Recent Advances in Ground Anchor and Ground Reinforcement Technology With Reference To The Development of The Art
Recent Advances in Ground Anchor and Ground Reinforcement Technology With Reference To The Development of The Art
Recent Advances in Ground Anchor and Ground Reinforcement Technology With Reference To The Development of The Art
ABSTRACT
The recent advances in ground anchor technology and the related techniques of cable bolting and rock
bolting are reviewed. Collectively the technology associated with the three techniques enable design
engineers to address stability problems over a range of scales and in a range of geomechanical environments.
The techniques have similar aims but have developed into separate disciplines with unique attributes. The
procedures for designing and creating ground anchors that meet the stringent requirements associated with
modern civil infrastructure are discussed. This contrasts the very different design approaches being
developed in rock bolting and cable bolting where standards are less exacting but the design problems can
sometimes be more complex.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Excavations and other engineering constructions in the ground are central to many civil and mining
projects. For both economic and safety reasons ground reinforcement is often a key component in the
successful completion of these projects. Ground reinforcement includes, amongst other methods, the
techniques of ground anchoring, cable bolting and rock bolting. Basically, all of these techniques seek to
assure the stability of an artificial structure constructed within or on a soil or rock mass by the installation of
structural elements within the ground.
The differences between the three techniques are predominantly associated with scale and the standards
of design and installation. Ground anchors tend to be longer with the highest capacity, rock bolts tend to be
shorter with the lowest capacities and cable bolts have evolved to address stability problems that lie between
the two. Ground anchors are usually associated with civil infrastructure projects which demand exacting
standards of design and installation. Cable bolts are most commonly used in mining engineering and attract
less formal standards whereas rock bolts are used in both branches of engineering.
These differences have allowed the three techniques to evolve into separate disciplines resulting in a wide
range of different reinforcement devices and methodologies. The large number of options now collectively
available from ground reinforcement technology allow engineers to satisfy most geomechanics stability
requirements. This is despite the fact that engineering projects are now often more adventurous and are
being conducted in progressively more difficult geomechanical environments.
This review will explore recent developments in the more advanced discipline of ground anchoring. This
will be followed by a discussion on some of the unique attributes that characterise and differentiate the less
developed disciplines of rock bolting and cable bolting.
Vertical holding down anchors at Cheurfas Dam, Algeria, in 1934 marked the advent of modern
prestressed anchor technology. Prestressed tensile members, complete with a debonded free length and
cement grouted fixed length in rock increased the stability of the structure. Within the fixed anchor
“anchorage chambers” were constructed to enhance bond over that provided in a parallel side borehole.
1
Anthony D. Barley, Consulting Engineer, High View, Harrogate, Yorkshire, UK
2
Chris R. Windsor, Research Engineer, Rock Technology, Perth, Australia
The utilisation of a free length with fixed length founded in soil commenced in Europe (Germany and
France) in the late 1950s, albeit passive underreamed tension piles were being utilised in Texas and India to
resist ground heave at that time. There may be truth in the story that the inability to recover a temporary drill
casing, inadvertently grouted into the granular overburden whilst constructing a rock anchor, instigated the
initial German research and development of soil anchor technology.
UK anchor technology in the 1960’s was influenced by the systems developed in both Germany (end of
casing pressure grouting) and France (post-grouting) even though the successful development of the multi
underreaming systems associated with an anchor size bore diameter, appears to have been UK lead. In the
US underreamed “tie backs” were of a larger diameter (305mm bore) developed as an extension of tension
pile concepts.
In the early 1960s, high capacity dam anchors were generally constructed utilising simple two stage
grouting of the fixed and free length supplemented by simple methods of corrosion protection. Rock anchor
technology advanced gradually with anchor capacities increasing, generally with borehole size, to
accommodate an increasing number of high capacity prestressing strand.
Australia probably leads the way with the most extensive use of long ultra high capacity dam anchors
(12,000kN working load, up to 120m long) complete with modern corrosion protection systems. (Cavill
1997).
The conference city, Melbourne itself boasts intense application of anchor technology with some 7000
anchors, each with a 120 year life span requirement, to stabilise the tunnel beneath the River Yarra.
Generally, the working capacities of soil anchors increased little through the 1970s and 1980s (Littlejohn
1970, Ostermayer 1974, Barley 1987);
• In gravels working loads up to 800kN using grout “injection” techniques
• In sands working loads up to 500kN using grout "compaction" techniques
• In stiff to very stiff clays working loads up to 600kN by use of postgrouting or underreaming
techniques.
However, construction techniques did improve particularly due to the gross advancement in performance
of drilling rigs and equipment; increased power, higher torque and the introduction of top drive rotary
percussion. Generally, factors of safety increased and as a result, confidence in the use of anchors. Ground
conditions certainly in the UK which still caused most concern, due to higher risk of failure, or utilisation of
only low working loads, were weathered mudstones and silty soils.
Throughout these periods, research work investigating the performance of anchors in various soils and
rocks and the associated load transfer mechanism, was carried out at numerous locations by a multiple of
researchers. The vast majority of results supported the concept of the non linear relationship between load
and fixed length owing to the phenomenon known as “progressive debonding.” However, it was further
investigation and analysis of the distribution of load along the length of the anchor borehole in the late 1980s
that allowed evolution and advancement of a new anchor concept. This “multiple” anchor system has lead to
the attainment of 3000 to 4000 kN capacity in anchors installed in soils and weak rock and the frequent
installation of soil anchors with working loads in the 800 to 2000 kN range.
The use of smooth steel bars is not normally conducive to effective load transfer from the tendon to the
cement grout since bond stresses at such an interface rarely exceed an average of one MPa.
Initially, it was common practice to utilise an end nut and a compression fitting above the nut (a number
of 300mm long hollow corrugated cast iron tubes could be stacked above the nut) Figure 1 illustrates this
system. However, although this load transfer mechanism is effective when the grout column is fully
confined, it has severe limitations, in soils and weak rocks where high bursting stresses, induced in the grout,
by the use of a short load transfer length, cannot be contained. Later a much more refined compression tube
system incorporating corrosion protective components was available in Germany. Enhancement of bond in a
“smooth” bar was generally achieved by the increase in the length of the threads turn on the bar in the fixed
length. This in turn lead to the provision of fully threaded bars of various fine and coarse thread patterns for
use in both anchors and minipiling in the Geotechnical Industry. A very broad selection of size and capacity
of fully threaded bars now exists, up to a maximum capacity of 4300kN. Such a high capacity system was
specifically developed in the UK for refitting operations associated with the Nuclear Submarine Complex at
Devonport.
Figure 1 : Simple End Bearing Fittings Used on Bar Anchors circa 1970
(The Consulting Engineer, May 1970)
4.1.2 Prestressing Strand Tendons
Early in the use of anchor systems, the difficulties of handling and coupling of long steel bars was
realised and the alternative by use of a multiple of prestressing strands was introduced. The presence of V-
grooves between the helically wound peripheral wires provided surface deformation to enhance the bond
between the strand and the grout and achieved average bond stress in the 1 to 2 MPa range when the strands
were appropriately spaced (>5mm). (Bruce 1976). However, it was realised that the capacity of an upstand
deformation is greater than that of an indent (Barley, 1997A) and the surface indent alone was not adequate
to ensure that the full capacity of each strand could be mobilised. It was quickly appreciated that the
unravelling and rewinding of the strand wires grossly enhanced bond (Photo 2). This operation being known
as “caging” or “bushing”; or if a ferrule was placed on the kingwire to result in a small controlled
deformation then “strand noding”. At this location, bond stresses as high as 12MPa have been established
(Barley, 1978). Development in the rock bolting industry some 15 years after initial use in anchor
technology also realised the bond enhancement benefit, the system being referred to as “birdcaging” and now
used extensively in that industry.
In the early days, the provision of long
(1m) “bushes” at staggered locations in
adjacent strands served a multiple purpose
of partially spacing the strands themselves
and keeping the closed strand body away
from the borehole wall (Photo 2).
However, later research demonstrated that
this method could not guarantee the
elimination of strand smearing or
guarantee grout cover and the introduction
Photo 2 : Strand "bushes" were used to enhance strand to of shorter size controlled cages along with
grout bond - circa 1974 (Barley 1988) plastic spacer/centralisers was required to
conform with code requirements and
produce bond capacity in excess of 3 Mpa (Barley 1997A).
Throughout the period, an alternative mode of enhancement of strand to grout bond was developed in the
form of “tendon noding”: the peripheral strands being spaced between 15 and 20mm apart at one location
and tightly banded together about 1.5m above and below the spacer. This provides the multiple strand
arrangement with a deformed outer profile and ensures an inlocking effect, all of which enhances grout to
tendon bond (Bruce 1976, Adams and Littlejohn 1997).
All these load transfer systems are well proven and now well documented (Anchor Conference 1997)
albeit it should be realised that efficiency of tendon bond may fall with increase in number of strands and
increase in steel density within the bore. All internal strands contained within an outer periphery of strands
must transfer their load capacity across that outer periphery. Consequently, the spacing between the
peripheral strands should increase as the number of strands contained within increases. (Barley 1997A)
With regard to free length debonding, this was initially effected by two stage grouting, i.e. grouting the
fixed length then stressing the anchor, followed by free length grouting. However, such precise control of
the grout level in soil anchoring is difficult to achieve and this method was replaced by tape-wrapping of the
group of strands. By 1970, the provision to the Industry of factory applied pregreased and plastic coated
strand was available in the UK. This, however, necessitated the development of an efficient system for
removal of the plastic coating and the degreasing of the strand wires over the bond length.
At a similar time, systems were being developed to effect the greasing and sheathing of selected sections
of pre-cut strand tendons, which although discontinuous as in operation, had distinct advantage in avoidance
of application followed by removal (Photo 3).
The development of these refined systems did in the view of certain specialist contractors make use of
prestressing strand as the anchor tendon more favourable than the use of bars.
Photo 3: Modern strand pusher machine allows effective greasing and sheathing
of designed debonded lengths. (Austress Freyssinet, Melbourne 2000)
However, the concept of the use of the hollow bar as both the drill rod and as the tensile member of an
anchor (or minipile or soil nail) has since the early days been considerably developed and refined in an effort
to control the drilling, the flushing, the grouting and the quality of the finished product. The presence of a
continual thread along the external face generally eliminates bond capacity problems at the steel grout
interface. The presence of plastic sleeving between couplers in the free anchor length may provide adequate
debonding facilities to ensure completion with code minimum free length requirement, albeit grout bond at
the coupler may still occur.
In many instances the consequences of failure of one or a number of anchors could have extremely severe
effects on the stability of a structure. However, owing to the severity of ground anchor proof testing,
complemented by load or creep monitoring prior to acceptance of each anchor, the risk of failure of a
working anchor due to interfacial bonding is extremely small. But the need to take account of the risk of
failure due to corrosion of steel components, must be tackled. An essential requirement in any system
developed to eliminate this risk is that it must be compatible with the demands of load testing, either by
proving the isolation of the tendon steel of each individual in-situ anchor, or by fully demonstrating the
effectiveness of a robust protective system prior to use.
To date, it is believed that only a single world wide study of the corrosion of anchors has been carried out
and the report published. A working group under the FIP (Fédération Internationale de la Précontrainte -
1986) collected 35 case histories of anchor failure by tendon corrosion protection requirement for a
standard:-
“While the mechanisms of corrosion are understood, the aggressivity of the ground and general
environment are seldom quantified at the site investigation stage. In the absence of aggressivity data it
is unlikely the case histories involving tendon corrosion will provide reliable information for the
prediction of corrosion rates in service.
Case histories of tendon corrosion indicate that failure can occur after service of only a few weeks
or many years. Invariably corrosion is localised and in such circumstances no tendon type (bar, wire
or strand) appears to have a special immunity.
Since there is no certain way of predicting localised corrosion rates, where aggressivity is
recognised, albeit qualitatively, some degree of protection should be provided by the designer. In this
regard, the anchor head is particularly susceptible to attack, and early protection of this component is
recommended for both temporary and permanent anchorages.
Choice of degree of protection should be the responsibility of the designer (usually the Client’s
Engineer) and such choice depends on such factors as consequences of failure, aggressivity of
environment and cost of protection. In current practice the design solution normally ranges from
double protection (implying two physical barriers) to simple grout cover.
Out of millions of prestressed ground anchorages which have been installed around the world, 35
case histories of failure by tendon corrosion have been recorded. With the passage of time, lessons
have been learned and standards improved which augers well for the future. There is no room for
complacency, however, and engineers must rigorously apply standards both in design and construction
in order to ensure satisfactory performance during service.”
Although the record of failure is yet limited, it is probable that in the next decade the frequency of
individual and group anchor failures will increase as anchors installed prior to the implementation of
rigorous protective requirements suffer from corrosive attack and their reduced capacities no longer ensure
the fulfilment of their intended role. Similar instances to those of the Thames wall failure (Barley, 1997B),
and a tidal barrier wall failure (unpublished), where structural collapse or partial collapse, will occur. Many
permanent anchors installed in the UK prior to the guidelines of DD81 (pre 1982), with the exception of
anchors associated with the Thames Bank Raising Scheme, contained only limited protection against
corrosion and are unlikely to withstand aggressive conditions, particularly those in a marine environment.
From the known vulnerability of anchors in aggressive environments, does it follow that all permanent
anchors should carry the same degree of protection against corrosion despite the knowledge that corrosion in
certain environments may be mildly based on the FIP report statements. European Standard EN1537, “The
Execution of Ground Anchor Works” states:-
“There is no certain way of identifying corrosion circumstances with sufficient precision to predict
corrosion rates of steel in the ground. All steel components which are stressed shall be protected
against corrosion for their design life”.
“The minimum corrosion protection surrounding the tendon(s) of the anchor shall be a single
continuous layer of corrosion preventive material which does not degrade during the lifetime of the
anchor.”
a) a single protective barrier to corrosion, the integrity of which shall be proven by testing each anchor
insitu.”
b) two protective barriers to corrosion such that if one barrier is damaged during installation or anchor
loading, the second barrier remains intact.”
In the "Eurocode", the method of substantiating the former requirement involves the insitu testing of the
total isolation of the steel tendon from the surrounding environment. This can be established by electrical
resistance measurement, but clearly the efficiency of the test system itself must be established to ensure that
a defective protective layer can be positively identified to satisfy the mandatory test requirements. Anchors
not tested insitu must contain two protective barriers and must comply with further requirements that:-
“All corrosion protection systems shall have been subjected to at least one system test to verify the
competence of the system. The results of all tests shall be documented.”
Methods of establishing the integrity of protective barriers during or after loading conditions, involve the
use of a grouted gun barrel in which tendons are loaded. The gun barrel allows splitting and inspection of
corrosion protection after test completion. The system of testing the integrity of the corrosion protection
ducting in situ and used extensively in Australia, was put forward to the European Working Group but
surprisingly not approved. This simple but effective method of checking the water filled duct for water loss
when a differential head is applied has been successfully developed and used in large scale dam anchors
where alternative methods would have been very difficult to implement. It does fulfil the basic requirement
of verifying the performance of the protective barrier in situ prior to grouting.
Steel tendons proposed for permanent usage, not isolated by a proven impermeable membrane, but
relying on the integrity of the grout cover or on steel coatings, are not proven for an adequate life span in all
environments and therefore not approved.
For clarification the new European Standard details examples of approved corrosion protection systems in
two tables, for temporary and permanent anchors, which allow the identification of the corrosion protection
layers proven effective in each integrated system. Such tables provide Engineers and Clients with a better
understanding of the systems which are available for selection, how appropriate they might be and the
implicit level of risk associated with their use.
The elimination of risk of anchor failure due to steel corrosion demands proof beyond reasonable doubt
that the protective system will work and last for the 60 to 120 year designed life span of the anchored
structure.
BOND
STRESS.
LOADING
LOAD DISTRIBUTION ALONG FIXED ANCHOR. FIXED ANCHOR LENGTH
GENERALLY 10m MAX
Figure 2 : Bond Stress is concentrated at the proximal end during initial loading and approaches
the distal end prior to failure. Residual bond stress is generally less than peak bond stress.
In all anchors there is a minimum of two interfaces across which load must be transferred (tendon/grout
and grout/ground). In corrosion protected anchors there may be as many as six interfaces when the inside
and outside of the encapsulation duct(s) are considered. Thus, the load transfer is always a complex
mechanism but the Industry is only beginning to interpret a simple approach acknowledging the phenomenon
of “progressive debonding”. However in the vast majority of design recommendations, the occurrence of
progressive bonding is not even considered in the design formulae;
For example, inspection of the British Standard for Ground Anchorages (BS8081) reveals the following
design assumption:-
a) Transfer of the load from the fixed anchor to the rock occurs by a uniformly distributed stress acting
over the whole of the perimeter of the fixed anchor.
b) The diameters of the borehole and the fixed anchor are identical.
c) Failure takes place by sliding at the rock-grout interface (smooth borehole) or by shearing to the
rock/grout interface in the weaker medium (rough borehole).
d) Here are no discontinuities or inherent weakness planes along which failure can be induced.
e) There is no local debonding at the rock/grout interface.
where Tult = ultimate anchor load, τult = ultimate bond stress, A = cylindrical area of contact surface and
generally
A = πdL (2)
where L = fixed length, Lve = apparent fixed length over which full τult operates and τult (kN/m2) can be
represented in sands by a relationship with N, the standard penetration test value;
Evaluation of this data provides an “apparent” fixed length in loose medium grained sand (N = 10) of
7.1m for an actual fixed length of 10m or in very dense sand and gravel (N = 60) an apparent fixed length of
3.06m. It could be said that the former was 71% efficient and the latter was 31% efficient in mobilising the
ground strength.
Alternatively, inspection of the distribution of bond stress in Figure 2 does allow evaluation of a simple
mathematical expression that acknowledges the occurrence of progressing debonding : (Barley 1995)
In this case τult is the ultimate bond stress of a relatively short fixed length where loss of efficiency due to
the progressing debonding is small or negligible, or where
In the same paper he suggested an efficiency factor appropriate for use in sands of which relates
efficiency to fixed length and soil friction angle.
f eff = (0.91)
L tan φ
(10)
This work and liaison with the University of Surrey lead to research work by Barkhordari in back
analysing the extensive trial data presented by Ostermayer (1974) and Ostermayer and Scheele (1977).
Woods and Barkhordari (1997) proposed a different relationship which also related efficiency to fixed
length and soil friction angle.
f eff = exp(− 0.05L tan φ ) (11)
but for incorporation in the design formula specifically for anchors in sand;
τ ult = f eff Ln tan φ (12)
where n = loading capacity per metre length for a short fixed length, φ = friction angle of soil.
1
0 .9
0 .6
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
F IX E D L E N G T H ( m )
Figure 4 : Distribution of Anchor Efficiency with Fixed Length Showing Best Fit Curve (Barley 1995)
Utilising φ and n values of 36 and 75, 42 and 120, 43 and 175 and 47 and 200 representative of loose,
medium dense, dense and very dense medium to coarse sand with gravel, their ultimate load versus fixed
length curves fit very closely with the strength development lines proposed by Ostermayer and Scheele
(1977).
In 1974 Ostermayer also chose to present his data in terms of skin friction (bond stress) against fixed
length. The information covered ultimate bond stress values in medium and medium to high plasticity clays
for post grouted and non-post grouted anchors, and for end of casing grouted anchors in fine to medium
sand. All results reflected a fall in bond stress with increase in fixed length and Ostermayer presented curved
boundary lines to illustrate this. The imposition of distribution lines, defined by the efficiency factor of 1.6L
-0.57
, on these graphs (Figure 5) illustrates that this simple "efficiency factor" concept and furthermore, the
same mathematical expression, are quite consistent with Ostermayer's original boundaries. Thus from
establishing an ultimate bond stress over a known fixed length the capacity of an anchor with any fixed
length in that soil, using that construction technique, can be reasonably evaluated (Equation 7). As previously
stated, the relationship between the stiffness of the fixed anchor (controlled by the steel tendon) and the
stiffness of the ground governs the rate of progressive debonding as an anchor is loaded and hence affects
fixed length efficiency. In this context the variation in soil stiffness for the range of the soils in which
anchors are usually founded is not sufficiently large to result in significant variation. Hence, the best fit
efficiency factor derived from anchors in silty clays can used as a guide factor in all soils using normal steel
tendons.
In 1997 Barley extended his research work to back-analyse data from soil nail pull-out tests in London
Clay which investigated tendons of considerably differing stiffness; 20mm and 50mm diameter deformed
steel bars and 6mm and 20mm diameter glass reinforced plastic tendons with fixed lengths ranging from 1 to
20m. Figure 6 highlights the rapid fall-off in efficiency when using highly elastic members GRP) and the
smaller fall-off when using an unusually large stiff steel bar. (50mm diameter).
Probably the most extensive attempts to model both the construction technique and performance of an
anchor have been carried out by Mecsi (1995) with his analysis based on construction data and performance
results from several hundred installed anchors. He has provided guidelines to "specific pull-out resistance"
of anchors in various soils.
This term refers to the pull-out capacity of a 1m length of anchor which is similar in concept to that of
Barley who also refers to short length capacity over which progressive debonding is small or negligible.
Mecsi acknowledges that the actual value depends on the construction technique and other variables.
His recommendations for evaluation of the ultimate anchor capacity have other common ground with that
proposed by Casanovas (1989) and Barley (1995) but in his evaluation incorporates values for tendon
stiffness (rigidity index) and overburden pressure. He considers that full grout/ground bond stress is
mobilised over a limited length of the anchor (Lo) and only a percentage of that value mobilised over the
remaining length (L - Lo).
Figure 5 : Ostermayer's (1974) "boundary lines" may be reasonably
-0.57
represented by the distribution as per "efficiency factor" 1.6L
Hence:
⎡ 1 ⎤
Tult = t ult ⎢ Lo + th[k (L − Lo )]⎥
⎣ k ⎦
when tult = specific pull-out resistance of a 1m length kN/m (=Pm); Lo = length over which is fully mobilised;
k = "rigidity index" of the anchor tendon; h = height of overburden on mid level of fixed anchor.
This approach fully acknowledges progressive debonding and the "taper off" concept.
1.0
0.7 feff = 0.61 - 0.02L (15 > L > 5) - 50mm Steel Nails
0.6
feff = 0.61 - 0.03L (10 > L > 5) - 20mm Steel Nails
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
From the above, it is reasonable to propose that the design formulae for anchors in soils and weak rocks
should always incorporate an efficiency factor or similar mathematical expression acknowledging non-
linearity. With this understanding, test anchors of length 2.5 to 5 metres may easily be taken to failure to
establish the ultimate bond stress of that length and then the fixed length of production anchors accurately,
designed to provide the required factor of safety. In the trials it is important to control the grouted length
tested.
Although anchors in strong rocks encounter the same progressive debonding phenomenon the availability
of extremely high local bond capacity at the rock grout interface may transfer the progressive failure
mechanism to the tendon grout interface and in such conditions the efficiency factor, if appropriate, would
require the extensive review of other data.
E N D P LA T E O R
C O M P R E S S IO N
F ITT IN G
D E B O N D E D TE N D O N
BOND
S TR ESS . C O M P R E S S IO N
A)
F IX E D LE N G T H
D E BO N D ED TE N D O N B O N D E D TE N D O N
BOND
B) S TR ESS .
C O M P R E S S IO N
T E N S IO N
F IX E D LE N G T H
The paper highlights the fact that the load capacity of a 9.2m fixed length utilising a 4.6m bond length in
stiff clay was greater (961kN) than that of the same fixed length utilising a full 9.2m bond length. (783 kN).
It was concluded "The ultimate soil resistance, Qu, was found to be 23% larger for the anchors with a short
bonded length (4.6m) than for the anchors with a long bonded length (9.2m)".
Ludwig and Weatherby (1989) investigated load distribution over an 18m fixed length using a bond
length of only 4.4m. Their results indicated that a similar amount of load was transferred to the ground
above the bond length as within the bond length. It is possible that the 300mm diameter grout column may
have contributed to the control of the bursting stresses over the low proportion bond length.
In choosing short bond lengths it should not be overlooked that natural weak soil and poor rock
conditions do exist where the borehole confinement is so limited that the potential gains from the reduced
bond length may be lost. Here the prior application of pressure grouting methods to enhance the borehole
constraint may achieve the greatest benefit.
And so, all anchor systems that utilise elastic tendon members to transfer load to the ground are
inefficient, but some systems are less inefficient than others!
7.0 THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN EFFICIENT LOAD TRANSFER FOR THE SINGLE BORE
MULTIPLE ANCHOR SYSTEM IN PERMANENT WORKS AND FOR TEMPORARY
REMOVABLE ANCHOR WORKS
7.1 Introduction
Consider an anchor tendon load transfer system that would: -
i) transfer the tendon capacity from the tendon to anchor grout over a short length (say 0.5m) without
inducement of high bursting forces;
ii) repeat this load transfer at staggered lengths along the anchor borehole (say 1m spacing);
iii) carry the same load on each tendon simultaneously;
It would almost eliminate the occurrence of progressive debonding and hence grossly increase the
efficiency in mobilisation of ground strength adjacent to an anchor borehole. Such was the intent of the
development of resin encapsulated fixed strands ends illustrated in Photo 4.
A system (Single Bore Multiple Anchor), now achieving working loads of 800kN to 2000 kN in soils and
weak rocks and achieving 3000 to 4000 kN has developed from that concept.
Research into the use of short corrosion protected load transfer lengths from strand to grout within short
encapsulations continued through the early 1980s.
Photo 4 : The use of individual corrosion protected. self-centralising fixed ends for each unit anchor for
use with units of staggered depthsin the borehole was investigated over 20 years ago Barley, 1978)
Initial site trials (1988) demonstrated that the capacity of a 10m fixed length in clay using a 6m tendon
bond length (6m in shear and tension, 4m in shear and compression) was 370kN. In an identical bore with a
10m fixed length containing four strands each with a 2m bond length staggered at 2.5m centres and subjected
to simultaneous strand loading achieved 640kN. Load distribution is illustrated in Figure 8, the areas under
the distribution lines proportioning to 370 and 640kN.
The first full-scale commercial single bore multiple anchors, (SBMA), in which each "unit" anchor
encapsulation was isolated from others in the overall anchor fixed length, and each unit individually loaded,
was at Southampton in 1988 (Barley 1995). A total load of 1337kN was recorded on the annular anchor load
cell during testing of five unit anchors founded in cohesive Bracklesham Beds. Recently, permanent anchors
with working loads of 1300kN have been installed in this stratum which highlights the advancement of the
system. Test anchors achieve loads circa 3600kN. This development and refinement of multiple anchor
techniques has continued over a twelve year period and some 40,000 permanent unit anchors have been
successful installed and tested (Photo 5).
Figure 8 : Comparison of the Load Distribution of a Normal Anchor with
that of a Single Bore Multiple Anchor
In urban areas, the "contamination" of ground under adjacent properties with steel tendons left after use is
not tolerated. Here a fully removable multiple anchor system is available. This "environmentally friendly"
system allows removal of the tensile steel member from the grouted borehole after usage over both free and
fixed length. Some 5000 unit anchors have been installed in major cities, (London, Edinburgh, Hong Kong
and Gratz), with working capacities in soils as high as 2000kN. (Barley, Payne, McBarron 1999).
i) The bond length or bond mechanism used at the tendon/grout interface of each unit to allow safe use
of the full tendon capacity.
ii) The diameter and type of the corrosion protection of the fixed anchor (encapsulation).
iii) The influence of the passage of the “free” length tendons from the deep unit anchors (distal) on the
bond capacity of the shallower unit anchors (proximal) and the resulting congestion in the borehole.
iv) The arrangement at the anchor head of the multiple of individual jacks in the hydraulically
synchronised stressing system. (All unit anchors have different free lengths and hence require
different amounts of extension and ram travel).
Photo 5 : Use of Single Bore Multiple Anchors in Natchez, Mississippi where high load anchors founded
in loess provided overall stability of soil nailed slope (Civil Engineering ASCE December 1997)
Although research has established that the full capacity of the entire range of strands could be achieved
within encapsulation lengths of 1 to 1.5m, in practice, the unit encapsulation lengths have been standardised
in the 2 to 3m range as a general safeguard.
Further research has determined the encapsulation size, complete with a double plastic layer, could be as
little as 22mm, but the common diameter now in use is 50mm for ease of fabrication.
Initially, unit anchors contained only single strand, but the demand for higher unit tendon capacity to
ensure failure at the ground/grout interface in preliminary trial anchors, necessitated incorporation of two
strands. Subsequent development has confirmed that a multiple of strands may be incorporated satisfactorily
into the double protected encapsulations of individual unit anchors to allow mobilisation of even higher unit
anchor loads.
In the case of preliminary trial anchors, each individual jack also has its own pressure gauge and lock off
valve. If, from the load/extension data, the failure or onset of failure of a unit anchor is suspected then its
valve is closed and the load in that unit can be observed independently while further testing of other unit
anchors is continued.
All mechanisms which transfer load from tendon to grout, or encapsulation grout, subject the grout to
bursting stresses. Owing to the very limited tensile strength of cementitious grout it is, in the majority of
cases, the surrounding soil or rock which effectively confines the grout and prevents the grout column
bursting at low loads. The presence of a number of strands in close proximity and within a compressible
sheath, adjacent to the bond system of proximal anchors, provides a considerable weakness in the grout
column and reduces the effective confinement. Research has been carried out to investigate the influence of
the presence of the adjacent strands on the bond capacity of both encapsulations and mechanical devices. In
soil conditions where confining stresses are limited, a system of surrounding the adjacent strands in non-
compressible sleeves, and reinforcing the grout, has been developed to ensure these problems do not result in
low capacity pull-out failure.
From the testing of the numerous anchors, it has been established that friction within the free length of the
strands of distal anchors can, due to their passage of upper encapsulations, be greater than that in proximal
anchors. For this reason, it is recommended that the lower limit of the apparent tendon free length
acceptance criterion is 80% (or strand extensions are not less than 80% theoretical). This limit is consistent
with that specified in the new European Standard and nominally less than that adopted by the British
Standard, BS8081. It should be borne in mind, however, that via the nominal friction the load is still
transferred into the overall fixed anchor length.
7.2.5 Effect of load change in a production single bore multiple anchor
It has been normal practice in the U.K. for over a twenty year period to apply a preload of 110% of
working load to production anchors.
This generally provides more than a reasonable overload to ensure that, within the life of the anchor, load
loss due to soil creep or tendon relaxation does not cause the load to fall below the designed working load.
This procedure complies with BS8081 and as such is applied to more than 95% of installed anchors.
However, there are occasions in which the full working load is not applied to an anchor, and subsequent load
change results entirely from the amount of movement of the anchorhead in the axial direction.
When SBM anchors are installed for use in the normal applications, where full working load is applied,
then no special considerations are necessary. However, where the anchors are intended to be partially or
fully loaded by structural movement of the anchor head, then consideration must be given to the designed
variations in the unit anchor free lengths. When the anchor head moves, the load increase in the proximal
unit anchor will be greater than that in the distal unit anchor due to its shorter elastic length; thus the load
locked into each unit anchor at a datum, or an intermediate level, must be varied such that when the
calculated amount of movement necessary to load the anchor occurs, then after this movement the unit loads
will be equal, and no individual unit anchor overloaded.
where τult = ultimate bond stress and f10 is one of a number of proposed new factors relating ultimate
bond stress to standard penetration test values.
Such relationships have previously been proposed by Littlejohn (1970) for anchors in chalk , Barley
(1988) for anchors in chalk, mudstone and sandstone and Barley (1995) for anchors in clay f10 values have
ranged from as low as 3 in stiff clay at shallow depth to 10 in boulder clays or 20 to 30 in chalks. Consistent
with design approach above incorporating the efficiency factor, feff relating efficiency to the choice of fixed
length, the ultimate anchor load in may be represented by:
Each Unit anchor is designed individually based on ground strength at that depth.
8.0 SUMMARY
Forty years of development of anchors, associated load transfer mechanisms and corrosion protection
systems complimented by the enormous refinement of anchoring plant and equipment have taken the
industry into the 21st Century with a climate of healthy confidence.
However, without the implementation of the essential demands for construction expertise and general
compliance with the available Codes and Practice, ground anchors are still a high risk consideration.
Anchors which do not comply with Codes of Practice should not be eliminated from usage but where the
consequences of anchor failure are severe, their performance in the short and long term (up to 120 years)
must be fully researched and documented with particular attention to the items which currently prevent Code
compliance.
The design of ground anchors utilising formulae which do not accommodate the acknowledged "taper off
of capacity with length" should be superseded by use of formulae which incorporate "efficiency factors" or
similar mathematical expressions that correct for the progressive debonding phenomenon.
The multiple anchor system, which is developed specifically to increase the efficiency in anchor
utilisation of available or developed ground strength can safely provide working loads of 800 to 2000kN in
the majority of competent soils and weak rocks.
For temporary works in urban areas "environmentally friendly", high or low capacity anchors are now
available and after usage allow either free length, or free length and fixed length steel tendons to be removed.
Work to modern Codes, use modern design approaches, work with modern plant, but utilise age and
experience : then let quality anchors take the strain.
9.0 ROCK BOLTS AND CABLE BOLTS
The structural elements used as ground anchors, cable bolts and rock bolts are similar in many ways but
may be neatly characterised into three groups on the basis of scale and the length – capacity relationship. It
is suggested that the three groups of devices have evolved in response to stability problems that find
expression over three scales: large scale instability, intermediate scale instability and small scale instability.
It appears that the length and capacity of each group of devices is related to the geometry and mass of the
potential instability. Ground anchors tend to have the highest capacity and are usually longer than 10m, cable
bolts tend to be between 3m and 10m long and rock bolts tend have the lowest capacity and are usually
shorter than 3m.
Rock bolts and cable bolts appear to be most successful in maintaining local rather than regional stability
around excavations in jointed rock or rock expected to fracture during stress redistribution. The deformation
and collapse mechanisms in these regimes subjects the groups of reinforcement to a variety of loading modes
over and above uniform axial loading. For example, the reinforcements are often required to respond to
discrete displacements and rotations that may occur at joints and fractures that intersect along their length.
In these circumstances the rock bolts or cable bolts are indeed acting as rock reinforcement.
The design of rock reinforcement is a complex problem that would require any formal design procedure
to take into account both the geometry of the jointing system and the forces and displacements that may
occur at the joints. The inherent difficulties in such an approach has led to the development of relatively
informal design procedures involving rules and charts based on precedent (Lang, 1961) and rock mass
classification schemes (Barton et al., 1974, Bieniawski, 1976). These procedures are simple, rapid, very
popular and appear to have been highly successful. However, it is believed that attempting to understand the
complexity of the design problem and the mechanical behaviour of individual and groups of reinforcements
are central to raising the level of rock bolting and cable bolting to the standards set in ground anchor
technology.
The balance of this discussion will attempt to explore the developing technology of rock reinforcement
from a purely mechanical perspective. This results in design and selection procedures that are very different
from the popular precedent and rock mass classification approaches.
A review of the historical development of excavation stability will show that in the distant past many
ingenious devices have been used to stabilise rock and soil materials for both civil and mining purposes, for
example, see Brown (1999). The initial reinforcement devices took the form of natural bamboo and timber,
manufactured wooden dowels and steel rods. Since then, a large range of devices has subsequently been
developed in order to address the need for installing large numbers of reinforcements quickly and cheaply.
Consequently, the development of rock reinforcement devices is linked in many ways to manufacturing
technology and to drilling, blasting and excavation technology. However, the historical development of
rock reinforcement will be viewed here from a purely mechanical perspective.
The application of rock bolts began in the early 1900’s and become a systematic practice in the 1950’s,
some 100 years after the invention of reinforced concrete technology. Similarly, the application of cable
bolts began in the early 1960’s, some 70 years after the patent for prestressed concrete was awarded. It is
important to note that the first modern rock bolt elements were initially identical to the elements used in
reinforced concrete and the first cable bolt elements were initially identical to those used in prestressed
concrete. Furthermore, it appears that the development of an understanding of the mechanics of rock
reinforcement has also followed in the footsteps of reinforced and prestressed concrete.
Multiwire
Tendon
(Clifford, 1974)
Birdcaged
Multiwire Tendon
(Jirovec, 1978)
Antinode Node
Single
Strand
Coated
Single Strand
(VSL Systems, 1982)
(Dorsten et. al., 1984)
Sheathed Coated Encapsulated
Swaged Anchor
On Strand
(Schmuck, 1979)
Square Circular
Birdcaged
Strand
Bulbed
Strand
(Garford, 1990)
Antinode Node
Ferruled
Strand
(Windsor, 1990)
Antinode Node
Windsor and Thompson (1993) have given a more detailed description of these three classes previously.
This classification is thought to be valid for all reinforcement devices despite the fact that they are available
in so many different configurations. A selection of devices from a large classification database is given in
Table 1 and typical response ‘shapes’ for the three different classes are given in Figure 10b.
Figure 10 : a) Types of force-displacement response. b) Force-displacement reponses for the three classes.
12.0 REINFORCEMENT SCHEME MECHANICS
M e c h a n is m C h a ra c te ris tic
S
R
N
C haracteristic D isplacem ent
W
a : Te n s io n + S h e a r
b : P u re Te n s io n
c : Te n s io n + S h e a r
d : S h e a r + Te n s io n
e : P u re S h e a r
f: S h e a r + C o m p re s s io n
C h a ra c te ris tic
D is p la c e m e n t S h e a rin g D is c o n tin u ity
Figure 12 : A block with reinforcing elements oriented to reinforce different types of release surfaces.
s
s
0
0 70
s
Figure 13 : A sliding block mechanism reinforced with cable bolts installed at various orientations.
The stepped nature of the Rock System Response reflects the additional normal confinement provided by
Cable 2 and Cable 3. Also note that Cable 4 is very inefficient compared with the other three cables. The
Reinforced Rock System Response intersects the Excitation Characteristic at approximately 38 mm. Prior to
equilibrium being reached, Cable 1 installed parallel to the plane has ruptured in tension. This is reflected in
a spike in the Mechanism Characteristic at about 22 mm.
In summary, the Mechanism Characteristic Diagram is simply a graphical way of showing how a system
of components undergoing a particular mechanism might simultaneously achieve force equilibrium and
displacement compatibility. The fact that equilibrium is achieved does not necessarily mean that the design
is satisfactory. For example, a particular demand may result from the need to arrest the mechanism at a
given displacement and this will dictate the required reinforcement stiffness and the initial conditions (ie.
time of installation, prestressing, pregrouting). The need to consider force equilibrium and displacement
compatibility results in many complexities, some of which will be discussed in the following section. Other
complexities associated with defining the demand of the mechanism (eg. the shape, size and mass of blocks)
will be explored later.
Two simplifying assumptions are normally made in a stability analysis involving reinforcement. Firstly,
the response of a reinforcement system is taken as its fully mobilised capacity and secondly, a one-
dimensional analysis for equilibrium of forces is conducted. These assumptions are implicit in methods that
calculate the factor of safety as simply the quotient of the resisting forces divided by the driving forces. For
example, in the case of a block that would free fall from the roof of an underground excavation, the driving
force is the weight of the block. The resisting forces are assumed to be the fully mobilised capacity of the
elements in the reinforcement system with the resultant acting through the block centroid. The so-called
factor of safety is then taken to equal the number of elements multiplied by their capacity divided by the
weight of the block.
The ubiquitous assumption allowed the sum of the forces from all the reinforcement systems to be applied
through the block centroid as a resultant force. The assumption that the reinforcement response was
independent of displacement allowed this resultant to be set equal to the sum of the fully mobilised force
capacities of all the reinforcing systems. However, the response of reinforcement is dependent on its
deformation, which is dependent on its position in relation to the block.
The assumption that blocks can only translate is usually applicable to surface excavations but is not
generally applicable to underground excavations. It has also been found that the disposition of reinforcement
in relation to the block centroid is less important for sliding blocks formed in surface excavations compared
with falling and rotating blocks from overhanging surfaces. In the latter cases, reinforcement will be
generally non-uniformly loaded and a simple force equilibrium approach is not valid. Reinforcing elements
are loaded approximately equal only when the reinforcement is evenly distributed about the block's centre of
mass. For proper analysis of a reinforced block, it is necessary to consider all 6 modes of possible
displacement for a block (ie. 3 translations and 3 rotations) and the equilibrium associated with each of these
modes of displacement. Furthermore, the analysis needs to satisfy compatibility of block displacements with
the displacements occurring in the various reinforcement systems comprising the reinforcement scheme. An
analysis procedure that satisfies these requirements is encoded in the SAFEX computer program package
(Windsor and Thompson, 1992) and is described in more detail in Thompson (1989).
For each rock reinforcement scheme there are a number of selection requirements over and above
achieving stability. For example:
• Serviceability
• Durability
• Procurement Logistics
• Installation Logistics
• Economic considerations
These selection requirements often limit, or indeed, dictate the reinforcement systems chosen and the
arrangement of the scheme. However, in most circumstances it is also desirable to define what constitutes a
‘good’ design or the level of stability, safety or confidence required of the reinforcement scheme. This
immediately raises the necessity to first define the demand, capacity and failure of the scheme.
Figure 18 : The results from stability analyses for two different types of reinforcement scheme.
Each standard strand has a system force capacity of 27.0 tonnes requiring an anchorage length above the
block of 2.5 m. This scheme requires 30m of reinforcement, hole drilling and grouting. The total axial force
capacity of the scheme is 162 tonnes; thus the conventional factor of safety is about 1.11. Axial force
utilisation is about 90% and axial displacement utilisation is about 67%. This scheme achieves equilibrium
at about 27mm of vertical displacement of the block.
Each birdcaged strand has a lower system force capacity of 24.3 tonnes but is axially stiffer than standard
strand and requires only a 1.5m anchorage length above the block. This scheme requires 24m of
reinforcement, hole drilling and grouting. The total axial force capacity of the scheme is 153 tonnes; thus the
conventional factor of safety is about 1.05. Axial force utilisation is about 95% and axial displacement
utilisation is about 84%. The scheme achieves equilibrium at 6mm of vertical displacement of the block.
Given that both schemes achieve equilibrium, which is the better design? One is apparently ‘safer’ than the
other, has lower utilisation in terms of both force and displacement but is more expensive and allows greater
displacement of the block. The answer of course depends on the project requirements and what constitutes
failure. For example, would the larger block displacement lead to loosening of the rock around the block?
The implicit assumption made in most rock reinforcement design procedures is that failure is associated
with forces alone. However, in some circumstances, excessive deformation may lead to a detrimental
sequence of unwanted effects peripheral to the rock reinforcement scheme. In others a certain amount of
deformation may be sought in order to redistribute loads elsewhere. So what constitutes failure for the
project at hand?
The condition of failure, or more to the point the conditions of failure, may be defined in terms of both force
and displacement for the individual components of the reinforcement scheme or the for whole reinforced
rock system. Clearly, a number of conditions of failure could be specified, for example:
• Exceeding the force capacity in a number of the reinforcement systems.
• Exceeding the displacement capacity in a number of the reinforcement systems.
• Exceeding a given force utilisation in a number of the reinforcement systems.
• Exceeding a given displacement utilisation in a number of the reinforcement systems.
• Exceeding a given tolerable displacement of the unstable mass.
• Exceeding a given utilisation of the natural resisting forces.
The proceeding discussion implies that some consideration should be given to the mechanical
requirements of the reinforcement scheme prior to commencing the reinforcement design process.
There are two aspects to the design of reinforcement. Firstly, there is the design of the reinforcement
system (ie. selection of the principal components followed by physical assessment of the force-displacement
response of the assembled system). The main requirements here are to achieve an economically and
mechanically efficient system, with compatibility of geometry, capacity and utilisation between the principal
components. Secondly, there is the design of the rock reinforcement scheme (ie. selection of an arrangement
of systems followed by analytical or numerical assessment of the scheme response). The main requirements
here are to select an economically and mechanically efficient reinforcement scheme with reasonably uniform
utilisation of all systems that will bring about force equilibrium of the mechanism at an appropriate
displacement. In some circumstances it may also be appropriate to ensure that there is a sufficient level of
unmobilised force and displacement capacity in reserve to negotiate subsequent perturbations. Consequently,
the design process may be thought of as comprising two parts: selection of an appropriate reinforcement
system and selection of an appropriate reinforcement scheme.
There are certain considerations that constrain the choice of an appropriate system. Table 2 sets out these
considerations together with their applicability to each class of reinforcement. The first five constrain and
simplify system selection considerably. In practice, the table would need to be more specific for there are
exceptions to these loose generalisations. However, even this crude comparison allows the rational selection
of an appropriate type of system.
The usage, entry and serviceability requirements of the excavation determine the level of durability
required. The extraction and construction processes determine the adjustability required. Installation
logistics also concern the excavation processes, the availability of equipment and the management of the
quality control and assurance program.
Table 2 : Reinforcement system selection considerations and generalised attributes.
Selection Consideration CMC CFC DMFC
Durability High Low Medium
Ajustability Low Medium High
Installation Logistics High Low Medium
Economy Low High Medium
Force Capacity High Low High
Displacement Capacity Low High Medium
Stiffness High Low Medium
Load Relaxation Low High High
Creep Low High High
There are also economic issues and with these it is important to compare the total cost per installed
reinforcement unit as opposed to simply cost per unit. Once a number of candidate systems have been
selected, the problem becomes one of arranging a scheme of reinforcement systems to satisfy the mechanical
demands of the collapse mechanism.
The design of reinforcement for rock excavations requires consideration of many interrelated issues. If
the process is simplified and thought of purely in mechanical terms then it could be considered to comprise
six basic steps:
1. Formulation of a rock mass model.
2. Assessment of rock mass demand.
3. Dimensioning of trial reinforcement schemes.
4. Analysis of candidate reinforcement schemes.
5. Selection of an appropriate reinforcement scheme.
6. Performance assessment of the selected reinforcement scheme.
The design of reinforcement for an excavation in structured rock is particularly difficult due to a number
of problems associated with completing steps 1 and 2. These steps are essentially concerned with defining
the ‘demand’ of the rock mass or as shown previously the ‘excitation characteristic’. To date, the discussion
has sidestepped that issue and the mechanics of reinforcement have been explored on the basis of a given
shape and volume of material that needs to be stabilised. In order to simplify future discussion, only
gravitational demand will be considered. Even with this simplification, defining demand is still often very
difficult and is the key area that requires future research and development.
In structured rock the mutual intersection of discontinuities divides the rock into fully and partially
formed blocks of rock. If an excavation plane cuts through this assembly of blocks a new set of blocks are
formed at the excavation surface. Some of these 'exposed’ or ‘surface’ blocks will have a shape that will
allow them to fall, slide or rotate into the excavation should the block driving forces exceed the block
stabilising forces. In order to understand how such a rock mass may best be reinforced or supported the
assembly of blocks must be investigated. The ideal outcome from an investigation would be to predict the
exact shape, size, stability and spatial position of each block that forms around the excavation. These block
characteristics define the rock mass demand and provide the information need to dimension trial
reinforcement schemes.
The previous sections have discussed the second step in the reinforcement design process for the case of
blocky rock masses; namely assessment of the rock mass demand. The demand was determined in terms of
the relative frequency distributions for the block characteristics of the different shaped unstable blocks over
their anticipated range of occurrence
Figure 21 : Cumulative frequency of apex height for Figure 22 : Cumulative frequency of stability index
all removable blocks. for all removable blocks.
( Ω )
Relative Frequency
Ω%
Ω
Ω
Ω
Ω
Ω
Ω Ω
Class Intervals (Ω)
Figure 25 : Relative and cumulative frequency graphs for two blocks and for the aggregate of both blocks.
The block characteristics found to be particularly useful in reinforcement and support design include:
• Altitude (H) - perpendicular distance to the apex.
• Face area (Af) - block area in the excavation face.
• Out-of-balance force (OBF) - difference between driving and resisting forces
• Displacement vector (αd/βd)-movement direction.
• Face perimeter (Lp) - perimeter of the face area.
• Shear surface area (As) - sum of shearing areas.
• Force demand Fαβ - Force in a given direction required to maintain equilibrium.
• Pressure demand Pαβ = Fαβ / Af.
• Internal shear demand (Sin) = OBF/ As
• External shear demand (Sex) - OBF/ Lp x 1mm
PATTERN LIMITED
MESH DESIGN
PATTERN LIMITED
EXCAVATION FACE LIMITED
STRAP DESIGN
PRIMARY REINFORCEMENT
Figure 26 : Schematic representation of block scale and resulting demands on the rock improvement scheme.
18.0 RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT OF TRIAL REINFORCEMENT SCHEMES
Once a trial rock improvement scheme design has been selected and dimensioned it must be assessed to
ensure that it satisfies a certain reliability level of stability in terms of force equilibrium and displacement
compatibility. In most but not all circumstances, the stability of each block shape is markedly affected by its
position in relation to the rock improvement scheme as shown earlier in Figure 14. Thus, the reliability
assessment is a complex force-displacement analysis in which the position of each block shape (over its
complete shape and size range) is allowed to vary in relation to the rock improvement scheme.
Fortunately, the work conducted to obtain the demand characteristics can also be used to simplify the
reliability analysis. The demand distributions for the different block characteristics may be approximated by
standard statistical distributions in which the random variable Ω is continuous over a finite interval (a ,b).
These distributions may then be used to simulate a distribution of block characteristics for each unstable
block shape. The blocks may occur anywhere within a region of the rock improvement scheme constrained
by the ‘block existence zone’ (Windsor 1999) associated with that block shape. This may be achieved by
selecting a block vertex in the excavation face and positioning it within the block existence zone. The vertex
position defined by the three coordinates (x,y,z) is then generated to occur within this region.
Consider Figure 27 which shows the results from force-displacement analyses on a block (shape and size
invariant) which has simply been moved in relation to the reinforcement scheme. In this Case A - the block
is reinforced with 5 bolts and is unstable. In Case B - the block is reinforced with 5 bolts and is unstable.
Now consider the amount of information given in the results. In a reliability assessment the variants of shape
, size and position must all be simulated in accordance with the demand characteristics of the block. The
outcome is an array of results for each block in terms of block displacement and the forces and displacements
generated in the reinforcement scheme. The large amount of valuable information produced must be used to
determine the suitability of the scheme in terms of the ‘conditions of failure’ discussed earlier. Here one
must consider the end aim of this exercise and the manipulation of results from numerous stability analyses.
The end aims are to define the reliability of the design in terms of block stability and rock reinforcement
scheme performance. Furthermore, recall that there could be many different shaped blocks involved that
give rise to many different forms of demand, all of which must be satisfied. Consequently, the results must
be presented in a format that enables the designer to modify inappropriate designs to achieve both reliability
and efficiency across the whole scheme. A reliable and efficient design is one in which:
1. Rock mass stability criteria are satisfied (eg. maximum block displacement).
2. Rock reinforcement scheme performance criteria are satisfied (eg. force capacity utilisation)
Because large amounts of information are produced it is convenient to considered this visually. Thus, a
grid simulation of block position is suggested where the chosen block vertex is sequentially placed
throughout a grid of specific positions in relation to the reinforcement scheme. This enables three-
dimensional surfaces to be drawn with the grid axes (or block position) as abscissae and stability or
performance characteristics (eg. block displacement, the force, moment, displacement utilisation of the
scheme etc.) as the ordinate. The stability and performance criteria chosen are constant and may be
represented by a flat plane on this diagram that intersects the 3D surface to indicate the probability of
whether or not the trial reinforcement scheme satisfies the reliability and performance criteria. This
approach also provides the designer with clues on how to improve unsatisfactory designs.
Reinforcing systems are often used in ‘combined reinforcement-support schemes’. Support systems are
usually constructed on or fixed to the boundary of an excavation where they provide an areal, reactive force
in response to deformation of the boundary. Modern support systems used with reinforcement in combined
improvement schemes include:
• Straps or beams (usually steel or reinforced concrete).
• Mesh (usually rigid or articulated steel grids).
• Membranes (usually polymer sprays).
• Shotcrete (sprayed concrete either plain or reinforced).
• Concrete (poured and may be plain, reinforced or prestressed).
1 BLOCK NUMBER 3
+
1 2 3 4 5 CASE A
ELEMENT NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5
TYPE NUMBER SS46 SS46 SS46 SS46 SS46
+ + BEARING
ELEVATION
0
90
0
90
0
90
0
90
0
90
TOTAL LENGTH 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6
BLOCK LENGTH 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.2 1.0
ANCHOR LENGTH 3.4 3.4 2.7 3.4 2.6
SECTION - CASE A AVAILABLE AXIAL LOAD 102.6 102.6 80.3 102.6 77.4
1 + 2 + 4 + CASE B
ELEMENT NUMBER 1 2 3 4
3 + TYPE
BEARING
SS46
0
SS46
0
SS46
0
SS46
0 deg
ELEVATION 90 90 90 90 deg
TOTAL LENGTH 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 m
BLOCK LENGTH 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.5 m
PLAN - CASE B ANCHOR LENGTH 2.9 2.8 2.9 3.1 m
AVAILABLE AXIAL LOAD 86.4 84.4 86.4 93.0 kN
AXIAL LOAD 86.3 84.3 84.8 48.9 kN
1 2 3 4 SHEAR LOAD 3.6 5.8 2.4 3.3 kN
AXIAL DISPLACEMENT 17.7 11.8 11.0 5.9 mm
SHEAR DISPLACEMENT 0.9 0.9 0.3 0.3 mm
DIRECTION 87/239 86/270 88/266 87/347 deg
Figure 27 : Stability assessment results for two positions of the same shape and sized block. Note that:
a) As different positions of the block are simulated its stability is affected by the
number and relative geometry of the reinforcements that are intersected.
b) The block intersected by 5 bolts is unstable, the block intersected by 4 bolts is stable.
c) Such outcomes are implicitly ignored in the conventional design procedures.
In comparison, reinforcement can provide either active or reactive forces linearly within the mass and at a
point on the boundary. The distinction between the two in terms in how they supply artificial forces to the
rock (ie. active or reactive, point or areal) is important when considering the response of the combined
improvement scheme. In a combined scheme, reinforcement and support must interact together as a system
of components to satisfy the force and displacement demands and negotiating the collapse mechanism to
achieve both force equilibrium and displacement compatibility.
The notion of combined reinforcement and support is similar to the idea of ‘belt and braces’ but with the
important distinction that in this case, one is not a back-up for the other and it is not necessary for one
component to fail in order to activate a response from the second. The circumferential tension in the belt
does not necessarily need to exceed the belt capacity in order for axial tension to be developed in the braces.
It may be that by providing a small tension in the belt and a small tension in the braces a more efficient and
safer design can be achieved. Basically, if both are required then they should be designed to work together.
The partnership, may be simple or complex. For example, the reinforcement may be relatively rigid and
the support relatively flexible and vice- versa. The reinforcement may be supplementary to the support and
vice-versa, the reinforcement may not respond until called upon by the support and vice-versa. Here, only
two ways that reinforcement and support may be combined will be discussed. In the first, the reinforcement
simply provides points of fixture and reaction for an areal support system. In this application the reinforcing
system is a structural anchor. Ground anchors are commonly used in this application in conjunction with a
relatively rigid structural diaphragm . The ground anchors may be prestressed to supply a large active collar
force and depending on construction sequence and the flexural rigidity of the diaphragm the system may be
configured to impart an active pressure at the boundary. In the second, the reinforcement provides both
points of fixture and reaction for an areal support system and reinforcing actions within the mass. Rock bolts
and cable bolts are commonly used in this application with relatively flexible support schemes (commonly
straps, mesh, shotcrete or combinations). In either case, the key is to recognise the importance of each
component of the system, its role and responsibility in arresting the instability.
The rationale for simulation based design and reliability assessment for support schemes is the same as
that for reinforcement schemes. The demand characteristic is taken as that not accounted for by the
reinforcement scheme (ie the smaller blocks that may exist between the reinforcement systems). Again
block position, shape and size must be simulated to with respect to the support system. For example, Figure
28 shows the position of a block in relation to the fixture points for a sheet of mesh and a surface coated in
shotcrete. The block shape, size and position all affect the loading and displacement of the mesh and the
likely geometry of a yield line crack pattern in the shotcrete and thus its moment capacity and deflection.
a) b)
Figure 28 : Block shape and position relative to mesh fixture points and shotcrete yield line crack patterns.
20.0 SUMMARY GROUND REINFORCEMENT ISSUES
The second half of this paper has reviewed the development of rock bolt and cable bolt devices from a
purely mechanical perspective and their behaviour as a system of components. The mechanics of a scheme
of reinforcement systems was then explored in terms of its force and displacement behaviour in response to
simple collapse mechanisms. The paper then described procedures for the deterministic and probabilistic
design of trial rock reinforcement schemes followed by a brief description of a simulation based reliability
assessment of these trial designs. This systems approach to understanding mechanical behaviour and to
design is novel in that reinforcement design is most commonly conducted by alternative approaches based on
precedent rules or rock mass classification. These latter approaches are extremely simple, popular and
apparently very successful whereas the proposed systems approach is complex, cumbersome and not so
popular. However, it has been explored here in order to highlight some of the important mechanical
concepts associated with reinforcement and its design. It is believed that mechanical concepts embodied in
the very complexities of reinforcement design hold the keys to future development of this discipline.
A number of issues have been discussed which probably deserve examination and assessment of their
validity by the civil and mining engineering community. Some of these are listed below:
1. Ground reinforcement is related to reinforced and prestressed concrete technology.
2. Device variation results in variation in the degree and extent of coupling to the rock.
3. Reinforcement devices are systems of principal components.
4. Reinforcement schemes are systems comprising reinforcement systems.
5. Reinforcement behaviour must be considered in terms of both force and displacement.
6. Stability analysis must be specific and consider force equilibrium - displacement compatibility.
7. Design of reinforcement schemes for structured rock is better conducted probabilistically.
8. The design of rock reinforcement schemes should involve:
a) Probabilistic assessment of rock mass demand.
b) A definition of what constitutes the stability and performance criteria.
c) Dimensioning of trial schemes.
d) Reliability assessment of these trial candidate schemes.
9. The design of combined reinforcement and support schemes follow the logic given above in 8.
10. Research and development is required in the areas 8a to 8d given above.
It is hoped that this discussion will foster interest and critical debate such that the discipline of ground
reinforcement can progress to the level of formality now demanded in ground anchor technology.
21.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Keller Ground Engineering and the Keller Group for making available test
anchor data for technical evaluation and presentation. We are most grateful for the support provided by
AMIRA and the many Australian and the international companies that have enabled this work to be
conducted by sponsoring the two AMIRA research projects: ‘Blasting and Reinforcement Technology’ and
‘Shotcrete, Mesh and Bolts’. We would also like to express special thanks to our colleagues; Dr. Alan
Thompson, Mr. Glynn Cadby and Professor Ernesto Villascusa for their inputs to this paper and their
constant support.
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