Bridge Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

Bridge Engineering 170 September 2017 Issue BE3

Volume 170 Issue BE3
Pages 204–218 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jbren.16.00013
Management of structural monitoring Paper 1600013
Received 03/03/2016 Accepted 20/10/2016
data of bridges using BIM
Published online 28/11/2016
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al. Keywords: bridges/building information modelling (BIM)/
information technology
Published with permission by the ICE under the CC-BY licence
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Management of structural
monitoring data of bridges
using BIM
Juan M. Davila Delgado BArchSc, MArch, MSc, PhD Ioannis Brilakis PhD, MASCE
Research Associate, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Lecturer, Laing O’Rourke Centre for Construction Engineering and
Cambridge, UK (corresponding author: [email protected]) Technology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Liam J. Butler BASc, PhD, PEng Mohammed Z. E. B. Elshafie BSc, MPhil, PhD
Research Associate, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Lecturer, Laing O’Rourke Centre for Construction Engineering and
Cambridge, UK Technology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Niamh Gibbons BAI, MA, MSc, PhD Campbell Middleton BE, MSc, DIC, PhD, CEng, CPEng, FICE, MIEAust
Course Leader, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Professor, Laing O’Rourke Centre for Construction Engineering and
Cambridge, UK Technology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

In addition to the traditional benefits associated with the installation of structural health monitoring systems,
reductions in construction, operational and maintenance costs, and improved performance and quality can be
achieved by effectively using the acquired data. However, considered in isolation, the raw data are of little use and
value. They must be processed and put into a geometric context within the infrastructure asset, which facilitates the
interpretation and analysis of the data. This supports informed decision making, which in turn leads to effective
actions. This study outlines a new approach that enables the modelling of structural performance monitoring systems
in a Building Information Modelling (BIM) environment and hence permits sensor data to be visualised directly on
BIM models. The paper addresses aspects related to: (a) interoperability and standard data models; (b) management
and visualisation of monitoring data; and (c) data interpretation and analysis. A prestressed concrete bridge, with a
comprehensive built-in structural performance monitoring system, has been used as a case study. The case study
demonstrates that by including and visualising monitoring data directly on BIM models the acquired data gain
geometrical context within the built asset, which facilitates better interpretation, analysis and all the data-sharing
benefits associated with the BIM approach.

Notation in sensing technologies that reduce fabrication and installation

αconc linear coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete costs while increasing reliability, these types of investments are
(per °C) becoming easier to substantiate and methods have been devel-
ΔεM change in mechanical strain oped to identify their potential value (Vardanega et al., 2016).
(Δλ/λo)S change in relative wavelength of strain sensor Moreover, data acquired by these systems can be used to
(Δλ/Δλo)T change in relative wavelength of temperature devise strategies to reduce operational and maintenance
compensating sensor costs, improve performance and quality, validate structural sol-
κε gauge factor, provided by strain sensor manufacturer utions, and develop more efficient designs and construction
κT temperature compensation constant, provided by processes for future projects. For example, monitoring systems
sensor manufacturer have been used to support the numerical modelling of existing
κTT change in refractive index of glass bridges to aid in assessing current conditions (Banerji et al.,
2014).

1. Introduction Structural monitoring systems usually output raw data that is

Monitoring structural performance is becoming common prac- of little use if considered in isolation, which can be considered
tice for a wide range of infrastructure assets both in terms of as one of the identified issues for structural monitoring (Aktan
type and size. Critical infrastructure assets justify the et al., 2000). These raw data need to be processed and organ-
additional investment in structural performance monitoring ised so that they can be easily accessed, exchanged and visual-
systems because unexpected failures and breakdowns would ised. This increases the value of the acquired data by
represent significant losses. Nowadays, owing to advancements facilitating better interpretation, analysis and decision making.

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

The management and exchange of monitoring data is 2. Interoperability and standard

addressed by the information technology approach known as data models
building information modelling (BIM). Its main purpose is to A robust exchange of information, that is, without any errors
manage digital representations of all information related to a or data loss, is central to the successful adoption of the BIM
built asset during its entire life cycle, to improve productivity approach. This is a big challenge given the fragmented and
and quality while reducing costs. The BIM approach has been varied nature of the construction industry, in which all-
employed mostly for the design and construction phases of encompassing software solutions are non-existent and different
built assets’ life cycles. As-designed BIM models, digital rep- parties use different software (Pauwels, 2014). As such, open
resentations of the built asset to be constructed, are developed standard data models have been developed to provide intero-
and used as the basis to implement the BIM approach. They perability between parties. These open, or non-proprietary,
facilitate collaboration between the parties involved; increase data models are publicly available and prescribe rules to
the quality and performance of the end products; reduce con- format and exchange data, which facilitate interoperability
flicts; increase predictability of the design and construction because any software solution can use them. To be able to
processes; reduce material waste; and contribute to faster con- employ the BIM approach for tasks related to structural per-
struction delivery. formance monitoring, open standard data models that fully
describe the infrastructure assets, monitoring systems and pro-
The operational phase of a built asset life cycle could represent cesses, and that manage and visualise the acquired data are
the largest opportunity for cost reduction because it represents required. In relation to monitoring and sensor data, many
the largest share of the entire life-cycle cost. Despite this, BIM standard data models have been developed, as reported by Hu
provisions, for example, software solutions, standards, business et al. (2007) and Lee (2007). In this paper, only standard data
cases, pilot projects and so on, are not yet sufficient. For models developed by Building Smart and the Open Geospatial
instance, BIM models that represent the actual conditions of Consortium (OGC) are addressed as they are the only ones
the constructed asset are not commonly used. These as-built closely related to the construction industry.
BIM models are essential to adopt the BIM approach fully
during the operational phase. The as-built BIM models should The OGC develops standard data models that are focused on
include data related to anomalies, damage and performance, navigation, facility planning, and emergency and asset man-
which is even less common because in practice much of the agement. These include, for example: CityGML for three-
data resides in accompanying documents (Dossick and Neff, dimensional (3D) modelling of cities; IndoorGML for indoor
2010). Moreover, lack of interoperability between software sol- navigation; WaterML for describing data from water obser-
utions and difficulties in exchanging information limit the vations; and InfraGML for infrastructure assets (currently
benefits of adopting the BIM approach (Ferrari et al., 2010), under development). Regarding monitoring, the OGC sup-
and the existing standard data models are not sufficient to ports the sensor web enablement (SWE) initiative that provides
describe fully infrastructure assets and structural monitoring web services and communication protocols for accessing online
systems (Davila Delgado et al., 2015; Gerrish et al., 2015; repositories of sensor data. SensorML (Botts and Robin, 2014)
Smarsly and Tauscher, 2015). has been developed as part of the initiative. It describes
devices and processes related to complex monitoring systems
An overview of a new approach to model structural perform- (Robin and Botts, 2006). However, its main limitation is that
ance monitoring systems is presented in this paper. The the object being monitored cannot be modelled and hence the
approach employs a standard data model to include and visu- geometric context, which is required for data interpretation,
alise structural performance monitoring data directly on BIM cannot be available.
models. This approach will then facilitate the development
and use of semantically rich as-built BIM models to manage Building Smart develops and maintains the industry foun-
sensor data in a BIM environment. Aspects regarding: dation classes (IFCs) (Liebich et al., 2013), which constitutes a
(a) interoperability and standard data models; (b) management specification that seeks to provide descriptions to model all
and visualisation of monitoring data; and (c) data interpret- data related to all phases of the life cycle of a built asset. It is
ation and analysis are particularly addressed in this paper. mostly used to describe data related to buildings during the
A fibre-optic-based structural monitoring system installed in design and construction phases. Building Smart is continually
a prestressed concrete girder bridge in Staffordshire, UK is increasing the IFC capabilities. Currently, extensions to the
used as a case study. A large data set is presented in this specifications are under development to enable the description
paper that captures the development of strains within the of infrastructure assets, for example, IFC bridge and IFC road.
reinforced concrete deck and prestressed concrete girders However, their application is very limited because they are not
during the continuous monitoring of the concrete deck curing official parts of the specification and are not supported by
of the bridge. authoring tools. With regards to monitoring and sensor data,

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

the IFC specification is able to describe basic monitoring 3. Modelling, management and
systems, as it includes entities intended to model building auto- visualisation of monitoring data
mation and control systems such as HVac (heating ventilation This section presents a new approach to model structural per-
and air conditioning), plumbing, electrical and so on. It does formance monitoring systems and to include and visualise
not have the same flexibility and capabilities to model complex sensor data directly on BIM models. The objectives of the
monitoring systems as SensorML, but it is able to model the structural monitoring systems dictate the requirements for data
object being monitored in a standard widely used in the con- modelling and visualisation. Therefore, it is important to
struction industry. define clear objectives for the monitoring systems and to con-
sider the future interpretation of the acquired data. As noted
Despite the wide range of open standard data models available, by Webb et al. (2014), the objectives of most structural moni-
the existing models are not sufficient to fully describe toring systems can be categorised as follows: (a) anomaly detec-
monitoring systems and processes or to effectively manage and tion, to detect fluctuations on measured parameters; (b) sensor
visualise sensor data (Davila Delgado et al., 2015). Asset per- deployment studies, to test different sensor technologies;
formance cannot be correctly managed in a BIM environment. (c) model validation, to validate whether the initial assumptions
The size of datasets, accuracy and levels of detail, and intero- and the predicted responses correctly represent the actual phys-
perability with existing formats to store historical performance ical situation; (d) threshold check, to detect when monitored
data are challenges for IFC implementation (Gerrish et al., parameters surpass a predetermined threshold, which could
2015). Additionally, it is difficult to include data related to the indicate problems; and lastly (e) damage detection, to deter-
configuration and topology of the sensor network, interaction mine type, location, extent and rate of damage in the structure.
protocols, monitoring strategies, embedded algorithms in These objectives are prescribed by the stakeholders, for
sensors and so on. A compilation of alternative approaches example, asset owners, asset managers and operators, structural
used in practice to deal with the lack of capabilities has been engineers, contractors, researchers, authorities, users and so on,
presented in the literature (Davila Delgado et al., 2015). depending on the condition of the asset in consideration or the
phase of the project if the asset is yet to be built.
Regarding structural performance monitoring, two cases exem-
plify efforts to integrate monitoring data into an open BIM
software environment. In the first case, strain sensors in a 3.1 Modelling structural monitoring systems
building were modelled in a BIM authoring tool (Rio et al., Defining the purposes of the modelled system is the first step
2013). The strain sensors were modelled as user-defined to model a structural monitoring system. Note that ‘modelled
instances of smoke sensors because the IFC specification does system’ refers to the abstract description of the actual structural
not considers any type of structural sensors. Although the monitoring system installed on the infrastructure asset.
approach for modelling the sensors and exporting the BIM Commonly, the purposes seek to facilitate: (a) development of
models between authoring tools was described, the paper does definitive designs of structural monitoring systems; (b) deploy-
not report how the data have been used. In the second case, ment, maintenance and operation; (c) visualisation of monitor-
data collected by temperature sensors in concrete elements ing data; and (d ) simulation of monitoring processes. The
were included in BIM models and also visualised using charts objectives of the structural monitoring systems should also be
(Chen et al., 2014). In this case, the reported solution succeeds considered when defining the purposes and requirements of the
in integrating the monitoring data into a BIM software modelled system, for example, structural monitoring systems
environment, but the data are still presented in a traditional for threshold checks and model validation would have specific
manner and do not take advantage of the BIM model itself. visualisation requirements when compared to other purposes.
Note that other proprietary solutions exist, but have not been
considered here because of their ad-hoc nature, which presents A preliminary design of the structural monitoring system
interoperability difficulties. These are mostly web-based sol- should be in place before starting the development of the
utions, in which the monitoring data can be accessed using a modelled system. The following actions are usually taken to
two-dimensional (2D) graphic interface. The data are presented develop a preliminary design of a structural monitoring
in charts and spreadsheets, and the visualisation is limited to system. Step 1, define the structural behaviours to be moni-
the location of sensors within the built asset in 2D diagrams. tored, for example, to monitor strains in the beams of a bridge
caused by traffic loads. Step 2, define the monitoring approach
For the approach presented in this paper, the IFC specification and the structural elements to be monitored. The required
has been used as a basis to model the monitoring system and devices to monitor the defined behaviours are selected in this
to include and visualise sensor data directly on the BIM step. Usually, three types of devices are needed in a monitoring
models. The lack of existing capabilities has been overcome system, namely, sensors, a communication network and a pro-
using proxy entities and user-defined property sets. cessing unit. Step 3, define the physical installation process of

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

the monitoring system. Requirements for the modelled system structural elements, in which the sensor systems and monitor-
should then be defined, which relate to: (a) level of detail, for ing assemblies are installed, define how the aggregation is
example, a modelled system for scheduling maintenance would carried out. The aggregated and individual entities are linked
require a higher level of detail than one for anomaly visualisa- with entities representing structural elements. Figure 1 shows a
tion; (b) level of accuracy; (c) types and frequency of recorded diagram of a modelled system, in which rectangles represent
data; (d) the users of the modelled system, for example, an modelled entities and attribute sets, dashed rectangles represent
asset manager would require different data displayed in a aggregations, and lines denote simple associations. Indentations
different manner than a structural engineer; and (e) retrieval of represent hierarchical levels. For each type of entity, various
data, that is, data stored directly on BIM models or linked attribute sets should be defined depending on the data and
from databases. attributes that need to be assigned to the modelled entity, for
example, geometrical properties, location, materials, monitor-
The system is modelled so that it closely represents the real-life ing strategies, sampling rates, data normalisation, raw data,
situation using an object-oriented approach. Data are rep- derived data, types of visualisation and so on. Examples of
resented in units called entities that have attributes. These enti- such types of attribute sets are presented in Figure 2. Once the
ties can represent physical objects (e.g. a sensor, a structural general framework of the modelled system has been devised,
element and so on) or abstract concepts (e.g. a process or an then it can be instantiated in the next step. The modelled enti-
event). Various modelled entities are aggregated into ‘sensor ties can then be populated with the acquired and inferred data.
systems’, which in turn are aggregated into ‘monitoring assem- The system has been modelled using Autodesk Revit. Proxy
blies’. The structural behaviour to be monitored and the elements and user-defined attribute sets have been used

Bridge Yll

Structural elements Fibre optic system Attribute sets

TY beams [Str. assembly] MA_beams [Monitoring assembly]

Location
TY7 beam_2 MA_TY7 beam_2 [Sensor system]
Specifications
Strand_1 DFOS_1
Methods
Strand_2 Sensor
Other 1
Strand_3 Con. element

Strand_4 PFOS_1 Other 2

Sensor
TYE7 beam_2 eometry

Sensor_1 Data_1
Strand_1
Con. element
Materials
MA_Deck [Monitoring assembly]
Deck [Str. assembly]
Data_1
MA_Trans_Tie_2 [Sensor system]

Tran_Tie_2 Visualisation
PFOS_2

Sensor Data_1
Bar_2
Topology
Sensor_2
Concrete
Other
Con. element

Figure 1. Diagram of the modelled system showing selected

monitoring entities and attribute sets

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

MA_TY7Beam_2 : Monitoring assembly

ID ID of the monitoring assembly

Type Type of monitoring assembly (e.g. DFOS, PFOS, combined, and so on)
Host Structural assembly to which is installed on

DFOS_l : Sensor system PFOS_l : Sensor system

ID ID of the entire cable ID ID of the entire cable
Type Type of cable Type Type of cable
Distance Length of the entire cable Distance Length of the entire cable
Spacing Distance at which readings are taken Spacing Distance between sensors
Host Elem. to which is installed (e.g. Beam2) Host Elem. to which is installed e.g. Beam2
Subhost Sub-element (e.g. Strandl) Subhost Sub-element (e.g. Strand4)
Sensor_l : Sensor Sensor_Al : Aggregation of sensors l –n

ID cable ID of the sensing section of the cable ID cable ID of the sensing section of the cable
Distance Length of sensing section of the cable Distance Length of sensing section of the cable
Size Number of sensing locations in section Size Number of sensors in section
Spacing Spatial resolution of cable Spacing Distance between sensors
Values List of time-stamped values
Sensor_ l : Sensor
DerQuant List of time-stamped values
RawVal List of time-stamped values Value Time-stamped value
DerQuant List of time-stamped values
RawVal List of time-stamped values

Figure 2. Examples of monitoring attribute sets for monitoring

assemblies, sensor systems and sensor entities

because the IFC specification does not include all of the populated. Note that, currently, BIM models are mostly static
necessary entities to model the system. This enables manage- representations of built assets at a particular point in time and
ment of structural performance monitoring data in a BIM BIM provisions only provide basic capabilities to represent
environment and provides basic interoperability. dynamic data. In this sense, to be able to fully represent
dynamic data, the BIM models should be able to automati-
3.2 Processing and management of sensor data cally update values and attributes given changes in an external
Data as outputted by the structural monitoring systems cannot data source. In the presented case study that follows, only data
be used directly. Before the data can be interpreted, used for belonging to certain time frames have been included in the
analysis, and included in BIM models, they first need to be BIM models.
processed into the correct physical quantity and units. They
also need to be corrected for other phenomena that may affect 3.3 Data visualisation
the measurements, such as ambient temperature. This data pro- Facilitating interpretation, analysis and decision making are
cessing is usually not carried out with the authoring tool, but the main aims for visualising data acquired by structural moni-
with other software solutions. The processed data are then toring systems. An effective visualisation of the acquired data
stored in plain text files or spreadsheets and subsequently will ultimately increase the value of those data. However,
imported into the authoring tool. This process can be auto- visualising structural monitoring data entails different require-
mated by developing additional software tools that use the ments than traditional visualisation of BIM models. Different
authoring tool application programming interface (API). types of visualisations must be developed for the different
Additionally, processing units provide only the recorded objectives of the interested stakeholders. For example, an
measurements, and do not include data relating to the location asset manager interested in identifying anomalies would
of the sensors or their spatial and hierarchical context within require a different visualisation than a structural engineer
the object being monitored. These data must be inferred from seeking to evaluate the in-service performance of specific struc-
the design of the structural monitoring system, the modelled tural elements. Three categories of data can be visualised:
system and additional documentation. Based on these inferred (a) data acquired by monitoring systems, which usually are pre-
spatial and hierarchical data, every entity is instantiated at its sented only in spreadsheets and graphs; however, by presenting
respective location and populated with its respective acquired the acquired data directly on BIM models, they gain geometri-
data. The attributes of the instantiated entities are also cal and spatial context within the built asset, facilitating their

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

interpretation; (b) derived information from the acquired data 4.1 The structural monitoring system
can be visualised as well – as an example, for a monitoring The specific monitoring objectives for this phase of the project
system that has been installed for the purposes of threshold were to quantify the variations in strain in various structural
checking, only the locations where the defined boundaries have elements due to the casting and curing of the concrete deck,
been exceeded need to be visualised, as opposed to the under- and to provide baseline measurements for future monitoring.
lying data set; (c) the configuration and topology of the sensor The purpose of the modelled system is to provide an intuitive
network and the components and their functioning states can 3D visualisation of the monitoring data for preliminary assess-
also be visualised to facilitate operational and maintenance ment of structural behaviour.
tasks. Alternative visualisation is not a common concept for
BIM environments. In this case, specific BIM models have Two fibre-optic-based monitoring systems were employed in
been developed for each alternative visualisation. They require this bridge, a distributed fibre-optic system (DFOS) and a
alternative geometrical and material attributes. More impor- point fibre-optic system (PFOS). The DFOS was based on the
tantly, the alternative visualisation attributes are linked, and use of Brillouin optical time domain reflectometry (BOTDR)
given defined scales and filters to varying monitored parameters, and the PFOS was based on the use of fibre Bragg gratings
so that changes in the monitoring data can be visualised. (FBGs). Both the DFOS and PFOS were included in the mod-
elled system. However, for simplicity, only the results from the
4. Case study PFOS are presented in this paper.
A fibre-optic strain sensor based structural monitoring system
has been installed in a newly constructed prestressed concrete The FBGs measure dynamic strain changes at discrete locations.
railway bridge in Staffordshire, UK. This new bridge is one of A variety of methods are available for manufacturing FBGs,
11 new structures comprising a major new rail redevelopment however, each method operates on the same principle of altering
on the West Coast main line known as the ‘Stafford Area the refractive index at a particular location along the length of
Improvements Programme’. Further details on the project are the fibre in order to create a dielectric mirror of a specified
reported by Gibbons et al. (2015). The bridge carries a single wavelength, known as the Bragg wavelength. For the FBG
lane of electrified railway using longitudinal precast prestressed strain sensors used in this study, this was achieved by exposing
concrete beams (types TY7 and TYE7) as main load-bearing the optical fibre core to a periodic pattern of ultraviolet light.
elements and a reinforced concrete deck that is cast in situ. When light passing through the optical fibre meets a grating, a
The 11·2 m single-span structure is simply supported on piled particular light spectrum is reflected from that grating. When an
reinforced concrete abutments and concrete wing walls. The FBG is strained, the shift change in Bragg wavelength is
installed structural monitoring system has been designed to measured and correlated to a particular strain value. Each indi-
monitor various structural elements during the manufacturing, vidual grating can be manufactured to correspond to a particu-
construction and operation phases of the project. The particu- lar wavelength, thereby allowing multiple gratings to be
lar focus of this paper includes the analysis and visualisation produced along a single fibre. The FBGs used in this study con-
of a large monitoring data set that captures the evolution of sisted of low-bend-loss fibre and they were manufactured at a
strains in the prestressed TY7 concrete beams, transverse bars 1 m spacing along the length of the fibre. To provide added
and the concrete deck during the curing of the concrete deck. durability during installation and operation, an additional glass-
In particular, the aim of this study is to investigate the effect of fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) coating was applied. An FBG
concrete shrinkage and thermal strain transfer from the cast- analyser produced by Micron Optics (sm130–700) was used in
in-situ deck and infill to the prestressed concrete girders. With combination with a Micron Optics channel multiplexer (sm041),
this particular structural system, the large volume of fresh con- which allows the system to interrogate 16 channels up to
crete (i.e. of the infill and deck) is expected to experience large 250 Hz (or four channels up to 1000 Hz). To compensate for
shrinkage strains relative to the older prestressed concrete temperature variations that affect the refractive index of glass
beams. A certain portion of these additional strains will then and thermal strain in concrete, separate FBG temperature com-
be transferred to the beams by way of concrete–concrete and pensating sensors were installed in parallel with the strain sensor
concrete–steel bond. Shrinkage of the concrete in situ will cables. Given that the strain sensor cables measure the total
induce a sagging moment in the beams (Hendy and Smith, strain due to both mechanical strain and temperature changes,
2007). Studies have demonstrated that this differential shrink- the measured temperature strain values must be subtracted from
age between the concrete deck and girder is a primary cause of the total strain change values to isolate changes due to mechan-
deck cracking (French et al., 1999). It is worth noting here that ical strain alone. The calculations and formulae used to carry
any other data set could have been chosen; the specific data out these temperature compensations are reported below.
presented in this paper are chosen to demonstrate the great
benefits that could be achieved when the sensor data are mod- In total, 140 FBG sensors were installed on the main structural
elled in the BIM environment. elements of the bridge, including six of the nine prestressed

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

concrete girders and at two transverse locations within the timestamp and wavelength for each FBG sensor. Data proces-
reinforced concrete deck and transverse cross ties. The detailed sing for converting shifts in wavelength to strain changes was
layout of the sensor network and installation procedures is pre- carried out using established methods reported in the literature
sented in Figures 3 and 4. Figure 5 presents the sensor systems (Kreuzer, 2006; Kurashima et al., 1993). The following
that were active during the curing of the concrete deck. expression was used to calculate the mechanical strain change
derived from the combined strain–temperature arrays.
Sensor installation proceeded over the course of several months   
1 Δλ ðΔλ=λo ÞT ðΔλ=λo ÞT
as the structure was being constructed (see Figure 6). The pre- 1: ΔεM ¼  κT  αconc
stressed beams were fabricated and instrumented offsite and κε λo S κTT κTT
were then transported and installed on the main bridge abut-
ments. The seven internal TY7 beams and two edge TYE7
beams were tied together using transverse reinforcing bars that This equation accounts for several effects: total (raw) strain,
run through cast-in voids within the beams at 610 mm spacing. changes in the refractive index of the glass due to temperature,
Once the ties were installed, fibre-optic cables were installed and thermal strain measured with the loose tube temperature
on the ties at both the mid-span and quarter-span of the bridge. compensating sensors. The data output by the processing unit
Once the top and bottom deck reinforcing mats were set and (and reported herein) have been translated to mechanical strain
tied in place, additional sensors were installed transversely on by correcting for temperature and separating the influences of
the top mat at the same mid-span and quarter-span locations as thermal and mechanical strain variations.
the instrumented transverse ties. All sensors were secured to the
reinforcement using plastic cable ties spaced at regular intervals. 4.3 The modelled system
Additional fibre-optic routing cables were spliced to the main The framework for the modelled system used in this case study
sensor cables and routed to a central housing unit adjacent to is presented in Figure 1. Note that for clarity only selected enti-
the bridge to facilitate monitoring operations. ties are presented in the diagram. The modelled system is com-
posed of two types of monitoring assemblies, MA_Beams and
4.2 Data pre-processing MA_Deck. They are associated with the structural assemblies
Strain and temperature changes along an optical fibre are line- TY_Beams and Deck, respectively. One instance of a sensor
arly proportional to changes in the wavelength of the reflected system is instantiated per each TY beam which has both a
light measured by the fibre-optic sensors. The raw data that are DFOS and a PFOS sensor system that are linked with a single
collected and processed by the fibre-optic analyser consist of a pre-stressing strand. Each DFOS and PFOS sensor system

11 200
Centreline Of Centreline of
bearing ‘A’ bearing
750 BM1
rth
No
750 BM2

750 BM3

750 BM4

6750 750 BM5

‘B’
750 BM6

750 BM7
Concrete deck and
transverse ties FOC
750 BM8
PCC beams FOC
Routing cables
750 BM9

5950 2975 2975

Figure 3. Prestressed concrete girder layout and concrete

deck plan: n, units are in mm. FOC (Fibre Optic Cables),
PCC (Prestressed Concrete Beams).

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

200 Thick reinforced

concrete deck

5950 2975 2975

1450 1450 Routing
1000
200 cables

700

Ten FBG (strain) top and bottom sensors spaced at 1000 mm c/c
Three FBG (temperature) top and bottom sensors spaced at 3000 mm c/c
11200
Bearing
supports
11900
Concrete deck and
transverse ties Foc
PCC beams FOC Section A
Routing cables (a)

2750 2750 200 Thick in situ reinforced

Six FBGs (strain and temperature) sensors spaced at 1000 mm c/c Installed on concrete deck
top layer of reinforcing steel
200

PCC beams FOC

Deck and ties
700 FOC
Routing cables
BM9 BM5 BM4 BM3 BM2 BM1
750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750 750

1700 1700
Four FBGs (strain and temperature) sensors spaced at Section B
1000 mm c/c installed on transverse ties
(b)

Figure 4. (a) Typical prestressed concrete girder sensor layout

(section A). (b) Typical transverse cross-section and sensor layout
(section B), units are in mm. FOC (Fibre Optic Cables), PCC
(Prestressed Concrete Beams).

consists of a sensor, a network communication element and a 4.4 Data visualisation and interpretation
connection element. The monitoring assembly MA_Deck only The following section provides an overview of the data
has PFOS sensor systems. Various attributes are linked to each obtained from 7 d of continuous monitoring of the concrete
sensor system. Figure 2 presents sample attributes for monitor- deck, transverse ties and prestressed beams during deck curing
ing assemblies, DFOS and PFOS sensor systems, and individual (dates corresponding to 13 July 2015 up to and including
sensors. The modelled system was able to include a low level of 20 July 2015). Data were recorded every minute and a baseline
detail because it would only be used for visualising overall strain value was taken at approximately 1 h following the com-
sensor data, for which only the sensors have been modelled in pletion of deck casting. These data were then incorporated
the authoring tool. The acquired data from DFOS only include directly into the developed BIM sensor elements and displayed
the readings and the relative distances at which they were taken, on the 3D model to provide a complete visualisation of the
while the acquired data from the PFOS included the reading strain changes throughout the entire structure over time.
and a timestamp. The spatial and hierarchical attributes were
inferred using the order in which the values are listed and infor- Figure 7 shows the development of mechanical strains in the
mation from the design documentation. Note that, for this case deck and the transverse ties over the entire 7 d curing period.
study, only data acquired by PFOS are presented. Note that the reported values have been compensated to take

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Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

Sensor system at
quarter-span deck

Sensor system at
mid-span deck

Sensor system in
beams

BM2 BM1
BM4
BM5

Figure 5. Sensor systems that were active during the curing of

the deck

Figure 6. Bridge under construction during deck casting

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

50

Top FBG top no. = 3

0
Bottom FBG bot no. = 2
Mechanical strain: με

–50

–100

–150

–200
13 July 2015 14 July 15 July 16 July 17 July 18 July 19 July 20 July 21 July 22 July
Time

Figure 7. Evolution of mechanical strains during first 7 d of deck

curing for the mid-span deck and transverse ties (baseline = post
deck casting/start of curing process)

into account strains due to thermal expansion and therefore compared to the transverse ties. This is most likely due to the
the strains are assumed to be mainly due to concrete shrinkage. higher concrete pore water evaporation that takes place closer
As expected, the strains developed in both the deck and ties to the free concrete surface (top of the deck).
exhibit a downwards trend and are negative, indicating com-
pression due to the shrinkage of the concrete during curing. To determine the effect of the net shrinkage that occurs in the
The deck appears to experience higher strains during curing deck and infill concrete on the prestressed beams, the sensor
and also fluctuates with diurnal temperature cycles as data for the beams were examined and are presented in

150

Top FBG top no. = 5

100 Bottom FBG bot no. = 5
Mechanical strain: με

50

–50

–100

–150
13 July 2015 14 July 15 July 16 July 17 July 18 July 19 July 20 July 21 July 22 July
Time

Figure 8. BM5 variation of top and bottom mechanical strains

during deck curing (baseline = post deck casting)

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

Figure 8. Note that this figure depicts only the top and bottom particular, it can be seen that the sensors in the quarter-span
sensors located at the mid-span of the beam. The main finding deck and transverse ties also register a net compressive strain
from the sensor data shows that, after 7 d of deck curing, the change during deck curing. Likewise, similar to the behaviour
top fibre of the beam experiences net change in compression of BM5, the other monitored beams BM1, BM2 and BM4
(approximately 50 microstrain) and the bottom strains fluctu- show negligible changes in bottom strains and permanent
ate but eventually have no net strain change. Therefore, a per- compressive top strains (on the order of approximately 50
manent difference in beam curvature (corresponding to microstrain) following 7 d of deck curing. Based on this
positive bending) is introduced as a result of this difference in general visual assessment of the distribution of strains, it may
top and bottom strains. This result is in accordance with the be inferred that the shrinkage strains induced during the
anticipated behaviour, as noted by Hendy and Smith (2007) curing of the concrete deck appear to be fairly uniform across
for the effect of differential shrinkage between cast-in-situ deck the top portion of the entire bridge structure. The actual
and prestressed girders. It should be noted that the mechanical measured behaviour based on this visual inspection has been
strains presented in Figure 8 do not include the additional verified by performing a more detailed analysis using plots
strains introduced due to the added weight of the concrete similar to Figures 7 and 8. Adding the sensor data into the
deck (i.e. baseline of strain data was taken as the start of BIM model has effectively transformed the model into a
curing). This baseline was chosen in order to isolate only the ‘living’ structure which enables different practitioners to evalu-
effect of the deck curing process on beam behaviour. ate its performance during the different stages. The data set
could easily be obtained from the sensors and visualised in the
Regarding the visualisation on the BIM model, an alternative BIM model at any given stage following construction com-
scaled-up and simpler geometry has been used to visualise the pletion and hence help to inform decision makers throughout
PFOS sensor systems as presented in Figure 9. To visualise the structure’s life cycle.
varying strains, a colour-coded scale has been used in the BIM
models, which is depicted in gray-scale in the images presented 5. Conclusions
here. The values of the strain attributes of each sensor entity There is a lack of provision to employ the BIM approach fully
have been linked with the material attributes. The correspond- for structural performance monitoring. Most notably, the data
ing material attributes for visualisation of monitoring data model standards are not yet sufficient to describe monitoring
have been adjusted for the structural elements as well. As pre- systems and processes, and there are no formalised directives
viously noted, a specific BIM model has been developed for to manage and visualise sensor data in a BIM environment.
each visualisation and analysed data set. The approach presented in this paper further advances the
development of BIM provisions for structural performance
The acquired sensor data, as presented above, can be included monitoring. It formalises a process to model monitoring
in the developed sensor entities and visualised directly on the systems and to manage and visualise monitoring data.
BIM model to facilitate data interpretation. For example, prior
to performing any detailed analyses, it is possible to inspect Data acquired during the casting and curing of a bridge con-
the BIM model directly and decipher the same trends that crete deck have been used as a case study. The semantically
were previously discussed but across an entire structural rich BIM models developed as part of this work serve primar-
element. In the case of the deck and tie elements, Figure 9 ily as a visualisation tool for asset managers and engineers.
shows the increasing levels of compression developed in the The case study showed that they can be used to facilitate more
sensor entities between the start of curing (13 July 2015) and streamlined approaches to structural monitoring and data
the end of the measured curing process (20 July 2015). Note management, and allow for a quick interpretation of general
that only selected dates are presented. Similarly, the sensor trends in structural behaviour. However, the interpretation of
data for BM5 can be visualised as shown in Figure 10. From the sensor data for the purposes of making decisions for long-
this figure the same trend identified using Figure 8 can now be term management strategies and safeguarding still requires the
interpreted directly on the BIM model (i.e. no net strain skills of an experienced and competent professional. Note that
change in bottom of beam and net compression induced in the visualising monitoring data directly on BIM models should
top of the beam). This type of comparison demonstrates the not replace traditional visualisation and interpretation
immediate value of this approach as the visualised sensor data methods using time-history charts and graphs. Both methods
can be quickly used to identify important trends in structural have their own benefits and disadvantages and are effective in
behaviour prior to undertaking more detailed analyses. different scenarios. Additionally, a BIM model that incorpor-
ates monitoring data that capture the structural performance
By combining the entire monitoring data set on the BIM of a bridge up to the end of its construction, would also
model as presented in Figure 11, general trends can be ident- become an invaluable component of the handover documents
ified across the entire structure at given points in time. In required as part of the commissioning process.

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

13 July 2015 Beam 5 Beam 4 Beam 2 Beam 1

(start of curing)

Beam 5 Beam 4 Beam 2 Beam 1

14 July 2015

Beam 5 Beam 4 Beam 2 Beam 1

16 July 2015

Beam 5 Beam 4 Beam 2 Beam 1

18 July 2015

20 July 2015 Beam 5 Beam 4 Beam 2 Beam 1

(end of curing)

200 (tension)
13 July 2015 1·5
14 July 2015 –80·5
16 July 2015 –105·1
18 July 2015 –126·6
0 (baseline) 20 July 2015 –136·3

–200 (compression)

Figure 9. BIM model of the deck at mid-span with integrated

sensor data and displayed at the start of deck curing

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

13 July 2015 –2·9

14 July 2015 42·8
16 July 2015 50·5
13 July 2015 18 July 2015 27·7
(start of curing) 20 July 2015 10·5

14 July 2015

16 July 2015

18 July 2015

20 July 2015
(end of curing)

200 (tension)

0 (baseline)

–200 (compression)

Pre-stressed beam: BM5

Figure 10. BIM model of beam BM5 with integrated sensor data
and displayed at the end of deck curing

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

200 (tension)

14 July 2015
0 (baseline)

–200 (compression)

20 July 2015
(end of curing)

Figure 11. Complete BIM models incorporating monitoring data

from start and end of deck curing

As noted in the paper, different monitoring objectives and data Acknowledgements

would require different modelling, management and visualisa- The authors gratefully acknowledge the Engineering and
tion requirements. In this sense, further work should be Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and Innovate
focused on finding and tackling challenges presented by mana- UK for funding this research through the CSIC Innovation
ging and visualising data acquired during different stages of and Knowledge Centre (EPSRC grant reference number
the asset’s life cycle. The visualisation of information derived EP/L010917/1); the on-site assistance of Jason Shardelow,
from the initial data set could also be developed, for example, Peter Knott, Hyungjoon Seo of CSIC and Jules Birks of
by including and visualising derived stresses and displacements Mott-MacDonald (formerly of CSIC); the technical assistance
and the associated load cases directly on the BIM models, in sensor development and procurement of Cedric Kechavarzi
which would be very useful when compared to the inspection and Philip Keenan of CSIC; James Oliver, Matthew Timmis,
idea, which could also be incorporated in the model. Brad Stanaway and Phil Holland of Laing O’Rourke; and

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 Bridge Engineering Management of structural monitoring
Volume 170 Issue BE3 data of bridges using BIM
Davila Delgado, Butler, Gibbons et al.

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Conference 2015, Eindhoven Technical University, To discuss this paper, please email up to 500 words to the
Eindhoven, The Netherlands (Beetz J (ed.)). pp. 1–11. editor at [email protected]. Your contribution will be
Gibbons N, Butler L, Williamson M et al. (2015) Monitoring the forwarded to the author(s) for a reply and, if considered
early age behaviour of prestressed concrete beams using appropriate by the editorial board, it will be published as
fibre optic sensors. In Proceedings of the 16th European discussion in a future issue of the journal.
Bridge Conference, Edinburgh, ECS Publications, Proceedings journals rely entirely on contributions from
Edinburgh, UK (Forde MC (ed.)). pp. 1–11. the civil engineering profession (and allied disciplines).
Hendy CR and Smith DA (2007) Designer’s Guide to EN 1992 Information about how to submit your paper online
Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures. is available at www.icevirtuallibrary.com/page/authors,
Part 2 – Concrete Bridges. Thomas Telford, London, UK. where you will also find detailed author guidelines.

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