اخطاء انكسار 3&4

4&3 ‫اخطاء انكسار‬ ‫بصريات‬/‫مرحلة ثانية‬  ‫حسن عبد الهادي الجابري‬
The Human Eye
Q/ Give the function of the human eye?

The human eye is a sense organ which is able to produce optical images and sends
corresponding nerve signals to the brain. It is in fact the nature optical instrument. A
human being has two similar eyes and thus has the advantage of having binocular vision.
Essential parts of human eye

1- Sclerotic: It is the hard, opaque and white outer protecting layer of the eyeball.
2- Cornea: It is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior
chamber and provides most of an eye's optical power.
Q/ Give the reason for the refraction by the cornea?

- Because of its curvature
- Because of the big difference in refractive indices of air (1) and cornea (1.37).
3- Choroid: It is the dark brown layer forming the inner surface of the sclerotic.
4- Ciliary muscle: It is the anterior continuation of the choroid and is a seat of muscles.
5- Iris: It is a circular diaphragm hanging from the ciliary muscles. Its color (black,
brown). Gives the color of the eye.
6- The pupil: Variable-sized black circular opening in the center of the iris that regulates
the amount of light that enters the eye. The pupil size tends to be adjusted automatically
to give optimal visual acuity over a wide range of luminance.
7- The crystalline lens: The eye-lens is situated behind the iris. It is bi-convex in shape
and is more convex at the back sides. It is transparent and is composed of different
layers. The refractive index of the outermost shell is equal to that of the surrounding
medium, while the refractive indices of the inner shells gradually increase. This makes
the eye-lens free from aberrations.
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Q/ Give the reason for the refraction by the lens?

- It is bi-convex in shape and is more convex at the back sides.
- It is transparent and is composed of different layers.
- The refractive index of the outermost shell is equal to that of the surrounding medium,
while the refractive indices of the inner shells gradually increase. This makes the eye-
lens free from aberrations.
Q/ Give the reason that make the eye-lens free from aberrations?
The refractive index of the outermost shell is equal to that of the surrounding medium,
while the refractive indices of the inner shells gradually increase.
8- The retina: Light sensitive nerve tissue in the eye that converts images from the eye's
optical system into electrical impulses that are sent along the optic nerve to the brain.
Forms a thin membranous lining of the rear two-thirds of the globe.
9- Anterior chamber, Posterior chamber and aqueous humour: The space between the
cornea and the iris is called the anterior chamber, while the space between the iris and
the suspensory ligaments is called the posterior chamber. These two chambers are filled
up with a transparent salt solution called the aqueous humour.
10- Vitreous chamber and vitreous humour: The space between the eye-lens and the
retina is called the vitreous chamber. It is filled up with a transparent jelly- like fluid
called the vitreous humour.
Figure: The essential parts of the eye
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Eye as an optical instrument

As an optical instrument the eye can be compared with a camera as below:
 Eyelids act as shutter of the camera.
 Cornea and crystalline lens act as focusing system of the camera.
 Iris acts as diaphragm which regulates the size of the aperture (pupil) and therefore
the amount of light entering the eye.
 Choroid helps in forming the darkened interior of the camera.
 Retina acts as light-sensitive plate or film on which image is formed.
Action of the eye
1. Formation of the image
- The rays of light from an object (light source), on entering the eye, suffer refraction
mainly at the outer surface of the cornea and the two surfaces of the eye-lens.
- The rays also suffer continuous refraction in passing through the different layers of the
eye-lens.
- The emergent rays from the eye-lens are brought to a focus on the retina where a real,
inverted, and dimensioned image is formed. We see an erect object by a special process
of the brain.
2. Resolving power of the eye

is the smallest visual angle subtended at the eye by two closely situated point objects such
that they are just resolved, i.e. they appear as two distinctly separate object points with the
mean rays of the visible light (i.e. yellow rays) the resolving power of the human eye is
approximately equal to one minute of arc.
3. Accommodation of the eye

- The lenses made of glass or plastic have fixed focal lengths.
- In the case of human eye the image distance is fixed. It is equal to the distance of the
retina from the eye-lens.
- the focal length of the eye-lens has to be altered with the change of the object distance
such that the conjugate relation is satisfied and the image is always formed on the surface
of the retina.
- This property of the eye in changing the focal length of the eye-lens is called
accommodation.
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4. Adaptation
- It is defined as the capacity of the eye to adjust itself to the changed condition of
illumination.
- When the intensity of the incident light increases or decreases, the pupil of the eye is
involuntarily contracted so as to regulate the light intake of the eye.
5. Color vision and color- sensitivity

Color is a physical sensation produced by the eye-brain system relating to the wavelength
of visible radiation.
Q/ Compare between color vision and color sensitivity?
color vision color sensitivity
The ability of the eye to distinguish The color sensitivity of the eye varies
different colors with the wavelength of light
there are three types of cone-cells in the It gradually increases from violet (4000
retina which react to green, red and blue Ao) end of the spectrum, becomes
light maximum in the green-yellow region at
(5550 Ao) and then falls off towards the
red color (7500 Ao).
Nerve signals corresponding to the
intensities of these colors combine to
give color impressions in the brain
6. Far-point of the eye

The remotest point up to which the eye can see clearly is called the far-point of the eye.
For normal eye, the far-point should be at infinity. But it is found that the far-point is only
a distant point which varies from person to person.
7. Near-point of the eye

For every eye there is a certain minimum distance from the eye up to which an object may
be seen clearly by employing the power of accommodation of the eye. This nearest point is
called the near-point of the eye. The distance of the near-point from the eye is called the
least distance of distinct vision. It is about 25 cm for a normal eye.
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Retinoscopy
Retinoscopy: is an objective refraction device that can estimate a person's refractive error
without them needing to say anything to you.
- Retinoscopy should be done for every person that you examine as it gives you
information that you cannot get any other way.
- It is also extremely useful for people who cannot communicate with you, such as young
children or people with mental.
- Doing retinoscopy for every person that you examine will make your refraction faster,
more efficient and more accurate.
- Light is directed into the patient's eye to illuminate the retina.
- An image of the illuminated retina is formed at the patient's far point (the reflex stage).
Parts of Retinoscope
1- Power switch
 Turns the retinoscope on and off
 Controls the brightness of the light.
2- Small globe (light bulb)

 Provides the light
3- Electric supply
 Batteries (disposable or rechargeable) in the retinoscope handle
 A power cord to connect the retinoscope to the main electricity.
4- Mirror
 Reflects light from the globe into the person's eye
5- Sight hole (viewing hole)

 Allows the red reflex to be seen.
6- Slide knob or sleeve

 Rotates the axis of the retinoscopes light
 Changes the light beam from divergent to convergent light.
If a retinoscope is not working, it is usually because:
- It needs new batteries, or its rechargeable batteries need to be recharged.

- The light globe needs changing - each globe usually lasts for several years.
5
The uses of retinoscopy

Retinoscopy allows you to:
1. Estimate a person's (objective) refractive error before you begin your subjective
refraction, it provides a starting point for your refraction.
2. Estimate the refractive errors of people who have problems communicating with you,
such as:
 babies or young children
 people with a physical or mental disability
 people who speak a language that you do not understand
 Deaf or mute people.
3. Detect some eye diseases (like cataract or corneal opacities) that can affect a person's
vision and your refraction examination.
Q/ Why do we use Retinascoop in different directions?

For purpose of look for astigmatism and measure the refractive error of the eye.
Light from streak on trial lens rim

When you move the retinoscope, the red reflex also moves. The movements of the red
reflex may be "with", "against" or "neutral".
With movement
When the red reflex moves in the same direction as the sweeping motion of the
retinoscope streak.
Figure: A red reflex showing “with" movement.

Against movement
When the red reflex moves in the opposite direction to the sweeping motion of the
retinoscope streak.
Figure: A red reflex showing "Against" movement.

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4&3 ‫اخطاء انكسار‬ ‫بصريات‬/‫مرحلة ثانية‬  ‫حسن عبد الهادي الجابري‬

The Human Eye

Q/ Give the function of the human eye?

Essential parts of human eye

Q/ Give the reason for the refraction by the cornea?

Q/ Give the reason for the refraction by the lens?

Figure: The essential parts of the eye

Eye as an optical instrument

2. Resolving power of the eye

3. Accommodation of the eye

5. Color vision and color- sensitivity

6. Far-point of the eye

7. Near-point of the eye

2- Small globe (light bulb)

5- Sight hole (viewing hole)

6- Slide knob or sleeve

If a retinoscope is not working, it is usually because:

- It needs new batteries, or its rechargeable batteries need to be recharged.

The uses of retinoscopy

Q/ Why do we use Retinascoop in different directions?

Light from streak on trial lens rim

Figure: A red reflex showing “with" movement.

Figure: A red reflex showing "Against" movement.

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