ECE 523: MEDICAL AND BIO ELECTRONICS | 7:30-8:30 MWF

PRINCIPLES OF NEUROMUSCULAR EXCITATION

Definition of Terms:

Action Potential
It is a special type of electrical signal that can travel along a cell membrane as
a wave. This allows a signal to be transmitted quickly and faithfully over long
distances.

Synaptic potential
It refers to the potential difference across the postsynaptic membrane that
results from the action of neurotransmitters at a neuronal synapse. In other words,
it is the “incoming” signal that a neuron receives.

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)

The synapse between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber where a
motor excites a skeletal muscles fiber.

Synapse
A region where communication occurs between two neurons, or between a
neuron and a target cell.

Neurotransmitter
A chemical released to communicate the first cell to the second cell.

Acetylcholine
Abbreviated as ACh, it is the chemical messenger released at the NMJ.

Exocytosis
Exocytosis is a form of active transport and bulk transport in which a cell
transports molecule out of the cell by secreting them through an energy-dependent
process.

Synaptic cleft
A small gap that separates the two cells.

Sarcolemma
A fine transparent tubular sheath which envelops the fibers of skeletal
muscles.

T tubules (Transverse tubules)

An extension of the cell membrane that penetrate into the center of skeletal
and cardiac muscle cells.

Ligand-gated ion channels

Ligand-gated ion channels, also commonly referred to as ionotropic
receptors, are a group of transmembrane ion-channel proteins which open to
allow ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+, and/or Cl− to pass through the membrane in
response to the binding of a chemical messenger, such as a neurotransmitter.

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Seven Coordinated Steps in the Neuromuscular Junction

1. A neuronal action potential or synaptic potential will travel the length of the axon of
a motor neuron all the way to an axon.
2. The calcium ions (Ca++) diffuse into the terminal after the voltage gated calcium
channels open.
3. Synaptic Vesicles are caused by the entry of calcium ions that results to the release
of acetylcholine by a process known as exocytosis.
4. Across the synaptic cleft, acetylcholine diffuses and binds to acetylcholine
receptors. These receptors contain ligand -gated contain channels.
5. The ligand-gated cation channels mention in step will then open.
6. Sodium (Na+) ions will then enter the muscle fiber while potassium (K+) ions will
exit the muscle fiber. Due to a greater flux of sodium ions relative to the outward
flow of potassium ions the membrane potential will become less negative or
become depolarize.
7. The action potential will then propagate along the sarcolemma as seen as the
membrane potential reaches threshold value.

THE BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENT BLOCK DIAGRAM

Basic Instrumentation System

Measurand
- The physical quantity, property, or condition that the system measures.
- The accessibility of the measurand is important because it may be:
Internal (Blood Pressure)
On the Body Surface (Electrocardiogram)
Emanate from the body (Infrared Radiation)
Derived from Tissue Sample (such as Blood or a Biopsy)
- Most medically important measurands can be grouped in the following groups:
Biopotential, Pressure, Flow, Dimensions (Imaging), Displacement (Velocity,
Acceleration, and Force), Impedance, Temperature, and Chemical
Concentrations.
- The measurand may be localized to a specific organ or anatomical structure.

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Sensor
- The transducer is defined as a device that converts one form of energy to
another.
- A sensor converts a physical measurand to an electric output.
- The sensor should respond only to the form of energy present in the measurand,
to the exclusion of all others.
- The sensor should non-invasive and minimally invasive.

Signal Conditioning
- Simple signal conditioners may only amplify and filter the signal or merely match
the impedance of the sensor to the display.
- Often sensor outputs are converted to digital form and then processed by
specialized digital circuits or a microcomputer.
- For example, signal filtering may reduce undesirable sensor signals.
- It may also average repetitive signals to reduce noise, or it may convert
information from the time domain to the frequency domain.

Output Display
- The results of the measurement process must be displayed in a form that the
human operator can perceive.
- The best form for the display may be – Numerical, Graphical, Discrete or
Continuous, Permanent or Temporary, Visual/Hearing

Auxiliary Components
- A calibration signal with the properties of the measurand should be applied to the
sensor input or as early in the signal-processing chain as possible.
- Data may be stored briefly to meet requirements of signal conditioning or to
enable operator to examine the data that precede alarm conditions. Or data may
be stored before signal conditioning, so that different processing schemes can be
utilized.
- Conventional principles of communication can often be used to transmit data to
remote displays at nurses’ stations, medical centers, or medical data-processing
facilities.

Generalized Medical Instrumentation System

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Typical Signal Range Frequency Range

Heart Potential (ECG) 50uV – 5mV 0.05-100 Hz
Brain Potential (EEG) 2-10uV (Scalp) 1-100 Hz (Scalp)
Electro-oculogram (EOG) 20uV – 10mV 10Hz- 2kHz (Needle
Electrode)
10Hz-10kHz (Gross
Electrode)
Blood Pressure Pulse 5-15m/sec
Blood Pressure Indirect 0-300 mmHg 0.1-500Hz
Meas.
Blood Pressure Direct 0-40 mmHg (Venous) 0.1-100Hz
Meas.
0-300mmHg (arterial)
Blood Flow 1-300 cc/sec 1-20Hz
Heart Sound (PCG) 5Hz-4kHz
Respiration Rate 500cc of air 10-20 time per
min.
Breath Flow Rate 3-100 liter/min
Untreated Stein 50-800 k ohms
Resistance
Electrogastrogram (EGG) 10uV – 80mV 0.1 Hz

5. Linearity
6. Transducer Noise
Source of Noise
a. Physiological Noise
b. White or Thermal Noise
c. Ambient Noise
Signal Processor
• Design Parameters of Amplifiers
1. Input Impedance – should at least be 10x the output impedance pf the
transducer.
2. Output Impedance -
3. Gain – increase or decrease in strength or amplitude.
4. Power Distribution – sometimes called gain-bandwidth product, it defines
the useful range of frequencies that maybe amplified by the circuit in the design.
5. Distortion – is normally below 1%maybe from improper loading of one of
the stages of amplification.
Displays
• Design Parameters of Displays
1. Input Impedance
2. Linearity
3. Accuracy
4. Repeatability
5. Resolution
6. Intensity
7. Damping/Frequency Response
8. Sample Rate

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Data Storage Parameters

1. Duration of Storage
2. Total Memory Capacity
3. Overwriting Information and Dumping as new data are accumulated.
4. Auto-listing
5. Access Time
6. Buffer Capacity
7. Interrupt Sequence

BIOMEDICAL SENSORS: BIOPOTENTIAL ELECTRODES, ELECTROCHEMICAL

SENSORS, OPTICAL SENSORS

Medical Instrumentation Sensors

Sensors – are used to detect electrochemically generated physiological voltage/current

o Category of Sensors
1. Transducers – measure the displacement, force, pressure, velocity, acceleration,
flow, sound, and temperature variation.
2. Electrodes – are used to detect electrochemical properties in solution.
➢ Factors to be considered in the selection of a Transducer for a particular
application
a. What measurement technique should be used?
b. What external voltages and/or current must be applied to the transducer to
make it function?
c. What type of electrical signal does the transducer produce in terms of level,
frequency shape and duration?
d. Is the signal produced repeatedly environmental or physiological condition?
e. Is the transducer strong enough to survive the stress of its application?
f. Is the sensor linear over its operating range and is this linearity maintained
during usage?
g. What are the effects of the temperature, humidity and immersion?

Transducers
1. Pressure Transducers – are for measurements of pressure within the patient’s
cardiovascular, pulmonary, spinal cord.
A. Strain Gages – measures the relative change of displacement around a particular
reference point
o Types of Strain Gate Gages
a. Unbonded metallic filament strain gage
b. Bonded metallic – foil gage
c. Bonded piezoresistive or semiconductor gage
B. Linear Variable Difference Transformers (LVDT)
2. Fiber Optic/Optical Transducer – useful for endoscopy in the gastrointestinal
system. Physician view the internal organs with minimal effect on the patient. It
converts radiated light into an electrical signal that can be calibrated and recorded.
o Types of Optical Transducers
a. Gas phototube
b. Photo multiplier
c. Cadmium Sulfide Photocell

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d. Photodiode and Photovoltaic Cell

3. Thermocouple and Thermistor Transducer
a. Thermocouple
b. Thermistor
c. IR Detector
4. Piezoelectric Transducers
Include piezoelectric microphones for detecting heat sounds and blood pressure

Electrodes
- sensor that can detect electrochemical reaction in living organism
o Categories of Electrodes
1. Skin surface Electrodes – are constructed of silver-silver chloride stud, mounted
on an adhesive pad. The stud projects downward into a pool of salt-saturated gel
(KCl). A snap connector is attached to the top of the stud and the connector’s lead
wire is connected to the cable going to the instrument being used. Interface
Impedance is between 2-10 Kohms.
2. Needle Electrodes – small stainless steel or platinum needle electrodes used for
EEG measurements. It can hve impedance of several hundred kilo ohms.
3. Microelectrodes – element originally constructed to make measurements within a
single cell They were pipettes whose tips were heated and drawn out to a fine point.
The fine point was filled with an electrolyte compatible with the fluid in the cell.
4. Semi-Permeable Electrodes – used to measure the concentration of ion or a
particular gas dissolved in blood, urine or spinal fluid.
Categories
A. Reference Electrode
a. Silver – silver chloride electrode
b. Calomel Electrodes
B. Measurement Electrode – made of glass or Teflon Membrane

Characteristics of Electrode
a. Conductive
b. Inert
c. Minimum offset voltage

Amplifier Uses in Instrumentation

Characteristics
1. High input impedance, generally over 10Mohms
2. High gain open loop, generally over 1000
3. Moderate output impedance
4. Low White Noise
5. Low Harmonic Distortion
6. Bandwidths defined by the frequency content of the signal
7. High Linearity

Biopotential Electrodes

- Biopotential electrodes is a transducer that convert the body ionic current in the body
into the traditional electronic current flowing in the electrode.
-Biopotential electrode should be able to conduct small current across the interface
between the body and the electronic measuring circuit.

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The Electrode–Skin Interface and Motion

Artifact

A body-surface electrode is placed

against skin, showing the total electrical
equivalent circuit obtained in this situation.
Each circuit element on the right is at
approximately the same level at which the
physical process that it represents would be in
the left-hand diagram.

The Electrode–Skin Interface

Motion Artifact
When polarizable electrode is in contact with an electrolyte, a double layer of
charge forms at the interface. Movement of the electrode will disturb the distribution of
the charge and results in a momentary change in the half cell potential until equilibrium is
reached again in the half cell potential until equilibrium is reached again. Signal due to
motion has low frequency so it can be filtered out when measuring a biological signal of
high frequency component such as EMG or axon action potential. However, for ECG,
EEG and EOG whose frequencies are low it is recommended to use nonpolarizable
electrode to avoid signals due to motion artifact.

Schematic Diagram

The electric characteristics of biopotential electrodes are generally nonlinear and

a function of the current density at their surface. Thus, having the devices represented by
linear models requires that
they be operated at low
potentials and currents.
Under these idealized
conditions, electrodes can be
represented by an equivalent
circuit of the form shown in
the Figure. In this circuit Rd
and Cd are components that
represent the impedance
associated with the electrode-
electrolyte interface and
polarization at this interface.
Rs is the series resistance
associated with interfacial
effects and the resistance of
the electrode materials
themselves.

The battery Ehc represents the half-cell potential described above. At low
frequencies the impedance is dominated by the series combination of Rs and Rd,
whereas at higher frequencies Cd bypasses the effect of Rd so that the impedance is
now close to Rs. Thus, by measuring the impedance of an electrode at high and low

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frequencies, it is possible to determine the component values for the equivalent circuit for
that electrode.

Body-Surface Recording Electrodes

This category includes electrodes that can be placed on the body surface for
recording bioelectric signals. The integrity of the skin is not compromised when these
electrodes are applied, and they can be used for short-term diagnostic recording such as
taking a clinical electrocardiogram or long-term chronic recording such as occurs in
cardiac monitoring.

Metal-Plate Electrodes
• Material: German silver (a nickel-silver alloy) or Ag/AgCl
• Usage: ECG, EEG, EMG

Suction Electrodes
• Usage: precordial electrode for ECG

Floating Electrodes
• Recessed electrode
• Material: sintered Ag/AgCl pellet
• Usage: disposable electrode for ECG, stable against motion artifact

Flexible Electrodes
• Flexibility
• X-ray transparent

Electrode Standards
• Face-to-face bench testing
• Offset voltage < 100 mV
• Noise < 150 µV
• Impedance < 2 kΩ at 10 Hz
• Defibrillator overload recovery for 4 2-mC charges < 100 mV
• Bias current tolerance to 100 nA for 8 h < 100 mV offset

Biomedical Applications
Electrodes can be used to perform a wide variety of measurements of bioelectric
signals. An extensive review of this would be beyond the scope of this chapter, but some
typical examples of applications are highlighted in Table 48.4. The most popular
application for biopotential electrodes is in obtaining the electrocardiogram for diagnostic
and patient-monitoring applications. A substantial commercial market exists for various
types of electrocardiographic electrodes, and many of the forms described in the previous
section are available commercially. Other electrodes for measuring bioelectric potentials
for application in diagnostic medicine are indicated in Table 48.4. Research applications
of biopotential electrodes are highly varied and specific for individual studies. Although a
few examples are given in Table 48.4, the field is far too broad to be completely covered
here. Biopotential electrodes are one of the most common biomedical sensors used in
clinical medicine. Although their basic principle of operation is the same for most
applications, they take on many forms and are used in the measurement of many types

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of bioelectric phenomena. They will continue to play an important role in biomedical

instrumentation systems.

ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSORS

History:
• 1950s – The oldest electrochemical sensors date were used for oxygen
monitoring.
• Mid 1980’s – Miniaturized electrochemical sensors became available for detection
of many different toxic gases in PEL ranges, with the sensors exhibiting good
sensitivity and selectivity.

The physical size, geometry, selection of various components, and the

construction of an electrochemical sensor usually depends on its intended use. More
recently, as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) began requiring
the monitoring of toxic and combustible gases in confined space applications, new and
better electrochemical sensors have been developed. Currently, a variety of
electrochemical sensors are being used extensively in many stationary and portable
applications for personal safety.

Electrochemical sensors operate by

reacting with the gas of interest and
producing an electrical signal proportional to
the gas concentration. A typical
electrochemical sensor consists of a sensing
electrode (or working electrode), and a
counter electrode separated by a thin layer of
electrolyte.

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Gas that comes in contact with the sensor first passes through a small capillary-
type opening and then diffuses through a hydrophobic barrier, and eventually reaches the
electrode surface. This approach is adopted to allow the proper amount of gas to react of
the sensing electrode to produce a sufficient electrical signal while preventing the
electrolyte from leaking out of the sensor. The gas that diffuses through the barrier reacts
at the surface of the sensing electrode involving either an oxidation or reduction
mechanism. These reactions are catalyzed by the electrode materials specifically
developed for the gas of interest. With a resistor connected across the electrodes, a
current proportional to the gas concentration flows between the anode and the cathode.
Because a current is generated in the process, the electrochemical sensor is often
described as an amperometric gas sensor or micro fuel cell.

Block Diagram

The structure of electrochemical sensor contains two important parts, the

transducer part which is responsible for transfer the chemical reaction with analyte into
electrical signal. In addition, the chemical recognition part is for binding with the analyte.
The extend of interaction of recognition molecule with the analyte determines how is the
selectivity and sensitivity of the sensors. The most important properties that should be
found in electrochemical sensors are the detection limit, response time, linearity, stability,
sensitivity and selectivity. Meanwhile, the electrochemical sensor can be classified based
on the measured quantity into amperometric (current), potentiometric (potential) and
impedimetric (conductivity) electrochemical sensors. Generally, there were many
techniques have been utilized for investigating the behavior of electrochemical sensors
for sensing various analytes such as amperometric, potentiometric techniques, and
electrochemical impedance (EIS) methods.

Applications

• Forensic Community. Electrochemical based sensors are powerful analytical tool

for the analysis of illicit substances from street and biological samples.
Electrochemical biosensors are a powerful tool in the forensic field for the analysis

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of drugs such as ketamine at low concentration in complex matrixes. The

application of electrochemical sensors to forensic drug and gives opinions on the
technical developments as well as the future application on this field.
• Glucose Testing. Electrochemical biosensors are well suited for satisfying the
needs of personal (home) glucose testing, and the majority of personal blood
glucose meters are based on disposable (screen-printed) enzyme electrode test
strips, which are mass produced by the thick film (screen-printing) microfabrication
technology.

OPTICAL SENSORS

An optical sensor converts light rays into an electronic signal. The purpose of an
optical sensor is to measure a physical quantity of light and, depending on the type of
sensor, then translates it into a form that is readable by an integrated measuring device.
Optical Sensors are used for contact-less detection, counting or positioning of parts.
Optical sensors can be either internal or external. External sensors gather and transmit a
required quantity of light, while internal sensors are most often used to measure the bends
and other small changes in direction.

EXTRINSIC SENSORS VS. INTRINSIC SENSORS

Applications: temperature, pressure, Applications: rotation, acceleration, strain,
liquid, level and flow acoustic pressure, and vibration
Less sensitive More sensitive
Easily multiplexed Tougher to multiplex
Ingress/egress connection problems Reduces connection problems
Easier to use More elaborate signal demodulation
Less expensive More expensive

Schematic Diagram

The operating principle is the transmitting and receiving of light in an optical

sensor, the object to be detected reflects or interrupts a light beam sent out by an emitting
diode. Depending on the type of device, the interruption or reflection of the light beam is
evaluated. This makes it possible to detect objects independently of the material they are
constructed from (wood, metal, plastic or other). Special devices even allow for a
detection of transparent objects or those with different colors or variations in contrast.

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Different Types of Optical Sensors

Through-Beam Sensors
The system consists of two separate components the transmitter and the receiver
are placed opposite to each other. The transmitter projects a light beam onto the receiver.
An interruption of the light beam is interpreted as a switch signal by the receiver. It is
irrelevant where the interruption occurs.
Advantage: Large operating distances can be achieved and the recognition is
independent of the object’s surface structure, color or reflectivity.
To guarantee a high operational dependability it must be assured that the object
is sufficiently large to interrupt the light beam completely.

Retro-Reflective Sensors
Transmitter and receiver are both in the same house, through a reflector the
emitted light beam is directed back to the receiver. An interruption of the light beam
initiates a switching operation. Where the interruption occurs is of no importance.
Advantage: Retro-reflective sensors enable large operating distances with switching
points, which are exactly reproducible requiring little mounting effort. All objects
interrupting the light beam are accurately detected independently of their surface
structure or color.

Diffuse Reflection Sensors

Both transmitter and receiver are in one housing. The transmitted light is reflected
by the object to be detected.
Advantage: The diffused light intensity at the receiver serves as the switching condition.
Regardless of the sensitivity setting the rear part always reflects better than the front part.
This leads to the consequence to erroneous switching operations.

Applications of Optical Sensors

Application of these optical sensors ranges from computers to motion detectors.

For optical sensors to work effectively, they must be the correct type for the application,
so that they maintain their sensitivity to the property they measure. Optical sensors are
integral parts of many common devices, including computers, copy machines (xerox) and
light fixtures that turn on automatically in the dark. And some of the common applications
include alarm systems, synchros for photographic flashes and systems that can detect
the presence of objects.

Optical heart-rate sensors

Optical sensors have robust applications in the biomedical field. Optical heart-rate
monitors an optical heart-rate monitor measures your heart rate using light. A LED shines
through the skin, and an optical sensor examines the light that reflected back. Since blood
absorbs more light, fluctuations in light level can be translated into heart rate. This process
is called as photoplethysmography.

Breath Analysis Using Tunable Diode Laser

A promising new field of medicine and medical instrumentation, potentially offers
noninvasive, real-time, and point-of-care (POC), disease diagnostics, and metabolic
status monitoring.

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Optical Sensor Based Liquid Level Indicator

Optical Sensor Based Liquid Level Indicator consist of two main parts an infrared
LED coupled with a light transistor, and a transparent prism tip in the front. The LED
projects an infrared light outward, when the sensor tip is surrounded by air the light reacts
by bouncing back with-in the tip before returning to the transistor. When the sensor is
dipped in liquid, the light disperses throughout and less is returned to the transistor. The
amount of reflected light to the transistor affects output levels, making point level sensing
possible.

Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance

Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) phenomenon used in optical fiber
sensors to detect dengue. When light influence on material enclosed by dielectric material
spectral changes will occur change in refractive index.

Carbon dioxide detection in stomach

Optical fiber sensor can measure carbon-dioxide pressure in the stomach. This
sensor is based on color change of a CO2-sensitive indicator layer. The layer is
connecting to the optical fiber placed in the stomach. The optoelectronics unit is attached
to laptop which is used to data acquisition and processing, and for calibration.

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