Arti®cial Selection : It is the process carried out by man to select better

breeds of plants and animals.

Founders Effect : A genetic drift in human population where a population in
a new settlement have different gene frequency from that of the parent population.
The original drifted population said to be founder.
Gene Pool : Sum total of all the genes in a population.
Genetic Drift : Chance elimination of genes of certain traits from a population
due to migration or death.
Panspermia : Units cf life in the form of so called spores, which were
transferred to search from outer space, as believed by some scientists.
Saltation : Single step large mutations.
Speciation : It is the formation of new speds from the pre-existing ones.
Organic (Biological) Evolution : Changes at the characteristics/features of
originisms or groups of such population over a number of generations.
Homologous organs : These have same basic structure and embryonic
origin but perform different functions in different species.
Example :
Plants—Thorns of Bougainvilla and tendrils of cucurbita
Animals—For limbs of whales, bat, cheetah and human
Analogous organs : These organs are different in their basic structure and
embryonic origin out perform similar functions.
Example :
Animals—Wings of insects and birds
Plants—potato and sweet potato.
Human Evolution : Ramapithecus ® Australopithecines ® Homo habilis
Homo erectus ® Homo sapiens ® Homo sapiens sapiens.

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The Theories of Origin of Life
1. Theory of Special Creation : According to this theory God has created
life within 6 days.
2. Theory of Spontaneous Generation : According to this theory life
originated from decaying and rotting matter like straw and mud.
3. Panspermiatic Theory : According to this theory life came from space in
the form of spores called Panspermia.
4. Modern Theory or Oparin-Haldane Theory : According to this
theory life originated upon earth spontaneously from non-living matter. First
inorganic compounds then organic compounds were formed in accordance with
ever changing environment conditions. This is called chemical evolution. The
conditions on earth were high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere
(without free oxygen) containing methane and ammonia.
Experimental Evidence for abiogenesis (Miller’s Experiment) : Stanley
Miller in 1953 demonstrated in a laboratory that electric discharges can produce
complex organic compounds from a mixture of methane, ammonia, water vapours
and hydrogen. In this experiment he found that simple organic compounds
including some amino acids are formed. In similar experiments others observed
the formation of sugar, nitrogen bases, fats and pigments.
He used Spark chamber with two electrodes (to provide 75000 volts of energy
for simulation of lightening), a ¯ask for boiling (Simulation for evaporation and
circulation) to a temperature of 800°C and a condenser (simulation of raining
and, Haldane’s Soup). He used mixture of gases like CH4, NH3, H2 and water
vapours to simulate conditions of primeval atmosphere.
Molecular evidences : These evidences show common ancestory based on
parallel nucleic acid and amino acid sequences as well as universal genetic codes,
e.g. Human and chimpanzee DNA is 98.2% same and protien Cytochrome c is
similar.
Evidences from embryology : These evidences based on comparative
development studies of embryo of different vertebrates based upto the observation
during embryonic stage of all vertebrates.
The embryo of vertebrates develop a row of gill slit, but these gill siits are
functional only in ®sh.
Ernest Haeckel’s biogenetic law : This law states that “ontogeny
(development of the embryo) recapitulates phylogeny (development of race).”
e.g. Vertebrate head at embronic stage has vestigial gill slits like ®shes.

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 Divergent evolution : Development of different functional structures from
a common ancestral form is called divergent evolution, e.g. Development of
Homologous organs.
Convergent evolution : Development of similar adaptive functional structures
in unrelated groups of organisms, e.g. Development of Analogous organs.
Parallel evolution : When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to
have occured in an isolated geographical area then it is called parallel evolution.
e.g. Australian marsupials and placental mammals (corresponding)
Industrial Melanism : It is an adaptation where moth living in the industrial
area developed melanin pigments to match their body colour to the tree-trunk.
Before Industralisation in England, it was observed that there were more white-
winged moths on trees than dark-winged moths (melanised moths). After
industrialisation (in 1920), there were more dark winged moths in some areas.
After industrialisation, trees got covered by smoke. So whitewinged moth were
picked up by the birds but dark-winged moths escaped and survived. Thus,
industrial melanism supports the evolution by natural selection.
Adaptive radiation : The process of evolution of different species in a
geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating to other habitats
is called adaptive radiation. Examples : (i) Darwins ®nches found in Galapagos
Island (ii) Marsupials of Australia.
Evolution of Plants : Unicellular Multicellular Algae Rhynia type
plants Cycads Gnetales Dicot Monocot.
Hardy-Weingberg principle : The allele frequencies in a population
are stable and is constant generation to generation. Sum total of all the allele
frequencies is 1.
i.e. P2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 (Where p and q are frequency of Allele A and a)
Factors Affecting Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium : Gene migration,
Genetic drift, Mutations, Recombination, Natural Selection. Some Facts :

Brief Account of Evolution

 2000 mya : ®rst cellular forms of life appeared on earth
 500 mya : invertebrates formed
 350 mya : jawless ®sh evolved probably, ®sh with stout and strong
®ns evolved which can move on lands as well as go back
to water.

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  320 mya : Sea weeds and few plants existed probably.
 In 1938 : Fish caught in south Africa happened to be a coelocanth
which was thought to be extinct. These animals are called
lobe®ns (evolved into ®rst amphibians)
 200 mya : Some of land reptiles went back into water to evolve
into ®sh like reptiles e.g. Ichthyosaurs. Land reptiles
were Dinosaurs. Biggest Dinosours Tyrannosaurus rex
(20 feet in height, have huge dagger like teeth.)
 First mammals were like shrews—They were small sized, viviparous
intelligent.

Evolution of Man :
About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapitheus were existing.
Dryopithecus : Were more ape-like, live in Asia, Africa and Europe. Walk
semierect, Hand & Skull were monkey like.
Ramapithecus : First man-like, walk straight on legs, not taller than 4 feet.
Australopithecines : 2 mya, lived in east african grassland, hunted with
stones, ate fruits, Teeth larger.
Homo habilis : 2 mya, brain capacity 650-800cc, did not eat meat, dentition
like humans.
Homo erectus : 1.5 mya, brain capacity 900cc, ate meat, walk erect.
Homo sapiens : 5 lakhs years ago., in Africa, and spread to all parts of world.
Neanderthal man : 40,000-1,00,000 years ago, brain capacity 1400cc,
broad forehead, lives in caves, use hides to protect their bodies.

Questions
VSA (1 Mark)
1. If abiotic origin of life is in progress on a planet other than earth, what should
be the conditions there?
2. Name the person who proposed that population tends to increase geometrically
while food production supply arithmetically.
3. Name the scientist who had also come to similar conclusion as that of Darwin
about natural selection as a mechanism of evolution. Which place did he visit
to come to conclusions ?
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 SA-I (2 Marks)
4. Explain Oparin-Haldane theory of chemical evolution of life.
5. How do Darwin and Hugode varies differ regarding mechenism of
evolution ?
6. How did Louis Pasteur disprove spontaneous generation theory ?
7. What are the two key concepts of Darwinian theory evolution ?

SA-II (3 Marks)
8. (i) State the Hardy-Weinberg principle.
(ii) When there is a disturbance in the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, what
would it result in?
(iii) According to this principle, what is the sum total of all allelic
frequencies ?
9. Classify the following as examples of homology and analogy-
(i) Hearts of ®sh and crocodile
(ii) Wings of butter¯y and birds
(iii) Eyes of Octopus and Mammals
(iv) Tubers of Potato and sweet potato
(v) Thorns of Bougainvillea and spines of Opuntia
(vi) Thorn of Bougainvillea and tendrils of cucurbits.
10. Stanley Miller and Harold Urey performed an experiment by recreating in
the laboratory the probable conditions of the atmosphere of the primitive
earth.
(i) What was the aim of the experiment ?
(ii) In what forms was the energy supplied for chemical reactions to
occur ?
(iii) For how long was the experiment run continuously? Name two products
formed.
11. ‘Industrial Melanism’ in peppered moth is an excellent example of ‘Natural
election’. Justify the statement.

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12. Fill up the bianks left in the table showing Era, period and organism.

Era Period Organism

Cenozoic a Modern man, Mammals, Birds, rise of monocot

b Teritiary Rise of ®rst Primate, angiosperm
Mesozoic c Gingko, Gnetales
d Jurassic Conifers, cycads, Reptiles
Paleozoic e Early reptiles (extinct)
f Silurian Psilophyton

13. (i) In which part of the world, Neanderthal man lived ?

(ii) What was his brain’s capacity ?
(iii) Mention the advancement which Neanderthal man showed over Homo
erectus.
14. Figures given below are of Darwin’s ®nches ?

(a) Mention the speci®c geographical area where these were found.
(b) Name and explain the phenomenon that has resulted in the evolution of
such diverse species in the region.
(c) How did Darwin visit the particular geographical area?
15. Give examples to show evolution by anthropogenic action.

LA (5 Marks)
16. Is evolution a process or the end result of a process, discuss. Describe various
factors that effect Hardy-Weingberg equilibrium.

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 Answers

VSA (I Mark)
1. Very high temperature, volcanic storms, Reducing atmosphere containing
CH4, NH3, H2 and water vapours.
2. Thomas Malthus.
3. Alfred Wallace, Malay Archipelago

SA - I (2 Marks)
4. The ®rst life form could have come from the pre-existing, non-living organic
molecules (like RNA, Proteins, etc.) and the formation of life was preceded
by chemical evolution.
5. Dawrin : Darvanian variation are small, gradual and directional Hugo de
Varies : Variation are sudden, randon and direction less.
6. Louis Pasteur showed that in pre-sterilized ¯asks, life did not come from
killed yeast while in another ¯ask open to air, new organisms arose from
killed yeast.
7. Branching descent and natural selection.

SA - II (3 Marks)
8. (i) The allele frequency in a population are stable and constant from
generation to generation.
(ii) Evolution. (iii) One.
9. (i) Homology (ii) Analogy
(iii) Analogy (iv) Analogy
(v) Analogy (vi) Homology
10. (i) To prove Oparin’s theory of origin of life.
(ii) Electric discharge using electrodes.
(iii) One week; Amino acids and Sugar.
11. Refer Page 131, NCERT Text book of class XII.
(a) Quaternary (b) Coenozoic (c) Cretaceous
(d) Mesozoic (e) Carboniferous (f) Paleozoic

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13. (i) Near Eastern and Central Asia
(ii) 1400 c.c.
(iii) More brain capacity, use of hides to cover body and burial of dead.
14. (a) Galapagos Island.
(b) Adaptive radiation—Refer page 133, NCERT book.
(c) Through sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle.
15. Excess use of herbicides pesticides etc. has resulted in selection of resistent
varieties in a much lesser time scale. Same is true for antibiotic or drug
resistant microbes.

LA (5 Marks)
16. Refer page 135, NCERT Text book, Biology—XII.
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