Heating under partial vacuum

In as-cast conditions, the metal will not have an ideal oxide layer on its surface. Golden alloys have

almost no oxide layer, which is given the noble nature of this metal. The oxide film can be formed by

heating the casting at a temperature close to the firing temperature of the ceramic.

 This has the effect of allowing metal elements incorporated in alloys (eg tin, Indium, zinc or gallium) to

migrate to the surface and form a surface layer of oxide. Great care must be taken to ensure that the

heating cycle is properly used. Too short heat treatment can result in the formation of a thin or partial

oxide layer, giving a bad substrate to which the ceramic can blend. A heating cycle that is too long can

result in thinning of the oxidizing element from the surface layer of the gold alloy.

A bond will not be formed if all the formed oxides are removed during the subsequent acid curing

process and no oxidizing element is left close enough to the surface to allow the formation of additional

oxides.

Performing heat treatment under reduced pressure helps to remove gas which has been absorbed by a

large amount of metal during the casting process. Removal of these gases helps to prevent the

formation of interfacial bubbles. For this reason, the heat treatment of alloys before the ceramic

burning cycle is often referred to as degassing treatment. In the case of base metal alloys, where nickel

and chromium are commonly used, metals are very easily oxidized and the problem is generally the

opposite of that for gold alloys, which are too many oxides formed.

Although oxides will form naturally during ceramic firing, it has been found that it is better to form an

oxide layer, as this increases ceramic wetting on the metal surface.

Acid pickling
The heat treatment of a gold alloy will produce not only tin oxide but various other oxides on the surface

as well. The acid preservation procedure seeks to remove unwanted oxides in preference to tin oxide.

There is an additional advantage that the dark surface of this alloy is gray to white because of the

increase in the concentration of tin oxide on the alloy surface. Usually the acid used is 50% hydrofluoric

acid or 30% hydrochloric acid, with the latter being preferred because of the dangers associated with

the use of hydrofluoric acid. Both this and the following procedures are generally needed for base metal

alloys.

 Heating in the air

Further heat treatment in the air is often carried out to form an oxide layer with the correct thickness

and quality. Optimal oxide film on precious metal alloys must have matt, grayish-white appearance,

which consists mainly of base metal oxide. If the surface has a glossy appearance, this indicates a lack of

oxide film and is usually a consequence of too many repetitions of surface treatments.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THERMAL EXPANSION

The ceramic composition for metal-ceramic restorations must be different from the ceramics used for all

ceramics The thermal expansion coefficient (α) feldspathic glass used in the construction of porcelain

jacket crowns is 7-8 ppm / ° C. This is too low to be compatible with alloys, which are usually in region

14-16 ppm / ° C. This mismatch will cause serious problems due to excessive differential shrinkage in

cooling. Depending on their composition, the coefficient of thermal expansion of alloys and ceramics can

be very different. Thermally induced pressure Ceramics used in the construction of ceramic-metal

restorations lose the fluidity of their thermoplastics after they are cooled under their glass transition

temperature, which is usually in the range 600–700 ° C. From this point onwards, there is a difference in
the coefficient of expansion between metals and ceramics will produce pressure in ceramics as the

ceramic tries to shrink more or less from the metal substructure, depending on the type of

incompatibility. There are three possible scenarios that can be considered, namely:

α α p m>

ααpm=

ααpm<

where p is porcelain and m is metal. The voltage generated from each of the above conditions is shown

in Figure 3.5.3. When αp> αm, the ceramic will try to contract more than the metal. Because metal

prevents this from happening, the ceramic will be under voltage when cooled to the temperature

chamber, with the metal in a state of compression. The surface tensile stress causes the formation of

surface cracks and a crazy surface. When αp = αm, both materials will shrink at the same level and no

differential voltage will be generated. When αp <αm, the metal will try to shrink more than ceramic and

this puts the ceramic in a compression state. This substantially reduces the potential for the ceramic to

crack, because this compressive pressure must be overcome before the ceramic is placed under

pressure. The metal will be in a tense state but, because the tensile strength of the alloy used is quite

high (500-1000 MPa), there is no danger of metal failure. Thus it will appear that the best situation is

one where the expansion coefficient of the metal is greater than the ceramic. Even though it will emerge

from the discussion above, the greater the mismatch, the better (because ceramics will be under higher

stress), this is not really the case. Mismatches should not be too large, because the pressure generated

in the system can cause defeat or ceramic fracture, or debonding from the metal surface. The reason for

this should be explained by considering that the ceramic is integrated with a circular metal structure,

especially since this is more like a real situation. When trying metals to shrink more than ceramics, radial

tensile stresses and circular compressive stresses are generated. The latter is beneficial, but the first is
sufficient to cause debonding between ceramics and metals. If the mismatch is very large, pulling radial

stress can cause the ceramic itself to crack, with the fracture appearing in a circle.

Effect of ceramic composition

The mismatch in the coefficient of expansion between ceramic feldspathic used in making porcelain

jacket crowns and metals available for ceramic bonding is usually too large. To overcome this problem,

the alkali content of ceramics increases. Both soda (Na2O) and potassium (K2O) are added to encourage

the expansion coefficient to be in the region of 14-16 ppm / ° C. Much more important is the fact that

the addition of these oxides results in the formation of crystalline phases in the glass matrix. This

crystalline phase is known as tetragonal leucite, which has a high thermal expansion coefficient of 22-24

ppm / ° c. The amount of leucite deposits can be carefully controlled to provide the correct ceramic

expansion coefficient for certain alloys, and a bias of 30-40% of the material volume. The related

reduction in combustion temperature has the benefit of reducing the potential for distortion due to

creeping from alloys. After the ceramic frit is prepared by the manufacturer, it is held at high

temperatures for a certain time to allow the formation of leucite crystals. As such, this is a process that

is identical to the ceraming of glass ceramics described in Chapter 3.8. So ceramics used for metal-

ceramic restorations may be best described as leucite containing glass ceramics. However these glass

ceramics are different for leucit reinforced glass ceramics described in Chapter 3, in this case the main

concern is to match the coefficient of thermal expansion with those of the metal and not obtain the

highest possible strength. In fact, the flexural strength of ceramics used for metal-ceramic restorations is

only around 30-50 MPa. Therefore the ceramic buildup on the metal frame should not be too thick,

because this can cause cracking of the ceramic when it is loaded into the mouth.

CHOICE OF METAL-CERAMIC ALLOYS

for all-metal construction. Because it is necessary to fire ceramics onto metal surfaces, the high melting

temperature must be higher than the sintering temperature for ceramics. If the melting temperature of

the metal is too close to the temperature of the ceramic combustion, partial melting of thin parts of

coping can occur, or coping may deform. Especially in the construction of long span bridges, metals must

have high elastic modulus and high yield stress. As a result, high stiffness of the bridge structure will

prevent the occurrence of strains that are too high (which cannot be overcome by ceramics) at the

occlusal loading. In addition, the low stiffness of the metal frame can result in distortion due to the

differential contraction pressure that results from cooling after porcelain firing. At one time, only high

gold alloys were available but, with the increasing cost of gold, various alternative alloys have been

developed, which can be classified as high-gold, gold-palladium, high palladium, palladium-silver, nickel-

chromium or purely commercial alloys titanium.

High gold alloy

For high-gold alloys, the melting temperature is increased by the addition of platinum and palladium,

both of which have high melting temperatures. The obvious difference between non-ceramic gold alloy

and gold-ceramic alloy is the removal of copper in the last. This is done because copper reduces the

melting temperature and also has a tendency to react with ceramics, resulting in green discoloration.

This is another feature of the alloy: they must not react with ceramics in such a way as to damage the

aesthetics of the restoration. High gold alloys have the advantage that they have been around for some

time and clinical experience has shown that they are very successful. In particular, the bond between

ceramics and metals is very strong and very reliable. The main disadvantage of high-gold alloys is the

relatively low melting temperature, their susceptibility to creeping at high temperatures and their

modulus of low elasticity. The minimum thickness to overcome 0.5 mm is needed with its use. In
situations of biological limitations, this can cause aesthetic problems and often result in over-contouring

to cover metal colors. In this case, Pd-Ag and base metal alloys are more attractive.

High palladium alloy

These alloys are mainly palladium, with other small addition elements, such as copper, gallium and tin;

they became very popular in the mid to late 1970s, when the price of gold increased substantially.

Palladium prices also increase and even this alloy is not appreciated because of the cost. Copper, which

can be present in amounts up to 15%, may be a surprising addition, because this might be thought to

cause porcelain discoloration. However, unlike gold alloys, the inclusion of copper in palladium alloys

does not seem to have this effect. Their sagging resistance can be bad because of excessive creep on

ceramic firing.

Palladium-silver alloy

The Pd-Ag alloy has the most beneficial elastic modulus of all from precious metal alloys, resulting in

casting with low flexibility and a reduced tendency to sag on porcelain firing. The alloy is somewhat less

forgiving in terms of castability and fit, but as long as the appropriate procedure is followed, the results

can be as good as the gold alloy. Because of the high amount of silver, there is concern that porcelain

discoloration can occur. This problem appears to be more severe with certain alloy-porcelain

combinations than others, and can be minimized by careful selection of combination metal-porcelain.

Many dismissals must be kept to a minimum, and overheating of the alloy is avoided.

Nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy

The Ni-Cr-Mo alloy has a composition that is typically 77% Ni, 12% Cr and 3.5% Mo, although Mo and Cr

content can rise to 9% and 22% respectively at the expense of nickel. The Ni-Cr-Mo alloy is very rigid,

because its modulus of elasticity can be around 2.5 times higher than that of a high gold alloy. This has
the advantage that the thickness of the overcome can be reduced from 0.5 mm to 0.3 mm, which

reduces the problem of over-contouring. That also means this alloy is a better choice for resin bonded

bridges, especially those that have a cantilever design, where high elastic modulus helps reduce stress

on the adhesive layer. They will also be better for the construction of long span bridges, because they

provide greater stiffness and, because of the high melting temperature, there is less potential for sag

during combustion. The disadvantage with this alloy is that casting is more difficult and casting higher

shrinkage can cause incompatibility problems. Also, clinical experience will show that ceramic-to-metal

bonds are not as reliable as for other alloys. However, because more experience is gained with these

alloys, so their performance might increase. Low cost of alloy is of course very interesting. Ni-Cr alloy

biocompatibility has long been a problem of concern. Nickel is a recognized allergen, although reports of

nickel allergies arising from intra-oral devices are rare. Beryllium (Be) (<0.9%) was added to several Ni-Cr

alloys to increase castability and increase bonding with porcelain. However, Be can be a potential

problem for dental technicians. Mechanical burrs and polishing processes cause the release of Be, which

is a known carcinogen. Also the release of Be is about 5-6 times the composition of large quantities.

Commercial Pure Titanium (CPTi)

The use of cpTi teeth has been discussed in Chapter 3.3 on alloy casting. It also became popular for

metal-ceramic restorations due to good corrosion resistance, excellent biocompatibility, low weight and

relatively low cost compared to precious metal alloys. However, there are a number of additional

problems such as those appropriate for the address here, relating to their use with ceramics. When

titanium is cast, a reaction layer with a thickness of 50 100 µm is formed on the surface of the casting

because there is an interaction between titanium and refractory investment. This reaction of the coating

can become clearer during the next ceramic burning cycle. This layer, if not removed, will interfere with

the ceramic bond with titanium. Various suggestions have been put forward to deal with this problem
and include sand blasting, silicon-nitride layers and dissolution of immersion. Casting problems can be

avoided by producing restorations using alternative techniques, which consist of spark erosion and

copymilling. However, titanium has a high chemical reactivity and, if taken above 800 ° C, this creates a

thick oxide layer, with the consequence of weak bonding with ceramics. Unlike the alloys described

above, titanium has an expansion coefficient of 9.6 ppm / ° C. Thus ceramics containing leucite

developed for metal-ceramic alloys are inappropriate and it is important that ceramics specifically

designed for use with cpTi are used. Ceramic bonding to CPTi is problematic and the bond strength is not

as good as that obtained for alloys.

SUMMARY

Metal-ceramic restorations can produce good aesthetic results. The presence of metal frames that must

be covered by ceramics is a limitation of this system, but if given enough space to work, dental

laboratory technicians can produce very good results. However, this means that this restoration

inherently damages the tooth structure. The main advantage of metal-ceramic restorations above

allceramic restorations is their resistance to fracture. Until recently, short span bridges could have been

made of ceramics, such as metal bound to ceramics was the only option available for anything from

bridges to three small units. This situation is rapidly changing and new developments in high-strength

core ceramic systems using new materials challenge clinical situations which, for the past 40 years, have

been dominated by metal-ceramic restorations.