Biological Molecules:

Carbohydrates:
These may be simple, soluble sugars or complex materials like starch and cellulose, but
all carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only. A commonly occurring
simple sugar is glucose, which has the chemical formula C6H12O6.
The glucose molecule is often in the form of a ring, represented as:
CH2OH
H C
C O
H
OH H
HO
or more
H C
C simply as
C OH
H

OH

Two molecules of glucose can be combined to form a molecule of maltose C12H22O11

enzyme
+ + H2O
O

C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C12H22O11 H2O

glucose glucose maltose water

Sugars with a single carbon ring are called monosaccharides, e.g. glucose and fructose.
Those sugars with two carbon rings in their molecules are called disaccharides, e.g.
maltose and sucrose. Mono- and disaccharides are readily soluble in water. When many
glucose molecules are joined together, the carbohydrate is called a polysaccharide.
Glycogen is a polysaccharide that forms a
food storage substance in many animal
cells. The starch molecule is made up of
one glucose unit
hundreds of glucose molecules joined
together to form long chains. Starch is an
important storage substance in the plastids
of plant cells. Plastids are important
organelles in plant cells. They are the sites
where molecules like starch are made and
stored. One familiar example of a plastid is
the chloroplast. Cellulose consists of even
longer chains of glucose molecules. The
chain molecules are grouped together to form microscopic fibers, which are laid down in
layers to form the cell wall in plant cells. Polysaccharides are not readily soluble in water.
Fats:
Fats are a solid form of a group of molecules H2—C—O— fatty acid
called lipids. When lipids are liquid they are

—
known as oils. Fats and oils are formed from glycerol H—C—O— fatty acid
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only. A molecule of

—
fat (or oil) is made up of three molecules of an H2—C—O— fatty acid
organic acid, called a fatty acid, combined with
one molecule of glycerol.
Lipids form part of the cell membrane and the internal
membranes of the cell such as the nuclear membrane.
Droplets of fat or oil form a source of energy when stored
in the cytoplasm.

fatty acid
chemical bond

glycerol

Proteins:
Some proteins contribute to the structures of the
cell, e.g. to the cell membranes, the mitochondria,
ribosomes and chromosomes. These proteins are
called structural proteins.
amino acids
There is another group of proteins called
enzymes. Enzymes are present in the membrane chemical bond
systems, in the mitochondria, in special vacuoles
and in the fluid part of the cytoplasm. Enzymes control the chemical reactions that keep
the cell alive. Although there are many different types of protein, all contain carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, and many contain sulfur. Their molecules are made up
of long chains of simpler chemicals called amino acids.
There are about 20 different amino acids in animal proteins, including alanine, leucine,
valine, glutamine, cysteine, glycine and lysine. A small protein molecule might be made
up from a chain consisting of a hundred or so amino acids, e.g. glycine–valine–valine–
cysteine–leucine–glutamine–, etc. Each type of protein has its amino acids arranged in a
particular sequence. The chain of amino acids in a protein takes up a particular shape as
a result of cross-linkages. Cross linkages form between amino acids that are not
neighbors, as shown in the figure. The shape of a protein molecule has a very important
effect on its reactions with substances, as explained in Enzymes.
For example, the shape of an enzyme molecule creates an active site, which has a
complementary shape to the substrate molecule on which it acts. This makes enzymes
very specific in their action (they usually only work on one substrate). Antibodies are
proteins produced by white blood cells called lymphocytes. Each antibody has a binding
site, which can lock onto pathogens such as bacteria. This destroys the pathogen directly,
or marks it so that it can be detected by other white blood cells called phagocytes. Each
pathogen has antigens on its surface that are a particular shape, so specific antibodies
with complementary shapes to the antigen are needed.
When a protein is heated to temperatures over Ser Cys Val Gly Ser Cys Ala
50 °C, the cross-linkages in its molecules break S S Val
Val
down; the protein molecules lose their shape and S S
Ser
will not usually regain it even when cooled. The Val Cys Ser Cys Val Cys Gly
protein is said to have been denatured. Because S

the shape of the molecules has been altered, the S

Val Cys Ala Ala Ser Gly
protein will have lost its original properties.
Egg-white is a protein. When it is heated, its molecules change shape and the egg-white
goes from a clear, runny liquid to a white solid and cannot be changed back again. The
egg-white protein, albumen, has been denatured by heat. Proteins form enzymes and
many of the structures in the cell, so if they are denatured the enzymes and the cell
structures will stop working and the cell will die. Whole organisms may survive for a time
above 50 °C depending on the temperature, the period of exposure and the proportion of
the cells that are damaged.

Structure of DNA:
A DNA molecule is made up of long chains of nucleotides, formed into two strands. A
nucleotide is a 5-carbon sugar molecule joined to a phosphate group (–PO3) and an
organic base (Figure 4.9). In DNA the sugar is deoxyribose and the organic base is either
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) or guanine (G).
Note: for exam purposes, it is only necessary to be able state the letters, not the names
of these bases.
The nucleotides are joined by their phosphate groups to form a long chain, often
thousands of nucleotides long. The phosphate and sugar molecules are the same all the
way down the chain but the bases may be any one of the four listed above.
The DNA in a chromosome consists of two strands (chains of nucleotides) held together
by chemical bonds between the bases. The size of the molecules ensures that A
(adenine) always pairs with T (thymine) and C (cytosine) pairs with G (guanine). The
double strand is twisted to form a helix (like a twisted rope ladder with the base pairs
representing the rungs).
A Nucleotide (Adenosine Monophosphate):
PO3
adenine

phosphate

organic base
deoxyribose

Part of a DNA Molecule with Four Nucleotides:

P
A (adenine)

organic
P
bases
C (cytosine)

P
G (guanine) one
nucleotide

P
T (thymine)

Model of DNA Structure:

The Drawing Shows Part of a DNA Molecule Schematically:

sugar–phosphate
chain

base pair

T (thymine)

A (adenine)

C (cytosine)

G (guanine)

the sequence
adenine–cytosine–guanine
is part of the genetic code
Water:
Water molecules take part in a great many vital chemical reactions. For example, in green
plants, water combines with carbon dioxide to form sugar. In animals, water helps to break
down and dissolve food molecules. Blood is made up of cells and a liquid called plasma.
This plasma is 92% water and acts as a transport medium for many dissolved substances,
such as carbon dioxide, urea, digested food and hormones. Blood cells are carried around
the body in the plasma.
Water also acts as a transport medium in plants. Water passes up the plant from the roots
to the leaves in xylem vessels and carries with it dissolved mineral ions. Phloem vessels
transport sugars and amino acids in solution from the leaves to their places of use or
storage.
Water plays an important role in excretion in animals. It acts as a powerful solvent for
excretory materials, such as nitrogenous molecules like urea, as well as salts, spent
hormones and drugs. The water has a diluting effect, reducing the toxicity of the excretory
materials.
The physical and chemical properties of water differ from those of most other liquids but
make it uniquely effective in supporting living activities. For example, water has a high
capacity for heat (high thermal capacity). This means that it can absorb a lot of heat
without its temperature rising to levels that damage the proteins in the cytoplasm.
However, because water freezes at 0 °C most cells are damaged if their temperature falls
below this and ice crystals form in the cytoplasm. (Oddly enough, rapid freezing of cells
in liquid nitrogen at below –196 °C does not harm them).

Summary of the Main Nutrients:

Nutrient Elements present Examples Sub-units

carbohydrate carbon, hydrogen, starch, glycogen, glucose
oxygen cellulose, sucrose
fat/oil carbon, hydrogen, vegetable oils, fatty
(oils are liquid oxygen (but e.g. olive oi
e. acids and
at room lower oxygen animal fats, glycerol
temperature, but content than e.g. cod liver oi
e.
fats are solid) carbohydrates) waxes
protein carbon, hydrogen, enzymes, muscle, amino acids
oxygen, nitrogen, haemoglobin, cell (about 20
sometimes sulfur membranes different
or phosphorus forms)