Chapter 4

Coagulation and Flocculation

Dr. Abdel Fattah Hasan

and
Dr. Abdelhaleem Khader
 Surface Water Treatment

 Removal of turbidity
 rapid mix tank
 flocculation tanks
 settling (sedimentation) tanks
General Classification of solids
 Characteristics of particles (SS)
 Charge is predominately negative

 Particles repel so suspension is

considered stable

 Can be removed by physical means

Coagulation and Flocculation
 Coagulation: Addition of chemicals to
destabilize particles for flocculation

 Flocculation: Process of bringing the

particles together so that they
aggregate into larger particles

 Physical Removal: Process of

removing the larger particles from the
clarified water (sedimentation, flotation,
filtration)
Coagulation and Flocculation
 Coagulation (practical sense) +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
++ + + +
+ +
+
+ ++
+ + ++ +
+ ++ ++
+ ++
+
Colloidal particles +
+ +
(0.001 - 1 m)
floc
(1 - 100 m)
Coagulation/Flocculation/Physical Removal

 Designed to remove
 Removes colloidal particles (0.001 - 1.0μm)
o Color
o Turbidity
o Pathogens
 Microorganisms
 Toxic compounds that are sorbed to
particles
 NOM (because it is a precursor of DBPs)

 Designed to make the water more

palatable
 Physics of Coagulation

Mechanisms:
 Compression of charge

 Adsorption and charge neutralization

 Adsorption and interparticle bridging

 Enmeshment in a precipitate (sweep

coagulation)
 Common coagulants
 Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
 Aluminum chloride: AlCl3
 Ferric chloride: FeCl3
 Ferric sulfate: FeSO4
 Polyaluminum chloride (PACl):
Alw(OH)xCl3w-x
 Polyaluminum sulfate (PAS)
Alx(OH)y(SO4)z
 Polyelectrolytes

Coagulants should have these characteristics:

 They are nontoxic at the working dosage

 They have a high charge density

 They are insoluable in the natural pH range

 How does alum work?
Al2(SO4)314H2O  2Al3++ 3SO42-+ 14H2O
2Al3+ + colloids  neutralize surface charge
If sufficient alkalinity is available:
2Al3+ + 6HCO3-  2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2
each mole of alum added uses six moles of alkalinity and
produces six moles of carbon dioxide.

If insufficient bicarbonate is available:

Al2(SO4)314H2O  2Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2SO4 + 14H2O
Here lime or sodium carbonate may be added to neutralize
the acid formed because the precipitate will dissolve.
pH and Dose

 The optimum pH range for alum is

approximately 5.5 to 7.7 with
adequate coagulation possible
between pH 5 and 9
 For Ferric Chloride the range pH is
wider (from 4 to 9)
Alum Dose and pH are usually
determined by Jar Test
 Turbidity is usually
measured after the
mixture was
allowed to settle
for 30 minutes

 Lowest turbidity is
the optimum
condition
Example 3
Six beakers are filled with the raw water,
and then each is mixed and flocculated
uniformly by identical paddle stirrers
driven by a single motor (a gang stirrer).

A typical test is conducted by first dosing

each jar with the same alum dose and
varying the pH in each jar.

The test is then repeated in a second set of

jars by holding the pH constant at the
optimum pH and varying the coagulant
dose.
Data for Example 3
 FLOCCULATION THEORY
Small particles undergo random Brownian motion
due to collisions with fluid molecules and that these
motions result in particle to particle collisions.

Stirring water containing particles creates velocity

gradients that brought about particle collisions
 Velocity Gradient (G)

The root-mean square (RMS) of the velocity gradient (G)

of the fluid (dv/dy) was used to estimate energy
dissipation.

The rate of flocculation is directly proportional to G.

The proportionality also applied to coagulation with both

metal ion coagulants and polymers
 Rapid Mixing: G values

 Velocity gradient = G
 Amount of shear taking place, higher
the G, the more violent the mixing
P
G
V
Where, P = power (W)
V = volume of water in the tank (m3)
 = dynamic viscosity (Pas)
G = velocity gradient (s-1)
 Mixing Time

 Ideal reactors
V
td 
Q

 Where td = time, s (hydraulic retention

time, theoretical detention time)
V= volume, m3
Q = flow rate in m3/s
 Non-ideal: Density gradients, short
circuiting, local turbulence or dead spots
 Selection of G and Gt Values
Both G and the product of the velocity
gradient and time (Gt), serve as criteria for
the design of mixing systems.

The selection of G and Gt values for

coagulation is dependent on:
mixing device
chemicals selected
anticipated reactions
G values in the range of 3,000 to 5,000 s-1 and t on
the order of 0.5 s are recommended for
adsorption/destabilization reactions.

For sweep coagulation, t of 1 to 10 s and G values in

the range of 600 to 1,000 s-1 are recommended
 Selection of G and Gt Values

Jar test data may be used to identify whether

adsorption/destabilization or sweep coagulation is
predominant using the following procedure:

• Determine the optimum pH and dose from plots of

settled turbidity (see, for example, Figure 3-11 )

• Plot the optimum pH and dose on Figure 3-9

• Determine which is the predominant mechanism

from the plotted position.
 Rapid Mixing
 Used to blend chemicals and water being
treated
 Probably most important physical operation
affecting coagulant dose efficiency
 Chemical reactions take < 0.1 sec, 1-7 sec
for alum, less for other coagulants.
 Accomplished by:
 in-line mechanical mixing
 in-line static mixing

 mechanical mixing in stirred tanks

Chemicals Feed into WT Units
In-line mechanical mixing
In-line static mixing
Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks
In-line mechanical mixing
Also know as an in-line blender

Overcomes some of the disadvantages of the

static mixer.

The following design criteria may be used in

selection of in-line mechanical mixers:

(1) G in the range 3,000 to 5,000 s-1

(2) t of about 0.5 s
(3) headloss of 0.3 to 0.9 m
Example 3-5.
Using Table 3-4 select an in-line
blender for an alum coagulant. The jar
test data resemble that shown in
Figure 3-11 .

The design flow rate is 383 m3/h, and

the design water temperature is 17oC.
In-Line Static Mixing

Consists of a pipe with in-line helical vanes that

rotate and split the flow to increase turbulence.

The vanes are segmented so that the number of

vanes may be adjusted to fit local conditions.

These segments are called elements.

The element size is specified by the length of

element divided by the pipe diameter (L/D).

L/D is called the aspect ratio.

Generally, L/D varies from 1.0 to 1.5.

 In-Line Static Mixing
The mixers come in sizes as small as 0.5 cm for
research application to as large as 300 cm for
industrial and water treatment use.

Generally, they are made in standard pipe diameters.

In-Line Mixers have two advantages:

(1)there are no moving parts
(2)no external energy source is required.

They have the disadvantage that the degree of

mixing and mixing time is a function of flow rate.
 COV of In-Line Static Mixers
Coefficient of variation (COV) is a measure of
the uniformity of the blend of the chemical and
the water.
Design Criteria for In-Line Static Mixers
(1) COV of 1 to 10 % with an average of 5 %
(2) Gt in the range 350–1700
(3) mixing time of 1 to 3 s
(4) a maximum headloss of 0.6 to 0.9 m.

The design should specify that the mixing

elements be removable so they may be
cleared and/or cleaned
The selection process is highly dependent on the approach
suggested by the manufacturer for their mixer.

The following method is representative:

• Select the number of mixing elements to achieve the
desired COV. 3 elements will yield a COV of about 10%
and that 6 elements will yield a COV of about 1% for
mixers designed for turbulent flow (Reynolds number
greater than 5,000). Turbulent flow may be assumed for
water entering water treatment plants from pumped
sources.

• Using either an equation or a graph, such as that shown in

Figure 3-16 provided by the manufacturer, determine the
pressure drop per element.

• With the pressure drop per element and the number of

elements, estimate the detention time, water power, and
velocity gradient, and check these against the design
criteria.
Water Power
Example 3-6
Design a static mixer for the
following conditions:

Design flow rate 150 m3/h

Minimum water temperature 5oC
Mixer aspect ratio = 1.5
Design COV is 1%
 Mechanical Mixing in Stirred Tanks
A typical completely mixed flow reactor (CMFR) or
continuous-flow stirred tank reactor (CSTR) will
perform well for sweep coagulation.

Design Criteria:
t of 1 to 7 s
G values in the range of 600 to 1,000 s-1
volume of a rapid-mix tank seldom exceeds 8 m3

The mixing equipment consists of an electric motor,

gear-type speed reducer, and either a radial-flow or
axial-flow impeller
The radial-flow impeller provides more turbulence and is
preferred for rapid mixing.

The tanks should be horizontally baffled into at least two and

preferably three compartments in order to minimize short
circuiting and thus provide sufficient residence time.

They are also baffled vertically to minimize vortexing.

Chemicals should be added below the impeller. Some
geometric ratios for rapid mix
 The power imparted to the liquid in a baffled
tank by an impeller may be described by the
following equation for fully turbulent flow

We normally assume an efficiency of transfer of

motor power to water power of 0.8 for a single
impeller
 Flocculation Mixing
While rapid mix is the most important physical
factor affecting coagulant efficiency, flocculation is
the most important factor affecting particle-removal
efficiency.

The objective of flocculation is to bring the particles

into contact so that they will collide, stick together,
and grow to a size that will readily settle or filter out.

Enough mixing must be provided to bring the floc

into contact and to keep the floc from settling in the
flocculation basin.

Too much mixing will shear the floc particles so

that the floc is small and finely dispersed
Gt values for flocculation
Flocculation Basin
 Flocculation Basin
The flocculation basin should be divided into at
least three compartments.

The velocity gradient is tapered so that the G

values decrease from the first compartment to the
last and that the average of the compartments is the
design value selected from Table 3-6

Flow through velocities between 0.15- 0.45 m/s

Water depths in the basin range from 3 to 5 m

The velocity of flow from the flocculation basin to

the settling basin should be low enough to prevent
shear and breakup of the floc but high enough to
keep the floc in suspension.
 Baffle Wall
Baffle wall is used to separate the flocculation basin
compartments

The top of the baffle is slightly submerged (1 to 2

cm), and the bottom should have a space of 2 to 3 cm
above the floor to allow for drainage and sludge
removal

Each baffle should have orifices that are uniformly

distributed over the vertical surface.

The size should be selected with the objective of

providing a velocity gradient that does not exceed the
gradient in the compartment immediately upstream.
Baffle Wall
The headloss through the orifice can be calculated
from this equatin:

Cd varies from 0.60 to 0.80

orifices diameter be 10 to 15 cm
velocities be between 0.25 to 0.55 m/s
Headloss range from 3 to 9 mm through each baffle orifice
hole at the maximum flow rate.
A two-arm cross-flow paddle system. Note: two arms and two boards
per arm; baffle wall on left.
 Direction of
flow

Cross-flow paddle flocculator. Note: paddle “boards” are fiberglass

reinforced plastic (FRP); upstream and downstream slotted wall baffles
at left and right of compartment.
Access door through baffle wall between
flocculation chambers.
Access door from settling tank to flocculation basin chamber. Slotted
wall is a baffle. Photo taken from settling tank toward flocculation
chambers.
 Mixer Alternatives
Flocculation is normally accomplished with one
of the following systems:

vertical turbine mixing similar to that used in

flash mixing

paddle flocculator

baffled chamber
Paddle flocculator with paddle wheels
arranged parallel to the flow
Baffled channel flocculation system
General Notes on Flocculator-Mixers
Vertical turbine mixing with an axial-flow
impeller in a mixing basin is recommended over
the other types of flocculators because they
impart a nearly constant G throughout the tank

However, the paddle flocculator has been the

design choice for numerous plants.
chosen for conventional treatment when a
high degree of solids removal by
sedimentation is desired.
the unit of choice when very large volumes
of water are to be treated and the number of
vertical shaft units becomes excessive
 Vertical Turbine Mixer
Design recommendations:

 Using a nearly cubical shape for each compartment

with the impeller located at a depth equal to 2/3 of
the water depth

 Placing the shaft bearings above the water surface

and providing a 1.2 m walkway space around the
mixer for control panels, power connections, and
space for maintenance work

 The design of the mechanical mixing system follows

that used in flash mixing with appropriate
substitution of constants for the axial flow
impeller Np and tank/impeller ratios from
Table 3-5
Comments:

1. The provision of two flocculation

basins meets redundancy
requirements.

2. An additional 0.60 m is added to

the water depth as freeboard so the
tank depth is 4.6 m.
 Outcomes

Based on this lecture and Chapter 3, you

should be able to
 Describe the physical and chemical
phenomena that underlie the design and
operation of:
 rapid mixing and flocculation basins
 coagulation water treatment plants
 Design individual rapid mixing and
flocculation basins as used in
environmental engineering