 x 75 or 150
not handy. plus the cipher, which will give 1500). 1500
will go into 5391 3 times. Replace the last
Extracting the First divide the number the cipher with a three and multiply 1503 by 3 to
Square Root root of which is to be ex- give 4509. Place 3 above the third group.
tracted into groups of two Subtract to find the remainder of 882. The
digits starting at the decimal point and going quotient 75.3 which has been found so far is
in both directions. If the lefthandmost group not the exact square root which was desired;
proves to have only one digit instead of two, in most cases it will be sufficiently accurate.
no harm will be done. The righthandmost However, if greater accuracy is desired groups
group may be made to have two digits by of two ciphers can be brought down and the
annexing a zero if necessary. For example, process carried on as long as necessary.
let it be required to find the square root of
5678.91. This is to be divided off as follows: 7 5. 3
V56' 78.91
V56' 78.91 49
The mark used to divide the groups may 140 7 78

145 x 5 = 7 25
be anything convenient, although the prime -
sign (') is most commonly used for the 1500 53 91
purpose. 1503 X 3 = 45 09
Next find the largest square which is con-
tained in the first group, in this case 56. The 8 82
largest square is obviously 49, the square of 7.
Place the 7 above the first group of the num- Each digit of the root should be placed di-
ber whose root is to be extracted, which is rectly above the group of the dividend from
sometimes called the dividend from analogy which it was derived; if this is done the
to ordinary division. Place the square of this decimal point of the root will come directly
figure, that is 49, under the first group, 56, above the decimal point of the dividend.
and subtract leaving a remainder of 7. Sometimes the remainder after a square
has been subtracted (such as the 1 in the fol-
7 lowing example) will not be sufficiently large
56' 78.91 to contain twice the root already found even
49 after the next group of figures has been
brought down. In this case we write a cipher
7 above the group just brought down and bring
down another group.
Bring down the next group and annex it to
the remainder so that we have 778. Now to 7. 0 8 2
the left of this quantity write down twice the V50.16' 00' 00
root so far found (2 X 7 or 14 in this ex- 49
ample), annex a cipher as a trial divisor, and
see how many times the result is contained 1400 1 16 00
in 778. In our example 140 will go into 778 1408 X 8 = 1 12 64
5 times. Replace the cipher with a 5, and
multiply the resulting 145 by 5 to give 725. 14160 3 36 00
Place the 5 directly above the second group
14162 X 2 = 2 83 24
in the dividend and then subtract the 725 52 76
from 778.
7
In the above example the amount 116 was not
5
sufficient to contain twice the root already
J56' 78.91 found with a cipher annexed to it; that is,
49
it was not sufficient to contain 140. There-
140 7 78 fore we write a zero above 16 and bring down
145X5= 7 25 the next group, which in this example is a
pair of ciphers.
53
Order of One frequently encounters prob-
The next step is an exact repetition of the Operations lems in which several of the fun-
previous step. Bring down the third group damental operations of arithme-
and annex it to the remainder of 53, giving tic which have been described are to be per-
5391. Write down twice the root already formed. The order in which these operations
HANDBOOK Order of Operations 749
must be performed is important. First all pow-

ers and roots should be calculated; multipli- 5
cation and division come next; adding and
subtraction come last. In the example
2 + 3 X 4'
In the foregoing example it is obvious that the
we must first square the to get 16; then we
4 3 in the numerator goes into the 6 in the de-
multiply 16 by 3, making 48, and to the nominator twice. We may thus cross out
product we add 2, giving a result of 50. the three and replace the 6 by a 2. The 2
If a different order of operations were fol- which we have just placed in the denominator
lowed, a different result would be obtained. cancels the 2 in the numerator. Next the 5
For instance, if we add 2 to 3 we would ob- in the denominator will go into the 25 in the
tain 5, and then multiplying this by the square numerator leaving a result of 5. Now we
of 4 or 16, we would obtain a result of 80, have left only a 5 in the numerator and a 7
which is incorrect. in the denominator, so our final result is 5/7.
In more complicated forms such as frac- If we had multiplied 2 x 3 x 25 to obtain
tions whose numerators and denominators may 150 and then had divided this by 6 x 5 x 7
both be in complicated forms, the numerator or 210, we would have obtained the same re-
and denominator are first found separately sult but, with considerably more work.
before the division is made, such as in the
following example: Algebra
Algebra is not a separate branch of mathe-
X 4 + 3 X 2 12+10 matics but is merely a form of generalized
2X3+2+3-6+2+3-11 _ 2
3 22
arithmetic in which letters of the alphabet and
occasional other symbols are substituted for
Problems of this type are very common in numbers, from which it is often referred to as
dealing with circuits containing several in- literal notation. It is simply a shorthand meth-
ductances, capacities, or resistances. od of writing operations which could be spelled
The order of operations specified above does out.
not always meet all possible conditions; if a The laws of most common electrical phe-
series of operations should be performed in a nomena and circuits (including of course ra-
different order, this is always indicated by dio phenomena and circuits) lend themselves
parentherer or hracketr. for example: particularly well to representation by literal no-
tation and solution by algebraic equations or
2+ 3 X 4== 2+ 3 X 16 = 2+ 48 = 50 formulas.
(2 + 3) X4'=5 X 4-=5 X 16-80 While we may write a particular problem in
Ohm's Law as an ordinary division or multi-
2 + (3 X 4)2- 2 + 12' = 2 + 144 = 146 plication, the general statement of all such
problems calls for the replacement of the num-
In connection with the radical sign, brackets bers by symbols. We might be explicit and
may be used or the "hat" of the radical may write out the names of the units and use these
be extended over the entire quantity whose names as symbols:
root is to be extracted. Example:
volts = amperes X ohms
V4 + = + 5 = 2 + 5 = 7
5
Such a procedure becomes too clumsy when
V(4+5) = V¡45= f9-3 the expression is more involved and would be
unusually cumbersome if any operations like
It is recommended that the radical always be
multiplication were required. Therefore as a
extended over the quantity whose root is to be short way of writing these generalized rela-
extracted to avoid any ambiguity. tions the numbers are represented by letters.
Ohm's Law then becomes
Cancellation In a fraction in which the E = I X R
numerator and denominator
consist of several factors to be multiplied, con- In the statement of any particular problem
siderable labor can often be saved if it is the significance of the letters is usually indi-
found that the same factor occurs in both cated directly below the equation or formula
numerator and denominator. These factors using them unless there can be no ambiguity.
cancel each other and can be removed. Ex- Thus the above form of Ohm's Law would be
ample: more completely written as:
E = 1 X R Similarly, we have:
where E = e.m.f. in volts
I = current in amperes
a + ( - b) = a - b
R = resistance in ohms
When a minus sign is in front of an expres-
sion in brackets, this minus sign has the effect
Letters therefore represent numbers, and for of reversing the signs of every term within the
any letter we can read "any number." When brackets:
the same letter occurs again in the same ex-
pression we would mentally read "the same
- -+3b - (a b) = - a +
number," and for another letter "another num-
ber of any value."
(2a -5c) = -2a - b
3b + 5c
These letters are connected by the usual op- Multiplication. When both the multiplicand
erational symbols of arithmetic, +, and the multiplier are negative, the product is
and so forth. In algebra, the sign for division positive. When only one (either one) is nega-
is seldom used, a division being usually written tive the product is negative. The four possible
as a fraction. The multiplication sign, x is cases are illustrated below:
usually omitted or one may write a period
only. Examples:
-+ X + _ +
- +
- X - _ -
2XaXb =2ab
X + _ X - = +
2.3.4.5a= 2X3X4X5Xa Division. Since division is but the reverse of
multiplication, similar rules apply for the sign
In practical applications of algebra, an ex- of the quotient. When both the dividend and
pression usually states some physical law and the divisor have the same sign (both negative
each letter represents a variable quantity which or both positive) the quotient is positive. If
is therefore called a variable. A fixed number they have unlike signs (one positive and one
in front of such a quantity (by which it is to negative) the quotient is negative.
be multiplied) is known as the coefficient.
Sometimes the coefficient may be unknown, yet
to be determined; it is then also written as a
letter; k is most commonly used for this pur-
pose.
The Negative In ordinary arithmetic we

Sign seldom work with negative Powers. Even powers of negative numbers
numbers, although we may are positive and odd powers are negative. Pow-
be "short" in a subtraction. In algebra, how- ers of positive numbers are always positive.
ever, a number may be either negative or pos- Examples:
itive. Such a thing may seem academic but a
negative quantity can have a real existence. - =- X- =+ 2 2 4
-2'=- 2X-
22
We need only refer to a debt being considered
a negative possession. In electrical work, how-
- 2X
= -
-2 = 2 8
+4X
ever, a result of a problem might be a negative
number of amperes or volts, indicating that the Roots. Since the square of a negative num-
direction of the current is opposite to the di- ber is positive and the square of a positive
rection chosen as positive. We shall have il- number is also positive, it follows that a posi-
lustrations of this shortly. tive number has two square roots. The square
Having established the existence of negative root of 4 can be either +2 or -2 for ( +2)
quantities, we must now learn how to work x ( +2) = +4 and ( -2) x ( -2) = +4.
with these negative quantities in addition, sub-
traction, multiplication and so forth. Addition and Polynomials are quantities
In addition, a negative number added to a
positive number is the same as subtracting a
Subtraction like 3ab' + 4ab' 7a'b' -
which have several terms of
positive number from it. different names. When adding polynomials,
only terms of the same name can be taken to-
-37 7
3
gether.
(add) is the same as (subtract) 7a' +8 ab: +3o'b +3
4 4
or we might write it a'- 5ab' -b'
7+ -3) =7
( -3 =4 8a' +3ab' +3a'b -b' +3
HANDBOOK Division 751
Collecting terms. When an expression con- 4ab - 7b'

o'+
tains more than one term of the same name,
these can be added together and the expression
2a - 3b ) 2a'
2a'
+ Sob
- 3a'b - 26 ab' + 21b'
+ 8a'b - 26ab'
made simpler:
5 x' + 2 xy + 3xy' - 3 x' + 7xy = + 8a'b - 12ab'
z' - 3 x' + 2 xy + 7xy + 3 xy'=

-- 14ab' + 21b'
5 14ab' 21b' +
2z' +9xy+ 3xy'
- y' by
Another example: Divide x' x -y
Multiplication
them together.
Multiplication of single terms
is indicated simply by writing x -y5 z' +0 +0 -y' Ix' zY
x' - x -y
?
a X b is written as ab
a X b' is written as ab' +xy_-y'

Bracketed quantities are multiplied by a
xY - y'
single term by multiplying each term:
Factoring Very often it is necessary to sim-
a (b + c + d) = ab + oc + ad plify expressions by finding a fac-
tor. This is done by collecting two or more
When two bracketed quantities are multi- terms having the same factor and bringing the
plied, each term of the first bracketed quantity factor outside the brackets:
is to be multiplied by each term of the second
bracketed quantity, thereby making every pos- 6ob + 3oe = 3a (2b + e)
sible combination.
In a four term expression one can take to-
(a b) led) =oc+ad + be + bd
gether two terms at a time; the intention is to
try getting the terms within the brackets the
same after the factor has been removed:
In this work particular care must be taken
to get the signs correct. Examples:
30ac - 18bc + 10ad - 6bd =
(a + b) (a - b) = a' + ab - ab - b' = 6c (5a - 3b) + 2d 150 - 3bi =
a' - b'
(5a-3b) (6c + 2d)
(a b) (a + b) =a'+ab+ab+b'- Of course, this is not always possible and

the expression may not have any factors. A
a'+2ab+b' similar process can of course be followed when
(a - b) ( a- b) =a'-ab-ab+b'- the expression has six or eight or any even
number of terms.
o'-2ab+ b' A special case is a three -term polynomial,
which can sometimes be factored by writing
Division It is possible to do longhand divi- the middle term as the sum of two terms:
sion in algebra, although it is
somewhat more complicated than in arithme- x' - 7xy + 12y' moy be rewritten as
tic. However, the division will seldom come x'- 3xy -4xy+ 12y'=
out even, and is not often done in this form.
The method is as follows: Write the terms of
x i - -4y )z-3y) =
x 3y
(x- 4y) (x- 3y)
)
the dividend in the order of descending powers

of one variable and do likewise with the di-
visor. Example:
The middle term should be split into two
in such a way that the sum of the two new
terns equals the original middle term and that
Divide 5a'b + 21 b' + 2a' - 26ab' by their product equals the product of the two
2a - 3b outer terms. In the above example these condi-
tions are fulfilled for 3xy -- 1 xy = -7xy -
Write the dividend in the order of descending -
and ( 3xy) ( ixy) 12 x'y'. It is not al-
powers of a and divide in the same way as in ways possible to do this and there are then no
arithmetic. simple factors.
Working with When two powers of the Roots may be written as fractional powers.
Powers same number are to be mul- Thus Vi may be written as a'' because
and Roots tiplied, the exponents are
added. NAT X vá=a
and, a1/2 X av° =a1/2'1/2=a'=a
a' X a' = aa X aaa = = a' or
a' o' =o=.°, =a°
Any root may be written in this form
b'Xb=b' =b1/2 0;=bv3 ,/b' =bv
e°X e,=eu
The same notation is also extended in the
negative direction:
Similarly, dividing of powers is done by
subtracting the exponents.
= =
V" - b'-- 1-
1
Vb c1/2= c-
a°
aaa
as
a or a'
a'
= = a'
Following the previous rules that exponents
bbbbb add when powers are multiplied,
=b ' " =
X' ='
b° b°
bbb
= b' or
b'
(
b'
Now we are logically led into some impor- NV;

tant new ways of notation. We have seen that but also a" X a" = a
when dividing, the exponents are subtracted.
This can be continued into negative exponents.
therefore a% = ' a'
In the following series, we successively divide Powers of powers. When a power is again
by a and since this can now be done in two raised to a power, the exponents are multi-
ways, the two ways of notation must have the plied;
same meaning and be identical.
( a' ) ° a' (b')' = b'
a' a' (a')' = a° (1,-"= b'
a' a'=a This same rule also applies to roots of roots

and also powers of roots and roots of powers
a' 00
= I because a root can always be written as a frac-
tional power.
These examples illustrate two rules: (1) any
number raised to "zero' power equals one or _ for (a1/2)''a =
unity; (2) any quantity raised to a negative
power is the inverse or reciprocal of the same Removing radicals. A root or radical in the
quantity raised to the same positive power. denominator of a fraction makes the expres-
sion difficult to handle. If there must be a rad-
n° = 1 a °= ical it should be located in the numerator
rather than in the denominator. The removal
Roots. The product of the square root of of the radical from the denominator is done
two quantities equals the square root of their by multiplying both numerator and denomina-
product. tor by a quantity which will remove the radi-
cal from the denominator, thus rationalizing it:
x = ab
Also, the quotient of two roots is equal to the --v' Yx
root of the quotient.
f -- ,
aa
b
Vá
Suppose we have to rationalize
3a
67
Note, however, that in addition or subtrac- In this case we must multiply

Nri
tion the square root of the sum or difference is
not the same as the sum or difference of the numerator and denominator by the -V
square roots. same terms but with the second having the
opposite sign, so that their product will not
Thus, VT - V4 = 3- 2= contain a root.
f--
1
but 9 - 4 = V = 2.2361 la la( N/a- -Nrb-) la(

Likewise V + Vi-is not the same as v'a + b Vâ+fb (u+ - a b
)
HANDBOOK Powers, Roots, Imaginaries 753
Imaginary Since the square of a negative be accounted for separately, has found a sym-
Numbers number is positive and the bolic application in vector notation. These are
square of a positive number is covered later in this chapter.
also positive, the square root of a negative
number can be neither positive nor negative. Equations of the Algebraic expressions usu-
Such a number is said to be imaginary; the First Degree ally come in the form of
most common such number t) is often (\ - equations, that is, one set
represented by the letter i in mathematical of terms equals another set of terms. The sim-
work or j in electrical work. plest example of this is Ohm's Law:
= iorj and i'orj2= -1 E = IR
Imaginary numbers do not exactly corre- One of the three quantities may be unknown
but if the other two are known, the third can
spond to anything in our experience and it is
be found readily by substituting the known
best not to try to visualize them. Despite this
values in the equation. This is very easy if it
fact, their interest is much more than academ-
is E in the above example that is to be found;
ic, for they are extremely useful in many cal-
but suppose we wish to find i while E and R
culations involving alternating currents.
The square root of any other negative num- are given. We must then rearrange the equa-
ber may be reduced to a product of two roots,
tion so that I comes to stand alone to the left
one positive and one negative. For instance:
of the equality sign. This is known as solving
7= V-57=iV-5-4
the equation for I.
Solution of the equation in this case is done
simply by transposing. If two things are equal
then they must still be equal if both are multi -
or, in general
plied or divided by the same number. Dividing
1,r- 0=i1173 both sides of the equation by R:
Since i = the powers of i have the R =1 ori= R

following values
If it were required to solve the equation for
_ -1 R, we should divide both sides of the equation
by /.
i
i'
= -
= +1
1 )( i = -i
= R or R = -E
A little more complicated example is the
= +1 )( i = i
equation for the reactance of a condenser:
Imaginary numbers are different from either
X t
2afC
positive or negative numbers; so in addition or
subtraction they must always be accounted for
separately. Numbers which consist of both real To solve this equation for C, we may multi-
and imaginary parts are called complex num- ply both sides of the equation by C and divide
bers. Examples of complex numbers: both sides by X
3+4i=3+4 X
xX- 2n'fC
x X,or
a+bi-o+b C = 2afX
Since an imaginary number can never be This equation is one of those which requires
equal to a real number, it follows that in an a good knowledge of the placing of the deci-
equality like mal point when solving. Therefore we give a
a + bi =
c + di few examples: What is the reactance of a 25
a must equal c and bi must equal di µµfd. capacitor at 1000 kc.? In filling in the
given values in the equation we must remem-
Complex numbers are handled in algebra ber that the units uses] are farads, cycles, and
just like any other expression, considering t ohms. Hence, we must write 25 µµfd. as 25
as a known quantity. Whenever powers of i millionths of a millionth of a farad or 25 x
occur, they can be replaced by the equivalents 10 ° farad; similarly, 1000 kc. must be con-
given above. This idea of having In one equa- verted to 1,000,000 cycles. Substituting these
tion two separate sets of quantities which must values in the original equation, we have
754 Radio Mathematics and Calculations T H E R A D I O
X - 2 x 3.14 x 1,000,000 x 25 x 10-"

It is, however, simpler in this case to use
the elimination method. Multiply both sides of
X
- 6.28x10 °x25x10-°
1
- 6.28x25
10 the first equation by two and add it to the
second equation:
= 6360 ohms
+ =
A bias resistor of 1000 ohms should be by-
passed, so that at the lowest frequency the re-
6x
4x - 10y
10y =
14
3
odd
actance of the condenser is 1 /10th of that of 10x = 17 x = 1.7
the resistor. Assume the lowest frequency to be
50 cycles, then the required capacity should Substituting this value of x in the first equa-
have a reactance of 100 ohms, at 50 cycles: tion, we have
=
1
50x 1o0 farads

5.1 + 5y = 7 .'. 5y = 7 - 5.1 = 1.9 ..
C 2 x 3.14 x y = 0.38
10°
C = 6.28 x s000
microforads
C = 32 pfd.
In the third possible case, it may be that the

frequency is the unknown. This happens for
instance in some tone control problems. Sup-
pose it is required to find the frequency which
makes the reactance of a 0.03 pfd. condenser
equal to 100,000 ohms.
First we must solve the equation for f. This
is done by transposition. C
Figure 3.
X
1
2nfC _ 2nCX 1 In this simple network the current divides

through the 2000 -ohm and 3000 -ohm resistors.
The current through each may be found by
Substituting known values using two simult linear equations. Note
that the arrows indicate the direction of elec-
1
tron flow as explained on page 18.
-2z3.14z0.03z x100,000cycles
f = 0.01884 cycles = 53 cycles An application of two simultaneous linear

equations will now be given. In Figure 3 a
These equations are known as first degree simple network is shown consisting of three re-
equations with one unknown. First degree, be- sistances; let it be required to find the currents
cause the unknown occurs only as a first power. I, and I, in the two branches.
Such an equation always has one possible so- The general way in which all such prob-
lution or root if all the other values are known. lems can be solved is to assign directions to
If there are two unknowns, a single equa-
the currents through the various resistances.
tion will not suffice, for there are then an infi- When these are chosen wrong it will do no
nite number of possible solutions. In the case
harm for the result of the equations will then
of two unknowns we need two independent
be negative, showing up the error. In this sim-
simultaneous equations. An example of this is: ple illustration there is, of course, no such dif-
ficulty.
3x + 5y = 7 4z -10y =3 Next we write the equations for the meshes,
Required, to find x and y. in accordance with Kirchhoff's second law. All
This type of work is done either by the sub- voltage drops in the direction of the curved
stitution method or by the elimination method. arrow are considered positive, the reverse ones
In the substitution method we might write for negative. Since there are two unknowns we
the first equation: write two equations.
3x =7 -5 y..x- T -5y 1000 (I,+ II) + 2000 I, = 6

3
-2000 1, + 3000 1, = 0
(The symbol .. means, therefore or hence).
This value of x can then be substituted for x Expand the first equation
in the second equation making it a single equa-
tion with but one unknown, y. 3000 I, + 1000 12 = 6
HANDBOOK Quadratic Equations 755
Multiply the second equation by 2 and add

it to the third equation
(b)
60001, +9000I, -10_0
Now we have but two equations with two
unknowns.
Multiplying equation (a) by 6 and adding
to equation (b) we have
Figure 4.
A MORE COMPLICATED PROB- -27000 - = I, 10 0
LEM REQUIRING THE SOLUTION
OF CURRENTS IN A NETWORK.
I, = - 10/27000 = - 0.00037 amp.
This problem is similar to that in figure 3 but
requires the use of three simultaneous linear
Note that now the solution is negative
equations. which means that we have drawn the arrow
for L in Figure 4 in the wrong direction. The
current is 0.37 ma. in the other direction.
Multiply this equation by 3
A somewhat similar
Second Degree or
= Quadratic Equations problem in radio would
9000 11 + 3000 I, 18
be, if power in watts
Subtracting the second equation from the first and resistance in ohms of a circuit are given,
to find the voltage and the current. Example:
1 1000 I, = 18 When lighted to normal brilliancy, a 100 watt
I, = 18/11000 = 0.00164 amp. lamp has a resistance of 49 ohms; for what
line voltage was the lamp designed and what
Filling in this value in the second equation current would it take.
Here we have to use the simultaneous equa-
3000 I, = 3.28 I, = 0.00109 amp. tions:
P =EI and E =IR
A similar problem but requiring three equa-
tions is shown in Figure 4. This consists of an Filling in the known values:
unbalanced bridge and the problem is to find
the current in the bridge- branch, I,. We again P = EI = 100 and E = IR = I X 49
assign directions to the different currents,
guessing at the one marked I. The voltages Substitute the second equation into the first
around closed loops ABC [eq. (1)] and BDC equation
[eq. (2) ] equal zero and are assumed to be
positive in a counterclockwise direction; that = = (I) X X 49 = 49 I' = 100
-
P EI I
from D to A equals 10 volts [eq. (3)1.

(1) .'. I = too
-49 - to 1.43 amp.
-1000 I, + 2000 I, 1000 I, = 0 - Substituting the found value of 1.43 amp. for
(2) / in the first equation, we obtain the value of
- 1000 (1, -I,) +10001, +3000 (I, +I,) =0 the line voltage, 70 volts.
Note that this is a second degree equation
(3) for we finally had the second power of I. Also,
1000 I, + 1000 (I, - I,) - 10 = 0 since the current in this problem could only be
positive, the negative square root of 100/49
Expand equations (2) and (3) or -10/7 was not used. Strictly speaking,
however, there are two more values that sat-
(2) isfy both equations, these are -1.43 and -70.
+ = In general, a second degree equation in one
-1000 I, + 3000 I, 5000 I, 0
unknown has two roots, a third degree equa-
(3) tion three roots, etc.
2000 I, - 1000 I, - 10 = 0
The Quadratic Quadratic or second degree
Subtract equation (2) from equation (1) Equation equations with but one un-
known can be reduced to the
general form
-1000 1, -(a)6000 I. = 0 ox'+ bx+c=0
where x is the unknown and a, b, and c are Also: (XL - X01' =Z' -R'
constants.
This type of equation can sometimes be
solved by the method of factoring a three-
and ± (XL - _ V Z' -X0) R'
term expression as follows: But here we do not know the sign of the so-
lution unless there are other facts which indi-
cate it. To find either X,. or Xc alone it would
+7x +6 =0
2x'
have to be known whether the one or the other
2x' +4x +3x +6 =0 is the larger.
factoring:
2x(x +2) +3 (x +2) =0 Logarithms
Definition A logarithm is the power (or ex-
(2x + 3) (x + 2) = and Use ponent) to which we must raise
one number to obtain another.
There are two possibilities when a product Although the large numbers used in logarith-
is zero. Either the one or the other factor mic work may make them seem difficult or
equals zero. Therefore there are two solutions. complicated, in reality the principal use of
logarithms is to simplify calculations which
2x,+3=0 x,+2=0 would otherwise be extremely laborious.
2x, = -3 = -2
x,
We have seen so far that every operation
in arithmetic can be reversed. If we have the
x, = -11/2 addition:
o + b =
Since factoring is not always easy, the fol-
lowing general solution can usually be em- we can reverse this operation in two ways. It
ployed; in this equation a, b, and c are the co- may be that b is the unknown, and then we
efficients referred to above. reverse the equation so that it becomes
X= -btV b'-4ac
2a
c - o = b
It is also possible that we wish to know a, and

Applying this method of solution to the pre- that b and c are given. The equation then be-
vious example: comes
X= -7±'494 - t X 6_ -7th _ -7±

4
1
c - b = a
4
We call both of these reversed operations sub-
= -71 traction, and we make no distinction between
the two possible reverses.
X,= -74 1 - 2 Multiplication can also be reversed in two
manners. In the multiplication
A practical example involving quadratics is
the law of impedance in a.c. circuits. However, ob = e
this is a simple kind of quadratic equation
we may wish to know a, when b and c are
which can be solved readily without the use
of the special formula given above. given, or we may wish to know b when a and
c are given. In both cases we speak of division,
Z = 1/R' + (XL - X0)' and we make again no distinction between the

two.
This equation can always be solved for R. In the case of powers we can also reverse
by squaring both sides of the equation. It the operation in two manners, but now they
should now be understood that squaring both are not equivalent. Suppose we have the equa-
sides of an equation as well as multiplying tion
both sides with a term containing the unknown rib =e
may add a neu' root. Since we know here that
Z and R are positive, when we square the ex- Ifa is the unknown, and b and c are given,
pression there is no ambiguity. we may reverse the operation by writing
Z'=R'+ (XL-X0)' =a
and R' = Z' - - X0)'

(XL This operation we call taking the root. But
there is a third possibility: that a and c are
or R = Z' - - Xo)'
(XL given, and that we wish to know b. In other
HANDBOOK Logarithms 757
words, the question is "to which power must log 10 = log 10' = 1
we raise a so as to obtain c? ". This operation

is known as taking the logarithm, and b is the log 100 = log 10' = 2
logarithm of c to the base a. We write this
operation as follows: log 1,000 = log 10' =3
log, c = b
log 10,000 = log 10' = 4
Consider a numerical example. We know 2' =8. log 100,000 = log 10° = 5
We can reverse this operation by asking "to
which power must we raise 2 so as to obtain log 1,000,000 = log 10° = 6
8 ?" Therefore, the logarithm of 8 to the base This table can be extended for numbers less
2 is 3, or
than 10 when we remember the rules of pow-
log: 8 = 3 ers discussed under the subject of algebra.
Taking any single base, such as 2, we might Numbers less than unity, too, can be written
write a series of all the powers of the base next as powers of ten.
to the series of their logarithms:
log 1 = log 10" = O
Number: 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024

Logarithm:
2 4 8
log 0.1 = log 10 ' = -1
2 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
We can expand this table by finding terms

log 0.01 = log 10 = -2
between the terms listed above. For instance, log 0.001 = log 10 ' = -3
if we let the logarithms increase with 1/2 each
time, successive terms in the upper series log 0.0001 = log 10 ' = -4
would have to be multiplied by the square root
of 2. Similarly, if we wish to increase the log- From these examples follow several rules:
arithm by 1/10 at each term, the ratio between The logarithm of any number between zero
two consecutive terms in the upper series and + 1 is negative; the logarithm of zero is
would be the tenth root of 2. Now this short minus infinity; the logarithm of a number
list of numbers constitutes a small logarithm greater than + 1 is positive. Negative num-
table. It should be clear that one could find bers have no logarithm. These rules are true
the logarithm of any number to the base 2. of common logarithms and of logarithms to
This logarithm will usually be a number with any base.
many decimals. The logarithm of a number between the
powers of ten is an irrational number, that is,
Logarithmic The fact that we chose 2 as it has a never ending series of decimals. For in-
Bases a base for the illustration is stance, the logarithm of 20 must be between
purely arbitrary. Any base 1 and 2 because 20 is between 10 and 100; the
could be used, and therefore there are many value of the logarithm of 20 is 1.30103. .
possible systems of logarithms. In practice we The part of the logarithm to the left of the
use only two bases: The most frequently used decimal point is called the characteristic, while
base is 10, and the system using this base is the decimals are called the mantissa. In the
known as the system of common logarithms, case of 1.30103 .., the logarithm of 20, the
or Briggs' logarithms. The second system em- characteristic is 1 and the mantissa is .30103 ..
ploys as a base an odd number, designated by
the letter e; e = 2.71828.... This is known Properties of If the base of our system is
as the natural logarithmic system, also as the Logarithms ten, then, by definition of a
Napierian system, and the hyperbolic system. logarithm:
Although different writers may vary on the
subject, the usual notation is simply log a for 10'06=o
the common logarithm of a, and log. a (or
sometimes In a) for the natural logarithm of or, if the base is raised to the power having an
a. We shall use the common logarithmic sys- exponent equal to the logarithm of a number,
tem in most cases, and therefore we shall ex- the result is that number.
amine this system more closely. The logarithm of a product is equal to the
sum of the logarithms of the two factors.
Common In the system wherein 10 is the
Logarithms base, the logarithm of 10 equals log ab = log a + log b
1; the logarithm of 100 equals 2,
etc., as shown in the following table: This is easily proved to be true because, it
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Nm0 M 1.00N0 O.NM/ OWNWm MO.NM
Np1.1.p p/ 00 00000 W W WWW 00000 WNNNN
I 16
O..NM1.
rlr.......
NWNm O.NM/
NNNNN
.+......
OWNWm MMMMM OWNWm
NNNNN O..NM/ MMMMM O..NMp
/1.///
OWNm O.NMp
1.///1. 00000
HANDBOOK Logarithm Tables 759
was shown before that when multiplying to logarithm tables, it has become the rule that
powers, the exponents are added; therefore, the mantissa should always be positive. Such
a X b = 101°' )( 101 °r e = 10 " * i..e n,

notations above as
( +0.918555
(+ 0.918555
-1)
-
-
1.918555 really mear.
and -2.981555 means
2). There are also some other
Similarly, the logarithm of a quotient is the notations in use such as
difference between the logarithm of the divi-
dend and the logarithm of the divisor. 1.918555 and 2.918555
log -b = log a - log b also 9.918555 - 10 8.918555 - 10
This is so because by the same rules of ex-

7.918555 - 10, etc.
ponents: When, after some addition and subtraction

a
b - 101oR
101.,Re
101
log n - log h) of logarithms a mantissa should come out neg-
ative, one cannot look up its equivalent num-
ber or anti -logarithm in the table. The man-
We have thus established an easier u ay of
tissa must first be made positive by adding and
multiplication and division rince these opera-
subtracting an appropriate integral number.
tion( have been reduced to adding and rub - Example: Suppose we find that the logarithm
tracting.
The logarithm of a power of a number is
of a number is -
0.34569, then we can trans-
form it into the proper form by adding and
equal to the logarithm of that number, multi-
subtracting 1
plied by the exponent of the power.
-1
log a- = 2 logo and log o' = 3 log a - 0.34569
1
or, in general: 0.65431 -1 or - 1.65431

log a" = n log a
Using Logarithm Tables
Also, the logarithm of a root of a number Logarithms are used for calculations involv-
is equal to the logarithm of that number di- ing multiplication, division, powers, and roots.
vided by the index of the root: Especially when the numbers are large and for
higher, or fractional powers and roots, this be-
log V71 _ -bi log a comes the most convenient way.
Logarithm tables are available giving the
It follows from the rules of multiplication, logarithms to three places, some to four places,
that numbers having the same digits but dif- others to five and six places. The table to use
ferent locations for the decimal point, have depends on the accuracy required in the result
logarithms with the same mantissa: of our calculations. The four place table,
printed in this chapter, permits the finding of
log = 2.918555
829 answers to problems to four significant figures
which is good enough for most constructional
log 82.9 = 1.918555 purposes. If greater accuracy is required a five
place table should be consulted. The five place
log 8.29 = 0.918555
table is perhaps the most popular of all.
log 0.829 = -1.918555 Referring now to the four place table, to
find a common logarithm of a number, pro-
log 0.0829 = -2.918555 ceed as follows. Suppose the number is 5576.
First, determine the characteristic. An inspec-
log 829 = log (8.29 X 100) = log 8.29 + tion will show that the characteristic should
log 100 = 0.918555 + 2 be 3. This figure is placed to the left of the
decimal point. The mantissa is now found by
Logarithm tables give the mantissas of log- reference to the logarithm table. The first two
arithms only. The characteristic has to be de- numbers are 55; glance down the N column
termined by inspection. The characteristic is until coming to these figures. Advance to the
equal to the number of digits to the left of the right until coming in line with the column
decimal point minus one. In the case of loga- headed 7; the mantissa will be 7459. (Note that
rithms of numbers less than unity, the charac- the column headed 7 corresponds to the third
teristic is negative and is equal to the number figure in the number 55'6.) Place the mantissa
of ciphers to the right of the decimal point 7459 to the right of the decimal point, making
phi one. the logarithm of 5576 now read 3.7459. Impor-
For reasons of convenience in making up tant: do not consider the last figure 6 in the
N L. 0 I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 P.P. the logarithm is -2.39811 but this is the loga-
250 39 794 811 829 846 863 881 898 915 933 950
rithm of 0.025010 and we want the logarithm
967 985'002 019 0037 054 0071 088 106 123 18
251
252 40 140 157 175 192 209 226 243 261 278 295 1.8
1
of 0.025013. Here we can interpolate by ob-
415 432 449 466 2 3.6 serving that the difference between the log of
253
254
312
483
329
500
346
518
364
535
381
552
398
569 586 603 620 637 3 5.4 0.02501 and 0.02502 is 829 - 811 or 18, in
654 671 688 705 722 739 756 773 70 807
4 7.2
etc.
the last two significant figures. Looking in the
255
P.P. table marked 18 we find after 3 the num-
Figure 6. ber 5.4 which is to be added to the logarithm.
A SMALL SECTION OF A FIVE PLACE
LOGARITHM TABLE. -2.39811
Logarithms may be found with greater accu- 5.4
racy with such tables, but they are only of
use when the accuracy of the original data -2.39816, the logarithm of 0.025013
warrants greater precision in the figure work.
Slightly greater accuracy may be obtained for
intermediate points by interpolation, as ex- Since our table is only good to five places,
plained in the text. we must eliminate the last figure given in the
P.P. table if it is less than 5, otherwise we
must add one to the next to the last figure,
rounding off to a whole number in the P.P.
number 5576 when looking for the mantissa table.
in the accompanying four place tables; in Finding the anti- logarithm is done the same
fact, one may usually disregard all digits be- way but with the procedure reversed. Suppose
yond the first three when determining the man- it is required to find the anti -logarithm of
tissa. (Interpolation. sometimes used to find a 0.40100. Find the first two digits in the column
logarithm more accurately, is unnecessary un- headed by L. Then one must look for the next
less warranted by unusual accuracy in the
three digits or the ones nearest to it, in the
available data.) However, be doubly sure to columns after 40 and on the lines from 40 to
include all figures when ascertaining the mag- 41. Now here we find that numbers in the
nitude of the characteristic. neighborhood of 100 occur only with an aster-
To find the anti -logarithm, the table is used isk on the line just before 40 and still after 39.
in reverse. As an example, let us find the anti-
The asterisk means that instead of the 39 as
logarithm of 1.272 or, in other words, find the first two digits, these mantissas should
the number of which 1.272 is the logarithm. have 40 as the first two digits. The logarithm
Look in the table for the mantissa closest to
0.40100 is between the logs 0.40088 and
272. This is found in the first half of the table
0.40106; the anti- logarithm is between 2517
and the nearest value is 2718. Write down the and 2518. The difference between the two
first two significant figures of the anti -loga- logarithms in the table is again 18 in the
rithm by taking the figures at the beginning of last two figures and our logarithm 0.40100
the line on which 2718 was found. This is 18; differs with the lower one 12 in the last
add to this, the digit above the column in figures. Look in the P.P. table of 18 which
which 2718 was found; this is 7. The anti-log- number comes closest to 12. This is found
arithm is 187 but we have not yet placed the to be 12.6 for 7 x 1.8 = 12.6. Therefore
decimal point. The characteristic is 1, which we may add the digit 7 to the anti -logarithm
means that there should be two digits to the already found; so we have 25177. Next,
left of the decimal point. Hence, 18.- is the place the decimal point according to the rules:
anti- logarithm of 1.272. There are as many digits to the left of the
For the sake of completeness we shall also
decimal point as indicated in the characteris-
describe the same operation with a five -place tic plus one. The anti- logarithm of 0.40100 is
table where interpolation is done by means of 2.5177.
tables of proportional parts (P.P. tables).
Therefore we are reproducing here a small In the following examples of the use of log-
part of one page of a five -place table. arithms we shall use only three places from the
Finding the logarithm of 0.025013 is done as tables printed in this chapter since a greater
follows: We can begin with the characteristic, degree of precision in our calculations would
which is -2. Next find the first three digits in not be warranted by the accuracy of the data
the column, headed by N and immediately given.
after this we see 39, the first two digits of the In a 375 ohm bias resistor flows a current
mantissa. Then look among the headings of of 41.5 milliamperes; how many watts are dis-
the other columns for the next digit of the sipated by the resistor?
number, in this case 1. In the column, headed We write the equation for power in watts:
by / and on the line headed 250, we find the
next three digits of the logarithm, 811. So far, Pal'R
HANDBOOK The Decibel 761
and filling in the quantities in question, we

have: Power
db Ratio
P = 0.0415' X 375
o 1.00
1 1.26
Taking logarithms, 2 1.58
3 LOO
log P = 2 log 0.0415 + log 375 4 2.51
3.16
log 0.0415 = -2.618 6 3.98
7 5.01
6.31
So 2 X log 0.0415 = -3.236 8
9 7.94
10 10.00
log 375 = 2.574 20 100
30 1,000
log P = -1.810 40 10,000
50 100,000
antilog = 0.646. Answer = 0.646 watts 60 1,000,000
70 10,000,000
Caution: Do not forget that the negative 80 100,000,000
sign before the characteristic belongs to the
characteristic only and that mantissas are al- Figure 7.
uayr positive. Therefore we recommend the A TABLE OF DECIBEL GAINS VERSUS
other notation, for it is less likely to lead to POWER RATIOS.
errors. The work is then written:
The Decibel
log 0.0415 = 8.618 -10
2 X log 0.0415 = 17.236-20 = 7.236-10 The decibel is a unit for the comparison of
log 375 = 2.574 power or voltage levels in sound and electrical
work. The sensation of pur ears due to sound
logP =9.810-10 waves in the surrounding air is roughly pro-
portional to the logarithm of the energy of the
Another example follows which demon- sound -wave and not proportional to the energy
strates the ease in handling powers and roots. itself. For this reason a logarithmic unit is used
Assume an all -wave receiver is to be built, so as to approach the reaction of the ear.
covering from 550 kc. to 60 mc. Can this be The decibel represents a ratio of two power
done in five ranges and what will be the re- levels, usually connected with gains or loss due
quired tuning ratio for each range if no over- to an amplifier or other network. The decibel
lapping is required? Call the tuning ratio of is defined
one band, x. Then the total tuning ratio for Nae = 10 log P°
five such bands is x'. But the total tuning ratio Pi
for all hands is 60/0.55. Therefore: where P stands for the output power, P, for
the input power and Ns for the number of
X` = 60 or : := '
V 0.55
60 decibels. When the answer is positive, there is
a gain; when the answer is negative, there is
Taking logarithms: a loss.
The gain of amplifiers is usually given in
log x
log 60 - log 0.55 decibels. For this purpose both the input power
-
s
and output power should be measured. Ex-
1.778 ample: Suppose that an intermediate amplifier
log 60
log 0.55 - 1.740
subtract
is being driven by an input power of 0.2 watt
and after amplification, the output is found to
2.038 be 6 watts.
Remember again that the mantissas are posi-
tive and the characteristic alone can be nega-
P,
P,
- a_
0.2
=30
tive. Subtracting -1 is the same as adding +1. log 30 = 1.48
log x = 2' b 9 0.408 Therefore the gain is 10 x 1.48 = 14.8

decibels. The decibel is a logarithmic unit;
x = antilog 0.408 = 2.56 when the power was multiplied by 30, the
power level in decibels was increased- by 14.8
The tuning ratio should be 2.56. decibels, or 14.8 decibels added.
TUBE STEP -uP
Example: In the circuit of Figure 8, the gain
GAIN. A PATIO 3.5 1
in the stage is equal to the amplification in the
tube and the step -up ratio of the transformer.
If the amplification in the tube is 10 and the
step -up in the transformer is 3.5, the voltage
gain is 35 and the gain in decibels is:
20 x log 35 = 20 x 1.54 = 30.8 db
.e Decibels os The original use of the decibel

Power Level was only as a ratio of power
Figure 8.
levels -not as an absolute
STAGE GAIN.
measure of power. However, one may use the
The voltage gain in decibels in this stage is
equal to the amplification in the tube plus the decibel as such an absolute unit by fixing an
step -up ratio of the trans former, both ex- arbitrary "zero" level, and to indicate any
pressed in decibels. power level by its number of decibels above or
below this arbitrary zero level. This is all very
good so long as we agree on the zero level.
When one amplifier is to be followed by Any power level may then be converted to
another amplifier, power gains are multiplied decibels by the equation:
but the decibel gains are added. If a main am-
plifier having a gain of 1,000,000 (power ratio = 10 log PP° r
is 1,000,000) is preceded by a pre - amplifier
with a gain of 1000, the total gain is 1,000,- where N,ib is the desired power level in deci-
000,000. But in decibels, the first amplifier has bels, P. the output of the amplifier, Pref. the
a gain of 60 decibels, the second a gain of 30
arbitrary reference level.
decibels and the two of them will have a gain The zero level most frequently used (but not
of 90 decibels when connected in cascade. always) is 6 milliwatts or 0.006 watts. For this
(This is true only if the two amplifiers are zero level, the equation reduces to
properly matched at the junction as otherwise P.
there will be a reflection loss at this point = 10 log 0.006
which must be subtracted from the total.)
Conversion of power ratios to decibels or Example: An amplifier using a 6F6 tube
vice versa is easy with the small table shown should be able to deliver an undistorted output
on these pages. In any case, an ordinary loga-
of 3 watts. How much is this in decibels?
rithm table will do. Find the logarithm of the = 500
power ratio and multiply by ten to find deci- Pr.-.006
P°
r.
3
bels. 10 X log 500 = 10 X 2.70 = 27.0

Sometimes it is more convenient to figure
decibels from voltage or current ratios or gains Therefore the power level at the output of
rather than from power ratios. This applies the 6F6 is 27.0 decibels. When the power level
especially to voltage amplifiers. The equation to be converted is less than 6 milliwatts, the
for this is level is noted as negative. Here we must re-
member all that has been said regarding loga-
Ndb = 20 log or 20 log -j rithms of numbers less than unity and the fact
that the characteristic is negative but not the
where the subscript, °, denotes the output volt- mantissa.
age or current and the input voltage or cur-
A preamplifier for a microphone is feeding
rent. Remember, this equation is true only if 1.5milliwatts into the line going to the regu-
the voltage or current gain in question repre- lar speech amplifier. What is this power level
sents a power gain which is the square of it expressed in decibels?
and not if the power gain which results from
this is some other quantity due to impedance =
changes. This should be quite clear when we
decibels 10 log 0 006 =
o.00ts
consider that a matching transformer to con- 10 log e.00s 10 log 0.25
nect a speaker to a line or output tube does
not represent a gain or loss; there is a voltage Log 0.25 = -1.398 (from table). There-
change and a current change yet the power re- fore, 10 X -1.398 = (10 x -1 = -10)
mains the same for the impedance has changed. + (10 x .398 = 3.98) ; adding the products
On the other hand, when dealing with volt- algebraically, gives -6.02 db.
age amplifiers, we can figure the gain in a The conversion chart reproduced in this
stage by finding the voltage ratio from the grid chapter will be of use in converting decibels to
of the first tube to the grid .of the next tube. watts and vice versa.
HANDBOOK
60
50
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POWER
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Figure 9.
CONVERSION CHART: POWER TO DECIBELS
Power levels between 6 mlcromicrowatts and 6000 watts may be referred to corresponding decibel
levels between -90 and 60 db, and vice versa, by means of the above chart. fifteen ranges are
provided. Each curve begins at the same point where the preceding one ends, enabling un interrupted
coverage of the wide db and power ranges with condensed chart. For example: the lowermost curve
ends at -80 db or 60 micromicrowatts and the next range starts at the some level. Zero db level is
taken as 6 milliwatts (.006 watt).
Converting Decibels It is often convenient Solution:
to Power to he able to convert a
decibel value to a pow-
-- 17.3
2.7 + 2.7
er equivalent. The formula used for this oper-
ation is -20 + 2.7
-20 +
P = 0.006 X antilog Ni'ob
No.
lo = - lo 2.7
= -2.27
where P is the desired level in watts and Ndb Antilog -2.27 = 0.0186
the decibels to be converted.
To determine the power level P from a dec- 0.006 X 0.0186 = 0.000 16 watt
1 1 or
ibel equivalent, simply divide the decibel value 0.1116 milliwatt
by 10; then take the number comprising the
antilog and multiply it by 0.006; the product Input voltages: To determine the required
gives the level in watts. input voltage, take the peak voltage necessary
Note: In problems dealing with the conver- to drive the last class A amplifier tube to max-
sion of miner decibels to power, it often hap- imum output, and divide this figure by the to-
pens that the decibel value -Nd,. is not tal overall voltage gain of the preceding stages.
divisible by 10. When this is the case, Computing Specifications: From the preced-
the numerator in the factor - Ndb
10
must be ing explanations the following data can be
computed with any degree of accuracy war-
made evenly divisible by 10, the negative signs ranted by the circùmstances:
must be observed, and the quotient labeled ac- (1) Voltage amplification
cordingly. (2) Overall gain in db
To make the numerator evenly divisible by (3) Output signal level in db
10 proceed as follows: Assume, for example, (4) Input signal level in db
that -Nab is some such value as -38; to (5) Input signal level in watts
make this figure evenly divisible by 10, we (6) Input signal voltage
must add -2 to it, and, since we have added When a power level is available which must
a negative 2 to it, we must also add a positive
be brought up to a new power level, the gain
2 so as to keep the net result the same.
required in the intervening amplifier is equal
Our decibel value now stands, -40 + 2. to the difference between the two levels in dec-
Dividing both of these figures by 10, as in the ibels. If the required input of an amplifier for
equation above, we have -
4 and +0.2. Put-
full output is -30 decibels and the output
ting the two together we have the logarithm from a device to be used is but -45 decibels,
-4.2 with the negative characteristic and the the pre -amplifier required should have a gain
positive mantissa as required. of the difference, or 15 decibels. Again this is
The following examples will show the tech- true only if the two amplifiers are properly
nique to be followed in practical problems. matched and no losses are introduced due to
(a) The output of a certain device is rated mismatching.
at -74 db. What is the power equivalent?
Solution: Push -Pull To double the output of any cas -
Nom' Inot evenly divisible
= 1G by 101 Amplifiers cade amplifier, it is only neces-
sary to connect in push -pull the
Routine: last amplifying stage, and replace the inter -
stage and output transformers with push -pull
-74
- 6 +6 types.
To determine the voltage gain (voltage ra-
- 80 +6 tio) of a push -pull amplifier, take the ratio of
one half of the secondary winding of the push -
-8o+6
Nni,
10 =-10-= -8.6 pull transformer and multiply it by the of
one of the output tubes in the push -pull stage;
ontilog -8.6 = 0.000 000 04 the product, when doubled, will be the voltage
.006 X 0.000 000 04 = amplification, or step -up.
0.000 000 000 24 watt or
Other Units and When working with deci-
240 micro- microwatt
Zero Levels bels one should not im-
(b) This example differs somewhat from mediately take for granted
that of the foregoing one in that the mantissas that the zero level is 6 milliwatts for there are
are added differently. A low - powered amplifier other zero levels in use.
has an input signal level of -17.3 db. How In broadcast stations an entirely new system
many milliwatts does this value represent? is now employed. Measurements made in
HANDBOOK Trigonometry 765
acoustics are now made with the standard zero

level of 10-10 watts per square cm.
Microphones are often rated with reference FIRST
SECOND
to the following zero level: one volt at open QUADRANT QUADRANT
circuit u hen the sound pressure is one millibar. 90'
In any case, the rating of the microphone must
include the loudness of the sound. It is obvious
that this zero level does not lend itself readily
for the calculation of required gain in an am- THIRD FOURTH
QUADRANT QUADRANT
plifier.
The VU: So far, the decibel has always re-
ferred to a type of signal which can readily be
measured, that is, a steady signal of a single Figure 10.
frequency. But what would be the power level THE CIRCLE IS DIVIDED INTO
of a signal which is constantly varying in vol- FOUR QUADRANTS BY TWO PER-
ume and frequency? The measurement of volt- PENDICULAR LINES AT RIGHT
age would depend on the type of instrument ANGLES TO EACH OTHER.
employed, whether it is measured with a The "northeast" quadrant thus formed is
thermal square law meter or one that shows known as the first quadrant; the others are
numbered consecutively in a counterclockwise
average values; also, the inertia of the move- direction.
ment will change its indications at the peaks
and valleys.
After considerable consultation, the broad- Trigonometry
cast chains and the Bell System have agreed Definition Trigonometry is the science of
on the VU. The level in VU is the level in and Use mensuration of triangles. At first
decibels above t milliu aft zero level and meas- glance triangles may seem to
ured with a carefully defined type of instru- have little to do with electrical phenomena;
ment across a 600 ohm line. So long as we however, in a.c. work most currents and volt-
deal with an unvarying sound, the level in VU ages follow laws equivalent to those of the
is equal to decibels above milliwatt; but
1 various trigonometric relations which we are
when the sound level varies, the unit is the about to examine briefly. Examples of their
VU and the special meter must be used. There application to a.c. work will he given in the
is then no equivalent in decibels. section on Vectors.
The Neper: We might have used the natural Angles are measured in degrees or in radi-
logarithm instead of the common logarithm ans. The circle has been divided into 360
when defining our logarithmic unit of sound. degrees, each degree into 60 minutes, and each
This was done in Europe and the unit obtained minute into 60 seconds. A decimal division of
is known as the neper or rapier. It is still the degree is also in use because it makes cal-
found in some American literature on filters. culation easier. Degrees, minutes and seconds
1 neper = 8.686 decibels are indicated by the following signs: °, ' and "
1 decibel = 0.1151 neper Example: 6° 5' 23" means six degrees, five
minutes, twenty -three seconds. In the decimal
Many notation we simply write 8.4' °, eight and
AC Meters With test instruments
Decibel Scales are now equipped with
forty -seven hundredths of a degree.
When a circle is divided into four quadrants
scales calibrated in deci-
by two perpendicular lines passing through
bels which is very handy when making meas-
urements of frequency characteristics and gain. the center (Figure 10) the angle made by the
These meters are generally calibrated for con- two lines is 90 degrees, known as a right angle.
nection across a 500 ohm line and for a zero
Two right angles, or 180° equals a straight
level of 6 milliwatts. When they are connected
angle.
across another impedance, the reading on the The radian: If we take the radius of a circle
meter is no longer correct for the zero level of and bend it so it can cover a part of the cir-
6 milliwatts. A correction factor should be
cumference, the arc it covers subtends an angle
applied consisting in the addition or subtrac- called a radian (Figure 11). Since the circum-
tion of a steady figure to all readings on the ference of a circle equals 2 times the radius,
meter. This figure is given by the equation: there are 2.7 radians in 360 °. So we have the
following relations:
db to be added = 10 log 5z0 1 radian = 57° 17' 45 "= 57.2958° ar= 3.14159
1 degree =0.01745 radians
where Z is the impedance of the circuit under it radians =180 °' .7/2 radians =90°
measurement. it /3 radians =60°
In the angle A, Figure 13A, a line is drawn
from P, perpendicular to b. Regardless of the
point selected for P, the ratio a/c will always
be the same for any given angle, A. So will all
the other proportions between a, b, and c re-
main constant regardless of the position of
point P on c. The six possible ratios each are
named and defined as follows:
a b
sine A = cosine A = c
c
Figure 11. a b
tangent A = cotangent A =
THE RADIAN. a
A radian is an angle whose arc is exactly equal
to the length of either side. Note that the secant A = cosecant A =
angle is constant regardless of the length of b a
the side and the arc so long as they are equal.
A radian equals 57.2958 °. Let us take a special angle as an example.
For instance, let the angle A be 60 degrees as
In trigonometry we consider an angle gen- in Figure 13B. Then the relations between the
erated by two lines, one stationary and the sides are as in the figure and the six functions
f
other rotating as if it were hinged at 0, Figure become:
12. Angles can be greater than 180 degrees and
even greater than 360 degrees as illustrated in sin. 60° _ = 1/2
a
this figure. 1/2 _
Two angles are complements of each other
b 1/2
when their sumis 90 °, or a right angle. A is cos 60° _ _ = 1/2
the complement of B and B is the complement
of A when a 1h Ar3
A= (90° -B) tan 60° = b - 1/2
and when
cot 6o° = 1/__2- 1 = 1/3 V3
B= (90 ° -A) 1/2V, V,
_
Two angles are supplements of each other sec 60 ° = =2

when their sum is equal to'a straight angle, or
180 °. A is the supplement of B and B is the
supplement of A when csc60° =
S
- 1
2/3\
A=080°-B) Another example: Let the angle be 45 °, then
and the relations between the lengths of a, b, and
c are as shown in Figure 13C, and the six
B=(180° -A) functions are:
Figure 12.
AN ANGLE IS GENERATED BY TWO LINES, ONE STATIONARY AND THE OTHER
ROTATING.
The line OX is stationary; the line with the small arrow at the far end rotates in a counterclockwise
direction. At the position illustrated in the lefthandmost section of the drawing It makes an angle,
A, which is less than 90° and is therefore in the first quadrant. In the position shown in the second
portion of the drawing the angle A has increased to such a value that it now lies in the third
quadrant; note that an angle can be greater than 180 °. In the third illustration the angle A is in
the fourth quadrant. In the fourth position the rotating vector has made more than one complete
revolution and is hence in the fifth quadrant; since the fifth quadrant is an exact repetition of the
first quadrant, its values will be the some as in the lefthandmost Portion of the illustration.
HANDBOOK Trigonometric Relations 767
C=e
C
b =1/2
O
Ai
G'
a=1
O
90'
b =0
Figure 13.
THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.
In the right triangle shown in (A) the side opposite the angle A is a, while the adjoining sides are
b and c; the trigonometric functions of the angle A are completely defined by the ratios of the
sides a, b and c. In (B) are shown the lengths of the sides a and b when angle A is 60' and side c
is 1. In (C) angle A is 45 ; a and b equal I, while c equals f2. In (D) note that c equals a for a
right angle while b equals O.
sin 45° _ ` 1
= 1/2
1
Relations Between
Functions
It follows from the defi-
nitions that
cos 45° = = 1/2 1ri sin A =

cosec A
cos A - sec A 1
1
tan 45° = 1 = 1 cot 45° = 1 = 1
and tan A - cot
1
A
Nri
sec 45° - = From the definitions also follows the relation
cosec 45° _ = cos A =sin (complement of A) =sin (90 ° -A)

1
because in the right triangle of Figure 15,

There are some special difficulties when the cos A =b /c =sin B and B=90° -A or the
angle is zero or 90 degrees. In Figure 13D an complement of A. For the same reason:
angle of 90 degrees is shown; drawing a line
perpendicular to b from point P makes it fall cotA = tan (90 ° -A)
on top of c. Therefore in this case a = c and
b = 0. The six ratios are now: cscA = sec (90 ° -A)
sin 90° = c = 1 cos 90° =
b
= = Relations in
Right Triangles
In the right triangle of
Figure 15, tin A =a/c and
tan 90° =
b
= Ó
= °° cot 90° = -=
a
0 by transposition
c c c
a = c sin A
sec 90° = = = m cosec 90° _ = I For the same reason we have the following
b o
When the angle is zero, a =0 and b =c. The identities:
values are then: tan A =a /b a =btanA
0 cotA =b /a b =acotA
sin 0° á=
c
=0 c
cos 0 °= b
c
=1
In the same triangle we can do the same for
tan 0° = b functions of the angle B
b- 0 cot 0° =
a
-0 = m
Angle Sin Cos. Tan Cot Sec. Cosec.

sec 0° =
b
= 1 cosec 0° =7=7)-= 0 0 1 0 co 1
In general, for every angle, there will be defi- 30° 1/2 1/2 V 3 I/3 v , 1/-3-.
S 2/3 2
nite values of the six functions. Conversely, 45° 1/2 1/2 1 1 \1vT
L
when any of the six functions is known, the 60° 1/2 3 1/2 V3 1/3 1/3 2
2/3N/3
angle is defined. Tables have been calculated 90° 1 0 m 0 co 1
giving the value of the functions for angles.
From the foregoing we can make up a small Figure 14.
table of our own (Figure 14), giving values of Values of trigonometric functions for common
the functions for some common angles. angles in the first quadrant.
POSITIVE FUNCTIONS
SECOND QUADRANT FIRST QUADRANT
sine, colic el Fundions
Figure 15.
In this figure the sides a, b, and c are used
to define the trigonometric functions of angle
B as well as angle A.
sin B b/c b=csin B ran, cot cosine, secant

cos B = a/c a = c cos B
tan B = b/a b = a tan B
cot B = a/b a = b cot B
Functions of Angles In angles greater than

THIRD QUADRANT FOURTH QUADRANT
Greater thon 90 degrees, the values
90 Degrees of a and b become neg- Figure 17.
ative on occasion in ac- SIGNS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC
cordance with the rules of Cartesian coordi- FUNCTIONS.
nates. When b is measured from 0 towards The functions listed in this diagram are posi-
the left it is considered negative and similarly, tive; all other functions are negative.
when a is measured from 0 downwards, it is
negative. Referring to Figure 16, an angle in
the second quadrant (between 90° and 180 °) sec A = = neg. cosec A = -=
-a neg.
- -
has some of its functions negative:
sin A =
a
= pos. cos A =
-b = neg. And in the fourth quadrant (270° to 360 °):
c c
-a = b
= -b = neg. sin A = neg. A = =
-
tan A = neg. cot A = cos pos.
c
-=
a
tan A =
-a =
A =
c
neg. cot A = neg.
sec
-b = neg. cosec A =
a
= pos. b -a
For an angle in the third quadrant (180° to sec A = = pos. cosec A = = neg.
270 °), the functions are
-a
sin A = --a
-a
= neg. cos A
-b =
=-
-b
neg.
Summarizing, the sign of the functions in
each quadrant can be seen at a glance from
Figure 17, where in each quadrant are written
tan A = 6b
= pos. cot A = = = pos. the names of functions which are positive;
those not mentioned are negative.
SECOND
QUADRANT
THIRD
QUADRANT
Figure 16.
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS IN THE SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH QUADRANTS.
The trigonometric functions in these quadrants are similar to first quadrant values, but the
signs of the functions vary as listed in the text and in figure 17.
HANDBOOK Trigonometric Curves 769
A) 0 90 270 360 450 540 630 720'
Figure 18.
SINE AND COSINE CURVES.
In (A) we have a sine curve .
drown in Cartesian coordinates. 2 fr
This is the usual rep tation
of an alternating current wave
J T
without substantial harmonics. In 180" 270" 360° 450'
(B) we have a cosine wave;
note that it is exactly similar
to a sine wave displaced by
90" or n 2 radians.
tB1
Graphs of Trigono- u ave. When

The sine 3. Cos x = -cos (180° -x) or
metric Functions we have the relation -cos (s -x)
y =sin x. where x is an 4. Cos x = cos (360 ° -x) or cos (27-x)
angle measured in radians or degrees, we can The graph of the tangent is illustrated in
draw a curve of y versus x for all values of Figure 19. This is a discontinuous curve and
the independent variable, and thus get a good illustrates well how the tangent increases from
conception how the sine varies with the mag- zero to infinity when the angle increases from
nitude of the angle. This has been done in zero to 90 degrees. Then when the angle is
Figure 18A. We can learn from this curve the further increased, the tangent starts from
following facts. minus infinity going to zero in the second quad-
1. The sine varies between +1 and -1 rant, and to infinity again in the third quadrant.
2. It is a periodic curve, repeating itself after 1. The tangent can have any value between
every multiple of 27 or 360° + w and - 00
3. Sin x = sin (180 ° -x)

or sin (7 -x) 2. The curve repeats and the period is 'w
radians or 180 °, not 27 radians
4. Sin x = -sin (180° + x), or
-sin (7 + x) 3. Tan x = tan (180° +x) or tan ('rr +x)
The cosine cave. Making a curve for the
4. Tan x = -tan (180° or -x)
function y .
cos x, we obtain a curve similar
-tan (7 -x)
The graph of the cotangent is the inverse of
to that for y = sin x except that it is displaced that of the tangent, see Figure 20. It leads us
by 90° or 7/2 radians with respect to the to the following conclusions:
Y -axis. This curve (Figure 18B) is also peri- 1. The cotangent can have any value be-
odic but it does not start with zero. We read
from the curve:
tween + w and -
2. It periodic curve, the period being
is a
1. The value of the cosine never goes be- radians or 180°
yond +1 or -1 3. Cot x cot (180° tex) or cot (w +x)
--
2. The curve repeats, after every multiple 4. Cot x = cot (180° -x) or -
of 27 radians or 360° -cot (w -x)
s
(
0 2.>
0° I80° 360° 540° 720' 90° 270' 450° 630'

0' 180 360 540' 720°
90° 270° 450 630°
Figure 19. Figure 20.

TANGENT CURVES. COTANGENT CURVES.
The tangent increases from 0 to 5 with Cotangent curves are the inverse of the tan-
an angular increase of 90'. In the next 180° gent curves. They vary from + 00 to In -w
it increases from -w
to + each pair of quadrants.
Figure 22.
Vectors may be added as shown in these
sketches. In each case the long vector repre-
sents the vector sum of the smaller vectors.
For many engineering applications sufficient
accuracy can be obtained by this method
COSINE which avoids long and laborious calculations.
Figure 21.
ANOTHER REPRESENTATION OF velocity of 50 miles per hour, we speak of a
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS. vector quantity.
If the radius of a circle is considered as the Vectors, representing forces, speeds, dis-
unit of measurement, then the lengths of the
various lines shown in this diagram are numer- placements, etc., are represented by arrows.
ically equal to the functions marked adjacent They can be added graphically by well known
to them. methods illustrated in Figure 22. We can make
the parallelogram of forces or we can simply
The graphs of the secant and cosecant are draw a triangle. The addition of many vectors
of lesser importance and will not be shown can be accomplished graphically as in the same
here. They are the inverse, respectively, of the figure.
cosine and the sine, and therefore they vary In order that we may define vectors algebra-
-
from +1 to infinity and from -1 to infinity. ically and add, subtract, multiply, or divide
them, we must have a logical notation system
Perhaps another useful way of visualizing
the values of the functions is by considering that lends itself to these operations. For this
Figure 21. If the radius of the circle is the unit purpose vectors can be defined by coordinate
of measurement then the lengths of the lines systems. Both the Cartesian and the polar co-
are equal to the functions marked on them. ordinates are in use.
Trigonometric Tables There are two kinds of Vectors Defined Since we have seen how the
trigonometric tables. by Cartesian sum of two vectors is ob-
The first type gives the functions of the angles, Coordinates tained, it follows from Fig-
the second the logarithms' of the functions. ure 23, that the vector Z
The first kind is also known as the table of equals the sum of the two vectors x and y. In
natural trigonometric functions. fact, any vector can be resolved into vectors
These tables give the functions of all angles along the X- and Y -axis. For convenience in
between 0 and 45 °. This is all that is necessary working with these quantities we need to dis-
for the function of an angle between 45° and
90° can always be written as the co- function
of an angle below 45 °. Example: If we had to
find the sine of 48 °, we might write
sin 48° = cos (90° -48 °) = cos 42°
Tables of the logarithms of trigonometric
functions give the common logarithms (log,°)
of these functions. Since many of these logar- y4 is=3
ithms have negative characteristics, one should
add -10 to all logarithms in the table which
have a characteristic of 6 or higher. For in-
stance, the log sin 24° = 9.60931 -10. Log
o
3
\ r
A
5
+
tan 1° = 8.24192 -10 but log cot 1° =

1.75808. When the characteristic shown is less
than 6, it is supposed to be positive and one
should not add -10.
Figure 23.
Vectors RESOLUTION OF VECTORS.
A .scalar quantity has magnitude only; a Any vector such as k may be resolved into
vector quantity has both magnitude and direc- two vectors, x and y, along the X- and Y-
tion. When we speak of a speed of 50 miles axes. If vectors are to be added, their respec-
tive x and y components may be added to
per hour, we are using a scalar quantity, but find the x and y components of the resultant
when we say the wind is Northeast and has a vector.
HANDBOOK Vectors 771
Addition of Vectors An examination of Fig-

ure 24 will show that
the two vectors
= x, + j y,
Z= xr +iy:
x. can be added, if we add the X- components
Figure 24. and the Y- components separately.
ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION OF
VECTORS. = x, +x= +j (y, +y,)
Vectors may be added or subtracted by
adding or subtracting their x or y com- For the same reason we can carry out sub-
ponents separately. traction by subtracting the horizontal compo-
nents and subtracting the vertical components
tinguish between the X- and Y- component,

and so it has been agreed that the Y- compo-
R -Z = x, - X2 + i (y, - y2)
nent alone shall be marked with the letter j. Let us consider the operator j. If we have a
Example (Figure 23) : vector a along the X -axis and add a j in front
of it (multiplying by j) the result is that the
Z =3 +4j direction of the vector is rotated forward 90
Note again that the sign of components degrees. If we do this twice (multiplying by
along the X -axis is positive when measured f) the vector is rotated forward by 180 degrees
from 0 to the right and negative when meas- and now has the value -a. Therefore multi-
ured from 0 towards the left. Also, the compo- plying by f is equivalent to multiplying by -1.
nent along the Y -axis is positive when meas- Then
ured from 0 upwards, and negative when j' = -1 and j = V -1
measured from 0 downwards. So the vector,
R, is described as This is the imaginary number discussed be-
fore under algebra. In electrical engineering
R =5 -3j the letter j is used rather than i, because i is
already known as the symbol for current.
Vector quantities are usually indicated by
some special typography, especially by using a Multiplying Vectors
point over the letter indicating the vector, as
When two vectors are
to be multiplied we can
R. perform the operation just as in algebra, re-
membering that j' = -1.
Absolute Value The absolute or scalar
of a Vector value of vectors such as 2 RZ = (x, + jy,) (x: + jys)
or R in Figure 23 is easily
found by the theorem of Pythagoras, which =x,x :+ jx,ys+ jx :y'+ j y, y2
states that in any right -angled triangle the
square of the side opposite the right angle is = x, x: - y, y: + (x, y: + X: y,) i
equal to the sum of the squares of the sides Division has to be carried out so as to re-
adjoining the right angle. In Figure 23, OAB move the j -term from the denominator. This
is a right -angled triangle; therefore, the square can be done by multiplying both denominator
of OB (or Z) is equal to the square of OA and numerator by a quantity which will elimi-
(or x) plus the square of AB (or y). Thus the nate j from the denominator. Example:
absolute values of Z and R may be determined
as follows:
jy,(X, +iy,) (x: -jys)
IZI= +y'
Vx' Z x= + jy: (x2 + jy=) (x2 - jys)
1Z = V3' +4' =5
x:xz + y,Y= + i (x:y, - x,y:)
x24 y2'
RI= V5' +3'= V14 =5.83 Polar Coordinates A vector can also be de-
The vertical lines indicate that the absolute fined in polar coordi-
or scalar value is meant without regard to sign nates by its magnitude and its vectorial angle
or direction. with an arbitrary reference axis. In Figure 25
e
Figure 26.
Vectors can be transformed from Cartesian
into polar notation as shown in this figure.
which flows due to the alternating voltage is

Figure 25. not necessarily in step with it. The rotating
IN THIS FIGURE A VECTOR HAS current vector may be ahead or behind the
BEEN REPRESENTED IN POLAR voltage vector, having a phase difference with
INSTEAD OF CARTESIAN CO-
it. For convenience we draw these vectors as
ORDINATES.
In polar coordinates a vector is defined by
if they were standing still, so that we can indi-
a magnitude and an angle, called the vec- cate the difference in phase or the phase angle.
torial angle, instead of by two magnitudes In Figure 28 the current lags behind the volt-
os in Cartesian coordinates. age by the angle e, or we might say that the
voltage leads the current by the angle 8.
the vector Z has a magnitude 50 and a vector- Vector diagram show the phase relations
ial angle of 60 degrees. This will then be between two or more vectors (voltages and
written currents) in a circuit. They may be added and
Z = 50/60° subtracted as described; one may add a voltage
vector to another voltage vector or a current
A vector a + jb can be transformed into vector to a current vector but not a current
polar notation very simply (see Figure 26) vector to a voltage vector (for the same reason
that one cannot add a force to a speed). Figure
Z =a +jb= 1,/a'+ b° ¿ton 'u 28 illustrates the relations in the simple series
circuit of a coil and resistor. We know that the
In this connection tan' means the angle of current passing through coil and resistor must
which the tangent is. Sometimes the notation he the same and in the same phase, so we draw
arc tan b/a is used. Both have the same mean- this current I along the X-axis. We know also
ing. that the voltage drop IR across the resistor is
A polar notation of a vector can be trans- in phase with the current, so the vector IR rep-
formed into a Cartesian coordinate notation in resenting the voltage drop is also along the
the following manner (Figure 27) X -axis.
The voltage across the coil is 90 degrees
= p/A = p cos A + jp sin A ahead of the current through it; /X must
A sinusoidally alternating voltage or cur- therefore be drawn along the Y-axis. E the
rent is symbolically represented by a rotating applied voltage must be equal to the vectorial
vector, having a magnitude equal to the peak sum of the two voltage drops, IR and /X. and
voltage or current and rotating with an angular we have so constructed it in the drawing. Now
velocity of 2.71 radians per second or as many expressing the same in algebraic notation, we
revolutions per second as there are cycles per have
second. =IR+¡IX
The instantaneous voltage, e, is always equal
to the sine of the vectorial angle of this rotat- IZ -IR+jIX
ing vector, multiplied by its magnitude.
Dividing by I
e = E sin 2-rft Z =R+ jX
The alternating voltage therefore varies with Due to the fact that a reactance rotates the
time as the sine varies with the angle. If we voltage vector ahead or behind the current
plot time horizontally and instantaneous volt- vector by 90 degrees, we must mark it with a
age vertically we will get a curve like those / in vector notation. Inductive reactance will
in Figure 18. have a plus sign because it shifts the voltage
In alternating current circuits, the current vector forwards; a capacitive reactance is neg-
H A N D B O O K Graphical Representation 773
P COS A
Vectors can be transformed from polar into VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF A
Cartesian notation as shown in this ligure. SIMPLE SERIES CIRCUIT.
The righthand portion of the illustration shows
the vectors representing the voltage drops in
ative because the volt,igc ill lag hchinJ the the coil and resistance illustrated at the left.
current. Therefore: Note that the voltage drop across the coil X:.
leads that across the resistance by 90 .
X. = -j- j
x, = -¡ 2ttfC
Graphical Representation
Formulas and physical laws are often pre-
In Figure 28 the angle e is known as the sented in graphical form; this gives us a
phase angle between E and I. When calculat-
"bird's eye view" of various possible conditions
ing power, only the real components count. due to the variations of the quantities involved.
The power in the circuit is then In some cases graphs permit us to solve equa-
tions with greater ease than ordinary algebra.
P = I ,IRI
Coordinate Systems All of us have used co-
but IR = E cos t ordinate systems with-
out realizing it. For instance, in modern cities
P =El cos e we have numbered streets and numbered ave-
nues. By this means we can define the location
This cos e is known as the power factor of of any spot in the city if the nearest street
the circuit. In many circuits we strive to keep crossings are named. This is nothing but an
the angle e as small as possible, making cos e application of Cartesian coordinates.
as near to unity as possible. In tuned circuits, in the Cartesian coordinate system (named
we use reactances which should have as low a after Descartes), we define the location of any
power factor as possible. The merit of a coil point in a plane by giving its distance from
or condenser, its Q. is defined by the tangent of each of two perpendicular lines or axes. Figure
this phase angle: 30 illustrates this idea. The vertical axis is
called the Y -axis, the horizontal axis is the
Q = tan g =X /R X -axis. The intersection of these two axes is
called the origin, O. The location of a point,
For an efficient coil or condenser, Q should P, (Figure 30) is defined by measuring the
be as large as possible; the phase -angle should respective distances, x and y along the X -axis
then be as close to 90 degrees as possible, mak- and the Y -axis. In this example the distance
ing the power factor nearly zero. Q is almost along the X -axis is 2 units and along the Y-
but not quite the inverse of cos e. Note that in axis is 3 units. Thus we define the point as
Figure 29
Q -X R and cos e = R/Z Q- TAN 0 -R

When Q is more than 5, the power factor is POWER FACTOR =COS e-
less than 20%; we can then safely say Q =
1 /cos e with a maximum error of about 21/2
percent, for in the worst case, when cos e =
0.2, Q will equal tan e = 4.89. For higher Figure 29.
The figure of merit of a coil and its resistance
values of Q, the error becomes less. is represented by the ratio of the inductive
Note that from Figure 29 can be seen the reactance to the resistance, which as shown
simple relation: X,
i
= R jXi.
in this diagram is equal to R- which equals
tan O. For large values of e (the phase angle)
this approximately equal to the reciprocal
IZ = JR'Xt' is
of the cos 9.
. SECOND
QUADRANT
7
6
Y
Il QUADRANT
FIRST
2000
1800
1600
X
v
8- 7- 6- 5- 4 -3 -2-1
4
'
2
0I 2
P
3 4 5 6 7 8
X
f.c
1400
1200
1000
eoo
600
0 100 200
Figure 31.
300 400 500
R
REPRESENTATION OF A SIMPLE
FUNCTION IN CARTESIAN CO-
ORDINATES.
I
TH RD
QUADRANT-
l I
6 . FOURTH
QUADRANT . In this chart of the function f4,
X
-
300,000
distances along the X axis represent wave-

length in meters, while those along the Y
A
axis rep t frequency in kilocycles. A curve
Y
such as this helps to find values between
Figure 30. those calculated with sufficient accuracy for
CARTESIAN COORDINATES. most purposes.
The location of any point can be defined by
its distance from the X and Y axes.
f is said to be a function of X. For every value
of f there is a definite value of X. A variable is
P 2, 3 or we might say x = 2 and y = 3. The said to be a function of another variable when
measurement x is called the abscissa of the for every possible value of the latter, or inde-
point and the distance y is called its ordinate. pendent variable, there is a definite value of
It is arbitrarily agreed that distances measured the first or dependent variable. For instance,
from 0 to the right along the X -axis shall be if y = 5x', y is a function of x and x is called
reckoned positive and to the left negative. Dis- the independent variable. When a = 3b' + 5132
tances measured along the Y -axis are positive -25b + 6 then a is a function of b.
when measured upwards from 0 and negative A function can be illustrated in our coordi-
when measured downwards from 0. This is nate system as follows. Let us take the equa-
illustrated in Figure 30. The two axes divide tion for frequency versus wavelength as an
the plane area into four parts called quadrants. example. Given different values to the inde-
These four quadrants are numbered as shown pendent variable find the corresponding values
in the figure. of the dependent variable. Then plot the points
It follows from the foregoing statements, represented by the different sets of two values.
that points lying within the first quadrant have
both x and y positive, as is the case with the fro. X0,,,00.
point P. A point in the second quadrant has a 600 500
negative abscissa, x, and a positive ordinate, y. 800 375
This is illustrated by the point Q, which has 1000 300
the coordinates x = -4 and y = +1. Points 1200 250
in the third quadrant have both x and y nega- 1400 214
tive. x = -5 and y = -2 illustrates such a 1600 187
point, R. The point S, in the fourth quadrant 1800 167
has a negative ordinate, y and a positive ab- 2000 150
scissa or x.
In practical applications we might draw Plotting these points in Figure 31 and draw-
only as much of this plane as needed to illus- ing a smooth curve through them gives us the
trate our equation and therefore, the scales curve or graph of the equation. This curve
along the X -axis and Y-axis might not start will help us find values of f for other values
with zero and may show only that part of the of X (those in between the points calculated)
scale which interests us. and so a curve of an often -used equation may
serve better than a table which always has
Representation of In the equation: gaps.
Functions When using the coordinate system described
300,000 so far and when measuring linearly along both
X axes, there are some definite rules regarding
HANDBOOK Representation of Functions 775
Figure 32.
Only two points are needed to define func-
tions which result in a straight line as shown
in this diagram representing Ohm's Law. Figure 33.
A TYPICAL GRID - VOLTAGE
PLATE -CURRENT CHARACTER-
ISTIC CURVE.
the kind of curve we get for any type of The equation represented by such a curve is
so complicated that we do not use lt. Data
equation. In fact, an expert can draw the curve for such a curve is obtained experimentally,
with but a very few plotted points since the and intermediate values can be found with
equation has told him what kind of curve to sufficient accuracy from the Curve.
expect.
First, when the equation can be reduced to
the form y = mx + b, where x and y are the If the resistance were 4 ohms, we should get
variables, it is known as a linear or first degree the equation E = 4I and this also represents
function and the curve becomes a straight line. a line which we can plot in the same figure.
(Mathematicians still speak of a "curve" when As we see, this line also passes through the
it has become a straight line.) origin but has a different slope. In this illus-
When the equation is of the second degree, tration the slope defines the resistance and we
that is, when it contains terms like x' or f could make a protractor which would convert
or Ay. the graph belongs to a group of curves, the angle into ohms. This fact may seem incon-
called conic sections. These include the circle, sequential now, but use of this is made in the
the ellipse, the parabola and the hyperbola. In drawing of loadlines on tube curves.
the example given above, our equation is of Figure 33 shows a typical, grid -voltage,
the form plate- current static characteristic of a triode.
xy = c, c being equal to 300,000 The equation represented by this curve is
rather complicated so that we prefer to deal
which is a second degree equation and in this with the curve. Note that this curve extends
case, the graph is a hyperbola. through the first and second quadrant.
This type of curve does not lend itself read- Families of curves. It has been explained
ily for the purpose of calculation except near that curves in a plane can be made to illustrate
the middle, because at the ends a very large the relation between tuo variables when one
change in X represents a small change in f and of them varies independently. However, what
vice versa. Before discussing what can be done are we going to do when there are three vari-
about this let us look at some other types of ables and two of them vary independently. It
curves. is possible to use three dimensions and three
Suppose we have a resistance of 2 ohms axes but this is not conveniently done. Instead
and we plot the function represented by Ohm's of this we may use a family of curves. We
Law: E = 21. Measuring E along the X -axis have already illustrated this partly with Ohm's
and amperes along the Y-axis, we plot the Law. If we wish to make a chart which will
necessary points. Since this is a first degree show the current through any resistance with
equation, of the form y = mx + b (for E _ any voltage applied across it, we must take the
y, m = 2 and 1 = x and b = 0) it will be a equation E = IR, having three variables.
straight line so we need only two points to We can now draw one line representing a
plot it. resistance of 1 ohm, another line representing
2 ohms, another representing 3 ohms, etc., or
I E
as many as we wish and the size of our paper
(line passes through origin) 0 0 will allow. The whole set of lines is then
5 10 applicable to any case of Ohm's Law falling
within the range of the chart. If any two of
The line is shown in Figure 32. It is seen to the three quantities are given, the third can be
be a straight line passing through the origin. found.
is
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Radio Mathematics and Calculations
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THE RADIO
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A FAMILY OF CURVES. "PLATE" CURVES FOR A
An equation such as Ohm's Law has three TYPICAL VACUUM TUBE.
variables, but can be represented in Cartesian In such curves we have three variables, plate
coordinates by a family of curves such as voltage, plate current, and grid bias. Each
shown here. if any two quantities are given, point on a grid bias line ponds to the
the third can b. found. Any point in the plate voltage and plate current represented
chart represents o definite value each of E, by its position with respect to the X and Y
1, and R, which will satisfy the equation of axes. Those for other values of grid bias may
Ohm's Law. Values of R not situated on on R be found by interpolation. The loadline shown
line can be found by Interpolation. in the lower left portion of the chart is ex-
plained in the text.
Figure 34 shows such a family of curves to

solve Ohm's Law. Any point in the chart rep- set of curves is illustrated in Figure 35. Each
resents a definite value each of E, I, and R point in the plane is defined by three values,
which will satisfy the equation. The value of which belong together, plate voltage, plate
R represented by a point that is not situated current, and grid voltage.
on an R line can be found by interpolation. Now consider the diagram of a resistance -
It is even possible to draw on the same chart coupled amplifier in Figure 36. Starting with
a second family of curves, representing a the B- supply voltage, we know that whatever
fourth variable. But this is not always possible, plate current flows must pass through the
for among the four variables there should be resistor and will conform to Ohm's Law. The
no more than two independent variables. In voltage drop across the resistor is subtracted
our example such a set of lines could represent from the plate supply voltage and the remain-
power in watts; we have drawn only two of der is the actual voltage at the plate, the kind
these but there could of course be as many as that is plotted along the X -axis in Figure 35.
desired. A single point in the plane now indi- We can now plot on the plate family of the
cates the four values of E, 1, R, and P which
belong together and the knowledge of any
two of them will give us the other two by
reference to the chart.
Another example of a family of curves is
the dynamic transfer characteristic or plate
family of a tube. Such a chart consists of sev-
eral curves showing the relation between plate
voltage, plate current, and grid bias of a tube.
Since we have again three variables, we must
show several curves, each curve for a fixed Figure 36.
value of one of the variables. It is customary PARTIAL DIAGRAM OF A RESIS-
to plot plate voltage along the X-axis, plate TANCE COUPLED AMPLIFIER.
The portion of the supply voltage wasted
current along the Y -axis, and to make different across the 50,000 -ohm resistor is represented
curves for various values of arid bias. Such a in Figure 35 as the loadline.
HANDBOOK Logarithmic Scales
-
777
tube the loadline, that is the line showing

which part of the plate supply voltage is across
the resistor and which part across the tube for
any value of plate current. In our example, let
3000
2500
2000
1IIIIIIIIII
.,,'11tllllll
us suppose the plate resistor is 50,000 ohms.
Then, if the plate current were zero, the volt- 1500
1111111111111111
age drop across the resistor would be zero and
the full plate supply voltage is across the tube.
Our first point of the loadline is E = 250, 1000 1IIIIIIIIIIIIIII
eee. .., e.e
steieggene
1 = 0. Next, suppose, the plate current were
1 ma., then the voltage drop across the resistor
would be 50 volts, which would leave for the

900
S00
700
str_ ttastastaM ..
MNIMILINNEe1MI
ra=sstsYtlsta.NIYStsteasas
11111
MIMIMIIIMMOMuNi
tube 200 volts. The second point of the load - 600
line is then E = 200, l = 1. We can continue
like this but it is unnecessary for we shall find
ImmImmuionn1
nomminùlull
that it is a straight line and two points are
sufficient to determine it.
This loadline shows at a glance what hap- 11M1111111D0
pens when the grid -bias is changed. Although
there are many possible combinations of plate
300
11111111111
voltage, plate current, and grid bias, we are 200 1111111111111
now restricted to points along this line as long
as the 50,000 ohm plate resistor is in use. This
line therefore shows the voltage drop across
"11I"11III
the tube as well as the voltage drop across the
load for every value of grid bias. Therefore, if
we know how much the grid bias varies, we 8
IIIIIIIIIIIIIII
s I 8$$Is $ $
can calculate the amount of variation in the -6 WAVELENGTH IN METERS
plate voltage and plate current, the amplifi-
Figure 37.
cation, the power output, and the distortion.
A LOGARITHMIC CURVE.
Many functions become greatly simplified and
Logarithmic Scales Sometimes it is conven- some become straight lines when plotted to
ient to measure along logarithmic scales such as shown in this
the axes the logarithms of our variable quan- diagram. Here the frequency versus wavelength
curve of Figure 31 has been replotted to con-
tities. Instead of actually calculating the logar- form with logarithmic axes. Note that it is
ithm, special paper is available with logarith- only necessary to calculate two points in
mic scales, that is, the distances measured order to determine the "curve" since this type
along the axes are proportional to the logar- of function results in a straight line.
ithms of the numbers marked on them rather
than to the numbers themselves.
There is semi -logarithmic paper, having trast to the graph made with linear coordi-
nates.
logarithmic scales along one axis only, the This last fact is a great advantage of logar-
other scale being linear. We also have full ithmic scales in general. It should be clear that
logarithmic paper where both axes carry log- if we have a linear scale with 100 small divi-
arithmic scales. Many curves are greatly sim- sions numbered from 1 to 100, and if we are
plified and some become straight lines when
able to read to one tenth of a division, the
plotted on this paper. possible error we can make near 100, way up
As an example let us take the wavelength - the scale, is only 1/10th of a percent. But near
frequency relation, charted before on straight the beginning of the scale, near 1, one tenth of
cross -section paper. a division amounts to 10 percent of 1 and we
300,000 are making a 10 percent error.
a In any logarithmic scale, our possible error
in measurement or reading might be, say 1/32
Taking logarithms: of an inch which represents a fixed amount of
log f = log 300,000 - log X the log depending on the scale used. The net
result of adding to the logarithm a fixed quan-
If we plot log f along the Y -axis and log X tity, as 0.01, is that the anti - logarithm is mul-
along the X -axis, the curve becomes a straight tiplied by 1.025, or the error is 21/2%. No mat-
line. Figure 37 illustrates this graph on full ter at what part of the scale the 0.01 is added,
logarithmic paper. The graph may be read the error is always 21/2 %.
with the same accuracy at any point in con- An example of the advantage due to the use
778 Radio Mathematics and Calculations
10.000
1.0
0.9
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z
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z
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15 10 5 0 5 10 15
KC. OFF RESONANCE
Figure 38.
A RECEIVER RESONANCE CURVE.
This curve rep nts the output of a re-
IO
ceiver venus frequency when plotted to linear 9
coordinates.
of semi -logarithmic paper is shown in Figures 4

38 and 39. A resonance curve, when plotted on 3
linear coordinate paper will look like the curve
in Figure 38. Here we have plotted the output
of a receiver against frequency while the ap-
plied voltage is kept constant. It is the kind of 1
curve a "wobbulator" will show. The curve -20 -10 0 +10 +20
does not give enough information in this form
KC. OFF RESONANCE
for one might think that a signal 10 kc. off
resonance would not cause any current at all Figure 39.
and is tuned out. However, we frequently have A RECEIVER SELECTIVITY CURVE.
off resonance signals which are 1000 times as This curve rep is the selectivity of a re-
strong as the desired signal and one cannot ceiver plotted to logarithmic coordinates for
the output, but linear coordinates for fre-
read on the graph of Figure 38 how much any quency. The reason that this curve appears
signal is attenuated if it is reduced more than inverted from that of Figure 38 is explained
about 20 times. in the text.
In comparison look at the curve of Figure
39. Here the response (the current) is plotted
in logarithmic proportion, which allows us to be used because now our unit is logarithmic.
plot clearly how far off resonance a signal has An example of full logarithmic paper being
to be to be reduced 100, 1,000, or even 10,000 used for families of curves is shown in the re-
times. actance charts of Figures 40 and 41.
Note that this curve is now "upside down";
it is therefore called a selectivity curve. The Nomograms or An alignment chart con -
reason that it appears upside down is that the Alignment Charts sists of three or more sets
method of measurement is different. In a se- of scales which have been
lectivity curve we plot the increase in signal so laid out that to solve the formula for which
voltage necessary to cause a standard output the chart was made, we have but to lay a
off resonance. It is also possible to plot this in- straight edge along the two given values on
crease along the Y -axis in decibels; the curve any two of the scales, to find the third and
then looks the same although linear paper can unknown value on the third scale. In its sim-
Figure 40.
REACTANCE -FREQUENCY CHART FOR AUDIO FREQUENCIES
See text for applications and instructions for use.
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HANDBOOK Polar Coordinates 781
//
P
RADIUS
//
VECTOR
/
/ pNG
js'-
X
AXIS
Figure 43.
THE LOCATION OF A POINT BY
Figure 42. POLAR COORDINATES.
THE SIMPLEST FORM OF NOMOGRAM. In the polar coordinate system any point is
determined by its distance from the origin
and the angle formed by a line drawn from
it to the origin and the 0 -X axis.
plest form, it is somewhat like the lines in Fig-
ure 42. If the lines a, b, and c are parallel and
equidistant, we know from ordinary geometry, by the angle A the vectorial angle. We give
that b = 1/2 (a + c). Therefore, if we draw a these data in the following form
scale of the same units on all three lines, start-
ing with zero at the bottom, we know that by P =3L0°
laying a straight -edge across the chart at any
place, it will connect values of a, b, and c. Polar coordinates are used in radio chiefly
which satisfy the above equation. When any for the plotting of directional properties of mi-
two quantities are known, the third can be crophones and antennas. A typical example of
found. such a directional characteristic is shown in
If, in the same configuration we used loga- Figure 44. The radiation of the antenna rep-
rithmic scales instead of linear scales, the rela- resented here is proportional to the distance of
tion of the quantities would become the characteristic from the origin for every
possible direction.
log b = 1/2 (log a + log c) or b = ac
By using different kinds of scales, different
units, and different spacings between the scales,
charts can be made to solve many kinds of
equations.
If there are more than three variables it is
generally necessary to make a double chart,
that is, to make the result from the first chart
serve as the given quantity of the second one.
Such an example is the chart for the design of
coils illustrated in Figure 45. This nomogram
is used to convert the inductance in microhen-
ries to physical dimensions of the coil and vice
versa. A pin and a straight edge are required.
The method is shown under "R. F. Tank Cir-
cuit Calculations" later in this chapter.
Polor Coordinates Instead of the Cartesian

coordinate system there Figure 44.
is also another system for defining algebraical- THE RADIATION CURVE OF AN
ly the location of a point or line in a plane. In ANTENNA.
this, the polar coordinate system, a point is de- Polar coordinates are used principally in radio
termined by its distance from the origin, O, work for plotting the directional characteris-
and by the angle it makes with the axis O -X. tics of an antenna where the radiation is
In Figure 43 the point P is defined by the represented by the distance of the curve from
the origin for every possible direction.
length of OP, known as the radius vector and
Reactance Calculations it intersects the 100 -hy. line, the resonant fre-
quency being determined by projecting the in-
In audio frequency calculations, an accuracy tersection horizontally back on to the chart.
to better than a few per cent is seldom re- To determine the reactance, the logarithmic
quired, and when dealing with calculations in- ohms scale must be extended.
volving inductance, capacitance, resonant fre-
quency, etc., it is much simpler to make use of
reactance-frequency charts such as those in R. F. Tank When winding coils for use in
figures 40 and 41 rather than to wrestle with a Circuit radio receivers and transmit -
combination of unwieldy formulas. From these Calculations ters, it is desirable to be able to
charts it is possible to determine the reactance of determine in advance the full
a condenser or coil if the capacitance or induc- coil specifications for a given frequency. Like-
tance is known, and vice versa. It follows from wise, it often is desired to determine how much
this that resonance calculations can be made capacity is required to resonate a given coil so
directly from the chart, because resonance that a suitable condenser can be used.
simply means that the inductive and capacitive Fortunately, extreme accuracy is not re-
reactances are equal. The capacity required to quired, except where fixed capacitors are used
resonate with a given inductance, or the induc- across the tank coil with no provision for trim-
tance required to resonate with a given capac- ming the tank to resonance. Thus, even though
ity, can be taken directly from the chart. it may be necessary to estimate the stray cir-
While the chart may look somewhat formid- cuit capacity present in shunt with the tank
able to one not familiar with charts of this capacity, and to take for granted the likelihood
type, its application is really quite simple, and of a small error when using a chart instead of
can be learned in a short while. The following the formula upon which the chart was based.
example should clarify its interpretation. the results will be sufficiently accurate in most
For instance, following the lines to their in- cases, and in any case give a reasonably close
point from which to start "pruning."
tersection, we see that 0.1 hy. and 0.1 µfd. in-
tersect at approximately 1,500 cycles and 1,000 The inductance required to resonate with a
ohms. Thus, the reactance of either the coil or certain capacitance is given in the chart in
condenser taken alone is about 1000 ohms, and figure 41. By means of the r.f. chart , the
the resonant frequency about 1,500 cycles. inductance of the coil can be determined,
To find the reactance of 0.1 hy. at, say, or the capacitance determined if the induc-
10,000 cycles, simply follow the inductance tance is known. When making calculations, be
line diagonally up towards the upper left till it sure to allow for stray circuit capacity, such as
intersects the horizontal 10,000 kc. line. Fol- tube interelectrode capacity, wiring, sockets,
lowing vertically downward from the point of etc. This will normally run from 5 to 25 micro -
intersection, we see that the reactance at this microfarads, depending upon the components
frequency is about 6000 ohms. and circuit.
To facilitate use of the chart and to avoid To convert the inductance in microhenries
errors, simply keep the following in mind: The to physical dimensions of the coil, or vice
vertical lines indicate reactance in ohms, the versa, the nomograph chart in figure 41 is
horizontal lines always indicate the frequency, used. A pin and a straightedge are required.
the diagonal lines sloping to the lower right The inductance of a coil is found as follows:
represent inductance, and the diagonal lines The straightedge is placed from the correct
sloping toward the lower left indicate capaci- point on the turns column to the correct point
tance. Also remember that the scale is loga- on the diameter -to- length ratio column, the
rithmic. For instance, the next horizontal line latter simply being the diameter divided by the
above 1000 cycles is 2000 cycles. Note that length. Place the pin at the point on the plot
there are 9, not 10, divisions between the heavy axis column where the straightedge crosses it.
lines. This also should be kept in mind when From this point lay the straightedge to the cor-
interpolating between lines when best possible rect point on the diameter column. The point
accuracy is desired; halfway between the line where the straightedge intersects the induc-
representing 200 cycles and the line represent- tance column will give the inductance of the
ing 300 cycles is not 250 cycles, but approxi- coil.
mately 230 cycles. The 250 cycle point is ap- From the chart, we see that a 30 turn coil
proximately 0.7 of the way between the 200 having a diameter -to- length ratio of 0.7 and a
cycle line and the 300 cycle line, rather than diameter of 1 inch has an inductance of ap-
halfway between. proximately 12 microhenries. Likewise any one
Use of the chart need not be limited by the of the four factors may be determined if the
physical boundaries of the chart. For instance, other three are known. For instance, to deter-
the 10 -µµEd. line can be extended to find where mine the number of turns when the desired in-
Figure 45. COIL CALCULATOR NOMOGRAPH
For single loyer solenoid coils, ony wire size. See text for instructions.
N' OF PLOT INDUCTANCE IN RATIO DIAMETER DIAMETER

TURNS AXIS MICROHENRIES LENGTH INCHES
8 5
- 400 6
- 20000 5
- 300
4 -4
--
-10000
8000
6000
3
- 200
-- 4000
3000
-3
- 150
- 2000 2
-- 1000
- 800
600
-100
- 90
-- 400
- 80
-
300
-2
- 70
200
- 80
--.60100
80
50
- 40 -- 40
30
-1.5
30
-- 6
8 5
- 20 -4
- 3
.-1
-15 - 2
.4
-
-- 6 I
.8
-.75
- 10
.3
-.3
-.2
.1
-5 .2
-0
-4
-3
ductance, the D/L ratio, and the diameter are given than the accuracy of the measurement
known, simply work backwards from the ex- permits. Thus, if the measurement is good to
ample given. In all cases, remember that the two places, we would write, for instance, 6.9
straightedge reads either turns and D/L ratio, which would mean that the true value is
or it reads inductance and diameter. It can somewhere between 6.85 and 6.95. If the meas-
read no other combination. urement is known to three significant figures,
The actual wire size has negligible effect we might write 6.90 which means that the true
upon the calculations for commonly used wire value is somewhere between 6.895 and 6.905.
sizes (no. 10 to no. 30). The number of turns In dealing with approximate quantities, the
of insulated wire that can be wound per inch added cipher at the right of the decimal point
(solid) will be found in a copper wire table. has a meaning.
There is unfortunately no standardized sys-
tem of writing approximate figures with many
Significant Figures ciphers to the left of the decimal point. 69000
does not necessarily mean that the quantity is
In most radio calculations, numbers repre- known to 5 significant figures. Some indicate
sent quantities which were obtained by meas- the accuracy by writing 69 x 103 or 690 x 10'
urement. Since no measurement gives absolute etc., but this system is not universally em-
accuracy, such quantities are only approximate ployed. The reader can use his own system, but
and their value is given only to a few signifi- whatever notation is used, the number of sig-
cant figures. In calculations, these limitations nificant figures should be kept in mind.
must be kept in mind and one should not fin- Working with approximate figures, one may
ish for instance with a result expressed in more obtain an idea of the influence of the doubtful
significant figures than the given quantities at figures by marking all of them, and products
the beginning. This would imply a greater ac- or sums derived from them. In the following
curacy than actually was obtained and is there- example, the doubtful figures have been under-
fore misleading, if not ridiculous. lined.
An example may make this clear. Many am- 603
meters and voltmeters do not give results to 34.6
closer than 1/4 ampere or 1/4 volt. Thus if we 0.120
have 21/4 amperes flowing in a d.c. circuit at
63/4 volts, we can obtain a theoretical answer 637.720 answer: 638
by multiplying 2.25 by 6.75 to get 15.1875
watts. But it is misleading to express the an- Multiplication:
swer down to a ten -thousandth of a watt when
the original measurements were only good to 654 654
1/4 ampere or volt. The answer should be ex- 0.342 0.342
pressed as 15 watts, not even 15.0 watts. If 1308 19612
we assume a possible error of 1/8 volt or am-
2616 26116
pere (that is, that our original data are only
correct to the neareft 1/4 volt or ampere) the 1962 1'308
true power lies between 14.078 (product of 223.668 answer: 224 224
21/8 and 65/e) and 16.328 (product of 23/8 and
67/8). Therefore, any third significant figure It is recommended that the system at the
would be misleading as implying an accuracy right be used and that the figures to the right
which we do not have. of the vertical line be omitted or guessed so as
Conversely, there is also no point to calcu- to save labor. Here the partial products are
lating the value of a part down to 5 or 6 sig- written in the reverse order, the most impor-
nificant figures when the actual part to be used tant ones first.
cannot be measured to better than 1 part in In division, labor can be saved when after
one hundred. For instance, if we are going to each digit of the quotient is obtained, one fig-
use 1% resistors in some circuit, such as an ure of the divisor be dropped. Example:
ohmmeter, there is no need to calculate the
value of such a resistor to 5 places, such as 1.28
1262.5 ohm. Obviously, 1% of this quantity 527 673
is over 12 ohms and the value should simply 527
be written as 1260 ohms. 53 ) 146
There is a definite technique in handling 106
these approximate figures. When giving values 5 775
obtained by measurement, no more figures are 40
- Ì-. '- r
ii.t
2C
`) T 1
1
O..r!f 17ftC7i0M n ftCiWe

Lo-fs T not.). mico-rail T StC7.001 w.011-r11fS
VALUES
FREQUENCY SCALE
LOW-PASS MIGM -PASS L C LOAD RESISTANCE
3 .3 1000 .0000
100 25.0
90
60 20.0 5
.
.5
1100
1200
43000
100
-
-
-L
9000
00 00
70
t
7
.6
.7 1500 -` 10 00
.6 w00
60 1].0 9 .9 W
10 1.0
W V
2000 5000 01
50
u W
15 1.5 V
W Z
000 F
0 0.0 20 2.0 2 2500
<
j
U
H
.
F
C ]000
l
V
i
430
J .430
43000
430
p 10 .0 r2
W
Z
W
50 5.0 U 000
.0 ~
r
1- _
V
IO
W C
70 7.0
20 .0 60 9.0 5000.}- 2000
w LO 1- ~
loo 40.0
t
6000
.0 Ñ
> 1]00 >
15 150 15.0 7000
n. r
200
3.0
9000
f
9000
4300 430.0
10 2.5 10000 1000
C
Cau,ttrY. 0O0.11 e0.0 u0. ne Co.
FILTER DESIGN CHART
For both Pi -type and T -type Sections
To findconnect cut -off frequency on left -hand scale (using left -side scale for low -pass and right -
L.,
stde scale for high -pass) with load on left -hand side of right -hand scale by means of a straight -edge.
Then read the value of L front the point where the edge intersects the left side of the center scale. Read-
ings are in henries for frequencies in cycles per second.
To find C, t cut -off frequency on left -hand scale (using left -side scale for low -pass and right -
side scale for high pass) with the load on the right -hand side of the right -hand scale. Then read the
value of C from the point where the straightedge cuts the right side of the center scale. Readings are
in micro/grads for f les in cycles per s d.
for f in kilocycles, C is cop

!es d in thousands of micromicrofarads, L is exprossed in
mlllihendas. For frequencies in megacycles, L is expressed in microhenries and C is .xpressed in microm -
crofarads.
For each tenfold increase In the value of load resistance multiply L by 10 and divide C by 10.
Fee each tenfold decrease in frequency multiply L by 10 end multiply C by 10.
785
INDEX
A
Acceptor, def. of 92 Amplifier -Push -pull 121, 612
A.C. -D.C. power supply
"Acorn" tube
561, 588, 694
232
"
" R -F -
Push-pull tetrode
RC
644
121, 109
A -C V -T voltmeter
Adapter, F -M
Adapter, mechanical filter
724
325
535
R -F
Summing
-
Response
4CX -1000A
1
213, 640
201
1 2
Admittance, def. of 52 Terman- Woodyard 298

"A" -frame antenna mast 448 Tetrode 614
Air capacitor 359 Transistor 104
Air dielectric 32 Ultra- linear 142
Alignment
"
- - --
Air -gap, capacitor
B.f.o
Receiver I -F
Filter
R -F
264
236
148, 235, 236
Vertical
V.h.f. cascode
Video
138
578
112, 113, 128
All- driven antenna 504 Voltage 110
-- - - -
Alpha, def. of 93 Williamson 140
Alternating current Amplitude Average 45 Amplitude A.0 45
" Def. of Effective value 41, 45 " Distortion
-- Modulation 109, 282, 647
---
Generation 42 Analog computers problems 195, 200
- -
Impedance "J" operator 47 Angle of radiation V.h.f 411, 460, 478
Ohm's law Phase angle 45, 46 Anode, def, of dissipation 67, 72
Pulsating R.M.S 45 Antenna Adjustment 509
Transformer 61 " All- driven 504
Transient
" Voltage divider
Alternator
59
52
42
Beam - - -
Bandwidth
design chart
405, 413
2- element 498, 495
-
Bidirectional Bi- square 505, 470
Amateur band receiver 540 te
Bobtail 472
Amateur frequency bands licenses 12 Broadside 468
Amateur radio service, The 11 Bruce 470
Ammeter 721 Center-fed 438
Ampere, def. of 22, 23 Colinear 466
Ampere -turns 36, 62 Combinations of 475
Amperite filament regulator 552
- --
Construction 448, 506
Amplification factor
Amplifier
" Cathode
Audio Coscode
Cathode driven
73, 74
227, 214
127, 626
Corner reflector
Couplers
Coupling systems
-mobile
485
454, 520, 524
--
451
Cathode follower 134 Cubical quad 471
Class A A2 99, 108, 118 Curtain 468
Class AB
Class B
AB1
99, 108, 123,
108, 137
129, 251
Delta match
Dipole array - 501
-
broad -band 465, 435
Class C 108, 124, 251 Directivity 404, 410
Coupling inductive 113, 118, 123 Discone 441, 481
D.C. 117 Doublet 427
Doherty 298 Dummy 726
Driver 126 Efficiency 409
Equivalent circuit 109 Element spacing 468
Feedback
Grid circuit 121
Grounded cathode- Grounded screen 132, 629
129 End -effect
End -fed -
Feed systems
end -fire
406
426, 437, 473
428, 498
Hi -fi --
Grounded grid
High mu (A)
Horizontal I -F
132, 135, 214, 258, 626
138, 112
139, 210
Franklin array
Fuchs
Gain, beam
466
426
495
Kilowatt, general purpose 635 Gamma match 503
linear 138, 286, 620 Ground loss 409
Loftin -White 8 1 1 Ground plane 431
Multi -band linear 624 Hertz 426
Neutralization 252, 616, 639 High frequency type 459
Noise factor 122 Impedance 408
Operational 199 Intercept, v.h.f. 477
Pentode
Pi- network
Plate efficiency
120
617
129
Lazy -H
Length
Long
-
wire
468
Length -to- diameter ratio 405, 406
461
Power 118, 610 Maconi 408, 432
Printed circuit 575 Matching systems 442
786
Antenna -
" Multee
Measurements 730
440
Bandwidth, modulation
Base electrode
283
92
" Multi -band 436, 514 Bass suppression, audio 306
" Mutual coupling
Parasitic beam
Patterns 404,
475
494
460
Beam
"
-
Battery bias
Design chart
Element spacing
- Dimensions
269
498, 496
497
Phasing
Polarization
Polarization, v.h.f.
466
404
479
H -F-
Front -back ratio
5- element
Power tube
- 496
2- element ....496, 494
78
Power gain
Q
Reactance - Resonance 408,
405
409
404 Beat note
Radiation resistance
Three element HF -
220 Mc.
495
496, 603
208
Rhombic
Rotary
Rotator
- Rotary match 494,
464
502
512
Beat oscillator
B -H curve
Bias - Battery
224
36
269
Single wire feed
Six- shooter
Sleeve
441
472
480
" Cathode
Def. of
Grid
- cut -off
268
108, 267
73
Space conserving 434 Grid leak 112, 268

Stacked 468, 498 R -F amplifier 612
Sterba
Stub adjustment
T -match
- stub match 445,
469
503
501
Safety
Shift modulator
Supply, modulator
268
307
653
3- element beam -3-element match 603, 488 Transistor 96
Triplex 475 Bidirectional antenna 505
Tuner 456 Bifilar coil 572
Turnstile 480 Billboard antenna 477
Two -band Marconi 438 Binary notation 195, 196
V -type 462 Bishop noise limiter 228
Vertical 430 Bi- square antenna 470
V.h.f. - helical -
V.h.f.- 8- element- ground plane ....488,
horn 483,
481
486
Bistable multivibrator
Bit
102
196
V.h.f. nondirectional
-
V.h.f. rhombic
V.h.f. screen array - Yogi
482
486
491, 488
Bleeder resistor
Blocked grid keying
-
Blanketing interference
safety
380
27, 709, 395
398
W8JK 473 Blocking diodes 401
X -array 469 Blocking oscillator 102, 155, 189, 190
Yoke match 498 Bob -tail antenna 472
"Zepplin" 427, 467 Bombardment, cathode 70
Antennascope 738 Boost, Bass /Treble 139
Anti -resonance 54 Break voltage 203
Aquadag 85 Bridge measurements 728
Area, capacitor plate 33 Bridge rectifier 689
Arrays, antenna 465, 412 Bridge, slide -wire 728
"Assumed" voltage
Atom, def. of - atomic number
52
21
Bridge, SWR
Bridge -T oscillator
458, 736
192
Audio
"
-
Attenuation, Bass /Treble
Amplifier
Distortion
139
227
135
Bridge -type vacuum tube voltmeter
Bridge, Wheatstone
Broad band dipole
131
728
435
"
"
"
Equalizer
Feedback loop
Filter, SSB
139
141
333
Broadcast interference
Broadside antennas
Bruce antenna
-
arrays
379
468, 412
470
Frequency, def. of 42 Butterfly circuit 232
Hum 142
Limiters 153, 185, 228 C
Phase Inverter
Phasing network
Wiring technique
-
SSB
115
570, 338
142
Calorimeter
Capacitance -
Calculation
" Interelectrode
- 726
definition ....32, 30
76, 106
Autodyne detector
Automatic load control, SSB
Automatic modulation control
208
345
648
"
" Tank -
Neutralization
Stray
Capacitive coupling
107
261, 218
270
--
Automatic volume control 225 Capacitive reactance 46
Autotransformer 63, 390 Capacitor A.C. circuit 34
Avalanche voltage 697 " Air Characteristics 359, 358
" Breakdown 264
Balanced modulator
Balanced SWR bridge
-
SSB
B
331, 338, 343
736
"
"
Charge
Color code
Electrolytic
31
531
34, 708
Balanced transmission line measurements 734 Equalizing 34
Bands, amateur 12 Filter 707, 690
Bandspread tuning 217 Fixed 30
Bandwidth, antenna 405, 413 Leakage 34
Bandwidth, I -F, graph 534 Low inductance 619
787
Capacitor
" Q
- Parallel 33
54
Collins feed system
Collins filter
447
222
Series 33 Color code, standard 531, 532
" Temperature coefficient 32 Colpitts oscillator
-
241
" Time constant 39 Complementary symmetry 97
" Vacuum variable vacuum 360, 620 Complex quantity
-
49
" Voltage rating 34 Component nomenclature graph 530
Carrier Distortion 313 Compound, def. of 21
" Shift 284 Compression, volume 648
- --
" S.S.B. 327, 331, 332, 334 Compressor, A.L.C. 345
Cascode amplifier V.H.F. 111, 214, 578 Computers, electronic 194
Cathode Bias 108, 268 Conductance, def. of 52
" Coupling
" Current - coupled inverter
Definition
" Driven amplifier
115, 116
79, 67
258, 626
Conduction
Conductivity - Conductor
Constant amplitude recording
67, 90
137
23
Follower 274 Constant current curve 74, 127

" Follower amplifier 127, 134 Constant -K filter 64
" Follower driver 659, 662 Constant velocity recording 136
" Follower modulator
" Keying
290
397
Constants, vacuum tube
Construction, transmitter - 107
-
VFO 663, 676
" Modulation 297 Control circuit, mobile 525
Cathode ray oscilloscope tube 138, 84 Control circuit, transmitter 391
Cavity, resonant 232 Conversion conductance 80
Cell, Weston 24 Conversion, frequency, SSB 340
Center -fed antenna 438 Converter stage 211
Ceramic dielectric 32 Converter, transistor 100
Charge 22, 23, 30 Core loss 55
Chassis layout 726 Corner reflector antenna 485
Choke, filter 709 Corono static 529
Choke, R -F 272, 361 Coulomb 22, 30
Circuits --
Circuit constants, measurement of
Coupled
727
123
Counter e.m.f
Counting circuits
37
156, 190
" D.C.
" Input loading
" Limiting
Equivalent 21, 51
122
151
Coupling
" Cathode
-
Coupler, directional
Capactive
735
270
115
Magnetic 35 " Choke 114
Parallel 25 " Critical 57, 218
Parasitic 365 Direct 115
Q
Resonant
Circulating current
- -
Series
54
Tank ....53, 24, 55, 57
56
Effect of
Impedance
Interstage -- Inductive
r -f
113, 271
270, 619
56
Clamping circuit 153, 154, 187 Link 272, 611

Clapp oscillator 241 Magnetic 38
Class A amplifier, def. of 108 Parasitic 364
Class A2 amplifier 118 R -F feedback 275
Class AB amplifier, def. of 108 Systems, antenna 451
Class AB1 amplifiers 137, 140 Transformer 1 1 3
Class B amplifiers 108, 123, 125, 129, 139 Unity 271
Class B modulator 126, 294 Critical coupling 218
Class B, R -F amplifier 251 Critical inductance 686
Class C amplifiers 108, 124, 125, 251 Crosby modulator 590
Class C bias 267 Cross modulation 381
Clipper -Amplifier design
Clipper filter, speech
Clipping circuits 151,
657
304
185
Crystal --
Crossover point
" Filter
Current
Lattice filter
136
246
220, 336, 579
Clipping, negative peak
Clipping, phase shift
Clipping, speech 124, 300, 648
648
301
" Harmonic
"
Oscillator
Pickup
- Quartz
246
244, 245
137
Closed loop feedback
Coaxial delay line
Coaxial reflectameter
192
204
732
Current
"
-
Cubical quad antenna
Alternating
Amplification (alpha)
471
41
93
Coaxial transmission line
Coaxial tuned circuit
423
232
" Cathode
Circulating - Closed path 56, 28
79
Code
Code, practice set
14 -20
19
Def. of
Effective - Effective (a.c.) 723, 45
22
Coefficient of coupling
Coefficient, temperature
Coercive force
38
32
37
Electrode
Induced
Inverse
- Instantaneous
106
42, 44
693
Coil, bifilar 572 Measurement 721, 723
Coil, core loss 55 Negative screen 641
Coil, Q 54, 360 Peak amplifier 125
Colinear antenna
Collector electrode
466
92 Saturation -
Rating, power supply
Skin effect
685
72, 54
788
Curtain antenna 468 Double sideband, DSB 333, 353
Cutoff (alpha) 93 Doubler, frequency 258
Cutoff bias
Cutoff, extended
Cutoff frequency
73
287
64
Doubler, push -push
Doublet, antenna
Drift transistor
-
multi -wire
260
427, 429
93
Cycle 41 Driver, amplifier 126
Driver, cathode follower 659, 662
d'Arsonval meter
D.C. amplifier
D
117
721
Duct propagation
Dummy antenna
Duplex transmission
- dummy loads
415
726
597
D.C. clamping circuit 187 Dynamic resistance 95
-- -
D.C. power supplies 684 Dynamotor, PE -103 526
D.C. restorer circuit 188, 154 Dynatron oscillator 242
Defector autodyne crystal 208
Deflection plate 139 E
Degeneration, transistor 96 Eddy current 38
Degree, electrical 43 Efficiency, antenna 409
Delay line
Delta match
Demodulator
- antenna - 204
system ....501, 430, 442
207
Electric filters
Electrical energy
Electrical potential
63
29
22
Detection, slope 210 Electromagnetic deflection 86
Detector -
Detection, synchronous, DSB
" Envelope
Diode
353
224
151
Electrolytic capacitor
Electrolytic conductor
Electromagnetism
34, 708
22, 67
35
" Fremodyne
" Gride leak
" Product
-Impedance - Plate
210
224
237, 352
Electromotive force (e.m.f.)
Electron, def. of - -
Electron coupled oscillator
drift orbit
22, 37
67,
241
21
" Ratio 323 Electronic computers 194
Deviation, FM
Dielectric, ceramic
--
" Super -regenerative
Measurement
Constant (K)
209
314, 320
30, 31, 32
Electronic conduction
Electronic differentiation
Electronic multiplication
- integration
67
198
198
- -
Differential keying 400 Electrostatics 30
Differentiation, electronic 198 Electrostatic deflection energy 83, 30
Differentiator (RC)
Digital circuits -
computers
59
195
Element, def. of metallic, non -metallic
Element, reactive, nonreactive
..21, 90
21
Diode
"
-
Digital package
A.v.c.
Blocking
204
225
401
Emmission equation
Emission, photoelectric
Emission, secondary
70
67
71, 77
" Crystal 234 Emission, spurious 383
Def. of 71 Emission, thermionic 67
Detector 224 Emitter electrode 92
Gate 204 Enclosures 724, 725
Limiter 185 End effect, antenna 406
Mixer
Modulator
Semi -conductor
212
332
90
End -fed antenna
-
End -fire antennas
Energy Electrical
--
arrays
Electrostatic
426, 437
473, 412
29, 30
Storage time 103 " Potential 30
Voltmeter 724 " Storage, capacitor 31
Dipoles 403, 435, 465, 498 " Transistor 93
Direct current circuits 21 ENIAC 195
Directional coupler 735 Envelope, carrier 282
Directive antennas, H -F 459 Envelope detector 151
Directivity, antenna 404, 410 Equalizer, audio 139
Discharge of capacitor 30 Equal -tempered scale 135
Discone antenna 441, 481 Equivalent circuit 51
Discontinuities, transmission line 425 Equivalent circuit, transistor 95
Discriminator, F -M 322 Equivalent noise resistance 123
Distortion
" Audio
-
Dissipation, anode
Amplitude - Frequency
72
109
135
Error cancellation, feedback
Error signal
Excitation, grid
159
159, 193
252
" Carrier 313 Exciters, SSB 346, 349
" Harmonic 119 Extended -Zepp antenna 467
" Intermodulation 136
"
"
"
Modulation
Nonlinear
Products, SSB
-
Phase
307
109, 135
344
Factor of merit
Fading
P
54
418
" Transient 135 Farad, def. of 31
" Transistor 98 Feedback amplifier 129
Divider, frequency 190 Feedback, audio 141
Divider, voltage 26 Feedback circuits 192
Doherty amplifier 298 Feedback, control 158
Dome audio phasing network 338 Feedback, error cancellation 159
Double conversion circuit 215 Feedback, Miller 199
789
Feedback, R -F 274, 615 Fuchs antenna 426
Feedback, transistor 101 Full -wave limiter 230
Feed systems, antenna
Feed -through power
Field, magnetic
428, 498
627
35
Full -wove rectifier
Function generator - non -linear - 689
ramp 202, 203
Filament, def. of 67 G
-- --
Filament reactivation 68 G, conductance, def. of 52
Filter-
Filament regulator
Capacitor
552
707, 690
Gain, antenna
Gain, power
beam
resistance voltage
461, 495
94
" Carrier, SSB
Choke
Circuits, mobile
334
709
518
Gas tube
Gate, diode
--
Gamma match, antenna
generator
limiter
system 503, 444
87, 140
204, 185
Crystal
Crystal lattice
Generator, SSB
- SSB
220
579, 336
333
Gauss, def. of
Generator noise
Generator, sawtooth
36
528, 740
140
High pass 64, 372 Generator, time base 139
Inductor input 687 Gilbert, def. of 36
Insertion loss 64 Grid bias 108, 267
Low pass 64, 376 Grid, def. of 72
M- derived 64 Grid excitation 252
Mechanical 222, 336 Grid leak bias 109, 112, 268
Noise 227 Grid leak detector 224
Passbond, SSB 336 Grid limiter, limiting 153, 187
O- multiplier 236 Grid modulation 252, 288
Resistance -capacitance- Resonance 687, 688 Grid neutralization 253
Sections -- -
Ripple factor
TVI, receiver
Series shunt
TVI -type
688
64
372, 64
Grid -screen mu factor
Ground bus
Ground currents
78
142, 147
362
Fixed bias
Wave
Filter -type exciter, SSB
63
349
108
Ground loss, antenna
Ground plane antenna
Ground resistance
- VHF
409
431, 481
410
Flat -top beam antenna 473 Ground, R -F 362
Fletcher- Munson curve 140 Ground termination 433
Flux, def. of
Flywheel effect
-
Floating Paraphase inverter
density
116
35, 36
57, 259
Ground, transmitter
Ground wave
Grounded- cathode amplifier
394
414
132
Folded dipole 429, 498 Grounded -grid amplifier ....132, 135, 140, 214, 258
Forcing function 200 Grounded -grid, Class B amplifier 139
Foster -Seely discriminator ....322 Grounded -grid r -f amplifier 626
Franklin antenna 466 Grounded neutral wiring 565
Franklin oscillator 243 Grounded -screen r -f amplifier 629
Free electrons "1 Guy wires, antenna 449
Free -running multivibrator 189
Fremodyne detector 210 H
Frequency 41, 58 Hairpin coupling 232
" Conversion, SSB 340 Half -wave rectifier 689
" Cutoff
" Distortion
" Divider
64
109
190
Harmonic -
Handie- Talkie, 144 Mc.
" Crystal
B.f.o.
547
225
246
Interruption 209 " Def. of 58
Maximum useable 417 " Distortion 119
Measurements 729 " Music 135
Multiplier 258 " Oscillator 247
Pulse repetition 190 " Radiation 262, 373, 725
Range, hi- fidelity 136 Harmoniker TVI filter 379
Ratio, Lissajous 144 Hartley oscillator 240
Resonant 53 Hash rectifier 679, 694
Shift keying 326 Heat cycle, resistor 357
Sound 134 Heat sink 99, 147
Spectrum 41 Heat sink, transistor 576, 707
Spotter 730 Heater cathode 70
Standard 729 Heising modulation 294
Sweep 140 Helical antenna 4R3
Frequency Modulation 312 Henry, def. of 37
"
"
"
Adapter
Devotion
Discriminator
- -
ratio index
325
314
322
Hertz antenna
Heterodyne
H -F antennas
426
208
459
" Limiter 324 High fidelity 134 -138
" Linearity 318 " Interference 386
" Narrow band 315 High -pass TVI filter 372
" Pre -emphasis 325 Holes in semi -conductor 91
" Reception 321 Horizontal directivity 410
Front -back ratio, beam 496 Horn antenna, VHF 466
790
Hot cathode oscillator 580, 676 Interstuge coupling 270, 619, 665
Hot cathode phase inverter
Hum, audio
-
116
142 Inverse current --
Intrinsic semi -conductor
Voltage
91
693
Hysteresis loop loss 36, 38 Inverter, phase
Ion, def. of - voltage divider ..- -115, 116, 117
positive 22, 87
I -f alignment
" Amplifier
148, 235
210
Ionosphere, absorption
Ionospheric layers
IR drop
-
propagation
13
417, 416
24
Band -width graph 534 Iron vane meter 723
Filter, lattice 579 Isotropic radiator 410
Noise limiter 227
Pass -band 219 J
Rejection notch 222 Jitter 154, 188
" Shape factor 219 Johnson 0 -feed system 446
" Tuned circuit 218 "J" operator 47
Ignition noise 528 Joule, def. of 30, 37
Images -image intereference -ratio 211, 213, 385 Junction, transistor 93
Impedance 46, 47
" Antenna 408 K
" Complex 51 K, dielectric constant 32
" Coupling
match, audio
reflected
56, 113
127
56, 63
Key clicks
Keying -
blocked grid
" Cathode circuit
396
398
397
Resonant 54 Differential 400
Screen circuit 289 Frequency shift 326
Surge 424 screen grid 399
Tank circuit 262 Sequence 677
Transformation 63 Transmitter 395
transistor 97 Kilocycle 42
Transmission line 421 Kinescope tube 84
Triangle
Incident voltage
Indicator, Antennascope
48
732
738
Klystron -
Kirchhoff's Laws
reflex
28
81, 82
-
Indicator, selsyn
Indicator
Induced current
standing wave - 514
twin -lamp 731, 735
42
Lamb noise limiter
Layout, chassis
L
227
726
Inductance 37 Lazy -H antenna 368
" Capacitor 359 L/C ratio 56
Cathode lead 122 Lead inductance 81
"
Lead --
Critical
Parallel
Magnetic
series
- Mutual
686
81, 37
38
Leakage, capacitor
Leakage reactance
Left -hand rule
34
63
35
Resistor 357 Length, antenna 405
Screen lead 257 L- section filter 64
Induction, def. of 42 Licenses, amateur 12
Inductive reactance 46 Limiter, audio 228
Inductive coupling 271 Limiter, diode 151
Inductive tuning 617 Limiter, F -M 324
Inductor input filter 687 Limiter, full -wave 230
Inductor, iron core 38 Limiter, grid 153
Inductor, time constant 40 Limiter, noise 227
Infinite impedance detector ^24 Limiter, series diode 185
Initial condition voltage 203 Limiter, INS 230
Injection voltage 213 Limiting circuit 151, 152, 185
Input loading 122 Limiting, grid 187
Input resistance 107, 216, 276 Line, delay 204
Insertion loss, filter 64 Line filter 227
Instability, R -F amplifier 615 Line regulation 388
Instability, static 117 Line, Slotted 730
Insulation, VHF 479 Linear amplifier 286
Insulator, def. of 22, 23 " 4CX -1000A 641
Integration, electronic 198 " Class B 129
Integrator (RC) 59 " SSB 620, 624
Interference -
Interelectrode capacitance
Broadcast
76
379
" Tuning
Linear matching transformer
287
446
" Harmonic
" Hi -fi
Interlock, power
- -
image TV
373
386, 385, 371
395
Linearity tracer
Link circuit
Link coupling -
antenna
151
611
272, 452
Intermodulation distortion 136 Lissajous figures 144
Intermodulation test 145 Litz, wire 54
Internal resistance 25 L- network design 265
International Morse Code 15 Load line 74
Interruption frequency 209 Load line, transistor 99
791
Load resistance amplifier
Loaded -0
119
57
Mobile
"
- Amplifier,
Antenna coupling
SSB 620
520, 524
Loftin -White amplifier 118 Control circuit 525
Long -wire antenna
Loop feedback
Loran, band
461
158
12
Dynamotor
Equipment construction
Filament regulator
- 526
design ....524, 515
552
Loudspeaker -
Loudness control, audio
def. of
Low- frequency parasitics
- response
140
139, 140
366
Filter circuits
Noise limiter
Noise sources
518
516
529
Low -pass TVI filter 376 Power supply 521, 697, 519
Supply, three -phase 620
M Mode of resonance 232
Magnetic
" Circuit
-- -
Magic eye tube
Air gap
field flux
88, 226
38
35
Modulation
Amplitude
Automatic control
282,
239
647
648
" eddy current 38 Bandwidth 283
" hysteresis loss 38 Cathode 297
" induction 37 Class B 294
- - -
" left hand rule 35 Constant efficiency 286
" Permeability reluctance saturation ..36 Distortion 307
Magnetism residual 35, 37 Frequency 312
Magnetomotive force (M. M. F.) 36 Grid 252, 288
Magnetron 83 Heising 294
Magnitude, scalar 48 Index, F -M 314
Majority carrier 93 Pattern, oscilloscope 146
Marconi antenna 408, 432, 434, 438 Percentage 284
Mast, A -frame 448 Phase 315, 319
Matching stub, antenna 445, 503 Plate 251, 293, 295
Matching systems antenna 442 Screen 288
Matching transformer 429 Suppressor 292
Mathematics, radio 742 Transformer 295
Maximum usable frequency 13, 417 Variable efficiency 285
Maxwell, def. of
M- derived filter
Measurements - Antenna
36
64
730
"Velocity
Modulator
" Balanced
--
Adjustment
S.S.B.
654
331, 338, 343
81
" Bridge 728 " Bias -shift 307
Current
Frequency
-
Circuit constants
voltage
727
721, 723
729
Cathode follower
Class B
Construction
290
125
650
Parallel wire line 735 Crosby 590
Power
Transmission line
721, 725
730, 734
Diode
Matching -
impedance match
332
125, 127
Mechanical filter
Mechanical filter adapter
Megacycle
- S.S.B.
222
535, 590
42
Reactance tube
SSB
Tetrodo
315
340
647
Megohm 24 Zero bias 662
Memory circuit 204 Molecule 21
Mercury vapor rectifier 694 Monitor oscilloscope 147
Meteor bursts 420 Morse Code 15
Meter, d'Arsonval 721 Mu factor (µ) 78
Meter, iron vane 723 Multee antenna 440
Meter, multi -range 722 Multi -band antenna 436, 514
Meter, rectifier 724 Multiplication, electronic 198
Meter, thermocouple 724, 726 Multiplier, frequency 258
Mho, def. of 74 Multiplier resistor 722
Mica dielectric
Microfarad
Microhenry
32
30
37
Multi -range meters
Multivibrator -
circuits
Multivibrator, free running
722
102, 154, 188
155
Micro -ohm 23 Multi -wire doublet 429, 442
Middle C
Miller effect
Miller feedback -oscillator
134
107, 112, 220
199, 247
Music, def. of
Music systems scale
Mutual conductance
- 134
138, 135
73
Milliammeter 721 Mutual coupling 218
-
Millihenry, def. of
Mixer
Diode
circuits
37
"12
80
Mutual coupling, antennas
Mutual inductance
Mycalex, dielectric
475
37
32
Noise
Products, SSB
SSB
- spurious
212
341, 343
340 Narrow -band F -M
N
315
Stage 211 NBS bridge -T oscillator 192
Transistor 100 Negative feedback loop 140
Triode 213 Negative peak clipping 648
Tube 79 Negative screen current 641
792
Networks, L and Pi 265 Oscillator -Relaxation 102
Network, phasing
Neutralization
" Capacitance
-
Amplifier
570
252
107
" t.p.t.g.
Transistor
Transistron
241
101
243
" Capacitor, VHF 672 V.F.O. 244
Grid 253 " Wien- bridge 157, 191
Procedure 279 Oscilloscope 138
R -F 276 " Circuit 142
R -F amplifier 616, 639 Linearity tracer 151
Shunt 254 Lissajous figures 144
Test 278 Modulation pattern -phase patterns 146, 145
Transistor 100 Monitor 147, 149
Neutralizing procedure 255 Sideband measurements 150
Noise -
NI (ampere turns)
Factor
" Check, mobile
62
122
528
" Trapezoidal pattern-wave pattern 146,
Output, peak power
Overloading, TV receiver
148
124
371
" Limiters -
Generator, silicon crystal
mobile
740
227, 516
Overtone crystals
Overtone, music
249
135
"
"
"
Mixer
Regulator
Suppression
-
sources
227,
212
528
527
Oxide filament
P
67, 69
" Thermal agitation

" Voltage
" Wow and flutter
188
121
135
Paper dielectric
Parallel circuit
" Diode limiter
-
resistance
32
25
186
Nomenclature, component 530 " Feed 273
Nonconductor 22 " Resonance 54
Nondirectional VHF antenna 482 " Wire line measurements 735
Non - linear distortion 135 Parasitic antenna, design chart 498
Non -linear function 202 " Antenna, VHF 488
Non -resonant transmission line 421 " Beam design 494
Nonsinusoidal wave 58 Check for 368
N -P -N transistor 92 1.
Coupling 364
Element, antenna
Octave, def. of
o Oscillation
497
279, 365, 616
135 " Resonance
-
364
Oersted, def. of 36 Pass band, I -F 219
Ohm Ohm's Law 23, 24 Pass band, mechanical filter 223
Ohmmeter, low range 723 Pass band, SSB filters 336
Ohm's Law (a.c.) 45 Patterns, antenna 404, 460
Ohm's Law (complex quantities) 49 PE -103 dynamotor 526
Ohm's Low for magnetic circuit 36 Peak amplifier current 125
Ohm's Law (resonant circuit) 54 Peak current (a.c.) 45
Ohms - per-volt 722 Peak envelope power, SSB 327
Omega, def. of 44 Peak limiter 185
One -shot multivibrator 189 Peak noise limiter 227
On -off circuits 195 Peak power output 124
Open wire line 421 Peaked wave 59
Operating desk, construction of 724 Pentode amplifier 120
Operational amplifier 199 Pentode tube 77
Orbital electron 21 Period, sound
-
134
Oscillation, parasitic 279, 365, 616 Permeability 36
Oscillator
" Blocking
Beat
Bridge -T
102, 155,
224
156, 189
192
Phase - -
Phantom signal
" Angle
angle (a.c.)
difference 146, 145
382
46
Circuits
Clapp -
Colpitts
Code practice
250
241
19
" Distortion
" Inverter
" Modulation
109, 135
315, 319
115
Crystal 244 " Shift, clipping 301

Dynatron 242 " Shift, feedback 193
e. c. o. 241 " Shift, oscillator 157, 191
Franklin 243 Phasing, antenna 466
Free running 141 Phasing generator, SSB 337
Harmonic 247 Phasing networks, audio 338
Hartley 240 Phasing network, SSB 570
High stability 604 Phonograph reproduction 136
Hot cathode 580, 676 Photoelectric emission 67
Keying 249 Pickups 137
Miller 247 Pickup, spurious 384
NBS bridge -T 192 Pierce oscillator 247
Overtone
Phase shift
Pierce
157,
249
191
247
Pi- network amplifier
Pi- network chart
Pi- network coupling
- design
617
267, 265
453
RC 157 Pilot carrier, SSB 347
793
Pitch, sound 134 Radiation, clef. of 403
Plate current flow 259 Radiation, harmonic 373, 725
Plate detector 224 Radiation pattern, distortion 478
Plate efficiency amplifier 129 Radiation resistance 404, 495
Plate modulation 251, 293 Radiator, isotropic 410
Plate resistance 73, 74 Radiator cross -section, VHF 479
P -N -P transistor 91 Radio frequency, def. of 42
Point contact transistor 92 Radio mathematics 742
Polar notation
Polarization, antenna
Polyphase rectifier
- VHF
48
404, 479
693
Radio propagation
Radio teletype
Ramp function
413
326
203
Potential difference 22 Ratio detector 323
Potential, electrode 106 Ratio, image 213
Potential energy 30 RC amplifier 109
--
Power amplifier design 610 RC audio network 139
Power amplifier triode 118 RC differentiator integrator 59
Power, gain 94 RC oscillator circuits 157, 191
Power gain antenna 405 RC time constant 60
328 transient 38
-
Power gain SSB
-
RC
Power measurement 721, 725 Reactance, antenna 408
Power interlock 395 Reactance, capacitive inductive net 46
Power -line filter 227 Reactance, leakage 63
Power loss, VHF 663 Reactance, resonance 47
Power, resistive 29 Reactance tube modulator 315
Power supplies 684 Read -out 201
" A.C. -D.C. 694 Receiver, alignment 148, 235
Mobile 697 Receiver, amateur band 540
Oscilloscope 141 Receiver, superheterodyne 210
Regulated 711 Receiver, transistor 103, 533
Screen 269 Receivers, UHF 231
Selenium 561 Reception, frequency modulation 321
Three-phase 521, 620 Reception, mobile 515
Transistorized 703 Reception, SSB 351
V.F.O. 604 Recording, constant amplitude, velocity ....136, 137
Voltage multiplier 695 Recording, crossover point 136
Power system, primary
Power transformer
Power transistor
387
709
99
Recording, high fidelity
Recording, pre- emphasis
Rectification, stray
-
RIAA curve
136
137
383
Powerstot auto -transformer
Preamplifier, hi -fi
390
138
Rectified A.C.
Rectifier -bridge -
full wave - 45
half wave ....689
Pre -emphasis, recording
Preselector
Primary transformer
137
214
61
" Hash
" Mercury vapor
" Selenium
-
polyphase
679, 694
693, 694
695
Printed circuit amplifier 575 Silicon 592, 696
Probe, R.F. ( v.t.v.m.) 133 Type meter 724
Product detector 352, 237 Vacuum 693
Propagation 413 -420 v.t.v.m. 133
Pulsating alternating current 45 Reflected impedance 57, 63
Pulse- repetition frequency 103, 190 Reflected voltage 732
Push -pull amplifier 612, 121 Reflectometer, coaxial 732
Push -pull tetrode amplifier 644 Regeneration 208
Push -pull transformer
Push -pull tripler
Push -to -talk circuit
-
doubler
113
260
526
Regulated power supply
Regulation, power line
Regulation, voltage
711
388
686
Regulator, filament 552
Q Regulator noise 528
Q amplifier tank 128 Regulator tube (VR) 709
Q antenna 409 Regulator, voltage 687
Q coils 360 Rejection notch, I -F 222
Q
Q
Q
def. of
loaded
multiplier
- unloaded
54
57
236
Rel, def. of
Relaxation oscillator
Reluctance, def. of
36
102, 188
36
Q tank circuit 261 Remote cut -off tube 78
Q transformer 429 Residual magnetism 37
Q tuned circuit 216 Resistance: 23
Quad antenna 471 " capacitance filter 687
Quadrant, sine 43 " Dynamic 95
Quantity, complex 49 gain 94
Quench oscillator 209 " Ground 410
Radian, def. of
R
43
Input
Internal
load
- parallel - series
107, 216
25
119
Radiation, angle of 411, 460, 478 plate 73, 74
794
Resistance
Resistive power
-
Radiation 404
29
Screen modulation
Screen supply
288
269
Resistivity, table of 23 Secondary emission 71, 77
Resistor, bleeder 27, 709 Secondary transformer 61
Resistor, characteristics of 356 Selective fading, SSB 331
Resistor color code 531 Selectivity, arithmetical 211
Resistor, equalizing 34 Selectivity chart 342
Resistor, inductance of 357 Selectivity control, -F I 221
Resistor multiplier 722 Selectivity, mobile reception 517
Resistor, typical 24 Selectivity, resonant circuit 54
Resonance: 47 Selectivity, tuned circuits 341
" Antenna 404 Selenium power supply 561, 669
"
"
"
Curve
Filter
Current
-
parallel - Series
56
53, 54
688
Selenium rectifier
Self- inductance
Self -neutralization amplifier
695
37
616
"Impedance -Q 54 Self -neutralization, VHF 664
"Mode 232 Selsyn indicator 514
"Oscilloscope pattern 149 Semi -conductor 90, 21
" Parasitic 364 Semi -conductor rectifier 695
Speaker 140 Sequence keying 677
Resonant cavity 232 Series -cathode modulator 297
Resonant circuit 53, 54 Series circuit 24
Resonant transmission line 424 Series -derived filter 64
Response, audio 112, 136 Series -diode limiter 151, 185
Return trace 140 Series feed 273
R alignment
-F 236 Series -feed amplifier 612
R -F amplifier:
" 4CX -1000A
Cathode driven
213, 251
640
626
Series -parallel circuit
Series resistance
Shape factor, I -F
-
resonance 25, 53
219
25
Construction 616 Shielding, R -F 362

General purpose
Grounded grid -grounded screen 626, 629
635 Shot effect
Shunt derived filter
123
-
64
Inductive tuning 617 Shunt loading, a.v.c. 226
Instability neutralization . ...615, 616, 639 Shunt neutralization 254
Oscillation 616 Sidebands, def. of 282
Pi- network 617 Signal, error 159, 193
Push -pull
Self -neutralization
Tetrode
612
616
614
Signal, phantom
Signal -to- distortion ratio
Signal -to -noise ratio
- SSB
382
151, 344
122
R -F chokes 272, 361 Silicon crystal noise generator 740
R -F feedback 274 Silicon rectifier 592, 696
R-F ground 362 Sine wave 42, 43
R-F interstage coupling 619 Single -ended amplifier 611
R -F shielding 362 Single sideband (SSB) 285, 329, 327
Rhombic antenna 464, 486 " Amplifier, 4CX -1000A 640
Rhumbotron cavity 232 " Envelopes 330
RIAA equalizer curve 137 Envelope detector 151
Ribbon TV line 478 Equipment 567
Ring diode modulator 333 Filter 327
Ripple factor, filter 688 Filter system 590
Ripple voltage 686 Grounded grid amplifier 626
RI. circuit 40 Grounded screen amplifier 629
RL transient 38 Jr. exciter 346
RLC circuits 48 1.
Linear amplifier 620
Root mean square (a.c.) 45 Linear amplifier, kilowatt 635
Rotary beam antenna 494 Linear operation 138
Rotator, antenna 512 Measurements 150
Ruggedized tube 88 Reception 351
" Transmission 327
s " Transmitter adjustment 573
Safety bleeder 395 Single signal reception 222
Safety precautions 393 Single swing oscillator 189
Saturation current 72 Single -wire antenna tuner 456
Saturation, magnetic 36 Single -wire feed, antenna 441
Sawtooth wove 59, 140 Single -wire feeder 430
Scalar notation 48 Six -shooter antenna 472
Scale, musical 135 Skeleton VHF antenna 481
Scatter signals 419 Skin effect 54
Screen, CRT 87 Skip distance 418
Screen current, negative 641 Sky wave 414
Screen grid keying 399 Sleeve antenna 480
Screen grid tube 77 Slide -wire bridge 728
Screen lead inductance 257 Slope detection 210
795
Slotted line 730 Tetrode neutralization 256
S -meter circuits 226 Tetrode r -f amplifier 614
Soldering techniques 727 Tetrode, screen safety circuit 679
Sound in air 134 Tetrode, self neutralization 664
Space charge 71, 78 Tetrode tube 77
Space wave 414 Thermal agitation noise 188
Speaker response 140 Thermionic emission 67
Speaker tweeter 139 Thermocouple meter 724, 726
Specific resistance 23 Three -phase power supply 521, 620
Speech amplifier construction 655 Threshold voltage 696
Speech clipper filter 304 Thyratron tube 87
Speech clipping 124, 291, 300, 648 Time -base generator 139
Speech filter, high level 305 Time constant 38, 60
Speech waveforms 285, 294, 301, 648 Time sequence keying 400
Splatter suppressor 302, 647 T -match antenna 501
Sporadic -E propagation 418 T -match system 444
-
Spotter, frequency
Spurious emission spurious pickup
730
383, 384
INS limiter
Tools, radio
230
721
Square wave --
Spurious products, mixer
Stacked antenna
square wave test
stacked dipole
343
58, 61, 62
498, 468
Trace -
T.P.T.G. oscillator
cathode ray
Tracking capacitor
241
86, 140
216
Standard frequency 729 Transceiver, 28 mc. 559
Standard pitch 135 Transceiver, 50 mc. 552
Standing wave 403, 423 Transceiver, VHF 578
Standing -wave indicator
Static, corona
Static, wheel
731
529
528
Transconductance
Transducer -
pickup
Transformation, impedance
74, 79
138, 137
63
Steering diode
Step -by -step counter
Sterba antenna
103
156, 190
469
Transformer -
Transformation ratio
ampere -turns
" Antenna match
62
61, 62
502
Storage time, diode 103 " Auto 63
Stray capacitance 218 " Coupling 113
Stub match, antenna 503 -F 211
-
I
Summation voltage 197 Linear matching 446

Summing amplifier 201 Matching impedance match 429, 63
Sunspot cycle 419 Modulator 295
Superheterodyne receiver 210 Power 709
Super- imposition tuning 553 Vibrator 588
Super -regenerative detector 209 Transformerless power supply 694
Supply, a.c. -d.c. 588 Transient circuit (a.c.) 59
Suppression, audio
Suppression circuits, parasitic'
Suppressor
306
366
77
Transient distortion
Transient, RC, RL
Transistor
-
transient wave
135
38, 58
90, 92
Suppressor modulation 292 " Bias 96
Suppressor, splatter 302 " Code oscillator 19
Surface wave 414 " Complementary circuit 97
Surge impedance 424 " Drift 93
Susceptance, def. of 52 Equivalent circuit 95
Sweep frequency 140 Heat sink 576, 707
Switching, transistor action 704 Impedance 97
SWR bridge 458, 736 Junction 91
Symmetry, amplifier 612 Mixer 100
Synchronization, generator 173 Multivibrator 102
Synchronizing voltage 172 Oscillator 101
Synchronous detection, D5B 353 Point- contact 95
Power 99
T Receiver 533
Tank circuit-
Tank capacitance
efficiency
Tank circuit impedance -loading
261
55, 57, 58
262, 264
"
equipment
SSB
Switching action
Transistorized mobile supply
574
704
703
Tank circuit Q 128 Transit time 81
Technician class amateur license 12 Transitron oscillator 243
Teletype, radio 326 Transmission, duplex 597
Television interference 371 Transmission line chart 422
Temperature coefficient 32 " Circuits 231
Ten -A, SSB exciter 347 " Coaxial 423
Ten -meter transceiver 559 Discontinuities 425
Terman- Woodyard amplifier 298 Impedance 421
Termination, transmission line
Termination, VHF rhombic
Test equipment
425
487
721
1.
Measurements
Resonant
Termination
-non -resonant
730, 734
424, 421
425
Tetrode amplifier, push -pull
Tetrode modulator
644
647 Transmitter
VHF
- Construction
478
663
796
Transmitter
" Design
- Control circuits 391
356
Vacuum -
Shot effect
" Space charge
123
89
Ground 394 Tetrode 77
Keying 395 Thyratron 87
" Oscilloscope, monitor of 147 Travelling wave 84
Receiver, VHF 597 Triode 72
Trapezoidal pattern, oscilloscope 146 Upper frequency 232
Trap-type antenna 514 Variable mu (µ) 124
Travelling wave tube 84 VHF 80
Travis discriminator 322 Voltage regulator 87
Triode amplifier 110 Voltmeter 130, 724
Triode mixer 213 V- Antenna 462
Triode power amplifier 118 Variable -mu (µ) tube 124
Triode tube 72 Variable reluctance pickup 137
Tripler,push-pull 260 Variac autotransformer 390
Triplex antenna 475 Vector, sine -wave 43
Tropospheric propagation 415 Vehicular noise suppression 527
T- section filter 64 Velocity modulation 81
Tube, vacuum 67 Vertical antenna 430
Tube, VHF design 232 Vertical directivity 411
Tube, water cooled (4W -300B) 620 VFO, construction 676
Tubular transmission line 422 VFO, high -stability 604
Tuned circuit, coaxial 232 VHF Amplifier 214
Tuned circuit, -F I 218 " Antennas 477
Tuned circuit, r.f amplifier 121 Antenna polarization 479
Tuned circuit 0 216 Antenna relay 478
Tuned circuits, selectivity 341 Bands, characteristics 14
1.
Tuner, antenna 456 Corner reflector antenna 485
Tuning, bandspead 217 Coupling, interstage 665
Tuning indicators 226 Definition of 477
Tuning, inductive 617 Discone antenna- ground -plane antenna 481
Tuning, super -imposition
Turnstile antenna
553
480 1.
Handie -talkie
Helical antenna -Horn antenna ....483,
547
486
TVI filters
TVI -proof enclosures
TVI suppression
-
openings
373, 378
724, 725
375
Multi- element antenna
Neutralization capacitor
Nondirectional antenna
488
672
482
TVI -type filter 64 Parasitics 366
Tweeter speaker
Twin lamp
Two -band Marconi antenna
139
735
438
Power loss
Radiation angle
Rhombic antenna
- 663
radiation pattern ... -478
486
Screen antenna 491
U Self- neutralization 664
Ultra -linear amplifier 142, 146 Sleeve antenna 480
Unidirectional antenna 504 Transceiver 552, 578
Uni -potential cathode 70 Transmission line 478
Unity coupling 271 " Transmitter -receiver 597
Unloaded 0 57 " Turnstile antenna 480
" Wavelength table 479
V Vibrator power supply 588
Vacuum capacitor 360 Vibrator, split -reed 698
Vacuum tube: 67 Video amplifier 112, 128
"
"
Amplification
Beam power
73, 74
78 Voltage -
Volt, def. of
Amplifier
22
110
Cathode ray
Classes
Conductance
-
classification
84
107, 87
73
" Avalanche
Break
Breakdown
697
203
32
Constant -current curve 127 Decoy 40
Diode 71 Divider 26, 52
Equivalent noise resistance 123 Divider, phase inverter 117
Foreign 89 Drop, summation 28
Gas 87 Gradient 39
Input loading 122 Incident 732
1.
Klystron 81 Injection 213
Load line 74 Initial condition 203
Magic eye 88 Instantaneous 44
Magnetron 83 Inverse 693
Mixer 79 Measurement 721, 723
Operation 75 Multiplier power supply 695
Parameters 106 Noise 121
Pentode 77 Output 685
Plate resistance 73, 74 Reflected 732
Polarity reversal 76 Regulation 686, 687
Remote cutoff 78 Regulator tube 87, 709
797
Voltage -
" Ripple
Resonant 54
686
Wave- shaping circuits
Weston cell
185
24
728
" Summation 197 Wheatstone bridge
141 Wheel static 528
" Synchronizing
" Threshold 696 Wien- bridge oscillator 157, 191
722 Williamson amplifier 141
Voltmeter
724 Wire, litz 54
Voltmeter, A -C V-T
724 Wiring hints 531
Voltmeter, diode
Voltmeter, vacuum tube
Volt- ohmmeters
Volume compression
130, 724
722
648
Wiring technique, audio
Workshop practice
W8JK antenna
-layout
142
720, 729
473
WWV transmissions 729
W
Wagner ground 729 X
Water cooled tube (4W -300B) 620 469
-
X -array antenna
Watt, def. of 29
Wave Carrier 207 Y
" Ground
" Harmonic - nonsinusoidal
414
58 Yagi, adjustment
-
509
- --
Y, (admittance, def. of) 52
" Pattern, oscilloscope 148
Yogi antenna feed systems 494, 498
" Peaked sawtooth 59
488
414 Yagi antenna, VHF
" Sky space
Yagi, construction 506
" Square transient 58
Yoke match 498
" Surface 414
Waveform 59, 143
Waveform, speech 285, 301, 648 z
Wavelength, def. of 405 Zeppelin antenna 427
Wavelength table, VHF 479 Zero -bias modulator 662
$5.00
hardbound
PREPARES YOU FOR THE F.C.C.

RADIOTELEPHONE LICENSE
EXAMINATION
Now, in one convenient volume, complete study -guide ques-
tions with clear, concise answers for preporotion for oll U.S.A.
commercial radiotelephone operator's license examinations.
CONTAINS FOUR ELEMENTS:
I. QUESTIONS ON BASIC LAW
Il. BASIC OPERATING PRACTICE
III. BASIC RADIOTELEPHONE
IV. ADVANCED RADIOTELEPHONE
BUY FROM YOUR FAVORITE DISTRIBUTOR

at above price or add loco on direct mail ordrrs to
EDITORS and ENGINEERS, Ltd.
S U M M E R L A N D C A L F O R N A
I I
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SURPLUS RADIO CONVERSION MANUAL
SI INS 11111
11nI0f111 MILL
IN TWO VOLUMES
This set of conversion data has become standard for most
commonly used items of surplus electronic equipment. All
conversions shown are practical and yield o useful item of
equipment; all have been proven by testing on several units.
VOLUME I VOLUME II
BC -221 Frequency Meter ARC -5 and BC -454 Receivers
for 28 Mc.
BC342 Receiver
ARC -5 and BC457 To for
BC -348 Receiver
2P -Mc. Mobile
BC 312 Receiver
ART13 and ATC Xmitter
BC -412 Oscilloscope as a
Surplus Beam Rotating
test scope or as a tele.
Mechanisms
vision receiver.
Selenium -Rect. Power Units
BC -645 420 Mc. Transmit.
ter Receiver Hi -Fi Tuner from BC -946B
Receiver
BC 453A Series Receivers
ARC -5 V -h -f Tronsmitters
BC -457A Series Transmitters
GO.9 and TBW Xmitters
SCR -522 144-Mc. Transmit.
ter / Receiver
9 -W Amplifier from AM -26
TA -128 & TA 12C Xmitters
TBY Transceiver with Xtol
Control AVT 112A Aircraft Xmitter
PE -103A Dynamotor BC-375 & BC -191 Xmitters
BC 1068A Vhf Receiver Model LM Freq. Meter
Electronics Surplus Index Primary Power Requirements
Chart
Cross Index of VT- Number
tubes ARB Rect. Diagram Only
Order Book No. E &E -SM1 Order Book No. EfE -SM2
$2.50 for either volume

or above price or odd 10°0 on direct mad orders to
Summerlond, California
okstores: Order from Baker & Taylor Co,, Hillside, N.J.
Characteristics of all existing radio tubes
made in all countries. The world's most
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at above price or odd 10 00 on direct mail orders to.
Summerlond, California
Bookstores: Order from Baker & Taylor Co., Hillsice, N.J.

Radio Handbook 15 1959

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RADIO

The Standard of the Field

$7.50 per copy of

Published and Distributed to the Radio Trade by

Editors and Engineers, Ltd.

Copyright under Pan- American Convention

The "Radio Handbook" in Spanish or Italian is available from us at $8.25

Other Outstanding Books from the Same Publisher

THE SURPLUS RADIO CONVERSION MANUALS

THE WORLDS RADIO TUBES ( RADIO TUBE VADE MECUM

THE WORLDS EQUIVALENT TUBES ( EQUIVALENT TUBE VADE MECUM

THE WORLD'S TELEVISION TUBES ( TELEVISION TUBE VADE MECUM

1-2 Station and Operator Licenses 12

Chapter Two. DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS 21

Chapter Three. ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS 41

Chapter Four. VACUUM TUBE PRINCIPLES 67

Chapter Five. TRANSISTORS AND SEMI- CONDUCTORS 90

Chapter Seven. HIGH FIDELITY TECHNIQUES 134

Chapter Eight. RADIO FREQUENCY VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 149

Chapter Nine. THE OSCILLOSCOPE 170

Chapter Ten. SPECIAL VACUUM TUBE CIRCUITS 185

Chapter Twelve. RADIO RECEIVER FUNDAMENTALS 207

Chapter Thirteen. GENERATION OF RADIO FREQUENCY ENERGY 239

Chapter Fourteen. R-F FEEDBACK 274

Chapter Fifteen. AMPLITUDE MODULATION 282

Chapter Seventeen. SIDEBAND TRANSMISSION 327

Chapter Eighteen. TRANSMITTER DESIGN 356

Chapter Nineteen. TELEVISION AND BROADCAST INTERFERENCE 371

Chapter Twenty. TRANSMITTER KEYING AND CONTROL 387

Chapter Twenty -One. RADIATION, PROPAGATION AND TRANSMISSION

Chapter Twenty-Two. ANTENNAS AND ANTENNA MATCHING 426

Chapter Twenty- Three. HIGH FREQUENCY ANTENNA ARRAYS 459

Chapter Twenty -Four. V -H -F AND U -H -F ANTENNAS 477

Chapter Twenty -Five. ROTARY BEAMS 494

Chapter Twenty -Seven. RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS 530

Chapter Twenty- Eight. LOW POWER TRANSMITTERS AND EXCITERS 567

Chapter Twenty -Nine. HIGH FREQUENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS 610

Chapter Thirty. SPEECH AND AMPLITUDE MODULATION EQUIPMENT 647

Chapter Thirty -One. TRANSMITTER CONSTRUCTION 663

Chapter Thirty- Three. WORKSHOP PRACTICE 720

Chapter Thirty -Four. ELECTRONIC TEST EOUIPMENT 721 -B

Chapter Thirty -Five. RADIO MATHEMATICS AND CALCULATIONS 742

40 Meters The 40 -meter band is high 15 Meters This is a relatively

M Z ,M LONG DASH (EQUIVALENT TO 5 DOTS)

PERIOD (.) WAIT SIGN (AS)

END OF MESSAGE (AR) I 4~

Lion, do it incode. It makes more interesting

Perfect Formation 'hen transmitting on the OCCYJOOOOO

fingers to become tense. Send with a full, free

Difficulties Should you experience difficulty

The circuit of Figure 6 is used in this

Direct Current Circuits

or particle which either lacks one or more

synonymous, but the older terminology is still Aluminum 17 0.0049

Resistance The flow of current in a material

If the voltage (E) and resistance (R) are

known quantity, it can be found by multiply-

and provided that no current is taken from the

an e.m.f. of 1 volt forces a current of 1 ampere

5. RE- SUBSTITUTE To apply the above equations to a typical

4.10 15 20