Microscopy) Microscope - Basics and Beyond

Microscope
Basics and Beyond

by Mortimer Abramowitz
Fellow, New York Microscopical Society
For Olympus America Inc.
Volume 1
MICROSCOPE
Basics and Beyond
REVISED EDITION 2003
i
By Mortimer Abramowitz
Fellow, New York Microscopical Society
Consultant, Technical Information, Olympus America Inc.
For Olympus America Inc.

Volume 1, Revised 2003, Basics and Beyond Series
Acknowledgements
Dedicated to Kiichi Hirata and George Steares for their intelligent and sensitive
leadership of the Scientific Equipment Group of Olympus America.
With special thanks to William Fester for invaluable help with editing and layout,
and to Michael Davidson and Kevin Reid of Florida State University for generous
layout and drawing of diagrams from our websites:
Molecular Expressions (http://www.microscopy.fsu.edu)
Olympus Microscopy Resource Center (http://olympusmicro.com)
Published by Olympus America Inc., Scientific Equipment Division,

Two Corporate Center Drive, Melville, NY 11747-3157.
631-844-5000, Fax: 631-844-5112
© 2003
All photos by the author.
Cover Photo: Stained Intestine Thin Section
Back Cover: Mouth Parts of the Blowfly
ii
Introduction 1
Table of
Contents The Human Eye 3
“Simple” Microscope or Magnifier 4
Compound Microscope - Basic Principles 5
Overview 7
Optical Components 8
Mechanical-Electrical Components 10
Illumination 11
Light 12
Significant Details 15
The Microscope Stand 16
Objectives, Eyepieces, Condensers 16
Light and Lens Aberration 22
Chromatic Aberration 23
Spherical Aberration 23
Lens Action in Image Formation 24
Koehler Illumination - Principles 27
Conjugate Planes 29
Setting up Koehler Illumination 30
Numerical Aperture and Resolution 31
Depth of Field 36
Appendices: 37
1. Focusing the Microscope 37
2. Using the Oil Immersion Objective 37
3. Finite Tube Length Microscope 38
4. Useful Formulae 40
5. Useful Numbers 41
6. Short Bibliography 42
iii
iv
An Introduction to the
PART
ONE Compound Microscope
Photo: Clematis Stem

Thin Section PAGE 1 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
PAGE 2 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
What is a microscope? How does it work?
The Human Eye
A microscope is an instrument designed to make fine details visible. The
microscope must accomplish three tasks: produce a magnified image of the
specimen (magnification), separate the details in the image (resolution), and
render the details visible to the eye, camera, or other imaging device (contrast).
It is the purpose of this basics booklet to explain how the microscope achieves
these tasks and to explain the components and their use in simple, non-
technical language.
The Human Eye
Since so many microscope users rely upon direct observation, it is important to

understand the relationship between the microscope and the eye. Our eyes are
capable of distinguishing color in the visible portion of the spectrum: from violet
to blue to green to yellow to orange to red; the eye cannot perceive ultra-violet or
infra-red rays. The eye also is able to sense differences in brightness or
intensity ranging from black to white and all the grays in-between. Thus for an
image to be seen by the eye, the image must be presented to the eye in colors
of the visible spectrum and/or varying degrees of light intensity.
Fig 1. Spectrum of
of “white” light.
(Diagrammatic)
The eye receptors of the retina for sensing color are the cone cells; the cells for
distinguishing levels of brightness, not in color, are the rod cells. These cells
are located on the retina at the back of the inside of the eye. The front of the eye,
including the iris, the curved cornea, and the lens are respectively the mecha-
nisms for admitting light and focusing it on the retina. From there, the “mes-
sage” is sent to the brain via the optic nerve.
Fig 2. Anatomy of the

Human Eye.
Fig 3. Microscopic
Anatomy of the
Retina.

For an image to be seen clearly, it must be spread on the retina at a sufficient
visual angle. Unless the light falls on non-adjacent rows of retinal cells (a
function of magnification and the spreading of the image), we are unable to
distinguish closely-lying details as being separate (resolution). Further, there
must be sufficient contrast between adjacent details and/or the background to
render the magnified, resolved image visible.
Fig 4. Accommodation
of the human Eye.
a. Object far away from
the eye. b. Object very
close to the eye.
“SIMPLE” MICROSCOPE
Because of the limited ability of the eye’s lens to change its shape, objects
brought very close to the eye cannot have their images brought to focus on the
retina. The accepted minimal conventional viewing distance is 10 inches or
250 millimeters (25 centimeters).
More than five hundred years ago, simple glass magnifiers were developed.
These were convex lenses (thicker in the center than the periphery). The
specimen or object could be focused by use of the magnifier placed between
the object and the eye. These “simple microscopes”, along with the cornea and
eye lens, could spread the image on the retina by magnification through
increasing the visual angle on the retina.
Fig 5. Simple
magnifier. A simple
magnifier uses a single
lens system to enlarge
the object in one step.
Fig 6. von
Leeuwenhoek
microscope.
(circa late 1600s)

The “simple microscope” or magnifying glass reached its highest state of
perfection, in the 1600’s, in the work of Anton von Leeuwenhoek who was able
to see single-celled animals (“animalcules”) and even some larger bacteria.
The image produced by such a magnifier, held close to the observer’s eye,
appears as if it were on the same side of the lens as the object itself. Such an
image, seen as if it were ten inches from the eye, is known as a virtual image
and cannot be captured on film. These magnifiers had severe limitations in
specimen positioning, illumination, lens aberrations, and construction.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Around the beginning of the 1600’s, through work attributed to the Janssen
brothers in the Netherlands and Galileo in Italy, the compound microscope was
developed. In its basic form, it consisted of two convex lenses aligned in series:
an object glass (objective) closer to the object or specimen, and an eyepiece
(ocular) closer to the observer’s eye—with means of adjusting the position of
the specimen and the microscope lenses. The compound microscope
achieves a two-stage magnification. The objective projects a magnified image
into the body tube of the microscope and the eyepiece further magnifies the
image projected by the objective (more of how this is done later). For example,
the total visual magnification using a 10X objective and a 15X eyepiece is 150X.
Fig 7. Compound
magnifier. In the
compound
microscope, the
intermediate image
formed by the
objective and tube
lens is enlarged by
the eyepiece.
(diagrammatic)
When you look into a microscope, you are not looking at the specimen, you are
looking at an IMAGE of the specimen. The image is “floating” in space about 10
millimeters below the top of the observation tube (at the level of the fixed
diaphragm of the eyepiece) where the eyepiece is inserted. The image you
observe is not tangible; it cannot be grasped. It is a “map” or representation of
the specimen in various colors and/or shades of gray from black to white. The
expectation is that the image will be an accurate representation of the speci-
men, accurate as to detail, shape and color/intensity. The implications are that it
may well be possible (and is) to produce (or even enhance) highly accurate
images.

Conversely, it may be (and often is) all too easy to degrade an image through
improper technique or poor equipment.
Essentially, this is how a microscope functions. Light from a lamp passes

through a substage condenser and then through a transparent specimen
placed over an opening in the stage. Light is then gathered by the objective.
The objective, together with the built-in tube lens (more of this later), focuses
the image of the specimen at the level of the fixed diaphragm of the eyepiece.
The image is then seen by the observer as if it were at a distance of approxi-
mately 10 inches (250 millimeters) from the eye.
At the lowest part of the observation tube in infinity-corrected systems for

Olympus equipment, there is a tube lens which gathers the parallel beams of
light emerging from the objective and focuses the resulting image at the plane
of the fixed diaphragm of the eyepiece. The eye lens of the eyepiece, together
with the curved cornea and lens of the eye, focuses the image on the retina of
the observer’s eye.
Fig 8. Infinity-corrected
objective system.
(diagrammatic)
Some microscopes, especially those used in tissue culture, are inverted rather
than upright. Such microscopes have a fixed stage. Underneath the stage
opening, there is a moveable nosepiece holding the objectives. The focusing
knobs move the nosepiece closer or further from the specimen. Above the
stage and specimen, there is a moveable condenser and a light source. The
principles of functioning and the setting up of appropriate illumination are
essentially the same as those for the upright microscope.
First an overview of the main parts of the microscope. Later, an elaboration of

the details.

Optical Components
The most important optical component of the microscope is the OBJECTIVE.
1. Its basic function is to gather the light passing through the specimen
and then to project an accurate, real, inverted IMAGE of the specimen
up into the body of the microscope.
2. Other related functions of the objective are to house special devices

such as an iris for darkfield microscopy, a correction collar for counter-
acting spherical aberration (more of this later), or a phase plate for
phase contrast microscopy.
3. The objective must have the capacity to reconstitute the various points
of the specimen into the various corresponding points in the image,
sometimes called the “anti-points”.
4. The objective must be constructed so that it will be focused close

enough to the specimen so that it will project a magnified, real image
up into the microscope.
5. The higher power objectives should have a retractable front lens

housing to protect the front lens where the objective requires focusing
very close to the specimen.
6. To the extent possible, corrections for lens errors (aberrations) should

be made within the objective itself.
Fig 9. The image of a

point, formed by a
lens, is never a point,
but a circular disk (Airy
disk) of definite
diameter, known as the
anti-point.
A second important optical component is the EYEPIECE.
1. Its basic function is to “look at” the focused, magnified real image
projected by the objective (and tube lens in infinity-corrected systems)
and magnify that image a second time as a virtual image seen as if 10
inches from the eye.
2. In recording, a Photoeyepiece “picks up” the real image projected by

the objective a second time as a real image able to be captured by a
camera.
3. The eyepiece houses a fixed diaphragm. It is at the plane of that fixed

diaphragm that the image projected by the objective will be “seen”.
4. On the shelf of the fixed diaphragm, the eyepiece can be fitted with
scales or markers or pointers or crosshairs that will be in simulta-
neous focus with the focused image.

The third important optical component is the SUBSTAGE CONDENSER.
1. Its basic function is to gather the light coming from the light source and
to concentrate that light in a collection of parallel beams (from every
azimuth) onto the specimen.
2. The light gathered by the condenser comes to a focus at the back focal
plane of the objective (later, the explanation of this term).
3. In appropriately set up illumination, it is arranged that the image of the

light source, comes to focus at the level of the built-in variable aperture
diaphragm of the substage condenser (the front focal plane of the
condenser).
4. Correction for lens errors are incorporated in the finest condensers, an

important feature for research and photography.
5. Where desired, the condenser can be designed to house special

accessories for phase contrast or differential interference or darkfield
microscopy.
Other optical components:
1. The base of the microscope contains a COLLECTOR LENS. This lens

is placed in front of the light source. Its function is to project an image
of the light source onto the plane of the condenser’s aperture dia-
phragm. In some instruments a diffusion or frosted filter is placed just
after the collector lens (side closer to the specimen) in order to provide
more even illumination.
2. Also in the base of the microscope, under the condenser, is a FIRST

SURFACE MIRROR (silvered on its front surface only). Its function is to
reflect the light coming from the lamp up into the substage condenser.
Just before that mirror (closer to the lampside) is another variable
diaphragm known as the field diaphragm.
3. At the lowest part of the observation tubes (binocular or trinocular)

there is incorporated a TUBE LENS. Its function is to gather the
parallel rays of light projected by the objective (in infinity-corrected
systems) and bring those rays to focus at the plane of the fixed
diaphragm of the eyepiece. In the instruments of some manufacturers,
the tube lens is built into the body of the microscope itself.
Bear in mind for later elaboration the important diaphragms: the variable
aperture iris diaphragm in the condenser, the variable field diaphragm in the
base of the microscope and the fixed diaphragm in the eyepiece.

Mechanical/Electrical Components
The STAND of the microscope houses the mechanical/electrical parts of the

microscope. It provides a sturdy, vibration-resistant base for the various
attachments.
1. The BASE of the Olympus microscopes is Y-shaped for great stability. It

houses the electrical components for operating and controlling the
intensity of the lamp. The lamp may be placed, depending on the
instrument, at the lower rear of the stand or directly under the con-
denser fitting. The base also houses the variable field diaphragm. The
base may also have built in filters and a special circuit for illumination
intensity for photomicrography.
2. Built into the stand is a fitting to receive the microscope STAGE. The
stage has an opening for passing the light. The specimen is placed on
top of the stage and held in place by a specimen holder. Attached to the
stage are concentric X-Y control knobs which move the specimen
forward /back or left/right.
3. On the lower right and left side of the stand are the concentric COARSE
and FINE FOCUSING KNOBS. These raise or lower the stage in larger
/ smaller increments to bring the specimen into focus.
4. Under the stage there is a built-in ring or a U-shaped CONDENSER

HOLDER. This holder receives any one of several types of condenser.
The holder has a tightening screw to hold the condenser in place and
may have 2 small knobs (at 7 o’clock and 5 o’clock positions) for
centering the condenser to the optical axis of the microscope in
Koehler Illumination (explained later). Adjacent to the condenser holder
there are either one or two knobs for raising or lowering the condenser.
5. Above the stage, the stand has a NOSEPIECE (may be fixed or

removable) for holding the objectives of various magnifications. The
rotation of the nosepiece can bring any one of the attached objectives
into the light path (optical axis). The nosepiece may also have a slot for
special attachments.
6. Removable OBSERVATION TUBES, either binocular or trinocular, are

attached to the stand above the nosepiece. The binocular is used for
viewing and the trinocular is used for viewing and /or photography. The
observation tubes are usually set at approximately a 30 degree angle
for comfortable viewing and may be tiltable or telescoping push-pull for
greater flexibility. The bottom of the observation tube holds a special
lens called the TUBE LENS. The tube lens has the function of gather-
ing the parallel beams projected by the objective and bringing the
image to focus at the level of the eyepiece diaphragm (intermediate
image plane). On the instruments of some manufacturers (not
Olympus) the tube lens may complete optical corrections not made in
their objectives.

The microscope stand has the following functions:
To Sum up:
1. To insure stability and rigidity of the microscope.
2. To provide the frame for holding the objectives and eyepieces at

opposite ends of the stand.
3. To make it possible, by means of adjustment knobs, to bring the

specimen into focus.
4. To hold the specimen on a flat surface stage and to be able to move

the specimen on that surface.
5. To carry the moveable substage condenser which receives the light

deflected by the built-in mirror and transmits that light up through the
specimen.
6. To hold the lamp and the electrical controls to operate the lamp and
control its brightness.
The key characteristics of modern microscopes are their MODULARITY and

their ERGONOMICS.
Various components are readily interchangeable, e.g. condensers, objectives,

eyepieces, stages, lamps, observation tubes.
The stage controls are concentric; the focusing knobs are concentric and
placed close to the table top for ready access for the user without need to raise
arms or hands. The front base is narrow to allow easy reach to accessories on
the tabletop. The angle of viewing enables long periods of observation without
undue tiring. Observation tubes may be tiltable for various angles of view and
push-pull for greater comfort. The nosepiece is designed so that, when the
desired objective is in the light path, the other objectives are not in the way of
the user’s fingers.
Fig 10. Microscope

illuminator. The
essential elements of
the illuminator are the
lamp, a collector lens,
and the field
diaphragm. The
diaphragm is
adjustable.
Illumination
Since specimens rarely generate their own light, illumination is usually fur-
nished by means of a built-in lamp. The light beams pass through the sub-
stage condenser after deflection by a built-in mirror. The light transmitted by the
condenser then passes through the specimen on the stage, into the objective,
thus illuminating the specimen. If the lamp is of high intensity (tungsten-
halogen), its brightness is controlled by a built-in or separate transformer.

Light
Light travels in straight lines (this interpretation is sometimes called geometric
optics). Its path can be deflected or reflected by means of mirrors or right angle
prisms. Light can be “bent” or refracted by means of glass lenses that are
thicker or thinner at their center or their periphery.
Light travels at different speeds in air and in glass (faster in air which is usually
taken as the standard of 1). Light is slowed and “bent” or refracted when it
passes through air and enters a convex lens. Thus light is refracted when it
enters a convex lens from air; refracted when it leaves the convex lens and
reenters air; refracted when it passes from air through oil; or from oil through
air. Oil has a refractive index of 1.515 as does common glass. The refractive
index of a vacuum is 1 and air has a refractive index of 1.00+.
Fig 11. a. Snell’s Law.
Refraction of a light ray
at a glass surface.
b. A light ray is laterally
“bent” by a sheet of
glass unless it passes
perpendicularly
through it.
Refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum compared to the
speed of light in a medium. Thus, except for light traveling in a vacuum, the
refractive index is always greater than 1.
When light at an angle, other than 90°, passes from a less dense medium (e.g.
air) into a more dense medium (e.g. glass), the rays are “bent” toward the
perpendicular. When light at an angle, other than 90°, passes from a more
dense medium (e.g. glass), into a less dense medium (e.g. air), the rays are
“bent” away from the perpendicular. When light passes from glass into air, if the
angle is too great, (critical angle), the rays do not emerge but are totally inter-
nally reflected. When light passes from glass (refractive index 1.515) into
immersion oil (refractive index also 1.515), the rays are not refracted since the
refractive indices are identical.
Fig 12. Reflection at

the critical angle.

Another explanation of the nature of light is that it is made up of very small
waves (wave optics) vibrating at right angles to the direction of the light’s travel
path. Light is composed of visible and invisible waves. The frequencies
(number of vibrations per second) of visible light are represented by the familiar
spectrum or rainbow, from violet to red. The violet end of the spectrum has
higher frequencies and shorter wave lengths; the red end of the spectrum has
lower frequencies and longer wavelengths.
Fig 13. Variation of

wavelength with light
velocity.
Invisible to the eye, parts of the spectrum that may be of use in microscopy are
the ultra-violet (shorter wavelengths than violet) and infra-red (longer wave-
lengths than red).
It will be seen later in this booklet how the microscope uses the fundamentals
of illumination and light in making possible excellent image rendition of the
observed specimen.
REMEMBER: It is the enlarged IMAGE of the specimen, NOT the specimen itself
that is seen or recorded.

The Significant Details
PART
TWO
Photo: Epidermis Tissue

Thin Section PAGE 15 / THE SIGNIFICANT DETAILS
Just a few additional details on the microscope stand:
The Microscope
Stand The sensitivity of the fine adjustment knob is calculated by the size of the
interval of motion as the knob is turned clockwise or counter-clockwise. In basic
school instruments, this interval is usually .002mm or 2 microns; on the better
clinical and research instruments, the sensitivity of the fine adjustment is .001
mm or 1 micron or better.
The microscope stage may be rectangular or circular. It is more useful if the

stage can be rotated either for viewing or image capture or for special contrast
techniques.
The microscope observation tubes may be binocular, trinocular, or monocular.

For comfortable viewing, binocular tubes produce less eyestrain. For photomi-
crography or video imaging, a trinocular (one of its three tubes is upright for
transmission of light to an imaging device) offers the greatest convenience,
since a simple movement of a lever redirects the light or a portion of the light to
the camera. Thus, in a trinocular microscope, it is possible to simultaneously
view the specimen and to record the image. In modern microscopes, the
observation tubes are removable and interchangeable.
Present day binocular observation tubes are constructed at an angle (about

30°) for viewing ease. Some variations of these tubes may be tiltable (from 0° to
30°) and even ergonomically-telescoping push-pull closer or further from the
viewer. The horizontal distance between the eyepiece sleeves is adjustable to fit
the interpupillary distance of the user’s eyes. There also may be a rotatable,
knurled ring on one of the sleeves to allow adjustment for individual eye acuity.
(See appendix for instructions on how to focus a microscope).
Modern microscopes have ergonomically low-positioned coarse and fine

adjustment knobs; these are concentrically positioned. X-Y stage controls are
available for either right-handed or left-handed users.
Objectives
Objectives,
Objectives are the most important components of the microscope. Modern
Eyepieces, objectives, made up of many glass elements, have reached a high state of
Condensers quality and performance. The extent of corrections for lens errors (aberrations)
and flatness of the image field determines the usefulness and cost of the
objective.
The least expensive objectives are the achromatic objectives. These are
corrected chromatically to bring red and blue light to a common focus. Further,
achromats are corrected for spherical aberration (see later explanation) for the
color green. Thus, achromats yield their best results with light passed through
a green filter and, when employed for black/white imaging. If an objective is not
otherwise labeled, you can assume it is an achromat.
PAGE 16 / THE SIGNIFICANT DETAILS

Fig 14. Lens
complexity of common
objectives as a
function of optical
correction factors:
achomat, fluorite, and
apochromat.
The next higher level of correction and cost is found in objectives called fluorites
or semi-apochromats. These objectives are also corrected chromatically for red
and blue light, usually also closer to the green focus. The fluorites are corrected
spherically for two colors, blue and green. Hence fluorite objectives (their lens
elements traditionally contain natural or synthetic fluorite) are better suited than
achromats for color photomicrography or recording in white light.
The highest level of corrections (and expense) is found in apochromatic

objectives. These objectives are corrected chromatically for four colors, deep
blue, blue, green, and red; they are spherically corrected for two or three colors:
deep blue, blue and green. Apochromats are the best objectives for color
recording and viewing. Because of their high level of correction, such objectives
have, for a given magnification, higher numerical apertures (see later explana-
tion of this term) than do achromats or fluorites.
Fig 15. Apochromat

objective lens
complexity at
increasing
magnification.

All three types of objectives project images that are curved rather than flat. To
overcome this inherent condition, lens designers have produced objectives
which yield flat images across the field of view. Such objectives are called plan-
achromats, plan-fluorites, or plan-apochromats and are labeled plan on the
objective itself. The plan correction is invaluable for image recording.
Fig 16. Correction of

objectives for curvature
of field. a. Lens
arrangement in
uncorrected and
corrected objectives.
b. Curvature of field
ray-trace diagram.
Each objective has inscribed on it the magnification (e.g. 10X, 20X, etc.); the
insignia “∞” for infinity-correction; the thickness of the cover glass, covering the
specimen, which was assumed by the lens designer (usually 0.17 mm). Also
the level of correction if it is a fluorite or an apochromat. If the objective is
designed to operate in a drop of oil between its front lens and the specimen, it
will be labeled OIL or HI (homogeneous immersion) or OEL. If these latter
labels are not on the objective, it is a so-called “dry objective” meant to operate
with air between its front lens and the specimen.
Objectives also always have the inscription for numerical aperture, N.A. (see
later explanation of this term). The numerical aperture may vary from 0.04 for
low power objectives to 1.4 for high power oil plan-apochromats.
Fig 17. Standard

objective
nomenclature.
Objectives are also inscribed with a color ring to enable the user to easily
identify the magnification-red for 4X, yellow for 10X, green for 20X, blue for 40X
or 60X, white for 100X.

Immersion color code a Immersion type
Black Oil
Orange Glycerol
White Water
Red Special
Magnification color code b Magnification

Black 1x, 1.25x
Brown 2x, 2.5x
Red 4x, 5x
Yellow 10x
Green 16x, 20x
Turquoise blue 25x, 32x
Light blue 40x, 50x
Cobalt (dark) blue 60x, 63x
White (cream) 100x
a Narrow colored ring located near the specimen of objective.

b Narrow band located closer to the mounting thread than the immersion
code.
Some objectives, usually the higher power “dry” objectives of 40-60X magnifica-
tion are fitted with a correction collar Since these objectives are particularly
susceptible to incorrect thickness of the cover glass covering the specimen, the
rotation of the correction collar can compensate for cover glasses thicker or
thinner than 0.17mm.
Fig 18. Objective

correction collar to
eliminate or reduce
spherical aberration.
Fig 19. a. 4mm

objective of 0.95 N.A.
with correction collar
marked in terms of
coverslip thickness.
b. Action of a
correction collar
(diagrammatic).

When a manufacturer’s set of similar objectives, e.g. all achromatic objectives
of various lengths and magnifications, are mounted on the nosepiece, they are
usually designed, along with the tube lens, to project the image to approxi-
mately the same plane, the fixed diaphragm of the eyepiece. Thus changing
objectives, by rotating the nosepiece, requires only minimal use of the fine
adjustment knob for refocusing. Such a set of objectives is described as being
parfocal-a useful convenience and safety feature. Sets of objectives are also
designed to be parcentric, that is, a feature of the specimen which is centered
in the field of view remains centered when the nosepiece is rotated to change
objectives.
Fig 20. Parfocalizing

distance.
For Olympus infinity-corrected objectives, corrections for chromatic aberration

and for spherical aberration are made in the objectives themselves.
Eyepieces
Best results require that objectives be used in combination with eyepieces that
are appropriate to the correction and type of objective. There are two main kinds
of eyepieces: Ramsden and Huygenian.
In the Ramsden type (sometimes referred to as positive eyepieces) the lenses,

often several elements cemented together, are situated above the fixed dia-
phragm or opening of the eyepiece. It is usually easy to unscrew the lower
portion of the eyepiece for dropping a reticle (glass discs with various rulings or
markings) or pointer on the shelf of the fixed diaphragm. These devices will be
in focus simultaneously with the focused image. The eyepieces are currently
well-corrected to function optimally with the infinity-corrected objectives.
Fig 21. a. Ramsden

Eyepiece, b. Huygenian
Eyepiece. Both illustrated
in longi- section.

In Huygenian (called negative eyepieces), there are two lenses, the upper or
eye lens and the lower or field lens. In their simplest form both lenses are
plano-convex, with convex side facing the specimen. Approximately midway
between these lenses is a fixed circular opening or diaphragm which, by its
size, defines the circular field of view that is observed when looking into the
microscope. These will be found on some older microscopes and often
completed corrections which were not made in some of the former series of
objectives.
Inscribed on the eyepiece are its magnification and its field number, which is
the diameter in millimeters of the diaphragm opening of the eyepiece. Depend-
ing on the eyepiece, the diaphragm opening may vary from as low as 18 mm to
26.5 mm.
Condensers
The substage condenser is fitted below the stage of the microscope, between
the illumination lamp and the specimen. Condensers are manufactured
according to different levels of correction needed.
The simplest and least well-corrected condenser is the Abbe condenser,

numerical aperture up to 1.25. While the Abbe condenser is capable of passing
bright light, it is not well-corrected chromatically or spherically. As a result, the
Abbe is most suitable for routine observation with objectives of modest numeri-
cal aperture and correction.
Fig 22. a. Abbe and

aplanatic-achromatic
condenser systems.
b. Cones of light
transmitted.
The best level of correction in condensers is found in the aplanatic-achromatic

condenser. Such a condenser is well-corrected for chromatic aberration and
spherical aberration. It is the condenser of choice for use in color observation
and recording in white light.

The engraving on the condenser includes its numerical aperture and its
correction, if aplanat-achromat. Condensers with a numerical aperture above
1.0 perform best when a drop of oil is applied to their upper lens and is brought
into contact with the underside of the slide.
Fig 23. Cone of

illumination. The
substage condenser
must be focused and
the diaphragm
adjusted so that the
cone of illumination
completely fills the
aperture of the
microscope objective.
The condenser aperture and the proper focusing of the condenser are of critical
importance in realizing the full potential of the objective in use. Likewise, the
appropriate use of the adjustable aperture iris diaphragm (incorporated in the
condenser or just below it) is most important in securing excellent illumination
and contrast. The opening and closing of the aperture iris diaphragm controls
the angle of the illuminating rays which pass through the condenser, through
the specimen and into the objective.
For low power objectives (4X or below), it may be necessary to unscrew the top
lens of the condenser or to use a condenser with a flip-top upper lens. Special
low power condensers are also available. Specialty condensers are available
for darkfield microscopy, for phase contrast, polarized light, and for interference
microscopy.
The height of the condenser is regulated by one or a pair of condenser knobs

which raise or lower the condenser. This adjustment is described later in the
section entitled Koehler illumination.
Light
Knowledge of the behavior of light and the effects resulting when light passes
from air through a glass convex lens and out into air again is fundamental to the
understanding of image formation. When light passes from air into a convex
lens, the speed of light is slowed. The various colors, differing in wave length,
are slowed at different rates (dispersion). This bending (refraction) effect differs
for different colors. Those rays which strike the central area of the lens at a
perpendicular emerge unrefracted. Light passing through the other parts of the
convex lens are refracted or “bent”. The “blue rays” are bent more than the
“green rays”, more than the “red rays.”
When white light passes through convex lenses of objectives, eyepieces, or

condensers, two main kinds of aberrations may occur; chromatic aberration
and/or spherical aberration. These aberrations can be corrected in the design
of the lenses.

a) CHROMATIC ABERRATION
The various color frequencies (wave lengths) of white light pass

through an uncorrected convex lens and, instead of being brought to a
common focus, come to different foci. The lens designer strives, by
combining various kinds of glass and lens elements of different
Fig 24. a. Chromatic
shapes, to bring the main colors of red, green, and blue to a common
aberration of white
focus.
light. Failure of a
simple lens to bring
light of different
wavelengths to a
common focus. b.
Achromatic lens.
Green is brought to the
shortest focus. The
color error is much
reduced. c. Fluorite
lens. The color error is
similar to (b) but still
further reduced. d.
Apochromatic lens. For
all practical purposes
chromatic aberration
may be considered
eliminated. b) SPHERICAL ABERRATION
Light passing through an uncorrected convex lens will be brought to

different foci depending upon whether the light passes through nearer
the center of the lens or closer to the periphery. Lens designers correct
this kind of zonal aberration by using lens elements of different shapes
to bring the more central and more peripheral rays to common focus.
Fig 25. Spherical

aberration. Failure of
the lens system to
image central and
peripheral rays at the
same focal point arises
with spherical lenses.
Optical correction is
possible, but care
must be taken not to
introduce additional
spherical aberration
when setting up the
microscope.
In image formation, light from all the illuminated points of the speci-
men passes through the objective which then, with the aid of the tube
lens, reconstitutes the rays into an image. The finer and more accurate
this reconstitution, the clearer the image will be.

To understand how the microscope’s lenses function, you should recall some
of the basic principles of lens action in image formation:
CASE 1
Light from an object that is very far away from the front of a convex lens (we’ll
assume our “object” is a self-lighted arrow) will be brought to a focus at a fixed
point behind the lens. This is known as the FOCAL POINT of the lens. We are
all familiar with this idea of a “burning glass” which can focus the essentially
parallel rays from the sun to burn a hole in a piece of paper. The vertical plane
in which the focal point lies is the FOCAL PLANE. The distance from the center
of the idealized simple convex lens to the focal plane is known as the FOCAL
DISTANCE. (For an idealized thin convex lens, this distance is the same in front
of or behind the lens.) The IMAGE of our arrow now appears at the focal plane.
The IMAGE is smaller than the object (arrow); it is inverted; it is a real image
capable of being captured on film or another imaging device, e.g. a CCD
camera. This is the case for the camera used for ordinary scenic photography.
Fig 26. Object at

infinity. Image reduced
in size.
CASE 2
The object is now moved closer to the front of the lens but is still more than two
focal lengths in front of the lens. Now, the image is found further behind the
lens. It is larger than in case 1 but is still smaller than the object. The image is
inverted, and is a real image. This is the case for ordinary portrait photography.
Fig 27. Object at a

distance more than
twice the focal length.
Image reduced in size.
CASE 3
The object is brought to twice the focal distance in front of the lens. The image
is now two focal lengths behind the lens. It is the same size as the object; it is
real and inverted. This is the case for so-called 1 to 1 photography.
Fig 28. Object at twice

the focal length.
Image at full size.

CASE 4
The object is situated between one and two focal lengths in front of the lens.
Now the image is still further away from the back of the lens. This time, the
image is magnified and is larger than the object; it is still inverted and it is real.
Case 4 describes the functioning of all finite tube length objectives used in
microscopy. Such finite tube length (see appendix) objectives project a real,
inverted, magnified image into the body tube of the microscope, designed to
come to focus at the plane of the fixed diaphragm in the eyepiece.
Fig 29. Object closer

than twice the focal
length. Magnified
image.
CASE 5
The object is situated at the front focal plane of the convex lens. In this case, the
rays of light emerge from the lens in parallel. When brought to focus by the eye,
the image, on the SAME side of the lens as the object, appears upright. It is a
virtual image and appears as if it were 10 inches from the eye, similar to the
functioning of a simple magnifying glass; the magnification depends on the
curvature of the lens. This case describes the functioning of the observation
eyepiece of the microscope. The “object” looked at by the eyepiece is the
magnified, inverted, real image projected by the objective. When the human eye
is placed above the eyepiece, the lens and cornea of the eye “look” at this
secondarily magnified virtual image and see this virtual image as if it were 10
inches from the eye, near the base of the microscope.
Fig 30. Object distance

equal to the focal
length. Light focused
to infinity.
This case also describes the functioning of the now widely-used infinity-
corrected objectives. For such objectives, the object or specimen is positioned
at exactly the front focal plane of the objective. Light from such a lens emerges
in parallel rays in every direction. In order to bring such rays to focus, the
microscope body or the binocular observation head (as in the new Olympus
UIS optics) must incorporate a TUBE LENS in the light path, between the
objective and the eyepiece, designed to bring the image formed by the objective
to focus at the plane of the fixed diaphragm of the eyepiece. The magnification
of an infinity-corrected objective equals the focal length of the tube lens (for
Olympus equipment this is 180mm; other manufacturers use other focal
lengths) divided by the focal length of the objective lens in use. For example, a
10X infinity-corrected objective, in the Olympus series, would have a focal
length of 18mm (180/10).

Fig 31. Infinity space.
Light in parallel beams entering a convex lens will emerge focused at the back
Basic Principles focal plane of the lens.
Light focused at the front focal plane of a convex lens will emerge from the lens
in parallel beams.
ILLUMINATION
All too frequently, sophisticated and well-equipped microscopes fail to yield
excellent images because of incorrect use of the light source and the substage
equipment. Illumination of the specimen should be bright, glare-free and evenly
dispersed in the field of view. Since modern microscopes achieve such
excellence by use of Koehler illumination (named after its discoverer, August
Koehler), this description will deal with the principles and steps in achieving
Koehler illumination.
There are several physical-mechanical requirements. The substage condenser

must be capable of being focused up and down, preferably by knobs operating
on a rack and pinion. The substage condenser must be equipped with a
variable aperture iris diaphragm that can be opened or closed by a lever or
knurled ring. The microscope base must be fitted with a collector lens and must
contain a variable field diaphragm positioned closer to the in-base first surface
mirror. The lamp itself should either be prefocused or centerable.

Fig 32. Image-forming
ray paths are traced
from two ends of the
lamp filament.
Conjugate foci are the
field diaphragm,
specimen plane,
intermediate image
plane (entrance pupil
of the eyepiece), the
human eye or with
camera in place, the
film plane.
To repeat, there are two important variable diaphragms: the aperture iris
diaphragm of the condenser and the variable field diaphragm in the base. The
aperture iris of the condenser controls the angular aperture of the cone of light
traversing the condenser toward the specimen. The field diaphragm controls
the area of the circle of light illuminating the specimen.
KOEHLER ILLUMINATION
With the exception of fluorescence microscopy, the specimen being observed
does not give off its own light; it must be illuminated. In the early days of
microscopy, the source of illumination was usually the daylight sky, an ex-
tended, structureless source of illumination. More practically, microscopists
sought artificial sources of illumination, e.g. gas lamps, oil lamps, electric
lamps of various kinds. These sources were usually focused onto the already-
focused specimen by means of the substage condenser. This kind of illumina-
tion, originally called critical illumination, frequently suffered from unevenness
because of the limited size of the light source or because the image of the light
source was obtrusively superimposed on the image of the specimen.
In the early 1900’s, August Koehler and others developed a procedure for
providing bright, even illumination superbly suited for both microscopy and
photomicrography. Koehler illumination is the method of choice in all modern
microscopy and photomicrography and imaging for transmitted as well as
reflected light techniques. The rationale for Koehler illumination is elegant but
simple. A collector lens is placed in front of the light source and is designed to
project an enlarged image of the light source coming to focus at the level of the
variable aperture diaphragm of the substage condenser.

Since the light source is focused at the front focal plane of the condenser
(approximate position of the variable condenser aperture diaphragm), the light
emerging from the condenser travels through the specimen in parallel rays
(see Case 5 above) from every azimuth. Since the light source is not focused at
the plane of the specimen, the light at the specimen plane is essentially
grainless and extended. The opening and closing of the aperture diaphragm
controls THE ANGLE OF THE LIGHT CONE reaching the specimen. The
parallel rays are brought to focus at the back focal plane of the objective (see
Case 1); here the image of the variable aperture diaphragm and the image of
the light source will be seen in focus.
A second variable diaphragm, called the field diaphragm, is placed in front of

the collector lens, most often in the base or so-called light port of the micro-
scope. Its function is to control the DIAMETER (not angle) of the light bundle
passing through the specimen.
A third diaphragm is the fixed diaphragm within the eyepiece. The plane of this
diaphragm is known as the intermediate image plane. It is at this plane that the
image projected by the objective and tube lens comes to focus.
The light source itself should be precentered or centerable to the optical axis of
the microscope. In practice, a frosted or diffusing filter is usually placed in front
of the collector lens, but prior to the field diaphragm, to further ensure the
evenness of the light.
It is the proper setting and manipulation of the two variable diaphragms,

aperture and field, which are the keys to Koehler illumination—bright, even
illumination yielding the best compromise between resolution and contrast.

Conjugate Planes in Koehler Illumination
It is advantageous to be able to distinguish between the successive planes in

the illuminating path and in the image path in Koehler illumination. Such related
planes are known as conjugate planes. By definition, in a given set of conjugate
planes, what is in focus for one of the conjugate planes will also be in focus at
the other conjugate planes of that set.
Fig 33. Conjugate

planes and light ray
paths in the compound
microscope.
Conjugate planes in the ILLUMINATION path:
1. The lamp filament, burner arc, or the fiber bundle of a laser.
2. The variable condenser aperture diaphragm usually located at the

front focal plane of the substage condenser.
3. The back focal plane of the objective.
4. The eyepoint (exit pupil of the microscope or so-called Ramsden disk)

of the eyepiece, usually located less than a half-inch above the top
lens of the eyepiece. This is where you place the front of your eye.

Conjugate planes in the IMAGE path:
1. The variable field diaphragm (usually in the base of the microscope).
2. The focused specimen on the microscope stage.
3. The intermediate image plane—located at the level of the fixed

diaphragm of the eyepiece.
4. The retina of your eye or the film plane of an attached camera or the
sensor of an imaging device, e.g. a CCD.
Setting Up Koehler illumination:
1. After switching on the lamp of the microscope, open up fully both the
field diaphragm (in the light port of the microscope) and the aperture
diaphragm (usually built into the substage condenser).
2. Rotate the nosepiece to bring the 10X objective into the light path.
Place the specimen on the microscope stage and focus the specimen
using the coarse and fine focusing knobs.
3. Close down the field diaphragm most of the way. Now raise the
substage condenser (using the condenser focusing knob) and focus
the image of the field diaphragm sharply onto the already-focused
specimen. This image of the field diaphragm should appear as a
focused polygon.
4. If the image of the field diaphragm is not centered in the field of view,
use the condenser centering screws (or knobs) to center the image of
the field diaphragm. Then open up the field diaphragm until it just
disappears from view.
5. Next, take out one of the eyepieces and look down the tube of the
microscope. As you look down the tube, open and close the aperture
diaphragm of the substage condenser. You will see its image at the
back focal plane of the objective. As a rule of thumb, adjust this
diaphragm so that it is 2/3 to 3/4 open. This setting usually represents
the best compromise between resolution and contrast. If there is a
frosted or diffusion filter built into the light path in the base of the
microscope, you will see an evenly lighted circle of light. If there is no
such filter in the light path you will see the image of the filament of the
light bulb. (A centering or phase telescope, inserted in place of the
removed eyepiece, will make this adjustment easier to see.) Now
replace the eyepiece.
Fig 34. Appearance of

light at the back lens of
the objective.

6. You have now set up Koehler illumination with the 10X objective. If you
wish to switch to a higher power objective, you must again adjust
BOTH the field and the aperture diaphragms. For example, if you
switch to the 40X objective, you will have to close the field diaphragm
somewhat and may have to recenter it (looking at a smaller area of the
specimen). You will also have to open up the condenser aperture
diaphragm somewhat (the 40X objective has a higher numerical
aperture - light-grasping ability - than does the 10X objective). Thus,
every time you change objectives, you must adjust both diaphragms in
accordance with the steps given above.
The condenser aperture iris diaphragm may have a calibrated scale which tells
the utilized numerical aperture of the condenser. The use of this scale makes it
easy to repeat a desired setting related to the numerical aperture of the
objective being employed. For example, if you want to have a setting of 80% of
the objective being filled with light and the numerical aperture of the objective is
0.25, you would set the iris aperture diaphragm of the condenser at 0.20. 0.20
is 80% of 0.25.
It will now be found that the specimen is well-illuminated with even, glare-free
light, giving good image contrast.
The intensity of the lamp is best adjusted by using neutral density filters
(reduce brightness without affecting color temperature of the light source) or, if
you are not doing image recording, adjusting the voltage by means of the built-
in transformer lever or knob.
Once you have set up Koehler illumination, NEVER adjust brightness by
lowering the condenser position or by closing the iris aperture diaphragm.
NUMERICAL APERTURE AND RESOLUTION
If geometric optics described earlier were the sole consideration in image

formation, it would be possible to secure clear magnification of many thou-
sands of times larger than the specimen itself. However, it was discovered by
optics experts of the 19th century-Abbe, Rayleigh, Airy, et alia-that other factors
operate to limit useful magnification. Additional magnification that does not yield
clearer detail is called “empty magnification.”
These experts recognized that, when light from the various points of a speci-
men passes through the objective and is reconstituted as the image, the
various points of the specimen appear in the image as small disks (not points)
known as Airy disks. This phenomenon is caused by diffraction or scattering of
light as it passes through the minute parts and spaces in the specimen and
the circular back of the objective The Airy disks, at the plane of the image,
consist of small concentric light and dark circles. The smaller the Airy disks
projected by the objective in forming the image, the finer the detail of the
specimen discernible because the disks are less likely to overlap one another.
Objectives of better correction and higher numerical aperture (more of this
follows later) produce smaller Airy disks than objectives of lesser correction
and lower numerical aperture. The ability to distinguish (separate) clearly
minute details lying close together in the specimen is known as resolving
power.

Fig 35. Airy disk
diffraction image of a
point.
Fig 36. Decrease in

size of the anti-point
with increase in the
numerical aperture of
the lens.
(diagrammatic)
Fig 37. Decrease in

size of Airy disks
accompanying an
increase of numerical
aperture.
(diagrammatic)

The phenomenon of diffraction and the limiting effect of the size of light waves
dictate the “rule of thumb”, that the useful magnification of an objective is 500-
1000X the numerical aperture of the objective. (e.g., upper limit of 250X for an
objective of 0.25 numerical aperture; upper limit of 1400X for an objective with a
numerical aperture of 1.4).
In achieving a desired magnification, it is generally good practice to use

objectives of higher magnification accompanied by eyepieces of lower magnifi-
cation (e.g., for a magnification of 200X, use an objective of 20X and an eye-
piece of 10X, rather than an objective of 10X and an eyepiece of 20X.)
Now for the explanation of numerical aperture, referred to as N.A. The ability of
an objective to include or “grasp” the various rays of light coming from each
illuminated part of the specimen is directly related to the angular aperture of the
objective. Objectives with lower angular aperture can include only a narrower
cone of light as compared to objectives with higher angular aperture.
The equation for numerical aperture (N.A.) is: N.A.=n sine µ
In this equation N.A. is the numerical aperture; n is the index of refraction of the
material in the object space, that is the space between the specimen and the
front (lowest) lens of the objective. Sine µ is the sine of 1/2 the angular aperture
of the objective. (refractive index of air is 1.00+; the refractive index of immersion
oil is 1.515)
Fig 38. Numerical

aperture and light
gathering ability. N.A.
= Numerical Aperture.
n = Refractive index of
medium between front
lens and specimen.µ
= 1/2 the angle of cone
of light "captured" by
the objecive.

Fig 39. Angular
apertures of objectives
compared. The 15°
narrow angle of a low
power objective
compared with the
110° wide angle of the
high power oil
immersion lens.
Study of the above equation will yield the following inferences:
· For a given angular aperture, oil immersion objectives can have higher
numerical aperture since n=1.515 for oil.
Fig 40. The principle of · Since µ cannot exceed 90°, the sine of µ must be 1 or less. Since a
oil immersion. In a, five “dry” objective is used with air in the object space (n for air is 1.00+),
rays are shown the maximum theoretical N.A. of a “dry” objective is 1; in practice, not
passing from the point more than 0.95.
P in the object through
the coverslip into the · Increasing the angular aperture of an objective increases µ and thus
air space between the increases sine µ and thus increases numerical aperture.
latter and the lens.
Only rays 1 and 2 can · Since immersion oil has a refractive index of 1.515, it is theoretically
enter the objectives. possible to utilize oil immersion objectives which can yield a numerical
Rays 4 and 5 are aperture of 1.5; in practice, not more than 1.4.
totally reflected. In b,
the air space is
replaced by oil of the
same refractive index
as glass. The rays now
pass straight through
without deviation so
that rays 1, 2, 3, and 4
can enter the objective.
The N.A. is thus
increased by the factor
n, the refractive index
of oil.

Fig 41. Comparison of
a dry with an oil
immersion objective.
And now, the important relationship between numerical aperture and resolving
power. Resolving power has been defined as the ability of an objective to
separate clearly two points or details lying close together in the specimen.
Resolution has been defined as the actual (rather than theoretical) separation
distance of two details lying close together still seen as separate. The equation
for resolution for non-luminous objects (according to Abbe) is:
λ for self-luminous objects 0.61 λ 1.22 λ

r= (occording to Rayleigh) r= or
2N.A. N.A. 2N.A.
In these equations r = the size of the distance between two minute points lying
close together in the specimen but still showing the points as separate; λ is the
wavelength of light being used; N.A. is the numerical aperture of the objective.
Analysis of these equations will lead to the following inferences:
As N.A. increases, r becomes smaller; the size of the distance between

adjacent points becomes smaller; hence resolution is better. If shorter wave-
lengths of light are used (e.g. violet-blue end of the spectrum) the resolvable
distance becomes smaller; resolution is better. Longer wavelengths (e.g. red)
yield poorer resolution. However, bear in mind that the human eye is most
sensitive in the green wavelength. Resolution varies inversely with numerical
aperture. Higher N.A. objectives are capable of yielding the best resolution;
hence better for separating very minute details.
The numerical aperture of the entire MICROSCOPE SYSTEM depends on the

N.A. of the substage condenser and the objective working together.

low (a) and high (b)
numerical aperture
microscope systems.

N.A. of the system = N.A of the objective + N.A. of the condenser
2
The equation demonstrates that, for full realization of the aperture of the
objective, it should be matched (but not exceeded) by the aperture of the
condenser. In practice, the partial closing of the aperture iris diaphragm of the
condenser reduces the working aperture of the system; the effect is to some-
what reduce resolution but to increase contrast for greater visibility.
The N.A. of the system equation also shows that, in order to realize the full
aperture of the system, any condenser with a numerical aperture of more than
1.0 should have oil placed on its top lens and brought into contact with the
underside of the slide. Highly corrected, high numerical aperture objectives of
N.A. greater than 1 should be used with oiled condensers of N.A. greater than
1.

low and high N.A.
depth of field ranges. a.
The diminution of field
depth by increased
N.A. in the system. b.
Depth of field range in
high and low N.A.
objectives.
In many uses of the microscope, it may not be necessary to use objectives of

high N.A. because the details of the specimen can be readily resolved with
lower N.A. objectives. This may be important because high magnification, high
N.A. objectives are accompanied by very shallow depth of field and short
working distances from the specimen. (depth of field is the vertical distance
above and below the actual plane of the focused specimen that still is in
satisfactory focus). Thus in specimens where resolution is less critical and
magnification can be lower, it may be better to use objectives of more modest
N.A. to gain more depth of field and deeper distances between the front of the
objective and the specimen.

Procedure for Focusing the Microscope
Appendix 1
1. Turn on the lamp and set the intensity for comfortable viewing.
2. While looking through the eyepieces of the binocular observation

tubes, grasp the binocular tubes with both hands and bring the tubes
closer together (or further apart) to fuse the two circles of light into one
circle. This sets the interpupillary distance for YOUR eyes. If the
viewing tubes have a scale for this setting, memorize the position so
that you can readily return to it the next time.
3. Place a specimen slide on the stage. Using your RIGHT eye and your
right eye Only, with the 10X objective on the nosepiece in the light path,
slowly raise (or lower) the stage by use of the coarse adjustment knob
(the larger of the two concentric focusing knobs). Bring the image into
focus and then use the fine adjustment knob (the smaller of the two
knobs) to perfect the focus.
4. Now, using your LEFT eye and your left eye Only, WITHOUT touching
the focusing knobs, rotate the knurled ring on the left eyepiece tube to
bring the image into focus for your left eye. This procedure adjusts for
differences in acuity between your left and right eyes.
5. If you wish to move to a higher power objective, it should take very little
movement of the fine adjustment knob to bring the image into focus.
This is a built-in design feature which is known as Parfocality. Simi-
larly, a particle in the image which is centered in the field of view
should remain in the center as objectives are changed; a feature
known as Parcentricity.
Procedure For Using An Oil Immersion Objective

Appendix 2
1. Focus the specimen, using Koehler Illumination, with the 10X objec-
tive. Then switch to the 40X “dry” objective and center a desired feature
in the field of view.
2. Lower the stage and gently place a drop of immersion oil on top of the
cover slip.
3. Rotate the oil immersion objective (usually the 100X) into the light
path.
4. While looking at the microscope from the front or side (not through the
observation eyepieces), slowly raise the stage until the front of the oil
immersion objective makes contact with the oil drop. You will see a
sudden flash of light.
5. Now, using the fine adjustment only, continue to raise the stage until
the specimen comes into focus.
PAGE 37 / APPENDICES
Some caveats;
For best results with oil immersion objectives, it is preferable to use a drop of
oil on the top of the condenser (assuming the condenser has a numerical
aperture above 1.0) and to raise the condenser slowly until the top of the
condenser makes contact with the underside of the slide.
When finished with observations with the oil immersion objective, lower the
stage and rotate that objective out of the light path so that you do not inadvert-
ently dip the “high dry” 40X objective into oil.
It is important to clean the oil objective at the end of the day’s use. Take a piece
of lens tissue (NOT facial tissue or abrasive eyeglass tissue) and gently blot
the oil off the front of the objective. Moisten, NOT bathe, another piece of lens
tissue in a lens cleaning solution and gently drag the tissue across the front
lens of the objective. Take care not to rub the front lens vigorously in order to
avoid effacing the lens coating. Dry the front lens by using a simple air blower,
such as a child’s bulb ear syringe. Do NOT use compressed air can blowers.
Do not use an oil objective without oil immersion; the image will be poor.
For Users of Finite Tube Length Microscopes

Appendix 3
This appendix is addressed to users of finite tube length microscopes. For
Olympus users, this would include the CH-2 series, the CH30-40, the CK-2 and
CK 30-40, The BH-2 series, the IMT-2, The Vanox AHB2 and AHB3, AHBS and
AHBT.
You can recognize a finite tube length microscope by looking at the objectives
on the nosepiece. These objectives will be inscribed with 160/0.17 or 160/- or
160/0. The objectives do NOT have an infinity marking inscribed. The 160 refers
to the mechanical tube length of such microscopes-the distance in millimeters
between the shoulder of the mounted objective and the top of the binocular tube
where the eyepiece is inserted.
Fig 44. Finite optical

system.
Finite tube length microscopes do NOT have a tube lens in the light path. The
image projected by the finite tube length objective comes to focus at the plane
of the fixed eyepiece diaphragm WITHOUT the intervention of a tube lens in the
system. Otherwise, the same general principles described in this booklet will
also apply to these microscopes.
The virtue of the infinity-corrected system comes from its better and less
expensive adaptability, if you use intermediate pieces above the objective, e.g.
vertical illuminators, polarizing devices, magnification changers, fluorescence
illuminators, etc. You should NOT use finite objectives on an infinity-designed
system and you should NOT use infinity-corrected objectives on a finite tube
length microscope.
Fig 45. Infinity

corrected microscope
optical system.
Also, in previous series microscopes, the accompanying eyepieces were often

labeled C or K (meaning compensating). Such eyepieces made the final optical
correction for chromatic difference of magnification (lateral chromatic aberra-
tion), since this correction was not made in the objective itself. In current
Olympus and Nikon microscopes, compensating eyepieces are not used
because this correction is made in the objectives themselves. For Zeiss and
Leica current microscopes, the correction for chromatic difference of magnifica-
tion is accomplished by their tube lens.
Some Useful Formulae
Appendix 4
N.A. of a dry objective = sine µ This is the formula for numerical aperture, µ is ½
the angular aperture of an objective.
A.A. is angular aperture: the angle of cone of light capturable by the objective.
N.A. of an immersion objective = n sine µ; where n is the refractive index of the

medium between the front of the objective and the top of the coverslip.
Refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum divided by the speed
of light in a medium. n is the symbol for refractive index. See other page of
appendices for common refractive indices.
n = c/ν c is the speed of light in a vacuum; ν is the speed of light in the medium.
λ 0.61 λ
r= 2 N.A.
or
N.A.
This is the formula for resolution of two points lying close to each other and
being shown as separate, λ is the wavelength of light (in nanometers) being
used. r is the space between the two adjacent points of the specimen.
2
(N.A.)
I = (Total M) 2
I equals the intensity of the image. M is the magnification (for transmitted light).
Dfov = F.N.
Mobjective
D is the diameter of the field of view in millimeters. F.N. is the field number
inscribed on the eyepiece Mobjective is the magnification of the objective being
used.
M = Ftube lens / Fobjectives
M is the magnification of the objective. Ftube lens is the focal length of the tube lens
(180mm for Olympus) and Fobjective is the focal length of the objective (for infinity-
corrected systems).
Some Useful Numbers:
Appendix 5
1 centimeter is 1/100 of a meter 1 centimeter equals 10-2 meters
1 millimeter is 1/1000 of a meter 1 millimeter equals 10-3 meters
1 micron is 1/1000 of a millimeter 1 micron equals 10-6 meters or 10-3 millime-
ters
1 nanometer is 1/1000 of a micron 1 nanometer equals 10-9meters or 10-3
microns
1 Angstrom is 1/10 of a nanometer 1 Angstrom equals 10-10 meters or 10-4
microns
The highest N.A. of a dry objective, in practice, is 0.95

The highest N.A. of a water objective, in practice, is 1.2
The highest N.A. of an oil objective, in practice, is 1.4
The average wavelength of white light is 550 nanometers

The wavelength of violet light is about 400 nanometers
The wavelength of blue light is about 450 nanometers
The wavelength of apple-green light is about 550 nanometers
The wavelength of red light is about 650 nanometers
The wavelengths of the near ultra-violet are 330-390 nanometers
The wavelengths of the near infra-red are 800-1600 nanometers
The theoretical limit of resolution (not visibility) of the light microscope in white
light is about 0.20-0.25 microns.
The standard coverslip thickness is 0.17mm. In a box of #1½ type coverslips,

any individual coverslip may be 0.16mm to 0.19 mm thick.
Common refractive index numbers:

Vacuum 1.0000
Air 1.00028
Water 1.33
Immersion oil 1.51+
Glass 1.51+
Useful Total magnification equals 500-1000X the N.A.
A “Bare Bones” List for further reading/study
Appendix 6
Abramowitz, Mort. “Optics, A Primer” published by Olympus America 1994
Bradbury, Savile “An Introduction to the Optical Microscope” A Royal Microscopi-

cal Society Publication 1984
Eastman Kodak Bulletin P2, “Photography Through the Microscope” 1980,

written by John Delly
Douglas B. Murphy “Fundamentals of Light Microscopy and Electronic Imaging”,

2001, publisher Wiley-Liss
Websites :
Molecular Expressions http://www.microscopy.fsu.edu
Olympus Microscopy Resource Center http://olympusmicro.com
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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What are the main components of a microscope discussed?

What are the main components of a microscope discussed?

Microscope

Basics and Beyond

For Olympus America Inc.

For Olympus America Inc.

Molecular Expressions (http://www.microscopy.fsu.edu)

Olympus Microscopy Resource Center (http://olympusmicro.com)

Published by Olympus America Inc., Scientific Equipment Division,

Photo: Clematis Stem

The Human Eye

Since so many microscope users rely upon direct observation, it is important to

Fig 2. Anatomy of the

PAGE 3 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

PAGE 4 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

PAGE 5 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Essentially, this is how a microscope functions. Light from a lamp passes

At the lowest part of the observation tube in infinity-corrected systems for

First an overview of the main parts of the microscope. Later, an elaboration of

PAGE 6 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

2. Other related functions of the objective are to house special devices

4. The objective must be constructed so that it will be focused close

5. The higher power objectives should have a retractable front lens

6. To the extent possible, corrections for lens errors (aberrations) should

Fig 9. The image of a

A second important optical component is the EYEPIECE.

2. In recording, a Photoeyepiece “picks up” the real image projected by

3. The eyepiece houses a fixed diaphragm. It is at the plane of that fixed

PAGE 8 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

3. In appropriately set up illumination, it is arranged that the image of the

4. Correction for lens errors are incorporated in the finest condensers, an

5. Where desired, the condenser can be designed to house special

Other optical components:

1. The base of the microscope contains a COLLECTOR LENS. This lens

2. Also in the base of the microscope, under the condenser, is a FIRST

3. At the lowest part of the observation tubes (binocular or trinocular)

PAGE 9 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

The STAND of the microscope houses the mechanical/electrical parts of the

1. The BASE of the Olympus microscopes is Y-shaped for great stability. It

4. Under the stage there is a built-in ring or a U-shaped CONDENSER

5. Above the stage, the stand has a NOSEPIECE (may be fixed or

6. Removable OBSERVATION TUBES, either binocular or trinocular, are

PAGE 10 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

2. To provide the frame for holding the objectives and eyepieces at

3. To make it possible, by means of adjustment knobs, to bring the

4. To hold the specimen on a flat surface stage and to be able to move

5. To carry the moveable substage condenser which receives the light

The key characteristics of modern microscopes are their MODULARITY and

Various components are readily interchangeable, e.g. condensers, objectives,

Fig 10. Microscope

PAGE 11 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Fig 12. Reflection at

PAGE 12 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Fig 13. Variation of

PAGE 13 / AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Photo: Epidermis Tissue

The microscope stage may be rectangular or circular. It is more useful if the