Ras 1 PDF

Fisheries Science Series
Toshio Takeuchi Editor
Application of
Recirculating
Aquaculture
Systems in Japan
Editor-in-Chief
Katsumi Aida
Professor Emeritus, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Series editors
Toyoji Kaneko
The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Hisashi Kurokura
Professor Emeritus, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
Tadashi Tokai
Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
This series presents cutting-edge studies and accumulated wisdom from Japan and
Asia, with titles addressing many of the aqua-bioscience and aquatic environment
fields that form the basis of fishery science. Most of our food originates on land, but
we cannot overlook food from the sea. Fishery science provides us with substantial
knowledge – knowledge of living organisms in water, their habitats and environ-
ment; the knowledge to utilize these organisms; the political and administrative
knowledge to organize social activities and systems to distribute fishery products;
and a technical and engineering knowledge of ships, fishing equipment, sea ports
and harbors. The discipline covers a huge variety of subjects, and each subject
includes basic and applicative aspects that are both related and essential to one
another. For fishery science to prosper, none of them can be ignored. As a country
with a long history of fish eating, Japan has created unique, world-class cultures and
technologies in fisheries, aquaculture, aquatic environments, seafood science, and
other fishery-related sciences. Through carefully selected state-of-the-art works on
topics in the field of fishery science, this series aims to contribute to the develop-
ment of fishery and the welfare of people around the globe. This is an official book
series of the Japanese Society of Fisheries Science.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13529

Toshio Takeuchi
Editor
Application of Recirculating
Aquaculture Systems in
Japan
Editor
Toshio Takeuchi
Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology
Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
ISSN 2522-0470 ISSN 2522-0489 (electronic)

ISBN 978-4-431-56583-3 ISBN 978-4-431-56585-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56585-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017958819
© Springer Japan KK and the Japanese Society of Fisheries Science 2017

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Foreword to the Series
We all have to survive, and most of our food originates from that grown on land, but
we can’t overlook food from the sea. We catch creatures living in the water
ecosystem by fishing techniques and eat them raw or cooked. That whole process
and related activities are collectively called “fishery,” and fishery is supported by
fishery science that relates to a vast range of fields.
Fishery science brings us much knowledge—biological knowledge of the life in
water; knowledge about their habitats and environment; knowledge to utilize these
lives; political and administrative knowledge to organize social activities and
system to distribute fishery products; technical and engineering knowledge of
ships, fishing equipment, seaports, and harbors; and so on. It covers a great variety
of subjects, and each subject contains both basic and applicative aspects relating to
and essential to one another. To have fishery science prosper in human society,
none of them can be ignored.
This series includes many of the aqua-bioscience fields and aquatic environment
fields as the base of fishery science.
In this Fisheries Science Series, we provide you with carefully selected up-
todate topics of excellent works in the fields of fishery science. We hope our series
can contribute to the development of fishery and the welfare of people worldwide.
Tokyo, Japan Katsumi Aida

July 2017 Series Editor-in-Chief
v
Preface
In 2006, a shocking report was published in Science that stated that the world’s fish
stocks would be depleted by 2048. Other reports followed on the declining
populations of bluefin tuna, eels, and other fish species one after the other. The
prospect of disappearing fish stocks took on a realistic tone.
On the other hand, the global human population is expected to surpass 9 billion
in 2050, leading concerned experts to warn us of an imminent food supply crisis. In
such a situation, demand for fisheries products has been growing in Europe, North
America, and East Asia, with the annual per capita consumption of seafood
reaching 20 kg in 2014. As an increasing amount of protein is taken from the sea,
fish farming has been developing so much as to almost surpass wild fisheries as the
main sector within the fishing industry, accounting for 44% of the industry’s total
output in 2014.
However, aquaculture poses many problems that must be solved. For example,
the massive importation of cultured shrimps and other marine products from
developing countries into Japan causes coastal environmental deterioration due to
the felling of mangrove necessitated by aquaculture. In Japanese coastal areas, self-
contamination has been spreading due to net cage fish culture. The document titled
“The Future We Want,” adopted at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development (UNCSD or “Rioþ20”) held in June 2012, states in its section on
agriculture, forestry, and fisheries that sustainable agricultural production and
productivity must be boosted in consideration of diverse agricultural practices in
the respective countries. Along this line of thought, we believe that initiatives for
resource-recycling and a more sustainable growth-oriented culture of aquatic
resources will become far more important in the future.
Unlike in the West, aquaculture in Japan is mainly conducted on the sea surface.
In other words, it is mariculture that is particularly active in Japan. The mariculture
of yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata, red sea bream Pagrus major, and coho
salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch, which accounts for almost 90% of the country’s
total mariculture output, is entirely net cage-based, while a land-based running
water system is used for Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus and kuruma
vii
viii Preface
prawn Marsupenaeus japonicus. Since these farming methods all involve feeding,
they tend to cause red tide and a deterioration of water quality in fish farms in inner
bays and surrounding coastal areas. It is therefore necessary to prevent eutrophica-
tion and the accumulation of sediment in these coastal areas. The preventive
measures that have been taken thus far include water quality control through the
adjustment of population density within net cages and the improvement of feed
forms and feeding methods so as to reduce feed remnants and undigested feed. In
more recent years, active research has been carried out on integrated fish farming, in
which nitrogen and phosphorus released by fish are used for the culture of algae,
and closed recirculating land-based aquaculture systems, in which fish excrement is
not released into the sea.
This book introduces the application of recirculating aquaculture systems in
Japan from the viewpoint of bioscience, in the hope of contributing to the further
development of aquaculture, whose output has been growing on a global scale. The
book also outlines problems to be solved for future generalization, economic and
business aspects of land-based aquaculture, as well as business opportunities. In
concrete terms, closed recirculating aquaculture systems are outlined, and examples
of their application to various marine fish types are presented. Also discussed are
ecologically integrated fish farming, aquaponics, and closed ecological
recirculating aquaculture systems, in which fish excrement is put to effective use,
and systems for the eventual industrialization of closed recirculating land-based fish
farming.
In July 2013, the Fisheries Agency of Japan organized a meeting on the future of
fish farming, where proposals were made regarding land-based aquaculture. The
meeting concluded that fish farmers were expected to actively engage in land-based
aquaculture because, as stated in the Basic Plan for Fisheries, it is useful in
diversifying fish farms, promoting new local industries in fishing villages, and
creating jobs for which specialist knowledge and expertise may be utilized. Accord-
ingly, it is expected that land-based aquaculture will be promoted as a national
policy.
It is my hope that this book will serve not only as a textbook for undergraduate
and postgraduate students but also as a useful reference for corporate researchers
considering the fish farming business. I would like to express my deep gratitude to
the members of the editing committee, who carefully reviewed my manuscript, and
the staffs at the Japanese Society of Fisheries Science and Springer Japan for their
kind cooperation regarding publication. I dedicate this book to my beloved wife,
“Le Vien (Eri),” who has supported me for 40 years.
Tokyo, Japan Toshio Takeuchi

August 2017
Contents
Part I What Is Recirculating Aquaculture Systems?

1 Overview of Land-Based Recirculating Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Toshio Takeuchi
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Current Status of CRAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 What Is Land-Based Aquaculture? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 The Current State of Land-Based Aquaculture . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 A History of Land-Based Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4 Advantages of CRAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5 Features of Representative Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Challenges in the Popularization of Land-Based Aquaculture . . . 11
1.3.1 Comparisons of Mariculture and Land-Based
Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.2 Development of New Fish Culture for RASs . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Economics and Feasibility of Land-Based Aquaculture . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1 Economics-Based Approach Toward Planning,
Facility Design, and Profitability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2 Costs Involved in Land-Based Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5 Possible Business Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Part II Basic Information of Closed Recirculating Systems

from the View Point of Bioscience
2 Characteristics of Closed Recirculating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Yoshihisa Yamamoto
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Physical Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.1 Methods of Physical Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
ix
x Contents
2.2.2 Sedimentation Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2.3 Screen Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.4 Coagulation-Sedimentation Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.5 Granulated Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.6 Foam Separation Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.7 Effectiveness of the Foam Separation Unit
in CRAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Biofiltration Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.1 Nitrification Function of Biofiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.2 Types of Biofiltration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.2.1 Submerged Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.2.2 Trickling Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.2.3 Moving Bed Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.2.4 Rotating Disk Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.2.5 Intermittent Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.2.6 Floating Bead Bioclarifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.2.7 Immobilization Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.3 Influential Factors of Nitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.3.1 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.3.3 pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.3.4 Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.3.5 Ammonium Nitrogen and Nitrite
Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.3.6 Trace Element Ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.3.7 Other Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.4 Biofilter Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.4.1 Maturation of Biofilter Medium . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3.4.2 Characteristics and Selection
of Biofilter Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Disinfection Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1 Methods of Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1.1 Ultraviolet Ray Disinfection
(UV Disinfection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1.2 Ozone Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4.1.3 Electrolytic Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.1.4 Copper Ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.1.5 Other Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5 Oxygen Supply System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.6 Removal of Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.7 Denitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.8 Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Contents xi
Part III Tackle of Recirculating Aquaculture in Fishes

3 Eel Anguilla japonica: Toward Zero Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Yoshihiro Suzuki and Toshiro Maruyama
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 Experimental Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2.1 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2.2 Fish Rearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.2.3 Procedure for Sludge Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.2.4 Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3 Eel Culture in Closed Recirculating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.1 Survival and Growth of Eel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.2 Fish-Rearing Density and Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.3 Quality of Rearing Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3.4 Characteristics of Foam Separation Process . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3.5 Recovery and Utilization of Sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3.6 Mass Balances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3.7 Economical Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4 Pejerrey Odontesthes bonariensis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Hiroyuki Yoshino
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2 The Experimental System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2.1 The System Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2.2 Details of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.3 Experiment Materials and Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.1 Experiment Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.1 Rearing Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.2 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4.3 System Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.5 Rearing in Two Kinds of Water Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.5.1 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.5.2 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5 Japanese Flounder Paralichthys olivaceus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Kotaro Kikuchi
5.1 Aquaculture of Japanese Flounder in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.2 Development of Closed Recirculating Aquaculture
Techniques for Japanese Flounder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.1 Design of Water Treatment System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2.2 Management of Culture Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
xii Contents
5.2.3 Factors Affecting Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

5.2.4 A Trial to Produce Japanese Flounder with
a Closed Recirculating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.2.5 Quality of Japanese Flounder Produced with
Closed Recirculating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6 Kuruma Shrimp Marsupenaeus japonicus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Yoshihiro Suzuki
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.2 System for Bench-Scale Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.3 Growth of Juvenile Shrimp and System Performance . . . . . . . . 129
6.3.1 Rearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.3.2 Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.3.3 Growth of Juvenile Shrimp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.3.4 Quality of Rearing Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.3.5 Characteristics of Foam Separation Process . . . . . . . . . 132
6.3.6 Mass Balances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.4 Mating Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.4.1 Rearing for Mating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.4.2 Mating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.5 Spawning Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.5.1 Rearing for Spawning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.5.2 Spawning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.6 Actual Scale System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7 White Shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Marcy N. Wilder and Setsuo Nohara
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.1.1 Growth of the World’s Aquaculture Industry . . . . . . . . 146
7.1.2 Selection of Target Species Suitable for Land-Based
Aquaculture in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.1.3 Why Were Shrimp Selected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.1.4 Development Strategy (Industry-Government
Collaboration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.2 Main Achievements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.2.1 Osmoregulatory Mechanisms in L. vannamei . . . . . . . 152
7.2.2 Reproductive Mechanisms in L. vannamei . . . . . . . . . 152
7.2.3 Optimum Water Temperature and Oxygen
Consumption Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.2.4 Unique Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.2.5 Evaluation of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Contents xiii
7.2.6 Basic Nutritional Requirements of L. vannamei . . . . . . 155

7.2.7 Summary of Development Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.3 Features of the Development System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.3.1 ISPS Technology Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.3.2 Learning Curve: Problems Encountered during the
Research Development Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.4 Challenges Relating to Business Promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.4.1 High Cost of Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.4.2 Finding Steady Customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.4.3 Current Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.4.4 Ideal Business Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.5 Global Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.6 Integrated Approaches to Developing Land-Based
Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.6.1 Approaches to Aquaponics in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8 Abalone Haliotis spp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Yoshikazu Koizumi and Youichi Tsuji
8.1 General Information on Abalone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.1.1 Species and Geographical Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.1.2 History and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.1.3 Current Trends of Abalone Production in Japan,
China, and Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.1.4 Significance of Abalone Culture by Using
a Land-Based Recirculating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.2 Abalone Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.2.1 Seed Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.2.2 Grow-Out Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.3 Water Quality Requirements and System Overview
for Land-Based Abalone Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.3.1 Importance of Recirculating Water Treatment . . . . . . . 185
8.3.2 System Overview for Abalone Culture in RAS . . . . . . 187
8.3.3 Parameters and Standards of Water Quality Control
for Rearing Abalone in RAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.4 Water Treatment Technologies for Maintenance of Water
Quality in RAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.4.1 Nitrification Using Polypropylene Short Tubular
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.4.2 Automated Batch Processing Denitrification
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.4.3 Treatment of Recalcitrant Dissolved Organic
Matter (DOM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
xiv Contents
8.5 Business Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

8.5.1 Reduction of Capital Expenditure and Operating
Expense (Engineering Aspect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.5.2 Increase of Abalone Productivity
(Scientific Aspect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.5.3 Sales and Marketing Managements
(Marketing Aspect) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Part IV Applications and Other Consideration for Recirculating

Aquaculture Systems
9 Seed Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Yoshihisa Yamamoto
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.2 The Characteristic of Seed Production in CRAS . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
9.3 The Characteristic of CRAS for Seed Production . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9.4 Construction of CRAS for Seed Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.5 The Fundamental Units, Their Function, and Suitable
Conditions in Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.5.1 Reservoir Tank and Net Filtration Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.5.2 Foam Separation Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.5.3 Biofilter Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.5.4 UV Disinfection Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.5.5 Recirculation Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.6 Cases of Research on CRAS for Seed Production in Japan . . . . 224
9.6.1 Optimum Biofilter Media and Its Relationship
with Foam Separation Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.6.2 Culturing Water; Artificial Seawater, Low Salinity . . . 229
9.6.3 Suitable Recirculation Rate in CRAS for Seed
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.7 Cases on Demonstration of CRAS for Seed Production . . . . . . 232
9.7.1 The Case of Disease Prevention; Kagawa
Prefectural Fisheries Experiment Station . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9.7.2 The Case of High Productivity in Low Salinity;
Hiroshima Prefectural Technology Research
Institute of Fisheries Marine Technology Center . . . . . 233
9.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
10 Aquarium Recirculation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Naoyuki Kato and Mutsumi Kawamata
10.1 Closed-Circulation Systems in Aquaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.1.2 Overall Configuration of the Latest Water Treatment
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Contents xv
10.2 Three Components of the Latest Water Treatment System . . . . 239

10.2.1 Development of an Artificial Saltwater
Manufacturing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
10.2.2 Development of a High-Performance
Water-Conserving Filtration System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.2.2.1 System Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.2.2.2 Optimization of Denitrification Reaction
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.2.2.3 Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
10.2.2.4 Demonstration Using USB Denitrification
Tank with Granules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
10.2.3 Development of a Saltwater Reuse System . . . . . . . . . 253
10.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
11 Aquaponics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Toshio Takeuchi and Masato Endo
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
11.2 Overview of Aquaponics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
11.3 Preliminary Attempts at Tokyo University of Marine Science
and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
11.3.1 Nitrogen and Other Minerals in Wastewater
from Fish Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
11.3.2 Hydroponics of Basil on Fish Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.3.3 Culture of Tilapia and White Radish Sprouts . . . . . . . . 262
11.3.4 Saltwater Aquaponics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
11.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
12 Advantages of Environmentally Sound Poly-eco-aquaculture
in Fish Farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Shusaku Kadowaki and Yuuki Kitadai
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
12.2 Heavy Environmental Load by Mono-aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . 268
12.3 Environmentally Sound Poly-eco-aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
12.4 The Cultural Density of Seaweed Necessary for Water
Purification in Fish Farms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
12.4.1 Environment of the Seaweed Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . 273
12.4.2 Growth of Seaweeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
12.4.3 Nitrogen and Phosphate Uptake Rates of Seaweed
Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
12.4.4 Production and Consumption of Oxygen by the
Seaweeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
xvi Contents
12.4.5 Seaweed Cultural Density in Relation to Nitrogen

Load in Fish Farm Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
12.4.6 Seaweed Cultural Density to Oxygen Consumption
by Cultured Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
12.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
13 Closed Ecological Recirculating Aquaculture Systems . . . . . . . . . . 279
Toshio Takeuchi
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
13.2 The Closed Recirculating Fish-Rearing System . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
13.2.1 Freshwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
13.2.2 Saltwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
13.3 Microalgae–Tilapia Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
13.3.1 Tilapia Fed a Microalgae Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
13.3.2 Tilapia Egg Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
13.3.3 Tilapia Taste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
13.3.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
13.4 Transgenic Nile Tilapia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
13.5 Fish Waste–Microalgae Culture in Freshwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
13.5.1 Scenedesmus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
13.5.2 Spirulina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
13.5.3 Chlorella–Moina Feedback Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
13.5.4 Fish Waste–Microalgae Culture in Salt Water . . . . . . . 289
13.6 Gas Exchange between Chlorella and Tilapia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
13.7 Estimation of the Mass Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
13.8 Photoperiod Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
13.8.1 Tilapia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
13.8.2 Saltwater Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
13.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
14 Local Survey and Consideration of Land-Based Factory
for Closed Recirculating Aquaculture Using Waste Heat
Discharged from Biomass Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Masato Endo, Kunihiko Mouri, and Toshio Takeuchi
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
14.2 Research Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
14.3 Survey of Biomass Abundances and Needs Assessment
on Fisheries Products in the Kuji Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
14.3.1 Biomass Abundances in the Kuji Area . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
14.3.2 Needs Assessment on Fisheries Products . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Contents xvii
14.4 Consideration of a Land-Based Facility for Recirculating

Aquaculture Using Waste Heat Discharged from Biomass
Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
14.4.1 CRAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
14.4.2 Biomass Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
14.4.3 Energy Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
14.5 Evaluation of Projects on Heat Utilization of Biomass Power
Plant for Closed Recirculating Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
14.5.1 CRAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
14.5.2 Biomass Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
14.5.3 Eco-farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
14.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Part I
What Is Recirculating Aquaculture
Systems?
Chapter 1
Overview of Land-Based Recirculating
Aquaculture
Toshio Takeuchi
Abstract Land-based aquaculture systems can be divided into two types, those
that use running water and those that recirculate water in a closed system. In Japan,
recirculating aquaculture systems (RASs) that have a water exchange rate of below
5% in total volume are further specified as closed recirculating aquaculture systems
(CRASs). This section gives an overview of the recent developments in research on
land-based aquaculture, and on CRAS in particular, as a preparation for the case
studies from Chap. 2 onward. In short, this section will describe the current state of
CRAS, its features, advantages, and development history, as well as the challenges,
economics, feasibility, and business opportunities for CRAS in the future.
Keywords Land-based aquaculture • Closed recirculating aquaculture system •

History • Economics
1.1 Introduction
Conventional aquaculture has its own disadvantages, which led to the development
of CRAS. Currently, most aquaculture fisheries, such as red sea bream Pagrus
major, yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata, and Pacific bluefin tuna Thunnus
orientalis, are conducted as mariculture using net cages. Figure 1.1 illustrates a
disadvantage of this net cage culture (Hall et al. 1992), using rainbow trout
Oncorhynchus mykiss as an example species. Although rainbow trout is a freshwa-
ter fish, it is an appropriate example, because it is a well-studied fish culture that
also can be kept in saltwater, where it is known as steelhead. In the past, fish in net
cages were fed either raw fish or moist pellets, which combined raw fish and mash
feed. Currently, fish are more often given only dry pellets. As soon as fish have
reached a marketable size, they are harvested, and 27–28% of the nitrogen given as
feed is redeemed as fish. Death accounts for 2–5% of nitrogen; however, the main
disadvantage is that the rest is lost to the environment, as shown at the bottom of the
T. Takeuchi (*)
Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato,
Tokyo 108-8477, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]
© Springer Japan KK and the Japanese Society of Fisheries Science 2017 3

T. Takeuchi (ed.), Application of Recirculating Aquaculture Systems in Japan,
Fisheries Science Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56585-7_1
4 T. Takeuchi
Nitrogen budget of net cage culture In the report of Hino et al.(1999),

annual nitrogen, phosphorus
(example of rainbow trout) load from fish culture (320,000
Commercial Seed Harvest tons/year) become equivalent to
feed 93-95% 5-7% 27-28% Mortality the load amount in terms of the
etc. 2-5% number of people.
Net cage Conversion of TN:

Sea water N load from people of
Dissolved
materials
5420-7500 thousand.
Live Conversion of TP:
foods such as urine
48% P load from people of
10 million.
Dispersion of Sedimentation(remain Enormous load in

ocean stream Elution feeds, feces) coastal zone
Flow out
23% outside
1-3% 71%
Re-suspension Exfoliation
Serious problem in the
Waste
area of densely crowded
12-20%
Sea bottom with net cages for
HHall et al.1992 mariculture
Fig. 1.1 Problems of net cage mariculture (Modification of Hall et al. 1992 in left side and Hino
et al. 1999 in right side)
figure. Effluents such as urine and soluble nitrogen account for 48% of the nitrogen,
and fecal and feed scrap sediments account for 23%. These add up to 71% of
nitrogen being wasted, which clearly contributes to marine pollution. According to
calculations regarding aquaculture in Japan published in 1999 (Hino et al. 1999),
the quantity of total nitrogen wastes derived from both inland water aquaculture and
mariculture is equivalent to that produced by 5.42 to 7.5 million people, and total
phosphorus waste is equivalent to that of 10 million people; these figures represent
significant amounts of pollution. This would not pose as large of a concern if the
effluent were spread around the whole coastline; however, aquaculture is conducted
in a limited number of locations concentrated in coastal zones such as the Seto
Inland Sea and Ise Bay. Essentially, mariculture will inevitably lead to massive
self-pollution.
This section will introduce land-based aquaculture, especially CRAS, in order
to further stimulate the global growth of aquaculture. It also provides an over-
view on the challenges regarding the popularization, economics, and feasibility
of land-based aquaculture as well as the business opportunities that it can
provide.
1 Overview of Land-Based Recirculating Aquaculture 5
1.2 Current Status of CRAS
Due to the limited number of marine resources, the global production capacity of
marine fisheries will inevitably be reached as the global demand for aquatic
products continues to swell. It is therefore necessary to turn to aquaculture to
meet this increasing demand. However, mariculture can be deployed at only a
limited number of suitable locations. These limited conditions led to the fast
development and industrialization of land-based aquaculture, such as CRAS,
which does not require a location with specific conditions and has a higher
productivity potential than offshore sea and inland water aquaculture.
Two factors have contributed to this fast development. The first factor is the
effect of legal restrictions concerning pollution load, in the form of total effluent
regulations and the Water Pollution Prevention Act. Until recently, aquaculturists
regarded themselves as the victims of water pollution, as pollution in lakes, rivers,
and enclosed bays has a negative impact on fish. With the discovery that the effluent
from net cage mariculture causes self-pollution, as mentioned earlier, this opinion
has changed. Now, aquaculturists are held responsible for the damages caused by
eutrophication, and solutions are demanded of them, especially for reducing fresh-
water and saltwater levels of nitrogen and phosphorus (Takeuchi 2002; Takeuchi
et al. 2002).
The second factor is the shifting trend of consumer awareness toward safety in
aquaculture products. Consumers now demand transparent, completely regulated
production systems that provide safe, responsible, and stable products as efficiently
as possible. One result of this shifting awareness is the application of the hazard
analysis critical control point (HACCP) system to the production processes of
aquatic products. HACCP has already been implemented in other areas of food
production, and between 1998 and 2000, Japan’s national fishery agency tasked the
Japan Fisheries Association with implementing HACCP in aquaculture. This first
resulted in the HACCP manual for yellowtail, followed by the manual for seaweed
Porphyra tenera and scallop Patinopecten yessoensis (Japan Fisheries Association
2000, 2001). Furthermore, the March 2007 meeting of the Japanese cabinet resulted
in the introduction and standardization of the good aquaculture practice (GAP)
methods in its basic fishery plan, and by March 2010, the handbook for the GAP
method was created. The March 2011 great east Japan earthquake further increased
consumers’ concerns for safety. With the dispersal of radioactive substances,
especially cesium-137, following the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear
Power Plant, assuring the safety of aquatic products from the Fukushima area has
become even more difficult. These events led to a further realization that the best
way to pursue the implementation of the GAP method is through CRASs for both
freshwater and saltwater cultures.
6 T. Takeuchi
Running saltwater aquaculture system Closed recirculating aquaculture system

Draw seawater continuously from Cyclical use of rearing water via purification using a
nature environment and use it as filtration system (Basically rearing water is not discarded.)
rearing water (Flow-through rearing
water is discarded.)
【Domestic 】Flounder, Puffer fish, Kuruma 【 Domestic】Puffer fish, White shrimp, etc.
shrimp, Abalone, etc.
【Oversea 】European catfish and eel, etc.
【Oversea】Black tiger, White shrimp, etc.
Drainage system
Intake pump Water supply system
UV lamp
Filtration tank
15m3 (6m2>)
Fish tank 20m3 Form separation unit
ˬ
Denitrification
tank (0.5m3)
Conceptual scheme of running Flow diagram of a typical recirculating aquaculture system

saltwater aquaculture system
Fig. 1.2 What is land-based aquaculture (Modification of Fisheries Agency HP, http:www.jfa.
maff.go.jp/j/saibai/yousyoku/arikata/pdf/4-3-1docu.pdf)
1.2.1 What Is Land-Based Aquaculture?
Figure 1.2 shows a diagram of land-based aquaculture, adapted from the homepage
of the fishery agency (http://www.jfa.maff.go.jp/). Land-based aquaculture is the
culture of aquatic products in an artificial environment constructed on land. There
are two main approaches to land-based aquaculture, the running water system,
which continuously pumps in rearing water from an external source and pumps
out used water, and the closed recirculating system, which filters and recirculates
the rearing water within a closed system.
In general, the running water aquaculture system involves setting up the culture
tank or pond near the seashore or a river. The rearing water is drawn from the
environment, and the used water is pumped back, thus polluting the environment
with feed residue, feces, and urine. In Japan, this method is often employed for the
culture of Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus and kuruma shrimp
Marsupenaeus japonicus, and in Southeast Asia, it is especially popular for the
culturing of tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon and white shrimp Litopenaeus
vannamei. In Thailand, a running water aquaculture system to culture white shrimp
adapted for use in rice fields has caused a large harmful shifts in soil salinity.
In comparison, a RAS does not significantly expel effluents into the environ-
ment. In Europe, a system in which 10–50% of the rearing water is refreshed per
day is designated a RAS. In Japan, a system that requires less than 5% of the rearing
water to be refreshed and that has total water loss from normal evaporation and
waste removal of less than 1% is defined as a CRAS.
1.2.2 The Current State of Land-Based Aquaculture
The total production volume of marine products (including fish, shellfish, crusta-
ceans, and mollusks) from land-based aquaculture in Japan is estimated to be
6300 metric tons, equating to 66 million yen in profit. The majority of land-based
aquaculture employs the running water system, and their production is limited to
commercially profitable products such as Japanese flounder, tiger puffer Takifugu
rubripes, kuruma shrimp, and abalone Haliotis spp. There are currently no statistics
on the production from RAS aquaculture; however, it is estimated to be less than
100 metric tons. The reasons for the unpopularity of RAS are the high initial costs
of facility construction and the high running costs due to factors such as electricity
usage. These costs cause the price of the products to exceed the market price,
making RAS an unfeasible system (this point will be discussed in more detail later).
In addition, fish farmers’ lack of experience with this system may result in massive
deaths caused by inappropriate disinfection and oxygen supply, mismanagement of
fish seed, and poor estimation of nitrifying capacity, all of which would force the
facility to shut down. Other problems include the lack of backups (e.g., of mate-
rials) in case of emergencies.
1.2.3 A History of Land-Based Aquaculture
RAS was invented surprisingly early; the concept of a recirculating filter-equipped

aquarium for freshwater and saltwater fish was developed in the late 1950s by
Dr. Saeki, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tokyo. The criteria for the setup
were defined not from experience, but theoretically. In the 1960s, there were great
advances in the study of the microbiology and sanitization of filtration tanks, and
the RAS seemed near realization. These technologies were applied to aquariums,
leading to dramatic improvements in fish culture. However, their implementation in
aquaculture was very limited, and the technologies were only partly incorporated in
the RAS for eel culture, which was developed later.
Meanwhile in Europe and the United States, the research on RASs progressed
from the 1970s, and its application in recirculating systems for fish culture was
actively pursued through methods such as involving manufacturing companies and
other industries. Japan lagged behind greatly in this practical phase. Research in
Japan on CRAS for marine fish progressed in the late 1980s (Hirayama et al. 1988),
influenced by the trends abroad. Especially significant contribution was made by
the Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry toward the creation of a
system that was compatible for industrialization, which was designed for Japanese
flounder (Hino et al. 1999). Following practical implementation trials with eels
(Maruyama 2002), pejerrey Odontesthes bonariensis (Yoshino et al. 1999), and
tiger puffer (Marino-Forum 21 1999–2003), full-scale facilities have been set up for
8 T. Takeuchi
species such as white shrimp (Nohara 2012) and production has begun. See Pet III
and Chap. 10 for details on the current filtration system used in tanks and on CRAS
for various aquatic products.
1.2.4 Advantages of CRAS
The advantages of CRAS include (1) artificially controllable culture environment

(less impact from meteorological phenomena such as global warming and
typhoons); (2) promoting the brand of the products, such as by raising their quality
and avoiding the use of chemicals; (3) the location of facilities can be more freely
decided, as there are no restrictions on placement posed by the fishery act such as
the demarcated private fishery areas; (4) possibilities for the employments of a
greater range of workers, such as the elderly, because the work can be performed on
land; and (5) contribution to a better environment by not releasing effluents. Taken
together, these advantages allow CRAS to avoid the impacts of natural hazards such
as red tides and typhoons, and high-density production and uniform product size
can be achieved all year round, as water temperature can be controlled. This type of
system will also enable the production of aquatic products in an environmentally
friendly, safe, stable, and efficient manner. Absolute product traceability would be
possible, as would the introduction and branding of new breeds, avoidance of
aquaculture chemicals that prevent disease outbreaks, avoidance of contamination
by heavy metals and dioxins in the environment, and reduction of the environmen-
tal impact of nitrogen and phosphorus pollution. Additionally, we have reported
possibilities for even further-enhanced productivity through the adjustment of
culture conditions. For instance, changing the photoperiod and changing the salinity
of culture water in a previous study led to enhanced growth of fish and regulated
reproduction (Takeuchi and Endo 2004).
1.2.5 Features of Representative Systems
Table 1.1 shows features of representative RASs and CRASs in Europe, the United
States, and Japan (Hino et al. 1999). It is worth noting that the table has taken into
consideration various factors, such as the kind of system implemented at the
facility, type of fish (freshwater or saltwater), method of solid waste removal and
(de)nitrification, water exchange rate, and final culture density. This means that a
single, uniform system is not sufficient, as different systems are intermingled. The
reality is that trial and error in optimizing the system is inevitable.
Table 1.1 Characteristics of certain land-based aquaculture systems (Hino et al. 1999)
Central Research Institute of Miyazaki university
Item Certain European system Electric Power system Israel system Fully equipped system system
Purpose Full scale Experimental Experimental Experimental Experimental
Target fish Seabass etc. (saltwater) Japanese flounder (saltwater) Carp (freshwater) Pejerrey (0.7% brackish Eel (freshwater)
water)
Rearing period 1–2 years About 1 year About 80 days About 1 year About 8 months
Scale of the Variously 10 kL 50 kL 2.1 kL 1.1 kL
system
Filtration Mesh filter Settling tank and drum filter Settling tank Drum filter with foam Foam separation unit
separation unit
Nitrification Biofilter Immersed filtration Trickling filtration Rotary disk fluid bed Upward flow-type
immersed filtration
Ammonia-N <2 mg-N/L <1.05 1.22 mg-N/L <2 mg-N/L <0.2 mg-N/L <Av. 1 mg-N/L
Nitrite-N <2 mg-N/L <1.53 1.24 mg-N/L 0–0.4 mg-N/L <0.1 mg-N/L <Av. 0.1 mg-N/L
1 Overview of Land-Based Recirculating Aquaculture
Denitrification Non Non Anaerobiotic fluid bed Immersed filtration Upward flow type (cyl-
(sand, sludge product) (fiber type filter, inder type filter,
methanol) methanol)
Nitrate-N – – Max 40 mg-N/ 900 mg-N/L ! 150 mg- 150 mg-N/
L ! 0–15 mg-N/L N/L L ! 40–50 mg-N/L
Oxygen supply Oxygen-generating and Oxygen-generating and Trickling and aeration Oxygen-generating and Foam separation
oxygen-dissolving device oxygen-dissolving device/ oxygen-dissolving apparatus
aeration device
Saturation >90% >10–130% 6–7 mg/L Av. 103% Av. 80%
degree/DO
density
Water temp. 16–24 C 20–25 C 22–27 C 20 C 28 C
pH 6.5–8.3 7–7.5 7–7.8 7–8.2 7.5–8
9
(continued)
Table 1.1 (continued)
10
Central Research Institute of Miyazaki university

Item Certain European system Electric Power system Israel system Fully equipped system system
Sterilization of UV irradiation UV irradiation None UV irradiation None
rearing water
Exchange 100%/day 150%/year 6%/day 8.5 L/day (0.4%/day) None
water rate
Survival rate – 95% 69% 92% 91%
Final culture >100 kg/m3 39 kg/m3 15 kg/m3 18 kg/m3 33 kg/m3
density
T. Takeuchi
1.3 Challenges in the Popularization of Land-Based

Aquaculture
1.3.1 Comparisons of Mariculture and Land-Based

Aquaculture
The advantages of CRAS are especially obvious in the category of issues involving
the environment. Recent changes in climate leading to increased saltwater temper-
ature and the subsequent alteration in the quantity and type of catch, the prevalence
of red tides, the aging of the fisherman population, population decline in fishery
regions, and regional radioactive contamination are all problems that mariculture
must face. In addition, contact with external water creates a high risk of disease in
mariculture and in running water systems. Running water systems for kuruma
shrimp culture have suffered considerable damages from infections of penaeid
acute viremia, Vibrio, and Fusarium, among others. As in a CRAS, the concentra-
tion of probiotics can be stabilized; it is possible to suppress the proliferation of
Vibrio bacteria in culture water as well as in shrimp guts. This also has the extra
advantages of strengthening the shrimps’ immune system and enhancing their
growth (Mochizuki and Takeuchi 2008). This is just one example of the ability of
CRASs to improve productivity, viability, safety, and marketability of aquatic
products. This is the so-called “sixth sector (1 2 3) industrialization” policy.
For the reasons listed above, the superiority of CRAS in realizing these policies is
immeasurable.
The difference between CRAS and mariculture is also apparent in the quality of
their products. In the case of tiger puffer, those grown in CRASs have less damage
in regions such as the caudal fin and score higher in taste tests (more translucent and
firmer meat, thicker skin, etc.), compared to their counterparts grown in net cage
cultures (Japan Aqua Tec Co. Ltd: Marino-Forum 21). A minor, unforeseen benefit
is that tiger puffers grown in CRAS from fish seed and given a formulated diet are
free of tetrodotoxin, as under natural conditions this neurotoxin is the product of
bioaccumulation in the fish’s organs. This means that CRAS-reared tiger puffer can
be consumed without the risk of poisoning.
1.3.2 Development of New Fish Culture for RASs
In 2010, the US Food and Drug Administration declared the genetically modified
Atlantic salmon Salmo salar containing a king salmon growth hormone gene and
eelpout gene safe to eat. In 2012, they reported that the same genetically modified
organism would not endanger the fish species in nature, as the female fish are
triploid and therefore sterile. Currently, approval for the genetically modified
Atlantic salmon is pending, having reached the final stage of public comment.
This strain looks similar to ordinary Atlantic salmon, but grows twice as fast as its
12 T. Takeuchi
counterpart and can be grown more efficiently with less feed. Such a fish is ideal for
culturing in CRAS, as it would have reduced production time and burden on
components such as the filtration and denitrification tanks, resulting in a higher
efficiency of the overall system.
Similarly, we have successfully inserted a growth hormone gene of medaka
Oryzias latipes in tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, a freshwater fish. This quadrupled
the growth rate, increased the feed efficiency 1.6-fold, halved the nitrogen excre-
tion, and led to a 40% reduction in phosphorus excretion (Fig. 1.3) (Lu et al. 2009).
Marine fish such as Japanese flounder, tiger puffer, and red sea bream cannot grow
when given feed containing only plant-derived lipids and require polyunsaturated
fatty acids such as fish-derived eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA), which increases the cost of fish feed. Genetically modified fish have
been developed that can circumvent this dietary limitation by internally converting
linolenic acid, the plant-derived precursor, to EPA and DHA (Alimuddin et al.
2008; Yamamoto et al. 2010). The use of such fish will decrease the feed cost and is
therefore favorable to CRAS; however, consumers generally express a strong
resistance to genetically modified organisms. This resistance is causing a prolonged
approval time in the case of Atlantic salmon, and thus the trend of opposition to
genetically modified organisms must be followed closely. In November 2013,
Environment Canada approved the use of genetically modified salmon egg, with
the condition that they only be produced within CRAS.
Quite recently, the targeting-induced local lesion in genome (TILLING) method
was applied to fish. This method has been widely used for the selective breeding of
plants. Using the TILLING method, Dr. Yasutoshi Yoshiura developed the “double
Intake, retention & load of N & P

90
80
70
T-N g/kgΔBW
Growth curve 60
66% Total N load (T-N
250 50 g/kgΔBW)
40
Half Total N retention (T-N
53% g/kgΔBW)
30
200 20
Body weight (BW, g)
47% 34%
10
0
150 ~ 3 months
GH Control
25
100 20
T-P g/kgΔBW
GH 15 Total P load (T-P

63% g/kgΔBW)
50
Control
10
60% Total P retention (T-P
62% g/kgΔBW)
0 5 37%
85 135 185 235 285
38%
0
DPH (days) GH Control
Fig. 1.3 Efficient productivity and lowered nitrogen and phosphorus discharge load from growth
hormone (GH)-transgenic tilapia under visual satiation feeding (Drawing figures from Lu et al.
2009)
muscle medaka,” which is 1.3-fold heavier and has twice the muscle volume of an
ordinary medaka (from a grant from the National Agriculture and Food Research
Organization, Enterprise for the Stimulation of Innovative Creation in Fundamental
Research). The technique involved in the strain’s creation was the identification of
myostatin, a muscle-regulating protein, from the Belgian Blue breed of cattle,
which arose in the nineteenth century by spontaneous mutation and is heavily
muscled (referred to as “double muscling”). Using the TILLING method, a medaka
containing the same myostatin mutation as a Belgian Blue was developed.
The TILLING method differs from genetic modification in that this technique
artificially induces a mutation that might otherwise have occurred naturally. The
technique has already been applied for the creation of novel variants of rice, wheat,
soy, corn, tomato, potato, melon, and other species. The application in medaka is
the first example in fish, and efforts are being made for its further application in
tiger puffer for aquaculture purposes. This is the first step toward the creation of
“domesticated fish,” and its acceptance by consumers will contribute to the further
advancement of CRAS industrialization.
1.4 Economics and Feasibility of Land-Based Aquaculture
1.4.1 Economics-Based Approach Toward Planning, Facility

Design, and Profitability
To successfully establish land-based aquaculture as an enterprise, it is necessary to

develop a competitive culture technique and propose a business model. In doing so,
the following aspects become of importance: reduction of initial costs and variable
costs such as feed and energy, establishing a stable and safe production technology,
and choice of location for maximum geographic advantage.
The facility of saltwater fish in Japan must be able to hold an aquarium of at least
1000 metric tons for it to be profitable, even after the six-tenth factor rule and 20%
reduction in the initial costs have been applied by employing common units, simple
facilities, and uniform design. The final culture density in the aquarium, which must
be at least 5%, is also important for profitability. It is preferable to obtain specific
pathogen-free fish seed. To maximize profitability and productivity, the time period
between the introduction of fish seed and the shipment of the product should be as
short as possible, and the facility should be prepared for a daily shipping of
uniformly sized fish, which will aid marketability, including in online vending.
Transparency in the implementing body and the establishment of a consortium
would also contribute to the stability of the enterprise.
As for the quality aspects of the fish, factors such as the development of novel
feeds that improves the flavor of the fish, the choice of brandable fish, and the
14 T. Takeuchi
promotion of the fish’s traceability so as to create an image of safe (e.g., chemical

and heavy metal-free, radioactive contamination-free) product become of
importance.
The location must be carefully considered. An ideal location should be close to
consumers and have easy access to an energy source such as thermal energy. For
example, we have established a CRAS facility for the experimental validation of
tiger puffer culture in a farm in the Obihiro region of Hokkaido, which is far from
the usual production area of tiger puffer. This location has the advantages of having
an uncompetitive market for the selected product and access to high-purity
bio-methane from cow manure, which contributes to a reduction in operating
costs (see Chap. 14 for details). Such reductions in operating costs from optimal
use of the facilities surrounding the location are essential and can be achieved by
the use of thermal energy and exhaust heat from other facilities for the heating of
culture water, by utilization of the cold water generated from the heat pump for
processing, by harnessing renewable energy sources such as offshore wind power,
and other such methods. The organic linking of mechanical elements, such as heat
retention, filtration, and waste disposal, to the surrounding facilities can enable the
construction of a low-cost system with optimal technology and equipment, which is
crucial to successful implementation.
1.4.2 Costs Involved in Land-Based Aquaculture
Figure 1.4 shows the trial balance of tiger puffer production from CRAS. It is clear
that the bulk of the costs are incurred by the facility and the costs of the electricity
required for temperature regulation and power supply. The production cost of tiger
puffer in the current trial balance is 3300 yen/kg, which is far from the market value
of about 2500 yen/kg. This deficit underscores the infeasibility of the enterprise;
therefore, methods of cost reduction are required. First, the installation of aquarium
larger than 1000 metric tons becomes necessary. To reduce electrical power
consumption, power-saver settings and the incorporation of renewable energy
will be essential. Another trial calculation predicts a 10% increase in the internal
rate of return by increasing the final culture density from 3% to 5%. A final
necessary measure is the education of future technicians who would be able to
keep the fish at high growth and survival rates at high culture density. However, if
subsidies can be obtained from instructions such as the government for the initial
costs of construction, feasibility would improve sufficiently even if the final culture
density remained at 3%.
Plant and facilities 1, 059 yen

Feed 474 yen
(32.3%)
(14.4%)
Amortize over 15 years Seedling 211 yen
(6.4%)
Cost saving
Rearing water 32 yen
in plant building
Production cost (1.0%)
(3,278 yen/kg) Labor cost 212 yen
Promotion of exhaust (6.5%)
heat recovery and
utilization Energy-saving design & running
Introducon of micro-hydropower
Electricity generaon
(temperature adjustment) Electricity (power supply) 854 yen
474 yen (26.0%)
(13.3%) Convert all figures
at 20 yen / kwh
Fig. 1.4 Trial balance of tiger puffer production from closed recirculating aquaculture system
1.5 Possible Business Opportunities
Currently, the Japanese government is promoting the implementation of the “sixth

sector industrialization” policy. This policy, which is aimed at revitalizing remote
regions and stimulating employment, would also provide business opportunities for
CRAS. Provided that traceability and quality control of the products are satisfac-
tory, export of CRAS products would also become possible. The opportunity to
export the CRAS technology itself, for instance, to desert regions, should also be
considered. To this end, the creation of a consortium of industry, academia, and
government would be effective. Figure 1.5 presents the industrialization scheme of
CRAS and biomass energy (Takeuchi et al. 2013), as a reference for future
directions.
Finally, the use of the nitrogen and phosphorus wastes from CRAS deserves
mention, as environmentally friendly waste disposal is one of many future chal-
lenges for implementing CRASs. Aquaponics, the system of CRAS combined with
hydroponics, would provide a way to effectively utilize these organic materials. To
date, the United States has chiefly led the industrialization of aquaponics through
advancements in freshwater systems. As in Japan, the main aquaculture product is
marine fish; the development of a saltwater system is necessary for the application
of aquaponics. Some candidate plants include ice plant, glasswort, and tetragon, to
be grown with Japanese flounder, tiger puffer, and some kinds of grouper,
respectively.
16 T. Takeuchi
Selling of heat Subjects

energy & ①Steam cost：
electric power < current cost (14K)
②Electricity cost:
Investment < current cost
Plant Aquaculture ③Reduce environmental
Function manufacturer Consumer load
①Instrument delivery (Company A)
business (Company A) ④Stable supply
②Maintenance and running operator ⑤Investment
instruction
Investment, Investment
③Investment
④Management participation coordination,
backup
New electricity Support
Energy
power
company supplying
Function electric business Administration
①Electricity transacon
price
power selling operator
②Adjusted electricity price
③Investment Function
④Management participation Local ﬁsheries inverse onerous contract ① Biomass subsidy
cooperave ② System support
associaon Stable supply
Investment
Livestock
Function
①Investment business
②Distribution of cultured
fish Fish operator
processing
company, etc. Function Outside regions’
①Biomass supply electricity supply
②Sludge supply
③Disposal cost charge
Fig. 1.5 Proposal of the industrialization scheme of the closed recirculating aquaculture and
biomass energy
1.6 Conclusions
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the world’s total fishery
production was 150 million metric tons in 2004 and is predicted to reach 172 million
metric tons in 2015. Given such data, the realization sets in that there is a limit to the
productivity of our oceans. This issue will ignite serious discussion on how we can
continue to effectively use our marine resources in the future.
Until now, there was little exchange of information between aquaculturists and
industries, which operated independently of each other. As the development of the
individual equipment and machinery for the setup of a complete aquaculture system
is almost complete, the time has come for these entrepreneurs to confer and proceed
together in joint efforts toward establishing a total aquaculture system that includes
marketing.
Japan is currently in possession of advanced key technologies that can be applied
to our existing RAS. Through further technological advance and development,
especially in the field of clean energy, the industrialization of CRAS would become
highly plausible. The additional development of “domesticated fish” adapted to
CRAS conditions (and in fact, only suitable for use in CRAS, as their use in open
systems would disturb existing gene pools) and a reduction of fish-derived compo-
nents in feed will improve the feed conversion efficiency and growth rate, increas-
ing the system’s profitability. Similarly, the development of a novel feed that
prevents the leaching of feces would also aid the successful implementation of
CRAS. Lastly, collective support of further development by a consortium of
academics, industry, and the government is crucial.
One of CRAS’ recent slogans is “aiming for the creation of sustainable society
through eco-engineering.” This includes the developments of aquaponics (see
Chap. 11) and a closed (controlled) ecological life support system (CELSS) to be
used in space. CRAS may lead to the development of a closed ecological
recirculating aquaculture system (CERAS; see Chap. 13), a type of CELSS. In
this way, CRAS represents a system that can help to sustainably improve current
fishery output and to serve as a foundation for future technological developments in
aquaculture.
References
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salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) fatty acid elongase-like gene. Aquaculture 282:13–18
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Hall POJ, Holby O, Kollberg S, Samuelsson MO (1992) Chemical fluxes and mass balances in a
marine fish cage farm. IV. Nitrogen. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 89:81–91
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aquaculture, Fisheries science series 123. Kouseisha-kouseikaku, Tokyo. (In Japanese)
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closed recirculation culture systems. Aquac Eng 7:73–87
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manual by the HACCP method. 30p, 37p in 2000 and 38p in 2001
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productivity and lowered nitrogen and phosphorus load from GH-transgenic tilapia
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Part II
Basic Information of Closed Recirculating
Systems from the View Point of Bioscience
Chapter 2
Characteristics of Closed Recirculating
Systems
Yoshihisa Yamamoto
Abstract The most important requirement for a closed recirculating aquaculture

systems (CRAS) is the maintenance of the water quality to ensure normal devel-
opment and growth of the cultured fish. Since cultured fish discharges about 70% of
their total dietary nitrogen into the culturing water, the essential functions of CRAS
are as follows: (1) removal of nitrogen, especially ammonia nitrogen which is toxic
to the fish and (2) removal of organic matter discharged by the fish. The standard
components of CRAS used for grow-out are as follows: a culturing tank, sedimen-
tation tank and physical clarification units (drum filter unit and foam separation
unit) used to remove the organic matter, biofiltration units used mainly to remove
ammonia nitrogen, disinfection units (e.g., ultraviolet irradiation unit, electrolysis
unit, copper treatment unit, and so on), denitrification unit, oxygen supply unit,
wastewater treatment units, recirculation pump, CO2 removal units, and tempera-
ture control units. In this chapter, the functions, principles, and practical examples
of each CRAS component are discussed.
Keywords CRAS • Drum filter unit • Foam separation unit • Biofiltration unit •
Disinfection unit • Oxygen supply unit • Nitrification • Intermittent filter type
2.1 Introduction
All aquatic animals, including fish, excrete ammonium nitrogen that is quite toxic
to the aquatic animals through their metabolism and consume oxygen and emit
carbon dioxide thorough their aspiration (Fig. 2.1). The most important requirement
for a closed recirculating aquaculture system (CRAS) is the maintenance of water
quality to ensure normal development and growth of the cultured fish. Therefore,
efficient water purification units are required to maintain a stable and favorable
water conditions. The water purification functions of CRAS include the removal of
suspended and sedimentary organic matter by the physical clarification unit, the
Y. Yamamoto (*)
Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, National Fisheries University, 2-7-1 Nagata-
Honmachi, Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi 759-6595, Japan

22 Y. Yamamoto
removal of dissolved ammonium nitrogen by the biofilter, and the reduction of

pathogens by the disinfection unit. This chapter introduces the functions, principles,
and management of these CRAS components and presents practical examples of
each (Fig. 2.2).
＜＞ Nitrification treatment
＜＞
＜＞
Physical treatment
Fig. 2.1 Schematic diagram of nitrogen balance and metabolism and respiration of fish
Oxygen supply
Denitrification
【 N 】
Nitrification
Removal of organic matter 【 NO NO 】
Waste: solid–liquid separation

Denitrification
Dephosphorylation
Fig. 2.2 Schematic diagram of equipment and its function in CRAS: 1, rearing tank; 2, sedimen-
tation tank; 3, physical filter unit; 4, degasifier; 5, biofilter unit; 6, disinfection unit; 7, denitrifi-
cation unit; 8, oxygen supply unit; 9, waste treatment unit
2 Characteristics of Closed Recirculating Systems 23
2.2 Physical Clarification
The physical clarification unit in a CRAS removes solid organic matter such as
feces and remaining feed. If the physical clarification unit malfunctions, the
suspended organic matter flows directly into the downstream biofilter unit; block-
age of the filter ensues because the clearance gap of the biofilter medium is quite
small. This blockage decreases the nitrification ability of the biofilter and also
causes the tank to overflow. Even if the blockage does not occur suddenly, this
situation shortens the lifetime of the biofilter. Further, the recirculating water which
is of high turbidity decreases the disinfection capability of the ultraviolet unit. Thus,
the function of the physical clarification unit directly affects various CRAS
processes.
Suspended matter with a particle size over 100 μm can be easily removed by the
physical clarification system, while that less than 100 μm is not effectively removed
(Chen et al. 1993). In fish culturing, about 70% of the discharged suspended matters
(feces and remaining feed) are smaller than 30 μm (Chen et al. 1993). Therefore, an
important feature of CRAS design is an efficient system that can remove such a
small suspended matter.
2.2.1 Methods of Physical Clarification
The methods used for physical clarification in general water treatment systems are
as follows (Fujita et al. 1994; Kikuchi 1999): (1) sedimentation, (2) screen separa-
tion, (3) coagulation-sedimentation, (4) granulated filtration, and (5) foam separa-
tion. The details of each system are introduced in Sects. 2.2.2, 2.2.3, 2.2.4, 2.2.5,
and 2.2.6.
2.2.2 Sedimentation Treatment
Sedimentation treatment is the simplest method requiring only a sedimentation

tank. Whenever this method is applied to the CRAS, the flow speed of the water
should be slow enough to let the suspended matter sink efficiently, since the
sedimentation velocity is usually quite slow. This limitation makes the collection
and deposition of suspended matter smaller than 100 μm difficult in a small-scale
tank (Kikuchi 1999). A larger sedimentation tank is necessary to slow the water
flow; however, the use of a larger tank would be impractical. The sedimentation
tank is usually set directly downstream of the culturing tank and is connected by
drain pipes (Fig. 2.3). The sediments that gather in the center of the culturing tank
enter the sediment tank through the drain vent. A well-designed commercial
product named Eco-Trap (Aqua Optima, Norway) (Losordo et al. 2000) has a
24 Y. Yamamoto
Fig. 2.3 Sediment tank in CRAS at Okinawa Prefectural Sea Farming Center
dual-drain construction that is effective in removing larger-sized sediment in the

culturing tank. The majority of the water flows out through the center drain, which
is connected to a reservoir tank; the rest of the water, which contains the sediment,
flows through a side drain that is connected to the sediment tank. This dual-drain
system effectively removes suspended matter from the CRAS.
2.2.3 Screen Separation
The drum filter unit is widely used for screen separation in land-based aquaculture
plants. The characteristics of this unit include the capacity to treat large amounts of
water and easy maintenance performed by automatic backwash. The drum filter
produced by Hydrotech, Inc. (Sweden), is well known for its excellent performance
and is used worldwide (Fig. 2.4) (Twarowska et al. 1997; Yamamoto et al. 2011).
However, it requires large amounts of water for backwashing (10% of total cultur-
ing water daily). Therefore, the use of this drum filter in a CRAS requires additional
water to maintain the water level. The pore size of the filter screen ranges from 10 to
1000 μm. For aquaculture, a filter screen with a pore size of about 100 μm is
commonly used in order to balance screen blockage and backwash frequency with
the ability to remove small suspended matter. As a result, removing suspended
matter smaller than 50 μm in diameter is difficult (Losordo et al. 2000). To prevent
Fig. 2.4 Drum filter (Hydrotech, Inc.) using microscreen for physical treatment in CRAS
blockage of the biofilter medium by suspended matter, an additional foam separa-

tion unit (see Sect. 2.2.6) is used along with the drum filter unit in some CRASs.
2.2.4 Coagulation-Sedimentation Treatment
This treatment applies the flocculation agents used in sewage disposal to aid in the
sedimentation of suspended solids (Ebeling et al. 2003, 2005; Rishel and Ebeling
2006). This treatment is commonly used to treat organic wastewater discharged
from CRAS (Ermukdakul et al. 2013). Flocculation agents such as polyaluminum
chloride (PAC) and polymers can negatively affect the fish health and eventually
caused respiratory impairment (Tabata and Ishibashi 1984). Fish have been
reported to die of suffocation due to gill blockage when cultured in recycled
water containing flocculation agents. Flocculation agents remain powerful tools
for removing suspended solids from effluent of CRAS, including the one discharged
by microscreen backwash.
26 Y. Yamamoto
2.2.5 Granulated Filtration
In Japan, sand filtration is the most common granulated filtration method used in
flow-through culturing systems. Other materials used in CRAS include anthracite,
sand, and gravel. Sand filtration is rapid and can remove suspended solid matter that
is larger than 5 μm; however, the backwash treatment requires large amounts of
water (Huguenin and Colt 1989). The CRAS at the Palavas Research Center of
Iframer in France has a daily discharge rate of 20% of the total culturing water
(Yamamoto et al. 2011). This rate is about the average for CRAS using granulated
filtration. Therefore, this filtration system can be effectively used for CRAS if a
large amount of high-quality water is available at a low cost. A floating bead filter is
another popular and effective granulated filter; details are presented in Sect. 2.3.2.6.
2.2.6 Foam Separation Treatment
The principle of foam separation treatment (also known as a protein skimmer) is the
floatation separation of suspended matter after being adsorbed by fine bubbles
through electrostatic interaction (Takahashi 2005) (Fig. 2.5). Foam separation
involves the following steps: (1) creation of the microbubbles, (2) adsorption of
the suspended matter onto the bubbles, (3) enlargement of the bubble size by
merging and unification, (4) cohesion of suspended matter by the enlarged bubbles,
(5) formation of foam by the previous process, and (6) discharge of the foam by air
pressure. This process can discharge mucus secreted from fish and extremely small
suspended matter from the circulating water (Suzuki and Maruyama 1999) and is
important in CRAS for its effectiveness at removing suspended organic matter
Fig. 2.5 Image of characteristic surface charge and absorption with microbubble and suspended
matter (a) and foam separation (b)
smaller than 30 μm (Suzuki and Maruyama 2000; Suzuki et al. 2000; Maruyama
et al. 1999). However, the volume of wastewater discharge from a form separation
unit is difficult to control, especially in units with only one drain controller. During
the gas-liquid mixing, the organic matter is crushed into tiny pieces by the pump
with negative pressure and a rapid water current. The ammonium nitrogen in the
water increases after this treatment because it is eluted from the tiny pieces of
organic matter. The early foam separation units used bubbles produced by aeration
via a porous air stone or cork, but this method did not remove the small suspended
matter efficiently. Therefore, a lot of improvements have been made in foam
separation units. Some of the new products are made by Japanese companies. In
Japan, three types of foam separation units are mainly in use: (1) wing shear or KA
type (Fig. 2.6) (Maruyama et al. 1999), which produces bubbles by mixing the gas
with the water via the high-speed rotation of a rotary wing driven by a motor; (2) jet
stream or YBM type, which produces bubbles by mixing via high-speed water
current produced by a high pressure of water jet stream; and (3) combination of
in-line mixer and venture tube type or FRA type (Fig. 2.7) (Yamamoto 2009),
Fig. 2.6 Setting of

KA-type foam separation
unit in CRAS at Yashima
Station in FRA
28 Y. Yamamoto
A B
Fig. 2.7 Setting of FRA-type foam separation unit (a) in CRAS at Yashima Station in FRA and its
inner structure (b)
Fig. 2.8 Comparison of 80

removal rate of suspended
matter (indication, 70
Chlorella sp.) between two
types of foam separation 60
units. *Control, KA type;
Experiment, FRA type 50
40
Control
30 Experiment
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
which produces bubbles by mixing the gas and water at a high speed using both a
venture tube and in-line mixer.
Studies comparing the effects of these foam separation units measured the
density of Chlollera sp. (3–10 μm) before and after the foam separation treatment.
The results showed that both types of units were able to remove 70–80% of the
Chlollera sp. (Fig. 2.8). Both have stable performance in removing the organic
matter, so users should choose the most suitable type based on the location of the
aquaculture plant, target species, utility, maintenance, and costs.
2.2.7 Effectiveness of the Foam Separation Unit in CRAS
The main purpose of a foam separation unit is to remove organic matter from the
water (Suzuki et al. 1996). In addition, dissolved oxygen also increases after this
treatment because of the great extent of gas-liquid mixing during microbubble
production. The accumulation of CO2 decreases the water pH, hindering fish
growth. Therefore, decreasing the concentration of dissolved CO2 in the water is
necessary. With the extreme gas-liquid mixing in the foam separation unit, the
dissolved CO2 gasifies quickly. Thus, the foam separation unit is an efficient piece
of equipment, as it has three functions: removing organic matter, increasing
dissolved O2, and removing CO2.
The effectiveness of this equipment can be seen most during seed production,
when large amounts of suspended matter are discharged into the water. Indeed the
8-day post-hatching survival rate in red sea bream was 10% higher with the
application of a foam separation unit to CRAS than without it. Additionally, the
low level of accumulation of a suspended matter in the biofilter prevents blockage
of the filter medium (Fig. 2.9) (Yamamoto 2013).The effectiveness of foam sepa-
ration units is also reported by Maruyama et al. (1999) and Suzuki et al. (1999),
(2000) in their studies of CRASs for cultivating the Japanese flounder, Paralichthys
olivaceus, and the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica.
2.3 Biofiltration Unit
In CRAS, the removal of ammonium nitrogen is the most important requirement for
water purification. Previous research on nitrogen balance in farmed fish has shown
that about 30% of the nitrogen in feed is incorporated into the fish body, while the
rest is discharged as feces and urine via nitrogen metabolism or as remaining feed
(Hall et al. 1992). In the case of teleosts, more than 50% of the nitrogen in feces and
urine is in the form of ammonium nitrogen (Kikuchi 1995). Further, the remaining
feed is gradually decomposed by bacteria, also releasing ammonium nitrogen.
Therefore, over 35% of the nitrogen in feed ends up in the water as ammonium
nitrogen (Fig. 2.10), which is highly toxic to fish. Hence, a CRAS requires a
component that promptly treats and removes the ammonium nitrogen discharged
by fish. Several methods in addition to biofiltration are available for removing
ammonium nitrogen, including ammonia stripping method, chlorine resolution
treatment method, and ozonization. All methods except biofiltration present prob-
lems in their application to CRAS. For example, the ammonia stripping method
requires the pH level to be above 11, which is not realistic in CRAS. Harmful
30 Y. Yamamoto
A B
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Totai nitrogen Total phosphorus
Fig. 2.9 Comparison of accumulated TN and TP in biofilter after seed production of red sea
bream by systems with or without a foam separation unit (a) and photo of biofilter medium after
experiment (b: top, system with foam separation unit; bottom, system without foam separation
unit). □, System with foam separation unit; ■, system without foam separation unit
Fig. 2.10 Schematic diagram of nitrogen balance and discharge of ammonium nitrogen
byproducts can be produced during the chlorine resolution treatment and ozoniza-
tion. Since removing the harmful byproducts by absorption is very expensive, these
three methods are not suitable for use in fish and shellfish farming. Therefore,
biofiltration is at present the only one practical and reliable method for removing
ammonium nitrogen for fish farming because it utilizes the nitrification bacteria
under natural water conditions and does not use any hazardous materials. The
Fig. 2.11 Schematic diagram of flow of nitrification and denitrification by bacteria
biofilter converts the ammonium nitrogen (NH3) discharged by fish into nitrite
nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen. Through these processes, the toxicity of nitrogen is
greatly decreased (Fig. 2.11).
2.3.1 Nitrification Function of Biofiltration
Biofiltration involves the process of nitrification, the conversion of highly

toxic ammonium nitrogen (NH4+) into nitrite nitrogen (NO2) and nitrate nitrogen
(NO3). This process can be shown as the following stoichiometric equations with
the energy of oxidation in parenthesis (Fujita et al. 1994):
1. NH4+ þ 1.5O2!2H+ þ H2O þ NO2(ΔG ¼ 65 kcal)
2. NO2 þ 0.5O2!NO3(ΔG ¼ 18 kcal)
These equations show that the process of changing 1 mol ammonium nitrogen into
nitrate nitrogen consumes 2 mol oxygen and 2 mol alkali. In other words, oxygen is
required for nitrification along with the decrease in pH. The oxidation of ammo-
nium nitrogen into nitrite nitrogen requires more energy than that of nitrite nitrogen
into nitrate nitrogen. In an actual reaction, the following stoichiometric equations is
suggested with the consideration of the nitrogen utilization for composition of
bacterial cells (Fujita et al. 1994):
NH4 þ þ 1:83O2 þ 1:98HCO3 ! 0:021C5 H7 NO2 þ 0:98NO3 þ 1:041H2 O

þ 1:88H2 CO3
These equations show that the process of nitrification of 1 mg ammonium

nitrogen consumes 4.18 mg oxygen and 7.07 mg alkali. In addition, this process
uses 0.17 mg of nitrification bacteria (Fujita et al. 1994).
Nitrification bacteria are autotrophic bacteria that use energy produced by the
oxidation process of inorganic substances. The substrate of 1 mg ammonium
32 Y. Yamamoto
nitrogen is incorporated into only 0.17 mg of bacterial cell. The efficiency of

nitrogen incorporation into bacterial cells (bacterial cells/substrate, based on
weight) is 0.17, although other reports suggest 0.02–0.13 g/gN, a lower value
than that of yeast or heterotrophic bacteria, such as colon bacillus (0.72–0.84)
(Fujita et al. 1994). Therefore, the growth rate of heterotrophic bacteria is much
faster than that of autotrophic bacteria.
To maintain efficient nitrification in the biofilter, nitrification bacteria must be
propagated at a high density in the filtration medium (Yamamoto 2013). This
maturation of biofilter requires a 2–3-month incubation period. Thanks to the recent
progress of molecular biological approaches, identification of nitrification bacteria
has been progressed significantly (Schreier et al. 2010; Kumara et al. 2013;
Kitamura et al. 2016; Lee et al. 2016). Recently, the significance of archaebacterial
nitrification in the submerged biofilters has been shown (Sakami et al. 2012).
Therefore, it is important to conduct more precise research on the activity of
nitrification bacteria in biofilters under various environmental conditions.
2.3.2 Types of Biofiltration Methods
There are several types of biofiltration including submerged filter, trickling filter,
moving bed filter, rotating disk filter, intermittent filter, and so on (Wheaton et al.
1991; Gutierrez-Wing and Malone 2006; Timmons and Ebeling 2013). This section
introduces their functions as well as their advantages and disadvantages (Fig. 2.12).
2.3.2.1 Submerged Filter
Submerged filtration is the most common type. The filter medium is submerged
under the water, and the water flows either upward or downward in the biofilter
tank. Aeration equipment at the bottom of the unit is required to replenish the
oxygen consumed by the nitrification processes in the biofilter. Backwashing is
required to wash the accumulated organic matter out of the filter medium (Fujita
et al. 1994). Thus, the submerged filter is easy to install at the beginning; however,
from the viewpoint of long-term operation, maintenance of the filter medium is
labor intensive and time consuming.
2.3.2.2 Trickling Filter
Trickling filtration in CRAS is widely used in Western countries (Otte and Rosental
1979; Bovendeur et al. 1987; Eding et al. 2006). The medium is set in the biofilter
container without submerging in the water (Kikuchi 1999). First, water is pumped
up to the top of biofilter tank and is showered on the top of the filter medium. The
water then flows through the biofilter medium, where the ammonium nitrogen is
Filter Filter
media media
Filter
media
Fig. 2.12 Schematic diagram of main types of biofilter for CRAS
nitrified by nitrification bacteria. The filtered water is retrieved from the bottom of
the filter container. The advantages of this non-submerged medium are the efficient
supply of oxygen, which results in a high nitrification ability and less blockage of
the medium. The one disadvantage is that water does not cover the entire surface of
the medium at once, requiring a relatively large filter container to obtain maximal
filtration.
2.3.2.3 Moving Bed Filter
A moving bed filter uses a medium with a specific gravity slightly heavier than that
of water. The medium thus is moved easily in the water by current and aeration.
Two types of moving bed filters are available, sealed and open type. The moving
bed filter uses small beads that have a diameter of several millimeters (Fujita et al.
1994; Timmons and Losordo 1994). The medium must move continually to main-
tain the health of the filter, as the discharged load affects the activity of the
nitrification bacteria that reside in the biofilm on the medium surface. The exfoli-
ation of thick biofilms can often cause sudden decrease in the nitrification ability of
the filter.
34 Y. Yamamoto
2.3.2.4 Rotating Disk Filter
A rotating disk filter is composed of a light disk filter, a rotary shaft, a drive motor,
and a half-cylinder-conditioned reservoir tank stocked with water. Many such disks
are fixed vertically and are arranged with equal distances on the center rotary shaft.
Approximately 40% of the disk surface is submerged in water, and the disk rotates
at a slow speed (Kikuchi 1999; Yoshino et al. 1999). Nitrification in this unit occurs
by the contact of water with the nitrification bacteria on the surface of the rotating
filter disk; this process is enhanced by exposing the disk to air that contains a lot of
oxygen. Therefore, this unit has extremely high and efficient nitrification ability
(Kikuchi 1999; Yoshino et al. 1999; Rijin 1996). However, a high load of organic
matter can result in the growth of a thick biofilm on the disk, so precautions must be
taken to prevent the weight of the biofilm from breaking the rotating shaft.
2.3.2.5 Intermittent Filter
The intermittent-type biofilter consists of bubble drain pipes and siphon controller
unit that drains water intermittently (Fig. 2.13). A pump fills the unit with water,
submerging the medium; water in the biofilter tank is then siphoned out, exposing
the medium to air. Thus, the medium in this type of filter is intermittently sub-
merged in water. This filter type has efficient nitrification ability (Yamamoto 2013).
The raising and lowering of the water level in this system prevent both the blockage
of the medium surface and the sedimentation of organic matter at the bottom of the
biofilter tank. Therefore, this biofilter is maintenance-free and can be kept under
suitable conditions for a long time of period (usually 1–2 years but depends on the
rearing conditions).
We examined the nitrification ability of several types of biofilter in repeated tests
using the same mass of filtration medium pre-grown with the nitrification bacteria
under the same conditions. The nitrification ability of the intermittent biofilter and
trickling filters was 1.5–1.7 times and 1.1–1.2 times higher than that of the
① ② ③ ④
Pump up water
Draining
⑤
Fig. 2.13 Schematic diagram of action of intermittent-type filtration in biofilter tank. *FM, Filter
materials for nitrification
submerged filter, respectively (Fig. 2.14) (Yamamoto 2013). This observation

suggests that the intermittent biofilter can save 40% more space with the same
nitrification ability. However, the strong downflow that occurs from draining pipe is
not favorable for seed production and hinders larval swimming performance. On
the other hand, in grow-out cultures, the intermittent strong current is favorable
since it can be used for purging accumulated organic matter from the culturing tank.
2.3.2.6 Floating Bead Bioclarifiers
This system uses expandable plastic granular biofilter materials (Malone and
Beecher 2000), and nitrification is effectively performed by bacteria attached to
the surface of the granular filter (Timmons et al. 2006). At the same time, it works
as a physical clarification unit that can remove organic matter (Chen et al. 1993).
Since the beads possess lower specific gravity than water, they float in the upper
area of the treatment unit. Suspended matter is trapped in the bottom layer of the
beads. This suspended matter can be removed by backwashing using automatic
bubbling treatment. One important characteristic of this system is that a very small
amount of wastewater is discharged from the system. Therefore, it is quite useful
for marine fish farming (Saito 2014). Recently, this filtration system has become
quite popular in CRAS.
2.3.2.7 Immobilization Filter
The immobilization filter used for the nitrification was studied in seawater clarifi-
cation at the Abiko Research Laboratory in the Central Research Institute of
Electric Power Industry in the 1990s (Uemoto et al. 1991, 1993, 1994). In order
to develop nitrification bacteria immobilized filter for use in CRAS, bacteria
Fig. 2.14 Comparison of 1.8 1.7 1.69

nitrification ability
1.6 1.49
according to biofilter type:
intermittent filtration or 1.4
trickling filtration as 1.2
1.2 1.13 1.1
compared to submerged
filtration using the same 1.0
volume of biofilter medium. 0.8
*Nitrification ability
ratio ¼ ability of 0.6
intermittent or trickling 0.4
filtration/submerged
filtration 0.2
0.0
36 Y. Yamamoto
isolated from the sludge were immobilized onto a the media which were
2.6–3.5 mm in a diameter and contained 10% (w/v) polyvinyl alcohol (Uemoto
et al. 1991). The polymers used for the immobilization of marine nitrifying bacteria
were photo-crosslinked resin (PVA-SbQ) and polyethylene glycol. The nitrification
ability of the immobilized bacteria was stably maintained at high level for 6 months
during the experimental period (Uemoto et al. 1993). Fish-rearing experiments on
the Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus, were conducted for 180 days using a
2.5 kL culturing tank and 5 L of immobilized filter. The study revealed that the filter
had no negative influence on the growth or survival rates of the fish (Uemoto et al.
1994). These results indicated that immobilized filters are particularly useful, as
they have high nitrification activity within a very compact system.
2.3.3 Influential Factors of Nitrification
Since the 1950s, much research in Japan has clarified the effect of numerous
environmental factors on nitrification by biofilters. The research group including
Dr. Saeki, Dr. Hirayama, and others published several important papers (Saeki
1958; Hirayama 1965a, b) and are recognized as the pioneers of this field. The
following section introduces the factors that affect nitrification.
2.3.3.1 Temperature
The optimum temperature of the biofilter is typically 30–35 C (Kawai et al. 1965),
and the nitrification ability decreases as temperature declines below 30 C
(Fig. 2.15). The nitrification ability becomes extremely low when the water tem-
perature is below 10 C and declines further as the temperature drops below 5 C.
The nitrification ability at 25 C was 1.4–2.0 times higher than that at 15 C (Kawai
et al. 1965; Yamamoto 2013) (Fig. 2.16). In general, the temperature suitable for
rearing most marine fishes ranges from 10 to 30 C. Within this temperature range,
the higher the water temperature in the biofilter, the higher the nitrification ability.
2.3.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is used by nitrification bacteria in the oxidation of ammonium

nitrogen during nitrification. The nitrification activity and the survival of nitrification
bacteria depend on the level of dissolved oxygen. Low concentration of dissolved
oxygen can be a limiting factor for nitrification. Anaerobic conditions lead to the
death or inactivation of nitrification bacteria. At dissolved oxygen concentrations
below 5–6 mg/L, the higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen leads to
higher nitrification ability of the biofilter. At dissolved oxygen concentration below
(°C)
（）
Fig. 2.15 Comparison of nitrification ability of nitrification bacteria originated in seawater and
freshwater according to temperature, pH, and seawater concentration. ●, nitrification bacteria
originated in seawater; ○, nitrification bacteria originated in freshwater (Kawai et al. 1965)
2–3 mg/L, the nitrification ability quickly decreases. The nitrification ability reaches
a plateau at oxygen concentrations above 5–6 mg/L.
The difference in the dissolved oxygen concentration before and after nitrifica-
tion treatment can be used as an indicator of the nitrification ability of the biofilter
because the amount of the nitrification is nearly proportional to the amount of
dissolved oxygen consumed by the nitrification bacteria (Fujita et al. 1994). Since
biofiltration consumes a large amount of oxygen, it is necessary to supply oxygen to
the water by several methods such as aeration or addition of pure oxygen in the
biofilter tank or in the reservoir tank after biofiltration treatment.
38 Y. Yamamoto
(°C)
Fig. 2.16 Relationship between nitrification ability and temperature under usual rearing condition
of temperate fish
2.3.3.3 pH
The nitrification process consumes alkali, thereby decreasing the pH of the water.
Previous reports suggest that the optimal nitrification occurs at pH 7–9 (Fig. 2.15).
At pH < 6, nitrification rapidly decreases. Although reports indicate that nitrifica-
tion in fish culture tanks is not influenced by pH > 6, the recommended pH is near
neutral (pH 7) (Kawai et al. 1965). To understand the effect of pH on water quality,
it is necessary to consider how the fraction of dissociated and the non-dissociated
forms of ammonium nitrogen changes with pH, as the non-dissociated forms are
more toxic. At pH 7–9, the fraction of non-dissociated ammonium nitrogen
increased with increasing pH, making the water more toxic to fish (Emerson et al.
1975).
2.3.3.4 Salinity
Nitrification bacteria are distributed in both seawater and freshwater, but the species
differ depending on the salinity of the habitat. Salinity affects the nitrification
activity of all types of bacteria. Nitrification bacteria found in 100% seawater
exhibit the highest nitrification ability in seawater, and their nitrification ability
disappears in freshwater (Fig. 2.15). The opposite is observed for nitrification
bacteria found in freshwater (Kawai et al. 1965). Therefore, seawater must be
used when backwashing filtration medium used for culturing seawater fish but not
freshwater to prevent their death or deactivation of the bacteria during
backwashing. However, recent studies showed slightly different results with
different medium and experimental locations (Gonzalez-Silva et al. 2016),

suggesting that more precise studies will be needed to fully understand the effects
of salinity on nitrification activity.
2.3.3.5 Ammonium Nitrogen and Nitrite Nitrogen
High concentrations of ammonium nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen are reported to

affect the nitrification ability of nitrification bacteria. Nitrification bacteria are
cultured to expand their numbers in the filter by the process of “maturation,” as
described below. During this process, a small amount of ammonium nitrogen
(approximately 10 mg/L) must be added because extremely low concentrations of
ammonium nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen may potentially hinder the nitrification
ability of the bacteria (Fujita et al. 1994).
2.3.3.6 Trace Element Ion
Trace ions of Mg, Mo, Fe, Ca, Cu, Na, and PO4 in the water are essential to the
growth of nitrification bacteria. In CRAS, the concentration of these ions should be
periodically monitored if the water exchange rate is low because these essential
ions can be accumulated too much in the system.
2.3.3.7 Other Items
Heavy metals and organic chlorine also affect nitrification. In addition, the antibi-
otics used against bacterial pathogens often affect the survival and nitrification
activity of the bacteria. One study reports nearly 50% reduction in nitrification
ability by addition of antibiotics to the CRAS water (Sugita et al. 2000).
2.3.4 Biofilter Media
2.3.4.1 Maturation of Biofilter Medium
The functions of the biofilter unit include the removal of ammonium nitrogen by
nitrification bacteria and the maintenance of the biofilm that is their habitat. The
process of fixing and growing of nitrification bacteria in the biofilter medium is
generally called “maturation” (Kawai et al. 1964). Because nitrification bacteria
grow slowly, 2–3 months are required to attain to full maturation of the biofilter
medium. In many cases, the addition of an inorganic nitrogen source such as
40 Y. Yamamoto
ammonium chloride as food is necessary during maturation (Kawai et al. 1964).

This can be done simply by adding fertilizer regularly. The other method for
maturation is using fish-rearing water, which contains inorganic and organic
nitrogen.
The growth of the nitrification bacteria on the biofilter occurs through six stages,
as follows: (i) the addition of ammonium nitrogen (NH3+, NH4), a food supply for
ammonium oxidation bacteria, (ii) the proliferation of ammonium oxidation bac-
teria, (iii) the accumulation of nitrite nitrogen (NO2) produced by ammonium
oxidation bacteria, (iv) the proliferation of nitrite oxidation bacteria, (v) the accu-
mulation of nitrate nitrogen (NO3) produced by nitrite oxidation bacteria, and
(vi) the dissolution of nitrite nitrogen (NO2), signaling that maturity has been
reached (Fig. 2.17) (Kawai et al. 1964).
2.3.4.2 Characteristics and Selection of Biofilter Medium
Many different types of media are used in biofiltration units. The essential features
of biofilter medium for use in CRAS are as follows: (i) suitable for biofilm
attachment, (ii) large surface area and higher void ratio, (iii) chemical and biolog-
ical stability without deterioration of quality, (iv) sufficient physical strength,
(v) high complementation of suspended matter, (vi) maintains uniform velocity
by constant void size and particle size, (vii) non-elution of harmful matter,
(viii) low cost and stable supply, and (ix) easy to transport and assemble (Yama-
moto 2013). However, no medium will meet all of these requirements because some
of these conditions are mutually exclusive. Therefore, the user must decide which
medium to use according to the specific goal and the specific CRAS design,
including the biofiltration system and its maintenance (Yamamoto 2013).
One study investigating CRAS media reported that the larger the specific surface
area of biofilter medium, the greater the survival of microorganism and the higher
the nitrification ability (Kikuchi et al. 1994). Our study showed the same tendency
Fig. 2.17 Schematic Mature point

diagram of maturation point
of biofilter medium in
biofilter tank, according to Ammonia
Nitrogen concentration
the three forms of nitrogen

(ammonia, nitrite, and
nitrate)
Nitrite
Nitrate
Maturated periods
in comparing experiments with biofilter media made from the same materials but
with the different structures and surface areas. The nitrification ability clearly
differs between differing materials such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and coral
(Fig. 2.18) (Yamamoto 2013). However, in the case of aquaculture discharged with
a heavy organic load, the surface of biofilter medium is covered by biofilms, and no
difference was observed in nitrification ability between a medium with a large
surface area (e.g., ceramics stone) and that without (Kikuchi et al. 1994). Moreover
if biofilms become too thick on the biofilter medium, the biofilm often exfoliates
from the medium. To maintain a high nitrification ability, the periodic removal of
blocking organic matter from the biofilter medium is necessary; alternatively, a
biofilter with a high void rate can be used (Kikuchi et al. 1994). Recently, plastic
floating and moving beads have become quite popular biofilter materials for CRAS.
In seed production, the amount of organic waste is lower than that discharged by
grow-out. The CRAS designed in the Yashima Laboratory has a foam separation
unit located upstream of the biofilter unit. The efficient removal of suspended
organic matter by the foam separation unit prevents the biofilm and organic matter
from covering the surface of the biofilter medium (Yamamoto 2013).
Our study of biofilter media for seed production in CRAS suggested that the
small-sized coral (diameter, 3–5 mm) was the most effective at nitrification. These
results showed that the media with a greater surface area, such as coral, charcoal, or
ceramic stone, exhibit higher nitrification ability. Further, coral can supply alkali by
Fig. 2.18 Comparison of nitrification ability in several biofilter media by nitrification test
42 Y. Yamamoto
eluting of calcium carbonate, thereby adjusting the pH of the water (Yamamoto

2013). The nitrification ability of used fishing nets was found to be relatively high,
indicating their use as a low-cost alternative biofiltration medium (Yamamoto 2013).
2.4 Disinfection Treatment
Seed production always involves the risk of infectious diseases. In the culturing of
marine fish and shellfish, disinfection of the water is necessary to maintain their
health. To prevent disease, seed production facilities have developed variety of
treatments to disinfect the water. This section introduces the key points for disin-
fection in CRAS.
2.4.1 Methods of Disinfection
Water disinfection is generally conducted using the methods originally used in the
waterworks. The disinfection of freshwater in the waterworks mainly relies on
treatments with chlorine, UV, ozone, and ultrafiltration. On the other hand, saltwa-
ter disinfection treatments use UV, ozone, copper ions, and electrolytic techniques.
Since each method has advantages and disadvantages, an appropriate method
should be chosen with the specific CRAS and its purpose in mind.
2.4.1.1 Ultraviolet Ray Disinfection (UV Disinfection)
UV disinfection is used widely in fisheries. The UV disinfection unit is equipped

with an ultraviolet ray lamp that disinfects by the following mechanism. An
ultraviolet ray of wavelength 254 nm damages the nuclei in cells of microorganisms
in the water, resulting in the death of the microorganisms. Of the various commer-
cially available UV lamps, those with a wavelength of 254 nm are the most
effective for disinfection, as the wavelength of maximum UV absorption for
DNA is near 260 nm (Fig. 2.19) (Gates 1930).
This method is safe and simple; however, treatments that are too long produce
excessive amount of oxidants in the treated water. Therefore, it is necessary to
monitor for the negative effects of oxidants. UV disinfection of water containing
large amounts of suspended matter is often incomplete because the suspended
matter creates shadows. In the case of red sea bream seed production in CRAS,
UV kills 99.9% of the bacteria in the water (Fig. 2.20) (Yamamoto 2013). The
development of a UV-light-emitting diode (LED) is progressing. When the prob-
lems regarding the production cost and life span are solved, UV-LED will be widely
used in this field.
Fig. 2.19 Disinfection effect of UV spectrum for colon bacillus (a) and spectrum of absorption
coefficient for nucleic acid (b). (Gates 1930)
A
B
）
（
Fig. 2.20 Change in count of viable bacteria in water before and after treatment by UV disinfec-
tion unit (a) and outer illumination type of UV unit (b). *DAH, days after hatching; ■, before
treatment; □, after treatment
2.4.1.2 Ozone Disinfection
The mechanism of ozone disinfection in freshwater is different from that in

seawater. In freshwater, ozone remains as dissolved ozone after treatment, and
the dissolved ozone directly acts as a strong oxidant on cell membranes and the
nucleic acids of microorganisms, further enhancing the disinfectant effect. In
contrast, ozone treatment of seawater leads to the oxidation of chlorine ion and
44 Y. Yamamoto
bromide ions, producing oxidants such as hypochlorous acid and hypobromous

acid. These dissolved oxidants remain in the treated seawater and destroy patho-
genic bacteria and viruses.
The removal of dissolved ozone and oxidants after disinfection before using the
water to rear fish is important because of their toxic effects on fish. Dissolved ozone
can be easily removed from freshwater by strong aeration, but the ozone discharged
into the atmosphere also must be removed for human safety. The removal of
oxidants from seawater is more difficult; active carbon treatment is used to absorb
them. This method does not remove all of the oxidants, and renewal of the active
carbon is necessary every 1–2 years.
2.4.1.3 Electrolytic Disinfection
Electrolytic disinfection (Fig. 2.21) is used only for seawater. This simple treatment
works as follows: two electrodes are placed into the seawater in the treatment tank,
and the direct electrical current produces OH radicals on the electrodes. These OH

radicals then oxidize chlorine and bromide ions as in the ozone treatment
described above. The resulting strong oxidants disinfect the seawater through
their action on microorganisms. This system also requires ozone removal before
using the water for fish rearing; however, the ozone does not diffuse into the
atmosphere as in the ozone disinfection mentioned above. Therefore, this method
is widely used among many seed production facilities using flow-through systems
(Fig. 2.22). The disadvantages of this method are as follows: (1) the accumulated
“scale” caused by precipitation of Ca and Mg on the surface of the cathode
electrode bar must be removed, and (2) the hydrogen gas produced during the
electrolytic treatment must be collected to prevent it from catching fire. This system
is used to disinfect inlet water only and is not suitable for use with recirculating
water as in CRAS.
2.4.1.4 Copper Ion
The disinfection activity of trace metal ions such as silver and copper is well known
and is used as a simple and safe disinfection method for fish-rearing water.
Disinfection by the silver ion is widely used in freshwater but not in seawater, as
the silver ion attaches to the chlorine ion in seawater, producing silver chloride
deposits. However, disinfection by copper ion is commonly used in aquaculture and
aquariums using freshwater and seawater.
Copper is an essential trace element for normal metabolism in organisms, but
intake of copper leads to metal poisoning. Copper sensitivity is higher in inverte-
brates than that of vertebrates. Crustaceans are especially susceptible to even low
concentrations of copper ion. Fish have a relatively high tolerance to copper ion,
and it is commonly used to prevent parasitic infections and ichthyophthiriosis
(white spot disease). Several types of copper ion generators are on the market
＋
® 2e
® H
Fig. 2.21 Schematic diagram of oxidant generation by reaction of the hydroxyl radical using
electrolysis unit. Oxidants: hypochlorous acid and hypobromous acid
Fig. 2.22 Full view of electrolysis disinfection unit for marine fish culture using CRAS (a): 1,
electrolysis box; 2, control box; 3, reservoir tank; 4, reactor. Electrolysis unit in its box (b)
46 Y. Yamamoto
(Fig. 2.23). A simple method to supply copper ion involves the immersion of copper
fibers, known commercially as “copper wool” into the water.
The mechanism of disinfection by copper ion occurs by the following two
processes: (1) the dissolved copper ions enter the microorganisms and bind to
enzymes, inhibiting their activity; (2) active oxygen produced during the catalysis
of copper ion can decompose organic matter in microorganisms.
The copper ion dose that is effective against colon bacillus is 40 ppb. Although
details regarding the effect of copper ions on fish pathogens are still unclear, the
suggested copper ion concentration is about 20–100 ppb for use in aquaculture or
seed production (Morita 2017). Since high concentration of the copper ion is toxic
to fish, precise control of the concentration is indispensable.
2.4.1.5 Other Methods
Other methods for the disinfection or removal of pathogens include ultrafiltration

membrane treatment and photocatalysis. Technical advancements in ultrafiltration
membrane treatment in Japan have reached the highest level in the world. The
practical application of this method has spread throughout the industry. The
1–200 nm pore size of the ultrafiltration membrane blocks viruses and bacteria,
so that the treated water is close to being microbe-free. Obviously no toxic
components are produced because this treatment is a physical filtration. Therefore,
this method may be a safer option. However, at present, the high cost of this method
limits its practical applications in CRAS.
Photocatalysis is an effective technology for disinfection of the atmosphere.
Using titanium oxide and sunlight, photocatalysis is a safe technology under
Fig. 2.23 Copper ion generator settled in pipeline (arrow shows water current) (a), control unit
(b), and copper filament in the net in culturing tank of CRAS (c)
atmospheric conditions. However, the use of this method in water still presents a lot
of problems, particularly with regard to fundamental technology and cost. There-
fore, it will take time to develop suitable applications of this technology to CRAS.
2.5 Oxygen Supply System
The oxygen supply system is extremely important in CRAS. The cost of oxygen in
Japan is two to three times higher than in most of the Western countries. Therefore,
aeration systems using ordinary air stones and a pipe system in the culturing tank is
popular in Japan (Kikuchi 1999). However, for grow-out stage cultures with a fish
density 100 kg/kL, sufficient oxygen cannot be provided by ordinary aeration
alone. Oxygen supply equipment that delivers liquid or pure oxygen formed by an
oxygen generator can dissolve oxygen effectively in the water (Fig. 2.24). The
cone-shaped oxygen supply equipment, called an oxygen cone, is effective and
widely used in Europe and America (Kikuchi 1999; Timmons and Losordo 1994).
Recently, the micro- and nano-bubble generators have been developed (Takahashi
2005; Yamamoto 2009). These devices produce many minute micro- and nano-
bubbles in the water. Providing a large surface area, these bubbles dissolve oxygen
with extremely high efficiency. Thus, these systems have received great deal of
attention.
Simplified oxygen supply devices utilize adopted cavitation technology for the
gas-liquid mixing pump. Oxygen gas is used for the cavitation, and numerous
minute microbubbles are produced in the water. If the oxygen gas is supplied
with air instead of pure oxygen, the gas pressure in the water must be closely
monitored. Using the gas-dissolving method of cavitation under a high pressure, the
water can become oversaturated with nitrogen gas, causing gas emboli in the
cultured fish (Shimo et al. 2004).
Fig. 2.24 Oxygen supply units: (a) oxygen generator using air, (b) oxygen control unit using
liquid oxygen, (c) oxygen cone
48 Y. Yamamoto
2.6 Removal of Carbon Dioxide
In Europe and America, most CRAS utilize the pure oxygen for oxygen supply
instead of aeration. This is because a lot of carbon dioxide is produced by the fish
reared in high density and also by bacteria. The accumulated carbon dioxide in the
water has negative effects such as causing retarded growth and acidification of the
water (Itazawa and Takeda 1979). Thus, monitoring the accumulation of carbon
dioxide in the water is necessary. The setting of multistage deaerators and strong
aeration in the reservoir tank are effective for removing the carbon dioxide. The
foam separation unit can also remove carbon dioxide from the water. As mentioned
above, the foam separation unit can supply oxygen in CRAS. In some CRAS, the
foam separation unit is set as the final treatment because of the multiple advantages
described here.
2.7 Denitrification
During the biofiltration process, ammonium nitrogen is nitrified to form nitrate

nitrogen, which accumulates in the water. The nitrate nitrogen has relatively low
toxicity. Therefore, the growth and survival rate of fish is not affected by even high
nitrate concentrations. However, nitrate concentrations of several hundred mg/L are
reported to cause inactive feeding behavior in the Japanese flounder, Paralichthys
olivaceus, cultivated in CRAS (Honda et al. 1993). For long-term fish culturing in
CRAS, nitrate nitrogen must be removed by denitrification. This procedure utilizes
the reductive reaction function of denitrification bacteria, which converts nitrate
nitrogen into nitrogen gas. The denitrification equipment contains filtration medium
that carries denitrification bacteria, and the water is recirculated slowly through the
device. By keeping the equipment under anaerobic conditions, the denitrification
bacteria can proliferate within the bacterial flora and denitrify the water continu-
ously. This process requires a carbon source for denitrification. Typically, methanol
or biodegradable plastic can be used as a carbon source. Much research on denitri-
fication during sewage treatment has been conducted, resulting in technical
advancements in denitrification equipment and a greater understanding of denitri-
fication bacteria in Japan (Watanabe et al. 1989, 1991). A small-scale study
examined the efficiency of the denitrifying system using a fixed bacterial reactor
for culturing Japanese flounder in CRAS and evaluated the denitrifying activity of a
fluidized-bed system using immobilized marine denitrifying bacteria (Watanabe
et al. 1993). As a result, the denitrifying activity was shown to be about three times
better than that of the biofilm fixed-bed system.
“Self-cleaning inherent gas denitrification-reactor” has been also developed, and
it was proven to be quite effective for denitrification for pike perch farming
(Müller-Belecke et al. 2013). This kind of novel system will be also applied to
CRAS in the near future. Since the technologies have been mainly developed for
freshwater sewage treatment, technical improvement, development of equipment,

and researches on denitrification bacteria are essential for its application to CRAS,
especially in seawater systems. Recently, a system that integrates aerobic and
anaerobic microbial processes, including a novel combination of denitrification,
anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox), and methanogenesis, has developed to
eliminate toxic inorganic nitrogen compounds and organic solids. The effectiveness
of this system was proved by rearing gilthead sea bream in CRAS (Tal et al. 2009).
Therefore, such a novel technology will play important roles for future develop-
ment of biofilter having denitrification activity.
2.8 Wastewater Treatment
The organic matter trapped by the physical filtration unit, including feces,
remaining feed, and bacterial flock, must be discharged from the CRAS. This
waste must be appropriately treated before to protect the environment. In Europe
and America, the cost for such treatment is an issue for the management of CRAS.
After the coagulation-sedimentation treatment, the solid sediments of organic
matter are taken out of the sediment tank, molded into a cake form, and then
dehydrated. The dried solid sediments are disposed as industrial waste. The super-
natant liquid is stored in the reservoir pond, where the water evaporates naturally
and the nitrogen and phosphorus in the water are absorbed by plants and phyto-
plankton. The water left after the treatment is drained when its quality level drops
below the emission control standard. For a large facility, a reservoir pond and vast
space are necessary for wastewater treatment. Therefore, technological improve-
ments in wastewater treatment are urgently needed.
2.9 Conclusions
The water clarification methods used in CRAS to disinfect and remove organic
matter and inorganic nitrogen must be quick to use and safe for fish and human.
Same goes for disinfection. Numerous methods and equipment are now used in the
treatments described here. When building a CRAS, it is important to select and
combine appropriate equipment depending on the specific purpose of the unit.
Water from the culturing tank is treated as it flows through several water
clarification devices and is then returned to the culturing tank. In CRAS, inadequate
water clarification equipment will cause the water quality to decline. If this situation
occurs, one solution for recovering water quality is to use a combination of different
types of water exchanging methods. However, if the water exchange rate is
increased, the influence of external risks also increases (e.g., infectious disease).
Therefore, the performance of the disinfection unit must be improved to eliminate
pathogenic microorganisms from the inlet water. Needless to say, a constant
50 Y. Yamamoto
exchange of water will defeat the advantages of CRAS, such as preserving the
environment, avoiding external risks, and minimizing costs to maintain suitable
temperature. Thus, there is a great need for the development a fully closed system
that is eco-friendly, poses no risk of pathogen infection, and is less expensive.
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Part III
Tackle of Recirculating Aquaculture
in Fishes
Chapter 3
Eel Anguilla japonica: Toward Zero Emission
Yoshihiro Suzuki and Toshiro Maruyama
Abstract The development of a closed recirculating aquaculture system that does

not discharge effluents would reduce a large amount of pollutant load on aquatic
bodies. In this study, eel were reared in a closed recirculating system, which
consisted of a rearing tank, a foam separation unit, a nitrification unit, and a
denitrification unit. The foam separation unit has an inhalation-type aerator and
supplies air bubbles to the rearing water. The gross eel weight increased 2.8–24 kg,
and the magnification was 8.6 times. Then, the feed conversion ratio [(growth wet
weight)/(feed dry weigh)100] was 67%, which is equal to that obtained by culture
farms. The maximum fish density in the rearing tank became 44 kg-fish/m3, which
is about seven times higher than that of conventional eel culture farms in Japan. The
survival rate under the congested experimental conditions was 91%. The foam
separation unit maintained oxygen saturation in the rearing water above approxi-
mately 87%. Furthermore, fine colloidal substances were absorbed on the stable
foam formed from eel mucus and were removed from the rearing water by foam
separation. Ammonia oxidation and the removal of suspended solids were accom-
plished rapidly and simultaneously in the nitrification unit. The ammonia concen-
tration and turbidity were almost kept at less than 1.0 mg-N/L and 10 units,
respectively. When the denitrification process was operated, nitrate that accumu-
lated in the rearing water was reduced to 10 mg-N/L. The sludge was easily
recovered from the nitrification and denitrification tanks, and the components
were found suitable as compost. Based on these results, the intensive aquaculture
of freshwater fish such as eel can be achieved using a closed recirculating system
without emission.
Keywords Aquaculture system • Recirculating • Eel • Foam separation • Zero

emission
Y. Suzuki (*) • T. Maruyama

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of
Miyazaki, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan

58 Y. Suzuki and T. Maruyama
3.1 Introduction
Worldwide, the development of a recycling system that brings environmental load

close to zero is required today in most, if not all, industries. The aquaculture
industry is likewise urged to convert to a new system that introduces the concept
of zero emission, and this requires the development of a closed recirculating system
using innovative technology for fish production. The technology of a recirculating
aquaculture system with a high fish density has been developed (Bovendeur et al.
1987; Heinsbroek and Kamsta 1990; van Rijn and Rivera 1990; van Rijn 1996;
Geiner and Timmous 1998), and the remarkably high productivity and energy
efficiency of such a system have become possible (Blancheton 2000). In many
cases, however, some closed recirculating systems require the drainage of a certain
percentage of rearing water into the environment. The conventional eel culture in
Japan is also water flow system with control of the exchange rate of the rearing
water. If rearing water is drained without appropriate processing, the high nitrogen
and phosphorus loads contained in the drainage can pollute the environment, even if
the frequency of change is very low. In addition, the sludge and water used to wash
filter media are also directly discharged in many cases. The characteristics of an
economical and environmentally friendly zero-emission system are as follows:
water use is minimized, drainage water is purified to the same level as raw water,
and sludge is further utilized as fertilizer. The following contaminants produced
during fish culture should be made as close to zero as possible: degradable organic
substances, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Currently, zero-emission aquaculture system
in an actual aquaculture farm has not yet been developed. However, if intensive fish
culture in a perfectly closed recirculating system becomes technically possible, the
development of zero-emission systems can be realized.
We have developed the zero-emission system composed of foam separation,
nitrification, and denitrification units, with the combined aim of increased fish
production and reduced nutrient load in aquatic environments (Maruyama et al.
1998; Suzuki et al. 2003). The advantage of this system is that it is equipped with an
effective foam separation unit as part of its main purification process. Oxygen
supply, removal of suspended substances, and deaeration can be achieved simulta-
neously by the foam separation process (Maruyama et al. 1991, 1996).
An ideal aquaculture system is one which purifies the rearing water while
obtaining high biomass productivity. In this study, eel productivity, function of
each water treatment process, sludge recovery, and load reduction were examined.
3 Eel Anguilla japonica: Toward Zero Emission 59
3.2 Experimental Condition
3.2.1 System Description
A closed recirculating system with foam separation, nitrification, and denitrification

units is shown in Fig. 3.1. This system consisted of a fish-rearing tank (0.5 m3, water
volume 0.43 m3, water surface area 1.0 m2), a foam separation tank (0.25 m3)
equipped with an inhalation-type aerator (200 V, 0.2 kw), a nitrification tank
(0.16 m3), and a denitrification tank (0.21 m3). The total amount of water in this
system was 1.05 m3. A heater (100 V, 1 kw) and a pH control pump (Iwaki Co., EH/
W-PH, 5% sodium hydrogen carbonate solution) for adjusting the conditions of the
rearing water (25 C and pH 7.5) were set in the foam separation tank, and a water
conditioner was set on the recirculating pipe. First, tap water was introduced to the
system, and one cycle was carried out for 15 min at 56 L/min. The rearing water was
transported to the foam separation tank by a circulating pump, and oxygen supply
and foam separation processing were simultaneously carried out using this unit. The
rearing water was then introduced into the nitrification tank with an upflow style,
and the treated rearing water was returned to the rearing tank. Water temperature,
pH, electric conductivity (EC), and dissolved oxygen concentration of the rearing
water were continuously monitored using a water quality monitoring system
(Horiba Co., WP-100).
Foam separation unit

(0.25m3)
M
Foam Discharged foam
Nitrification unit
(0.16m3)
Denitirification
unit (0.21m3)
Fish tank
(0.43m3) Dispersed bubbles
Separated foam water
P
P
Fig. 3.1 Schematic diagram (not to scale) of the closed recirculating system with foam separation,
nitrification, and denitrification units (Modified from Suzuki et al. 2003)
The main core of this system was the foam separation unit (Fig. 3.2), which was
equipped with an inhalation-type aerator (Fig. 3.3, Plesca Co., Japan). By rotating
the impeller, negative pressure is generated at the back of the impeller, and air is
drawn from water in the shaft tube that connects to the outside environment
(Fig. 3.3). Air is sheared with a blade immersed in water, and numerous bubbles
are extensively dispersed in water. Surface-active materials in the rearing water
adsorb on bubbles, and the bubbles are carried to the water surface. Then, foam
generates on the water surface. The foam generated continuously is spontaneously
removed from the foam duct placed at the upper part of the tank equipped with air
exhaust (Fig. 3.2). Furthermore, air bubbles were vigorously mixed in water, and
oxygen was efficiently dissolved in the rearing water until it passes through the
foam separation unit.
A cylindrical medium made of polyethylene (Furukawa Electrician Industry Co.,
14 mm diameter, 11 mm inside diameter, 14 mm length, 0.93 specific gravity) was
used to fill the nitrification tank up to the 0.16 m3 (surface area 93 m2) mark.
Nitrifying bacteria were immobilized onto the medium prior to the fish-rearing
experiment.
In the denitrification process, a portion of the rearing water was made to flow
into the denitrification tank using another line via a circulating pump. The same
medium as that used in the nitrification process was used as the denitrification
medium. The methanol dose tube was established at the midpoint of the inflow line
to the denitrification tank, and methanol was continuously injected by a metering
pump (Iwaki Co., EH-B15) with an appropriate amount of methanol corresponding
to three times the concentration of nitrate nitrogen in the rearing water (Suzuki and
Maruyama 1999). Then, the mixture of rearing water and methanol was introduced
into the denitrification tank. Methanol injection was adjusted taking into account
the nitrate concentration in the rearing water every week. The treated water that
passed through the denitrification tank was returned to the foam separation tank.
The above system is considered an almost perfectly closed system because water
is added only to replace that which is lost to evaporation and foam generation.
3.2.2 Fish Rearing
In an aquaculture pond, the size of an eel differs greatly with the cause of the growth
rate. An important point is sorting out and breeding for every size of a fish in order
to produce the eel efficiently in the actual eel farm. Since Japanese consumers like
the fatty meat of eel, it is common to add fish oil to assorted feed for rearing eel.
Therefore, in the rearing experiment as closing to the actual eel farm, rearing eel
were sorted out, and the fish oil was added to the feed. Larval eel A. japonica (total
gross weight 2.8 kg, 217 tails, about 13 g/tail) were placed in the rearing tank. In the
initial part of the experiment, the proportion of total eel weight to water quantity in
the rearing tank was 0.8%. Throughout the rearing experiment, the eel were fed a
commercial diet (Chubu Shiryo Co., Japan, 48% protein) daily except Sundays. In
Air inhalation-type aerator
Air
Foam duct
Stable foam
Water level control
Discharged foam
In
Out
Separated foam
water
Baffle board
Dispersed bubbles
Fig. 3.2 Schematic diagram of the foam separation unit (Modified from Suzuki et al. 2003)
a b
226
Motor
367
(200 or 400 W)
Air
140
1190
823
Bubbles discharge
Impeller
Impeller
150
Fig. 3.3 Schematic diagram of an air inhalation-type aerator (Modified from Suzuki et al. 2003):
(a) the whole shape (unit: mm) and (b) the impeller shape
the initial stage, 100 g of the feed with 5% of fish oil was given once daily every
10 a.m. This became twice daily (10 a.m. and 6 p.m., feed 200 g) when the baiting
became active. Eel were cultured for 9 months (262 days). The sorting periods were
beginning to 4 months (Period-1), 4–7 months (Period-2), and 7–9 months (Period-3).
3.2.3 Procedure for Sludge Recovery
After the water supply to the nitrification tank was stopped by a bypass pipe, the
sludge that accumulated in the nitrification tank was drained from the bottom and
then transferred to another tank. All medium was also removed from the denitrifi-
cation tank and washed with sludge water. After washing, the media were returned
to the nitrification tank, and the sludge was allowed to settle for 2 h. The supernatant
was returned to the system, and fish rearing was continued in the usual way. The
concentrated sludge was frozen until analyses. At the end of the experiment, the
denitrification tank was also washed in the same way.
3.2.4 Analytical Methods
To determine the quality of rearing water, a sample was collected daily (except
Sundays) from the rearing tank before feeding. Dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity as
kaolin standard (Mitsubishi Kagaku Co., SEP-PT-706D), total organic carbon
(TOC, Shimadzu Co., TOC-5000), color as platinum-cobalt standard, absorbance
at 260 nm (E260, Shimadzu Co., UV-2200), total ammonia nitrogen (TAN, HACH
Co., DR-2000), nitrate (NO3-N, HACH Co., DR-2000), nitrite (NO2-N, HACH,
DR-2000), total nitrogen (T-N), phosphate (PO4-P), and total phosphorus (T-P)
were analyzed. The standard platinum-cobalt method of measuring color was used,
in which the unit of color is produced by 1 mg-Pt/L in the form of chloroplatinate
ion. The collapsed-foam water samples were also obtained, and TOC, color, E260,
suspended solids (SS), T-N, and T-P were analyzed. The analytical methods
followed that of the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS K 0102) or HACH
Co. analytical manual.
Carbon and nitrogen in the solid samples, such as feed, fish tissue, and dried
sludge, were analyzed using a CHN coder (analyzed by Shimadzu Techno-
Research Co., Japan). Phosphorus in solid matter was decomposed in a mixture
of perchloric acid and nitric acid and analyzed in the same way as T-P in rearing
water.
3.3 Eel Culture in Closed Recirculating System
3.3.1 Survival and Growth of Eel
The survival rate, eel growth, and feed quantity during the experimental period
(262 days) are shown in Fig. 3.4. Throughout the rearing period, the eel fed actively,
and their total weight increased over time. Histograms showing the number of eel at
given sizes at each period are shown in Fig. 3.5. The individuals which were about
13 g/tail at the beginning grew up over 100 g/tail in 4 months of Period-1. The eel that
attained commercial size (over 120 g/tail) were harvested, and rearing was continued.
The percentage of the commercial number to a total number of individuals was 18%.
The group of 80–100 g/tail of average size grew satisfactorily, and the percentage of
commercial-sized individuals was reached to 80% in Period-2. Finally at the end of
Period-3, 27 of 36 individuals, which remained in the fish tank, grew over the
commercial size. The gross weight and the production weight of commercial eel
throughout the rearing test are shown in Fig. 3.6. The magnification of growth weight
and the feed efficiency in Period-1 were 5.9 and 79.4%, respectively. The produc-
tivity of eel fell in Period-2, and the magnification of growth weight and the feed
efficiency were 1.8 and 53.5%, respectively. In Period-3 as the last period, the
productivity improved again, and the magnification of growth weight and the feed
efficiency were 2.4 and 89.1%, respectively.
3.3.2 Fish-Rearing Density and Productivity
The total feed consumed by the end of the rearing experiment was 33.4 kg, and the
increase in eel weight and magnification were 24 kg and 8.6 times. Then, the feed
conversion ratio was 67%, which is equal to that obtained by culture farms in Japan.
Fig. 3.4 Cumulative

amount of feed and survival
rate during the rearing
period (Modified from
Suzuki et al. 2004)
Fig. 3.5 The histogram of

rearing eel during the
rearing period (Modified
from Suzuki et al. 2004)
Fig. 3.6 Growth weight of

eel during the rearing period
(Modified from Suzuki et al.
2004)
The maximum fish density in the rearing tank (water volume, 0.43 m3; water
surface, 1.0 m2) became 44 kg-fish/m3 (4.4%) which is about seven times higher
than that of conventional eel culture farms in Japan (about 0.6%). The production
weight for 9 months was the rearing experiment to 24 kg-fish/m3 in the whole
recirculating system. In addition, the total volume of using water for rearing was
2100 L (system, 1050 L; methanol solution, 1020 L; added tap water, 30 L), and
then the amount of water to produce 1 kg of eel was only 90 L. It has been reported
that though the maximum fish density was reached to 80 kg-fish/m3, the amount of
using water for eel production was more than 700 L (Liao et al. 2002). Therefore,
the closed recirculating system was extremely effective for eel production as based
on the fish density and water consumption.
3.3.3 Quality of Rearing Water
Dissolved Oxygen The changes in DO of the rearing water are shown in Fig. 3.7.
The oxygen saturation percentage was kept above approximately 87% throughout
the experimental period. The maximum and minimum DO concentrations were
7.6 mg/L and 4.8 mg/L, respectively, with a mean of 6 mg/L. The DO concentration
decreased to 4.8 mg/L because water temperature increased, thereby lowering the
DO saturation value, when the water conditioner momentarily encountered prob-
lems. While this system does not provide an extraneous source of oxygen except for
the aerator in the foam separation tank, a high DO concentration was properly
maintained in the rearing water.
Turbidity, Color, and TOC The changes in turbidity, color, and TOC of the rearing
water are shown in Fig. 3.8. The turbidity of the rearing water was maintained in the
range of 1–10 units, whereby almost no suspended substances could be observed.
The turbidity standard for tap water in Japan is two units. However, the rearing
water turned yellowish brown as the experiment progressed, and color and TOC
Fig. 3.7 Dissolved oxygen

concentration and water
temp. in the rearing water
2004)
Fig. 3.8 Turbidity, color,

and TOC in the rearing
water during the rearing
Suzuki et al. 2004)
gradually increased. The color determined by the platinum-cobalt method is useful

in measuring the color of potable water and water whose color is due to naturally
occurring materials. The color units reached 250 degrees by the end of the Period-2.
The change in TOC was similar to the change in the color. The color units of the
rearing water showed a very high correlation with TOC (Fig. 3.9). Therefore, the
yellowish-brown material that accumulated seemed to be slightly decomposed
organic substances such as humin (Tambo and Kamei 1998). In the Period-3
when the loading with rearing decreased, turbidity, color, and TOC of the rearing
water decreased rapidly. The water treatment process installed in the rearing system
has the capability to remove the substances originated in turbidity, color, and TOC.
In this experiment, the accumulation of the yellowish-brown material did not
interfere with eel growth. Moreover, it is easy to remove the brown material via
activated carbon adsorption (Suzuki et al. 2000) once the water color interferes with
fish feeding or observation.
Fig. 3.9 Relationship

between TOC concentration
and color in the rearing
water (Modified from
Suzuki et al. 2004)
Fig. 3.10 Concentration of

nitrogen compounds in the
rearing water during the
rearing period (Modified
Nitrogen The changes in the concentrations of TAN, NO2-N, NO3-N, and T-N in
the rearing water are shown in Fig. 3.10. While there was a sudden increase in TAN
and NO2-N concentrations when the amount of feeds was increased to 200 g/day,
the concentrations immediately returned to a low level. The system’s nitrification
process functions well. The mean concentrations of TAN and NO2-N within the
rearing period were 0.87 mg-N/L and 0.052 mg-N/L, respectively. The TAN
concentration was kept low throughout the study period. The NO2-N concentration
was maintained at a very low level for 270 days. In addition, the concentration of
NO3-N formed via TAN oxidation was maintained in the range of 2.5–44.5 mg-N/L
by denitrification process. The NO3-N increased rapidly as a pulse was caused by
the pump trouble for adding methanol. Maintenance and management of methanol
injection is of primary importance in denitrification process. Organic nitrogen
accounted for the difference in concentration between T-N and NO3-N. The amount
of injected methanol was higher at about 20% than the stoichiometric methanol
quantity needs for denitrification reaction, so that the quantity of residual methanol
would be small. Actually, the interference effect of eel growth could not be
observed with denitrification. It seemed that residual methanol that passed through
the denitrification tank was biodegraded under aerobic condition until circulation in
the system.
Phosphorus The changes in phosphate and T-P in the rearing water are shown in
Fig. 3.11. Most of the phosphorous in the rearing water was phosphate because it
accumulated only in the absence of a phosphate removal process in this system. The
color units reached 110 mg-P/L by the end of the rearing experiment. It was
necessary to remove phosphorous from waste water after rearing for zero emission.
Therefore, the removal of phosphorous from rearing water was examined by
coagulation using a ferric coagulant. The optimum condition determined by a jar
test, coagulant dosage and pH range were 100 mg-Fe/L and 4–7, respectively. The
concentration of phosphorous in the treated rearing water was less than 1 mg-P/L.
As the result, after eel production, phosphate in the rearing water should be
removed using appropriate processing methods such as coagulation using the ferric
coagulant.
Evaluation of Water Quality The conventional criteria of water qualities for
rearing eel in Japan are as follows: DO, more than 2–3 mg/L; TAN, less than
10 mg-N/L; NO2-N, less than 10 mg-N/L; and NO3-N, less than 300–400 mg-N/L.
In Europe, the water quality standards for rearing eel are a little severe rather than
Japan, and the standards are as follows: suspended solids, 25 mg/L; TAN, less than
6 mg-N/L; NO2-N, less than 2 mg-N/L; and NO3-N, less than 200 mg-N/L. As
compared with these criteria and standards, each parameter of rearing water in this
system was observed at the very low concentration. When we use the closed
recirculating system with foam separation, nitrification, and denitrification pro-
cesses for rearing eel, each process always functions appropriately throughout the
eel production and can maintain a good water quality control, even if the fish
density is markedly high and fish oil is added to the feed.
Fig. 3.11 Concentrations

of phosphorus compounds
in the rearing water during
the rearing period (Modified
3.3.4 Characteristics of Foam Separation Process
Foam Generation The amount of foam water discharged and the changes in
turbidity and color in the foam water samples are shown in Fig. 3.12. The
discharged foam water was observed on the 74th day of the study period, and
foam water was continuously generated to the end of the experiment. The EC in
rearing water increased with rearing eel, and when about 1000 μS/cm was
exceeded, the foam was generated. The total amount of discharged foam water
was 43 L (10% of the total volume in this system), and the quantity of water
discharged per day was 301 234 mL (mean SD, n ¼ 143). It has been reported
that foam generation of fish mucus is dependent on the concentrations of mucus and
coexisting solvent ions (Suzuki and Maruyama 2000). In addition, it has been
reported that the substance that contributed to foam generation is mucus glycopro-
tein secreted from the skin of eel cultured in the rearing tank (Suzuki et al. 2003).
Therefore, foam generation was considered to be related to the concentration of
surface-active materials, such as fish mucus, and EC in rearing water.
Removal of Suspended Solids and Color Components The suspended solids were
significantly concentrated in the separated foam water, and the turbidity of the
separated foam water was two to three orders of magnitude higher than that of the
rearing water. The turbidity in foam water changed irregularly and varied from 5 to
1000 mg/L, making it necessary to remove SS from the system by a foam separation
process. The mean concentrations of turbidity within the rearing period were
198 20 units. Moreover, a brown material was significantly concentrated in the
foam water. The color unit of the foam water was reached to 6000. The mean
concentrations of color within the rearing period were 1896 18 units. The foam
Fig. 3.12 The amount of foam water discharged and the changes in turbidity and color in the foam
water samples during the rearing period (Modified from Suzuki et al. 2004)
separation process was able to remove the color components, which are difficult to
remove by biological treatment or physical filtration. In addition, the mean con-
centrations of TOC as a combined parameter for organic substances load were
600 477 mg-C/L (mean SD, n ¼ 101). While an analysis of the effect of
bacterial removal was not undertaken in this study, it has been reported that bacteria
are concentrated and suspended in foam water (Maruyama et al. 1991, 1996; Suzuki
et al. 2000).
Removal of Nitrogen and Phosphorus The T-N concentration, 190 150 mg-N/L
(mean SD, n ¼ 101), in the foam water was several times higher than that in the
rearing water. Since most of the nitrogen components were NO3-N, highly efficient
removal was not attained by foam separation. The T-P concentration in the foam
water, which ranged from 93 68 mg-P/L (mean SD, n ¼ 99), was also higher
than that in the rearing water. The removal efficiency of phosphorus by foam
separation was higher than that of nitrogen.
3.3.5 Recovery and Utilization of Sludge
Suspended solids accumulated in the nitrification tank as the rearing period

progressed. Therefore, in order to prevent plugging of the nitrification tank,
cleaning of the medium and recovery of the sludge were carried out on each
experiment period. By the end of the study, the sludge that accumulated in the
nitrification and denitrification tanks was also recovered. More than 90% of the
total sludge accumulated in the nitrification tank. The polypropylene cylindrical
medium was very light, such that taking them out from the nitrification tank was
very easy. The sludge immediately separated from the media after washing and then
settled down. The sedimentation velocity of the sludge was rapid, and the sludge
settled down in 10 min. This proved that the sludge could be quickly separated into
solid and liquid components.
The components of the recovered sludge from the nitrification tank on the end
were analyzed, and the C, N, and P contents as dry weight were 17%, 3%, and 12%,
respectively, and the calculated C/N ratio was 6. The C/N ratio and N content
satisfied the organic fertilizer composition recommended by the Japan Sewage
Works Association (1994). Moreover, the phosphorus content of the sludge was
also very high, making it possible to use the recovered sludge as a good compost
material.
3.3.6 Mass Balances
The total amount of feed was 34,524 g-dry weight during the rearing experiment for
262 days. The N and P contents in the feed were 8.1 and 3.1%, respectively. The eel
production was 2669 g-dry weight. The N and P contents in the fish body were 8.5
and 0.91%, respectively. The N and P contents in rearing water and sludge were
obtained with the concentrations and volumes at the time of the experimental end.
The total N and P contents in the feed were considered as 100%, and the mass
balances of this system are shown in Fig. 3.13.
In the case of total nitrogen, 33% was utilized for eel growth, 0.3% was
accumulated in the rearing water as nitrate and organic nitrogen, 0.3% was removed
by foam separation, and 4.4% was accumulated in the nitrification and denitrifica-
tion tanks as sediment (Fig. 3.13a). Regarding mass balances in the culture, the
assimilation of nitrogen in the fish body varied from 25 to 35% of the total nitrogen
input without regarding the difference in fish species (Folke and Kautsky 1989; Hall
et al. 1992; Maruyama and Suzuki 1998; Skjølstrup et al. 1998; Suzuki and
Maruyama 1999). These results agree well with this study. Although the nitrogen
content in the sludge was very small for the total nitrogen input, the close values
obtained in this study were reported in other culture systems. The nitrogen contents
in the sludge were 6% in the recirculation system for rainbow trout (Skjølstrup et al.
1998) and 5% in the flowing system for carp (Maruyama and Suzuki 1998). Almost
all the nitrogen that must be treated in this system was present as a dissolved
fraction. In this study, the remaining 62% of nitrogen in the system was removed as
nitrogen gas by denitrification. Denitrification could have removed the residual
nitrate in the rearing water if the operation was continued for a few days after the
fish was harvested. Since the recovered sludge can be utilized as fertilizer, the zero
emission of nitrogen is almost possible in this system.
In the case of phosphorus, 10% was utilized for eel growth, 12% was accumu-
lated in the rearing water, 0.4% was removed by foam separation, and 61% was
accumulated in the nitrification and denitrification tanks as sediment (Fig. 3.13b).
Because of analytical error, the total percentage was lacking to 100%. The percent-
age of phosphorus in the eel was lower than that of nitrogen. The decrease in the
phosphorus content in the fish (17–28% of the total phosphorus input) was observed
in other previous reports (Folke and Kautsky 1989; Holby and Hall 1991;
Maruyama and Suzuki 1998; Suzuki and Maruyama 1999; Suzuki et al. 2003).
On the other hand, the proportion of phosphorus in the sludge remarkably increased
further than that of nitrogen. Phosphorus was loaded as suspended substances and
accumulated in the sludge in the nitrification tank. Sludge recovery and effective
sludge utilization are important in order to achieve the zero emission of phosphorus.
3.3.7 Economical Efficiency
The running cost for eel production in the rearing experiment became 2300 yen/kg-
fish which is about two to three times higher than that of conventional eel culture
farms in Japan. The percentage that the power consumption as the aerator and the
recirculating pump to the total running cost was more than 70%. The electric power
capacity of the pump is excessive to the amount of circulating water flow rate, and
the miniaturization of the aerator is also possible in the system. Reduction of power
consumption is a subject of this system. At present, water reservation is the most
Fig. 3.13 Mass balances of

nitrogen (a) and phosphorus
(b) in the closed
recirculating system
2004)
important and serious problem for the actual inland aquaculture. However, the
amount of water to produce 1 kg of eel was less than 100 L in this system. Since
using water for fish production is drastically reducible, it is the principal merit of the
closed recirculating system that unitization of tap water, which is the perfectly safe
for pathogens, is also possible. In particular, this system could be effective as a
stockyard of the mature eel for spawning under specific pathogen-free condition.
3.4 Conclusions
Our proposed system achieved intensive eel culture in a perfectly closed cycle for
9 months. Eel growth was satisfactory, and gross weight multiplied seven times
during the study period, with a survival rate of 98%. In order to produce 1 kg of eel,
90 L of water was used. Oxygen was efficiently supplied to the rearing water by a
foam separation unit, and oxygen saturation was maintained at 87% throughout the
experiment. Simultaneously, the foam separation process removed the brown
colloidal substances generated by fish mucus. The nitrification tank removed
suspended solids and likewise rapidly nitrified TAN. In addition, denitrification
effectively removed NO3-N, and the concentration of NO3-N was maintained less
than 45 mg-N/L by denitrification process. More than 90% of the total nitrogen in
the system was removed by denitrification. Sludge was easily recovered from the
nitrification and denitrification tanks and proved to be suitable as compost material.
Since a recirculating system with draining has been built in conventional eel
culture farms, it is easy to install foam separation, nitrification, and denitrification
process to the actual eel rearing pond. This system has a high application potential
as a novel aquaculture technology that aims at zero emission.
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Skjølstrup J, Nielsen PH, Frier FO, McLean E (1998) Performance characteristics of fluidized bed
biofilters in a novel laboratory scale recirculation system for rainbow trout: nitrification rates,
oxygen consumption and sludge collection. Aquac Eng 18:265–276
Suzuki Y, Maruyama T (1999) Performance of a closed recirculating system with foam separation,
nitrification and denitrification units for the intensive culture of Japanese eel. In: Hino A,
Maruyama T, Kurokura H (eds) Reduction of environmental emissions from aquaculture.
Koseisha-koseikaku, Tokyo, pp 98–115. (In Japanese)
Suzuki Y, Maruyama T (2000) Removal of suspended matter from aqueous solution by foam
separation with fish mucus. J Jpn Soc Water Environ 23:181–186. (In Japanese with English
abstract)
Suzuki Y, Maruyama T, Sato D, Kanda T, Michisita T (2000) Water quality and mass balances in a
culture of Japanese flounder using a closed recirculation system with foam-separation and
nitrification units. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 66:1–9. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Suzuki Y, Maruyama T, Numata H, Sato H, Asakawa M (2003) Performance of a closed
recirculating system with foam separation, nitrification and denitrification units for the inten-
sive culture of eel: towards zero emission. Aquac Eng 29:165–182
Suzuki Y, Maruyama T, Tanigichi H, Kametani T, Yoshida T (2004) Development of a closed
recirculating system for intensive culture with the combined aim of high production and
nutrient load reduction. J Water Waste 46:758–768. (In Japanese)
Tambo N, Kamei T (1998) Coagulation and flocculation on water quality matrix. Water Sci
Technol 37:31–41
van Rijn J (1996) The potential for integrated biological treatment systems in recirculating fish
culture—a review. Aquaculture 139:181–201
van Rijn J, Rivera G (1990) Aerobic and anaerobic biofiltration in aquaculture unit - nitrate
accumulation as a result of nitrification and denitrification. Aquac Eng 9:217–234
Chapter 4
Pejerrey Odontesthes bonariensis
Hiroyuki Yoshino
Abstract Pejerrey Odontesthes bonariensis was reared in the recirculation system

for 1 year. The system consisted of two particle-trap equipped octagonal tanks
(0.75 m3) for the rapid collection of feces and uneaten feed, a mechanical filter, a
UV unit, a biological filter which provided nitrification, and a hollow-fiber oxygen
injection system. Total system volume was about 2.1m3. The flow rate was fixed at
2.1 m3/h. Three hundred and eighty-three pejerreyes (avg. wt. 1.6 g) were stocked
in the system with salinity of 7‰, and temperature was maintained at 24 C. After
1 year, survival rate was 92%. An average of 8.5 L of saltwater and quantity of
evaporation water was supplemented to the system daily. At maximum load, just
before expiry (avg. wt. 109.1 g), water quality was very good with NH4-N at
0.2 mg/L and NO2-N at 0.1 mg/L. During the experiment, nitrates peaked at
900 mg/L, but dropped to 150 mg/L after a denitrification system was installed.
The effects of the water velocity on the growth of the fish were investigated by
rearing in the two tanks in which the velocity differentiated. As a result, pejerreyes
were reared with swimming exercise under a rotational flow at comparatively slow
water velocity for a long period. A decrease in variance in growth rate was
observed. It was suggested that this rearing condition, which is relatively low
water velocity condition (under 1 BL/s), could be a contributing factor to not
only the flesh quality of cultured fishes but their efficient production and improve-
ment as commodities.
Keywords Pejerrey • Aquaculture • Closed recirculating • Denitrification •

Swimming • Exercise • Growth • Octagonal tank
4.1 Introduction
Although it is not difficult to realize running water pond culture in seawater or

freshwater, the culture in brackish water, salinity of 7‰, hardly realizes due to the
limited availability of the rearing water. Closed recirculating aquaculture, however,
H. Yoshino (*)
Hokkaido Industrial Technology Center, Hakodate, Hokkaido 041-0801, Japan

76 H. Yoshino
can make it possible because this system requires artificial seawater, which will be
used for a long time through purification. Few cases have been reported referring to
closed recirculating aquaculture in brackish water, while many cases on seawater or
freshwater aquaculture have been reported such as the culture of eels in freshwater
with the partial running water system (Kn€osche 1994) and the culture of Japanese
flounder Paralichthys olivaceus with a closed seawater recirculation system (Honda
et al. 1993).
Pejerrey inhibits around South America and transplanted from Argentina to
Japan in 1966. After the transplantation, public research institutes have taken the
leading role in research, and the culture of pejerrey has been commercialized. The
rearing condition is reported to be the best in brackish water. The fish has white
meat and is cooked into the variety of dishes such as sashimi (sliced raw fish), the
grilled, tempura, and the fried. The fish in the market varies in size between 80 g
and 400 g and in price between 1500 Japanese yen and 3800 yen per kilogram,
which can be said as relatively high priced.
In this study, the author developed the closed recirculating aquaculture system
which does not require continuous water exchange nor regular partial water
exchange and can operate for longer period with adding some water. Then the
author conducted a 1-year rearing experiment of pejerrey (Odontesthes
bonariensis) in the closed recirculating aquaculture system in the salinity of 7‰
rearing water. Next, the practicality of the system and the performance of purifica-
tion are reported with testing the water quality changes (Yoshino et al. 1999). The
effects of the water velocity on the growth of the fish were investigated by rearing in
the two tanks in which the velocity differentiated.
4.2 The Experimental System
The features of this system are the following: preventing uneaten feed and excre-
ment from cumulating in the system by enough physical filtration, denitrifying
through the built-in denitrification unit, water recirculation except adding water to
compensate the loss due to evaporation, and disposal of uneaten feed and
excrement.
4.2.1 The System Summary
The system design was stated below:

1. Pejerrey was designated as experimental fish and the salinity of the rearing water
is 7‰.
2. Two culture tanks (0.75 m3) were contained in a prefabricated house (width
7.2 m length 2.5 m height 2.28 m) and used.
4 Pejerrey Odontesthes bonariensis 77
3. Juvenile pejerrey had been reared for 1 year without continuous or intensive
water changes.
4. Water quality targets were under 1 mg-N/L of both NH4-N and NO2-N.
5. After confirming that natural denitrification did not occur because of accumula-
tion of uneaten feed and excrement, a denitrification unit was installed.
The basic water treatment followed the rules below. The rearing water that was
out of the culture tank went through physical water filtration to remove solid matter
and then biological filtration to remove dissolved ammonium. Then oxygen was
being dissolved into the water and run into the tank. The schematic depiction of this
system is shown in Fig. 4.1. This system is equipped mainly with two octagonal
culture tanks with particle trap for the rapid collection of uneaten feed and excre-
ment, a drum screen filter, a foam fractionation unit, a UV sterilization unit, a
rotating biological contactor (RBC), a fluidized bed filter, a denitrification unit, an
oxygen injection system, and a circulation pump.
4.2.2 Details of the System
The Culture Tanks Two octagonal culture tanks (0.75 m3) are equipped with a
particle trap for the rapid collection of uneaten feed and excrement. The culture
tank and the particle trap are shown in Figs. 4.2 and 4.3, respectively. The rearing
water emitted from the culture tanks is divided into two channels: one running into
a drum screen filter from the center of the tank and another to sludge collector from
the central bottom of the tank. The uneaten feed and excrement settled on the
bottom is emitted to the sludge collector and sunk, and clean water flows to the
drum screen filter. The amount of the precipitate is between 3 and 4 liters every day.
Physical Water Filtration Unit A drum screen filter and a foam fractionation unit
were employed to filter solid matter greater than 45 μm and those smaller than
45 μm, respectively.
1. Drum Screen Filter (Water Volume 0.1 m3)
The drum screen filter is shown in Fig. 4.4. A plain weave net woven of 40 μm
nylon yarn was used in the filter, and sieve opening was 45 μm. The surface of
the filter was sucked by a vacuum pump to prevent from clogging up. Sucked
water flowed into a settling tank (volume, 0.02 m3; flow rate, 0.03 m3/h) to settle
particles, and then the water flowed into circulation through the rotating biolog-
ical contactor.
2. Foam Fractionation Unit
Figure 4.5 depicts the foam fractionation unit. It is self-priming (air flow rate
5 m3/h), and gas-liquid ratio and gas-liquid contact time were set at 2.4 and
3.8 min, respectively. The foam fractionation unit had been used for 305 days
from the beginning of the culture, but terminated on the 306th day because stable
foams were not recognized and no suspended material was removed.
78 H. Yoshino
Fig. 4.1 A schematic view of closed recirculating aquaculture system. ① Culture tank, ② particle
trap, ③ sludge collector, ④ drum screen filter, ⑤ vacuum pump, ⑥ settling tank, ⑦ foam
separation unit, ⑧ UV sterilization unit, ⑨ rotating biological contactor (RBC), ⑩ pump, ⑪
fluidized bed filter, ⑫ circulation pump, ⑬ hollow-fiber oxygen injection system, ⑭ pure oxygen,
⑮ denitrification unit, ⑯ diaphragm pump, ⑰ peristaltic pump, and ⑱ methanol tank
(Reproduced from Yoshino et al. 1999)
Fig. 4.2 Culture tank and

sludge collector (front left)
Fig. 4.3 Particle trap

(center of tank bottom)
Biological Water Filtration Unit A biological water filtration unit consisted of a

rotating biological contactor and a fluidized bed filter as a nitrification unit and a
submerged filter as a denitrification unit.
1. Nitrification Unit
It is the first attempt in aquaculture to use interlocked fiber as a medium of
RBC, and we confirmed the practicality of a fluidized bed filter of sand, which
has an advantage in the installation. FritzZyme No. 9 (Fritz Industries Inc.), as
solution containing marine nitrifying bacteria, was added to the RBC and the
fluidized bed filter 45 days prior to the initiation of the culture, and they had been
matured.
80 H. Yoshino
Fig. 4.4 Drum screen filter
Fig. 4.5 Foam separation

unit
(a) RBC
Figure 4.6 depicts the RBC. Interlocked fiber (specific surface area
410 m2/m3) was employed as medium of the RBC. The other conditions
were set as the following: The volume of the medium was 0.11 m3; the
submersion ratio was between 35 and 40%; the rotational velocity was
7 rpm (peripheral velocity 0.18 m/s); the apparent water velocity was
0.5 cm/s; the average residence time was 2.9 min.
(b) Fluidized bed filter (volume 0.06 m3, pump output 0.2 kw, flow rate 2.8 m3/h)
Figure 4.7 depicts the fluidized bed filter. Sand was used as the medium
(specific surface area 8000 m2/m3), and the volume of the sand was 0.01 m3.
The flow rate, the average water velocity, and the average residence time
were set at 2.8 m3/h, 1.3 m/min, and 1.3 min, respectively.
Fig. 4.6 Rotating

biological contactor (RBC)
Fig. 4.7 Fluidized bed

filter
2. Denitrification Unit (Water Volume 0.12 m3)

The denitrification unit was a submerged filter of which medium was fiber
(specific surface area 740 m2/m3). The volume was 0.12 m3, and the flow rate
and the average residence time were set at, respectively, 0.16 m3/day and
18 hours. One hundred liters of the rearing water taken from the tank on the
174th day and 50 grams of glucose were added to the denitrification unit, and
then 2 liters of denitrifier culture solution was added before 6 days of the
preliminary operation of the denitrification unit itself. A decline of the concen-
tration of NO3-N and an increase of alkalinity were confirmed on the 178th day,
and the circulation of the rearing water was begun on the 180th day after the
82 H. Yoshino
installation of the denitrification unit. The marine denitrifying bacteria

Alcaligenes sp. Ab-A-1 strain (Watanabe et al. 1991) was inoculated as
denitrification bacteria.
Oxygen Injection System Hollow fibers are allocated in the tubes (diameter,
50 mm; length, 800 mm), which dissolve oxygen through their membrane. They
are located in front of each tank. The amount of dissolved oxygen in each tank was
monitored by a dissolved oxygen analyzer in each tank, and the amount of dissolved
oxygen was controlled to be saturated by a computer.
Ultraviolet Sterilizer The rearing water emitted from the foam fractionation unit
was separated into two routes, and ultraviolet sterilizers were installed on both
routes. A low-pressure mercury lump (wavelength 254 nm, 40 w) was employed,
and the ultraviolet radiation dose was 9.8 104 μWsec/cm2 (1.1 m3/h) at first and
5.9 104 μWsec/cm2 (1.1 m3/h) when the output was decreased by 60%, which is
expected to be a year later (nominal capacities).
Others Installed were a circulation pump (output 0.2 kw, flow rate 2.1 m3/h), an
electronic immersion heater (in the foam fractionation unit, 2 kw), an automatic
feeder, and a security alarm system.
4.3 Experiment Materials and Method
4.3.1 Experiment Materials
System Only one culture tank had been employed till the 36th day, and the total
quantity of water was 1.35 m3, while the circulating water amount was 1.26 m3/h.
Another tank was added on the 37th day, and the total quantity of water was set at
2.1 m3, while the circulating water amount was 2.1 m3/h.
Rearing Water Tap water was dechlorinated, and then artificial seawater formula-
tion was used to make the water a salinity of 7‰. No water exchange was
conducted during the experimental term; however tap water was added without
any treatment to compensate the loss by evaporation and by drainage while ejecting
the uneaten feed and excrement. The salinity was measured twice a week, and the
artificial seawater formulation was added, if necessary, to keep the salinity between
7 and 8‰. pH was measured once a day, and either 5% (w/v) of sodium hydrogen
carbonate solution or 5% (v/v) of hydrochloric acid was added to keep pH in a range
of 7–8.2.
Experimental Fish Used were 383 pejerreyes (average weight 1.57 g) which were
preliminarily reared in the still water tank of the salinity of 7‰ for 105 days from
the incubation. No selection had been conducted since the incubation. Housed in the
Table 4.1 Schedule of feed Day Feed size (mm) Protein content (%)a
manufacturer, code, size, and
1–83 1.2–2 Min. 50
protein content used during
this study 84–209 2 62
210–267 3 62
268–365 3.1 Min. 48
Modified from Yoshino et al. (1999)
a
Manufacturer indication
Fig. 4.8 Daily feed quantity supplied to tanks A and B (Reproduced from Yoshino et al. 1999)
section A tank were all 383 pejerreyes (the volume of water 0.713 m3) at the
beginning of the rearing, and on the 73rd day, 192 pejerreyes were moved into
the section B tank (the volume of water 0.739 m3) and reared separately.
Feed A feed was mainly an assorted feed for flatfish, and the size of feed was
changed in line with growth and provided by an automatic feeder. Table 4.1 depicts
the used feed. Feeding was provided at 10–20-minute intervals from 4:00 to 22:00
every day, and the amount of feeding was measured by a load cell. The amount was
adjusted to leave few feed uneaten. The amount of daily feed was described in
Fig. 4.8.
4.4 Result and Discussion
4.4.1 Rearing Result
Figure 4.9 depicts pejerreyes at the end of rearing, and Table 4.2 shows the rearing
result. Since published data in regard to the growth of pejerrey is very few, it is
84 H. Yoshino
Fig. 4.9 Pejerreyes at the cultured end
Table 4.2 Culture conditions for 1 year

Tank A Tank B
Initial Body weight 1.57 0.54ag (n ¼ 50)
Number of fish 383
73 day Body weight 14.2 4.7ag (n ¼ 80)
Number of fish 191 192
Final Body weight 109.0 41.9ag (n ¼ 175) 109.2 33.4ag (n ¼ 178)
Total length 22.9 2.5acm (n ¼ 175) 22.8 2.2acm (n ¼ 178)
Number of fish 175 178
Survival rate 91.6% 92.7%
Density 2.7% 2.7%
Feed conversion ratio 1.49 1.52
Reproduced from Yoshino et al. (1999)
a
Mean S.D.
difficult to compare with other rearing methods. However, it is reasonable to state

that pejerreyes were reared normally because the rearing density was 2.7% and the
survival rate was 92% at the end of the rearing. Details will be given in 5.2.4 with
information about the effect of the flow velocity.
Fig. 4.10 Changes of water

temperature in the culture
tank (Reproduced from
Yoshino et al. 1999)
4.4.2 Water Quality
Water Temperature Figure 4.10 depicts a change in water temperature during the
rearing experiment. The average room temperature standard deviation (the
number of samples, range) was 20.2 3.5 C (n ¼ 4372, 8.5–29.2 C). Water
temperature changed in line with room temperature, and an average was
23.8 0.7 C (n ¼ 4372, 21.2–28.2 C), which indicates that it was almost kept
at the target water temperature (24.0 C).
pH and Alkalinity Nitrification well occurs in a range of pH 7.4–8.4 in general
(Kitao 1997), and it is possible that nitrification hardly occurs under pH 7.0 due to
inactivity of nitrifying bacteria. In this experiment, pH was kept above 7.0 by
adding 5% (w/v) of sodium hydrogen carbonate solution if necessary. Figure 4.11
shows changes of pH and alkalinity during the experiment. pH at the beginning of
the rearing was 7.8, but it rose to 8.18 due to addition of sodium hydrogen carbonate
solution. pH was kept in a range of 7–7.7 from the 50th day to the 310th day by
controlling the amount of the solution added. Because pH of the inflow water from
the denitrification unit got higher (pH 8.6–8.8) and pH of the rearing water rose
from the 310th day, 5% (v/v) of hydrochloric acid was added to prevent pH from
rising from the 340th day. Through the procedures above, the average pH was
7.60 0.26 (n ¼ 265, 7.00–8.18), and the average alkalinity was 107.5 80 mg-
CaCO3/L (n ¼ 274, 52–363.5). The cumulative amount of sodium hydrogen
carbonate added was 14.1 kg and that of hydrochloric acid was 2.47 L.
Saturation of Dissolved Oxygen Figure 4.12 shows a change of saturation of
dissolved oxygen in the culture tank. An average percent saturation of dissolved
oxygen was 103.5 3.0% (n ¼ 365, 95.7–135.1%), and it was almost maintained at
target percentage (100%).
Salinity Figure 4.13 shows a change of the salinity of the rearing water. The
salinities at the beginning of the rearing and on the 40th day were 7.7‰ and
8.6‰, respectively. However, it dropped gradually and hovered around 6.8–7.8‰
86 H. Yoshino
Fig. 4.11 Daily changes in pH and alkalinity in the culture water and cumulative amounts of
NaHCO3 and hydrochloric acid added to the system (Reproduced from Yoshino et al. 1999)
Fig. 4.12 Changes in

dissolved oxygen saturation
level in the culture tank
(Reproduced from Yoshino
et al. 1999)

salinity in the culture water
et al. 1999)
after the 60th day till the end. The salinity rose till the 40th day because artificial
seawater of 7–12‰ salinity was supplied. However, the salinity decreased from the
41st day due to the supplement of tap water. This is why the salinity was adjusted by
adding artificial seawater formulation from the 60th day. By this adjustment,
average salinity during the experiment was 7.4 0.3‰ (n ¼ 162, 6.8–8.6‰).
Amount of Water Supplied Although we did not conduct any intentional water
change in this system, we supplied water to compensate the loss due to evaporation
and due to drainage while ejecting the uneaten feed and excrement. We needed to
estimate the amount of compensation because water was automatically and directly
supplied into the RBC to keep the water level constant, and the amount of water
supplied was not measured. While it is difficult to estimate the amount of evapo-
ration, the amount of water supplied corresponding to the drainage was estimated,
on the contrary. Estimated from the amount of artificial seawater formulation that
was added to adjust the salinity, the amount is assumed 2763 L and 8.5 L/day on
average because the amount of artificial seawater formulation added after the 41st
day was 20.25 kg and an average salinity from the 41st day to 365th day was
7.3 0.2‰ (n ¼ 140, 6.8–8.1‰). Thus, the total amount of water supplied is 8.5 L/
day on average plus the amount of evaporation.
NH4-N, NO2-N Changes in the concentration of NH4-N and NO2-N during the
experiment are shown in Fig. 4.14. The concentration of NH4-N had hovered in a
range of 0.05–0.15 mg-N/L for the first 150 days of the experiment and in a range of
0.15–0.3 mg-N/L from the 150th day. The average concentration of NH4-N during
the experiment was 0.18 0.07 mg-N/L (n ¼ 358, ND(<0.05 mg-N/L)- 0.36 mg-
N/L), and it was kept stably low around the year.
The concentration of NO2-N started to rise from the beginning of the rearing, and
it reached 0.77 mg-N/L on the 21st day, and then it started decreasing and reached
0.17 mg-N/L on the 60th day. It had hovered in a range of 0.15–0.3 mg-N/L during
the 60th to 130th day and in a range of 0.06–0.2 mg-N/L from the 130th day. The
average concentration of NO2-N during the rearing was 0.18 0.12 mg-N/L
(n ¼ 358, ND(< 0.01 mg-N/L)- 0.77 mg-N/L). It was assumed that the delay of
maturation of nitrite-oxidizing bacteria raised the concentration of NO2-N. Nitri-
fying bacteria were planted, and ammonium chloride and sodium nitrite were added
45 days prior to the initiation of the experiment, and maturation was promoted.
However, it took about 100 days to mature nitrite-oxidizing bacteria as a result.
Factors which kept stable after the maturation were the stability of water temper-
ature (23.8 0.7 C) and that pH, alkalinity, salinity, and dissolved oxygen were
kept in the best range to activate nitrifying bacteria.
NH3-N The concentration of NH3-N was calculated from the concentration of
NH4-N, pH, salinity, and water temperature (US Environmental Protection Agency
1989) and is shown in Fig. 4.15. Un-ionized ammonia are strongly poisonous to fish
among ammonia in water (NH3, NH4+), and the proportion of un-ionized ammonia
among ammonia in water depends mainly on pH, salinity, and water temperature.
pH and water temperature increase in proportion to the proportion of the un-ionized
88 H. Yoshino

concentrations of NH4-N
and NO2-N in the culture
water (Reproduced from
Yoshino et al. 1999)

concentrations of calculated
NH3-N in the culture water
et al. 1999)
ammonia (NH3) (Nomura 1980). The average concentration of NH3-N during the
rearing was 0.004 0.003 mg-N/L (n ¼ 264, ND (< 0.001 mg-N/L) - 0.014 mg-N/
L). The reason that the concentration of NH3-N was high till the 50th day and after
the 310th day while that of NH4-N is relatively stable is that the proportion of
un-ionized ammonia among ammonia in water increased due to the increase of
pH. The increasing trend from the 310th day stopped on the 340th day because a pH
increase was intervened by pH adjustment, and this implies the effect and the
importance of pH control.
The toxicity of un-ionized ammonia to pejerrey is unclear. However, given the
result obtained from the 9–12-month rearing that the maximum safe concentration
of un-ionized ammonia to the rainbow trout was 0.0125 ppm (Smith and Piper
1975), 0.004 mg-N/L on average was low enough though the concentration
exceeded 0.0125 mg-N/L for a certain time due to the delay of pH control.
NO3-N Figure 4.16 shows a change in the concentration of NO3-N in the rearing
water. The concentration gradually increased till the 190th day. The concentration
dipped on the 36th day because the total amount of water increased by adding
another culture tank. The denitrification unit was installed on the 180th day. It was
only after the 280th day that denitrification significantly started, which is why the
concentration of NO3-N reached 900 mg-N/L before then. The concentration
started to decrease linearly from the 300th day, and it dropped to 150 mg-N/L at
the end of the experiment. Figure 4.17 depicts the chronological changes in the
Fig. 4.16 Changes in NO3-

N concentrations in the
culture water (Reproduced
from Yoshino et al. 1999)
Fig. 4.17 Changes in NO3-

N concentrations of inflow
and outflow water in
denitrification filter
et al. 1999)
concentrations of NO3-N of the inflow and outflow of the denitrification unit from
the 290th day. The effectiveness of the denitrification unit was confirmed by the
significant decrease of the concentration of NO3-N of the outflow compared to the
inflow, and few NO3-N was detected (ND < 0.5 mg-N/L) after the 353rd day.
When there is an anaerobic place in the closed recirculating aquaculture system and
natural seawater is used, denitrification could happen because denitrifying bacteria
in natural seawater might breed. The accumulation of nitric acid till the 180th day
was checked. It is, however, assumed that no denitrification happened until the
installation of the denitrification unit because (1) tap water was used in this
experiment and marine denitrifying bacteria may have not existed, (2) the system
was kept in the aerobic condition, and it was difficult for anaerobic denitrifying
bacteria to breed due to the physical filtration. An active denitrification such as an
installation of a denitrification unit is needed under the circumstances where the
whole system is kept in the aerobic condition or few denitrifying bacteria exist in a
long-term closed recirculating aquaculture accompanied with nitrification of a
biological filtration.
Denitrification was accelerated rapidly from the 300th day and brought about the
decline in the concentration of NO3-N for 750 mg-N/L in 65 days as well as huge
changes in pH and alkalinity, which led to the pH control. Although it has been
90 H. Yoshino
already known that alkalinity rises in line with denitrification (Maruyama et al.
1996), it is possible to downsize the denitrification unit and decrease the usage of
pH control chemicals if the denitrification unit is installed at the beginning of the
rearing.
4.4.3 System Efficiency
Excrement Disposal Speed of Each Unit The amount of nitrogen in an average

weight of the consumed feed and the amount of excrement and ammonia treated per
hour in each unit are shown in Table 4.3. The amount of nitrogen treatment was
calculated from the NH4-N concentration difference between inflow and outflow of
each system. An average weight of the consumed feed per day is 188.5 11.7 g
(n ¼ 4175, 5–203.3 g), and an average weight per hour and intake of nitrogen were
10.5 g and 744 46 mg-N/h, respectively, since hours of feeding was 18 hours a
day. Given the amount of nitrogen consumed was 100%, the percentage of caption
as solids and removal as ammonium nitrogen was the following: 12% as solids such
as excrement, 28% at the nitrification unit, and 7% in the pipe.
Purification Mechanism in Closed Recirculating Aquaculture System Main nitrog-
enous products emitted into water by fish are ammonia, urea, and excrement which
contains undigested feed. Urea is rapidly resolved into ammonia and carbon dioxide
in water (Deguchi 1980). Forty-seven percent of nitrogen intake was identified as
excrement or ammonia. Thus, it is assumed that the rest was not emitted and almost
all was taken into the fish body. We will discuss the purification mechanism in
terms of the amount of nitrogen collected and the amount of nitrification of
ammonia at each unit. Seventy-four percent of the total emitted nitrogen was
nitrified as ammonia, in which 60% of the total emitted nitrogen was nitrified in
the nitrification unit (38% was in the RBC and 22% was in the fluidized bed filter)
and 14% was in the other units. Nitrifying bacteria attached to the surface of pipes
other than nitrification units seemed to have nitrified. After ammonia were nitrified
Table 4.3 The amount of nitrogen in an average weight of the consumed feed and the amount of
excrement and ammonia treated per hour in each unit in the closed recirculating aquaculture
system for pejerreya
Feed Feces Ammonia
Consumed Sludge Drum Fluidized bed
Parameter nitrogenb collector filter RBC filter Others
Nitrogen 744 46 66 36 23 9 133 52 77 42 50 38
(mg-N/h)c
(%) 100 9 3 18 10 7
Reproduced from Yoshino et al. (1999)
a
Total body weight, 38.5 kg; body weight, 109.1 37.8 g (mean S.D., n ¼ 353)
b
Feed consumption rates, 10.5 0.65 g/h (mean S.D., n ¼ 4); nitrogen content in feed, 7.1%
c
Mean S.D., n ¼ 4
to nitric acid, they were deoxidized into nitrogen and emitted out of the system.
Furthermore, 26% of the total emitted nitrogen was collected in a solid form
(excrement) and emitted out of the system. Nineteen percent of the total emitted
nitrogen was collected at a particle trap for the rapid collection of uneaten feed and
excrement and 7% in the drum screen filter. It should be noted that the figures above
do not count uneaten feed, and the numbers would increase if uneaten feed appears.
Solids such as uneaten feed and excrement themselves do not worsen the water
quality immediately, but proteins contained in them change into an amino acid and
ammonia by bacteria (Kawai 1980), and they will lead to a cause of water
contamination. Thus, it is assumed that early removal of uneaten feed and excre-
ment contributes to lessen the load of the nitrification units.
In this system, uneaten feed and excrement are removed from the culture tanks in
1–2 min after the appearance without their getting out of shape and are emitted out
of the system after settling in the sludge collector. Solid particles which are greater
than 45 μm and did not settle in the sludge collector are collected by the drum
screen filter. For the reasons above, inside of the system was kept clean and no
precipitates without any cleaning for a year, and blockade of the biological filtration
system did not occur. Generally speaking, the biological filtration system without
preprocessing to remove solid particles needs to backwash regularly because
blockade of filter media lessens the capacity of nitrification, which is the instability
factor of the system because the condition of nitrifying bacteria differs before and
after the backwashing (Yoshino et al. 1999). This implies the importance of
physical filtration such as early removal of uneaten feed and excrement by the
particle trap to keep the system operating stably for the long run.
The effect of disinfection in this system is described below. Feed such as a pellet
contains 105 CFU/g of bacteria, and excrement contains 107–8 CFU/g of bacteria in
general. Bacteria are continuously released into the rearing water with uneaten feed
and excrement. In this system, as mentioned above, uneaten feed and excrement
were collected immediately by the particle trap and emitted out of the system, and
solid particles left in the rearing water were collected by the drum screen filter and
the foam fractionation unit. Bacteria left in the rearing water were disinfected by the
UV sterilization unit. The number of live bacteria was not counted in this experi-
ment. The prior studies report that the number of live bacteria in the culture tank is
halved by physical filtration such as foam fractionation unit and is reduced to
1/10–1/100 by UV sterilization unit. The number of bacteria is also reported to
increase 10–100 times in the culture tank (Yoshimizu and Kasai 2002). The effect
of disinfection was greater than 99.9% by irradiating more than 1.0 104 μWsec/
cm2 of UV light after settling uneaten feed and excrement in the drainage of the
rearing water by coagulation process at National Salmon Resources Center
Shiribetsu Factory (Yoshimizu 1998). Since it is assumed that UV intensity was
kept above 4.9 104 μWsec/cm2 by conducting the physical treatment mentioned
above in this system, it is also assumed that the live bacteria in the rearing water
were few enough for rearing. No diseases were observed in this experiment.
92 H. Yoshino
4.5 Rearing in Two Kinds of Water Velocity
A water current can be created in a culture tank by changing the way of pouring
water. A rotating flow can be created particularly in circular and polygonal tanks.
Designed was the system in which solid particles such as uneaten feed and excre-
ment are gathered in the center and emitted by using this water current (Cobb and
Titcomb 1930; Surber 1936; Larmoyeux et al. 1973). It has another effect to rapidly
uniform water quality in the tank (Timmons et al. 1998). A lot of prior studies that
examined the effect of swimming exercises on Salmonidae were conducted, and it
is reported that swimming exercises in the proper speed could improve the growth
rate and FCR (Christiansen and Jobling 1990; Houlihan and Laurent 1987;
Jørgensen and Jobling 1993). Besides the studies on Salmonidae, there are reports
that swimming exercises harden the flesh of the red sea bream Pagrus major, which
is indicated from the experimental results of 12-day swimming exercise (Tachibana
et al. 1988) and that 12 cm ayu Plecoglossus altivelis best grew in the 35 cm/s and
45 cm/s flow rate, and the feed efficiency was also the best in those conditions,
which is demonstrated in the 60-day rearing in the various flow rates (4–45 cm/s)
(Nakagawa et al. 1991).
Most of the prior experiments on the effect of flow rate are short-term (about
60 days) rearing experiments in which a uniform current is created in the circulation
tank. However, under the actual aquaculture circumstances, it is difficult to rear in a
uniform current because the current is usually a rotating current in circular and
polygonal tanks. Furthermore, the flow rate has to be sustainable for the long term
because rearing often lasts a year. A water current is usually created by water
pressure of inflow water, and in this case it is hardly possible to create a fast current.
An expensive submarine pump, which adds undesirable cost, must be used to obtain
a fast current. However, already utilized is the method to create a water current fast
enough to gather uneaten feed and excrement into the center of the tank only by a
rotating flow of inflow water in a circular tank.
This experiment examines velocity distribution in the tanks, feeding rates, and
growth of the fish in comparison by using two culture tanks in which the water
velocity differs.
4.5.1 Method
Culture Tanks Details of the culture tanks (Fig. 4.2) embedded in the closed
circulating aquaculture system (Fig. 4.1) are shown in Fig. 4.18. The culture
tanks are two octagonal culture tanks (0.75 m3) equipped with a particle trap for
the rapid collection of uneaten feed and excrement, and different velocities can be
set. Open inlets were three 7 mm diameter holes in the 32 mm diameter vinyl
chloride pipe, which was vertically inserted at the edge of the tanks, and outlets
were located at the lower center of the tanks. Rotating flows in the tanks created by
Fig. 4.18 A schematic

view of the experimental
tank and measurement point
of water velocity. (a), (b),
(c), and (d) are
measurement point of water
velocity (275 mm in depth)
this inflow water gathered solid particles such as uneaten feed and excrement into
the lower center of the tanks, and they were emitted to sludge collectors and settled.
Since both tanks were connected to the same purification system and constituted
the closed recirculating aquaculture system, the same quality of rearing water was
provided. The volume of inflow into the tanks was controlled by both the inverter,
which controlled the flow rate of circulation pump, and the valve, which was
installed in the middle of the pipe connected to each tank.
Current Velocity Current velocities were set relatively low so that uneaten feed
and excrement can be emitted by the water flow of the circulating water without any
special equipment. Figure 4.19 depicts the water velocities set in each tank with a
term. Reared were 383 pejerreyes till the 72nd day in section A, and 192 pejerreyes
were randomly moved to section B on the 73rd day. Average current velocity was
set constant at 8 cm/s in section A from the 1st day to 365th day and in section B
94 H. Yoshino
Fig. 4.19 Water velocity

setting and period for each
tank
12 cm/s (75th–255th day) and 16 cm/s (256th–365th day). In section B, the current
velocity was set higher in line with the growth of pejerreyes. Measurement was
conducted with three-dimensional electromagnetic current meter, which was
adjusted so that a mean current velocity of four points at a depth of 27.5 cm and
9 cm away from the wall of the tank (Fig. 4.18) was obtained.
Measurement of the Weight of Feed and Uneaten Feed Feed weight was measured
by the load cell every day. The weight of uneaten feed was measured eight times in
the interval of 7–14 days between the 306th and 62nd day by the following
method. The sediments emitted into the sludge collector for 24 hours were filtered
through a screen mesh of 1.5 mm to collect uneaten feed. After the collection of
uneaten feed, wet weight and the amount of moisture with the feed were measured
in the uneaten feed, and the dry weight was calculated. Average daily food intake
rates (FI, %/day) of the fish were calculated using the following formula:
!
W duf
FI ¼ 1 100 ð4:1Þ
W mf 1 100
M
in which Wduf is the dry weight of uneaten feed, Wmf is the weight of feed, and M is
the moisture with the feed at feeding.
The feed conversion rate (FCR) was calculated using the following formula:
Fw
FCR ¼ ð4:2Þ
W f wi
in which Fw is the total weight of feed and Wi and Wf are the total weights of the fish
at the start and the end of the experiment, respectively.
Fig. 4.20 Comparison of

the calculated velocity by
the fluid analysis and the
measured velocity at a
measurement point
(Fig. 4.18, (a) (b) (c) (d),
275 mm in depth) at each
velocity set (y ¼ 0.95 x,
n ¼ 12, r ¼ 0.95)
4.5.2 Result and Discussion
Water Velocity in the Tank Figure 4.20 depicts the comparison of the calculated
velocity by the fluid analysis and the measured velocity at measurement points
(Fig. 4.18a, b, c, d) at each velocity set. The calculated water velocity was about 5%
lower than the measured velocity, but the correlation was very high (r ¼ 0.95). The
distribution of water velocity was estimated from the fluid analysis and is shown in
Fig. 4.21. Water velocity in the wide range of 0–20 cm/s occurred as a maximum at
the front of the inlet even in case of 8 cm/s. Water velocity was fast on the outside
and slow in the center, which was similar to the observation in circular tanks. Thus,
the fish was able to select a variety of water velocities in the octagonal tank, as
compared to raceway designs in which velocity is uniform along the channel
(Timmons et al. 1998). This was confirmed by the fluid analysis.
Swimming Conditions It was observed that pejerreyes dispersed around the whole
of the tank without gathering in a specific place. Figure 4.22 depicts the swimming
conditions. The swimming conditions were classified into four patterns: when the
fish swam faster than current, at the same velocity as the current (orientation),
independently in the current, or drifted by the current. Richkus (1975) examined the
response of juvenile alewives to water currents and observed that most fish were
strongly oriented to water currents and their direction was influenced by the current
velocity. It was observed that most pejerreyes swam either faster than the current or
at the same velocity. These conditions were the same as those in sections A and
B. The fish in the tank with faster water velocity were assumed to increase their
swimming momentum because all conditions were the same except for water
velocity.
Food Intake Rate Table 4.4 shows the weight of feed, the dry weight of uneaten
feed, and the food intake rate (FI) from the 306th day to 362nd day. The food intake
rate in sections A and B did not differ significantly (p > 0.1). Concerning the water
96 H. Yoshino
Fig. 4.21 Water velocity simulation contours at 275 mm in depth calculated by the fluid analysis
velocity set during the measurement of uneaten feed, section B (16 cm/s) was set at
twice the velocity of section A (8 cm/s), which was the maximum velocity setting
for the experiment. In respect to the relationship of water velocity and food intake
rate, the food intake rate increased when the water velocity was moderate because
Fig. 4.22 The swimming

situation of the pejerrey
Table 4.4 Feed weight, uneaten feed dry weight, and food intake rate (FI) per 1 day in tanks A
and B (between day 306 and 362)
Tank A Tank B
Feeding weight (g) 94.4 9.8a 100.9 15.9a
Uneaten feed dry weight (g) 5.5 3.9 6.2 4.0
FI (%) 93.9 4.4 93.7 3.9
Mean S.D. (n ¼ 8)
a
The moisture content of the feed was 7.7%
feed spread in the entire tank (Jørgensen and Jobling 1993). Flore and Keckeis
(1998) reported that food intake rate decreased when the water velocity was too fast
because predation cannot be done. However, there is assumed to be no effect on the
food intake of pejerrey in this range of water velocity.
Culture Result The survival rate after culture, culture density, body length, body
weight, and feed conversion ratio for 1 year of culture are shown in Table 4.2. No
significant differences were observed in the survival rate (A 91.6%, B 92.7%) and
the culture density (the rate of the total weight of the fish to the water weight of the
tank) (A 2.68%, B 2.63%). This indicates that there were no large differences in the
culture environment except the water velocity. The mean body length and weight
were not significantly different between sections A and B ( p > 0.05). However,
concerning the variance in body length and body weight, there were significant
differences between sections A and B ( p ¼ 0.022, p ¼ 0.001, respectively), and the
standard deviation in section A was twice as large as that in section B. These facts
indicate that the unevenness in the growth decreases when the water velocity is
increased. The relationships between the water velocity and the body length in
sections A and B were 0.4 BL/s and 0.8 BL/s, respectively.
98 H. Yoshino
FCR was 1.49 in section A and 1.52 in section B. FCR in section B was a little
higher. When the FCR was low, it appeared that the feed had been effectively used
to increase body weight; on the other hand, when there was a high volume of
uneaten feed, FCR appeared to be high. In this experiment, however, FIs during the
experiment are assumed as nearly the same as is mentioned above; FCR in section
B is thought to be actually higher. This is because the fish of the high water velocity
group consumed much more energy in swimming than the fish of the low water
velocity group.
In this experiment, pejerreyes were reared with swimming exercise under a
rotational flow at comparatively slow water velocity for a long period. A decrease
in variance in growth rate was observed. It was suggested that this rearing condi-
tion, which is relatively low water velocity condition (under 1 BL/s), could be a
contributing factor to not only the flesh quality of cultured fishes but their efficient
production and improvement as commodities.
4.6 Conclusions
The author developed the closed recirculating aquaculture system which does not
require continuous water exchange nor regular partial water exchange and can
operate for longer period with adding some water. Then the author conducted a
1-year rearing experiment of pejerrey in the closed recirculating aquaculture system
in the salinity of 7‰ rearing water and performed various kinds of examinations
and obtained the following results:
1. The water quality was maintained in the good condition, and the rearing was
done without a problem. The system was kept aerobic by physical filtration, and
no natural denitrification was observed. The built-in denitrification unit lowered
the amount of nitric acid, and its efficacy was presented.
2. The percentages of nitrogen treatment in each system were as follows: as
dissolved, 38% in the RBC, 22% in the fluidized bed filter, and 14% in the
other units and as solid matters such as excrement, 19% in the particle trap for
the rapid collection of uneaten feed and excrement and 7% in the drum screen
filter.
3. No significant differences were observed in the survival rate, the body length,
and the body weight between the high current condition (maximum current
velocity16 cm/s, 0.8 BL/s) and the low current condition (current velocity
8 cm/s, 0.4 BL/s). However, the variances of the body length and weight were
significantly larger in the low current condition.
References
Christiansen JS, Jobling M (1990) The behavior and the relationship between food intake and
growth of juvenile Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus L., subjected to sustained exercise. Can J
Zool 68:2185–2191
Cobb WW, Titcomb JW (1930) A circular pond with central outlet for rearing fry and fingerlings
of the salmonidae. Fish Soc 60:121–123
Deguchi Y (1980) Aquacultural environment of recirculation filtration pond. In: Nippon Suisan
Gakkai (ed) Fresh water culture and culture water. Kouseisha-kouseikaku, Tokyo, pp 87-94.
(In Japanese)
Flore L, Keckeis H (1998) The effect of water current on foraging behaviour of the rheophilic
cyprinid chondrostoma nasus (L.) during ontogeny: evidence of a trade-off between energetic
gain and swimming cost. Regul Rivers: Res Manage 14(1):141–154
Honda H, Watanabe Y et al (1993) High density rearing of Japanese flounder, Paralichthys
olivaceus with a closed seawater recirculation system equipped with denitrification unit.
Suisanzoshoku 41:19–26
Houlihan DF, Laurent P (1987) Effects of exercise training on the performance, growth, and
protein turnover of Rainbow trout. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 44:1614–1621
Jørgensen EH, Jobling M (1993) The effects of exercise on growth, food utilization and osmoreg-
ulatory capacity of juvenile Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 116:233–246
Kawai A (1980) Microbiological purification mechanism. In: Nippon Suisan Gakkai (ed) Fresh
water culture and culture water. Kouseisha-kouseikaku, Tokyo, pp 111–122. (In Japanese)
Kitao T (1997) Aerobic biotreatment. In: Iwai S et al (eds) Wastewater and waste treatment
wastewater. Kodansha, Tokyo, pp 131–192. (In Japanese)
Knosche R (1994) An effective biofilter type for eel culture in recirculating systems. Aquaculture
Eng 13:71–82
Larmoyeux JD, Piper RG, Chenoweth HH (1973) Evaluation of circular tanks for salmonid
production. Fish-Cult 35(5):122–131
Maruyama T et al (1996) The purification of rearing seawater of Japanese flounder with the closed
foam separation-filtration system. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 62(4):578–585
Nakagawa H et al (1991) Effects of water velocities on lipid reserves in Ayu. Nippon Suisan
Gakkaishi 57:1737–1741
Nomura M (1980) Environment of running water pond and fish production. In: Nippon Suisan
Gakkai (ed) Fresh water culture and culture water. Kouseisha-kouseikaku, Tokyo, pp 64–83.
(In Japanese)
Richkus WA (1975) The response of juvenile alewives to water currents in an experimental
chamber. Trans Am Fish Soc 104:494–498
Smith CE, Piper RG (1975) Lesions associated with chronic exposure to ammonia. In: Ribelin
WE, Migaki G (eds) The pathology of fishes. Univ of Wisconsin Press, Madison, pp 497–514
Surber EW (1936) Circular rearing pools for trout and bass. Fish Soc 21:1–14
Tachibana K et al (1988) The effect of swimming exercise on flesh texture of cultured red
sea-bream. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 54:677–681. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Timmons MB et al (1998) Review of circular tank technology and management. Auacultural Eng
18:51–69
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(saltwater). EPA 440/5-88/004 Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Criteria and
Standards Division, Washington, DC, pp 1–2
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7. Removal of nitrate accumulating in cultural seawater and some factors affecting the
100 H. Yoshino
denitrification of marine denitrifying bacteria. Abiko Research Laboratory Rep 2. Abiko

Research Laboratory, Abiko, pp 1–21
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14:112–117. (In Japanese)
Yoshimizu M, Kasai H (2002) Disinfection of hatchery water and waste water for aquacu1ture.
Industrial Water 523:13–26. (In Japanese)
Yoshino H et al (1999) Changes in water quality and performance of a closed recirculating
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47(2):289–297. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Chapter 5
Japanese Flounder Paralichthys olivaceus
Kotaro Kikuchi
Abstract Fish production with closed recirculation systems, which makes reduced
discharge of organic and inorganic wastes possible, is considered to be one of the
promising approaches for sustainable development of aquaculture. We conducted
research on the closed production of Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus since
1986 and obtained information to develop closed aquaculture systems for the
flounder such as nitrogenous excretion rate of fish and nitrification activity of
marine biological filters for designing water treatment unit, optimum water tem-
perature for the growth, proper stocking density and effects of water quality
changes on the growth of fish for increasing production performance, and effective
feed composition. Based on the experimental results as well as available knowl-
edge, a pilot scale closed recirculation system of 10 m3 in total water volume was
developed with operation manuals specific for Japanese flounder. The system
consisted of a culture tank of 4 m in diameter, settling tank, drum screen filter,
submerged biological filter, heating-cooling unit, oxygen generator and supplier,
blower, and UV sterilizer. In the feeding experiment, 1015 fish of 2 g initial body
weight were introduced to the culture tank and fed commercial pellet diet twice
daily to satiation each. Fish grew to 456 g after 259 days with good survival rate
(85%) and feed efficiency (97%). Culture density at the end was 31 kg/m2; the
bottom area of the culture tank and total culture water used was 25m3. Dissolved
oxygen ranged from 90 to 130% of saturation through the rearing period. Ammonia
and nitrite were maintained at less than 4 mg-N/L, and no apparent adverse effects
on the feeding and growth were observed.
Keywords Japanese flounder • Closed recirculating aquaculture • Nitrogen

excretion • Nitrification • Temperature • Growth
K. Kikuchi (*)
Environmental Science Research Laboratory, Central Research Institute of Electric Power
Industry, Abiko, Chiba 270-1194, Japan
102 K. Kikuchi
5.1 Aquaculture of Japanese Flounder in Japan
Increasing productivity without serious impact on the environment is believed to be

essential for sustainable development of aquaculture. Several efforts have been
carried out to develop effective technologies. Fish production in closed
recirculation systems, which makes reduced discharge of organic and inorganic
wastes possible, is considered to be one of the promising approaches. Closed
recirculating aquaculture was initially tried with carp and eel in Japan in the
mid-twentieth century (Japan Aquicultural Research group 1962). Currently,
based on several technological developments made by engineers and biologists
during the past three decades, commercial production is being conducted with fresh
water fish such as tilapia, eel, and catfish using closed recirculation technologies
mainly in western countries. However, there have been few reports regarding
research on recirculation systems for marine finfish that are more familiar to
Japanese.
Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus (Fig. 5.1) is the only flatfish species
that has been commercially produced in Japan. The fish has one of the highest
commercial values, and its market price (/kg) is 2–3 times higher than that of
yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata, and red sea bream Pagrus major, the most
popular cultured finfish in Japan. Aquaculture of Japanese flounder started in the
mid-1970s, and the commercial production became extensive in the early 1980s
with development of fingerling production and farming techniques. Aquaculture
production of Japanese flounder increased gradually and reached a peak of 8562
metric ton (MT) in 1997, nearly equal to that of the wild catch which has been
constant since 1980. However, it decreased gradually thereafter to 3475 MT in 2011
(Fig. 5.2) and is much smaller than those of yellowtail and red sea bream, which
yielded 146,240 MT and 61,186 MT, respectively, in 2011. There are 300 to
400 flounder farms located mostly in southern Japan, particularly Shikoku and
Kyushu islands, because of good condition in water temperature. Many of the
farms produce 10,000–20,000 fish on average per year.
Unlike other marine finfish species that have been produced in floating net cages
near the coast, land-based (onshore) culture tanks are the prevalent culture system
for Japanese flounder (Fig. 5.3). The tanks are constructed of various materials:
wooden panel with vinyl sheet, concrete, plastic, and/or a combination of these. The
most popular shape is a circular tank of 6–8 m in diameter, but square or octagonal
tanks are also available. Water depth in a tank is 60–100 cm. Culture tanks are
generally installed inside or are covered with shade cloths. Sand-filtered seawater is
continually supplied to the tank with 12–24 times of water change daily. The water
change rate depends on water temperature and stocking density. The production
cycle changes farm by farm, because fingerlings are available throughout the year.
One to 3 g fingerlings are stocked in the culture tank at 100 to 200 fish/m2 bottom
area of the culture tank in winter to early spring. Fish grow to 0.5 kg in 9–10 months
and 1 kg, favorable commercial size, in 14–16 months. Culture density for 1 kg size
fish is less than 15 kg/m2. Locally available sardines and sand lance, fresh or frozen,
5 Japanese Flounder Paralichthys olivaceus 103
Fig. 5.1 Japanese flounder

Paralichthys olivaceus
Fig. 5.2 Wild catch and Wild catch Aquaculture

aquaculture production of 10000
Japanese flounder in Japan
(MT) 8000
6000
4000
2000
0
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Fig. 5.3 A typical Japanese flounder farm at southern Japan, land-based culture tanks with
running seawater
104 K. Kikuchi
are still major source of feed; however, the use of moist or dry pellet has been
increasing. There are several viral, bacterial, and parasitic diseases, such as rhab-
dovirus, vibriosis, edwardsiellosis, and white spot disease, which cause problems
for commercial production (Muroga and Nakai 1990). One of the most severe
diseases is edwardsiellosis, occurring frequently in summer and resulting in serious
damage (Nakastugawa 1983; Kanai et al. 1988). Prevention of edwardsiellosis by
vaccination has been shown (Iida and Wakabayashi 1992; Furuta et al. 1995).
5.2 Development of Closed Recirculating Aquaculture

Techniques for Japanese Flounder
Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI) started a project to

develop closed recirculating aquaculture production techniques for marine finfish
since 1986. Japanese flounder was considered to be ideal fish for closed production
because of their high market value and several production techniques established
for land-based culture tanks. We planned to maximize productivity of the produc-
tion system by controlling culture environment optimum for the growth of the
flounder based on the biological information such as optimum water temperature
for the growth, proper stocking density, nitrogenous excretion rate of fish, and
effects of water quality changes on the growth.
5.2.1 Design of Water Treatment System
Treatment of fish wastes and leftover feeds is indispensable for water recycling
aquaculture system to keep culture condition good for the growth of fish. Nitrog-
enous substances, especially ammonia, are primary concerns for all recirculation
systems because ammonia has high toxicity to almost all aquatic organisms.
Leftover feeds and fecal waste must be removed quickly because of negative
impacts of suspended solids on the fish condition and consumption of dissolved
oxygen during biodegradation. Water treatment system for closed aquaculture
generally consists of two functions: mechanical filtration for solid materials and
biological treatment (bacterial nitrification) for dissolved substances, and both must
be designed based on the quantitative information on fish wastes. Therefore, we
examined the nitrogenous excretion of Japanese flounder in terms of fish size,
feeding rate and water temperature, and also nitrifying activity of biofilters.
Nitrogenous Excretion
1. Fish size: Major nitrogen excretes of fish are ammonia and urea, and excretion
rate of both substances for starved Japanese flounder decreased with the growth
of fish on unit weight basis (Fig. 5.4, Kikuchi et al. 1990). Especially, ammonia
Fig. 5.4 Ammonia and

urea excretion of starved
Japanese flounder at 20 C.
Reproduced from Kikuchi
et al. 1990
excretion rate changed considerably at 10 g body weight, and the average rate for
fish at the size of 1.8–5.1 g was 18.3 mg-N/100 g body weight/day, 15–49 g fish
was 5.4 mg, and 163–575 g fish was 4.8 mg. On the other hand, urea excretion
rate decreased gradually with the fish growth, and the values were 2.1 mg,
1.7 mg, and 1.0 mg for respective fish size group. Fish size also affects nitrog-
enous excretion after feeding. Table 5.1 shows daily nitrogen excretion of
1.6–6.5 g fish (4.2 g in average, juvenile), 15–65 g (42 g, young), and
163–675 g (363 g, immature) fed commercial pellet diet at average daily ration
in commercial aquaculture (Kikuchi et al. 1991, 1992b). Feeding rate per unit
weight was higher for smaller size fish, and all measured excreted nitrogenous
substances showed similar trends being highest for juvenile fish. There were
fluctuations in the proportions of excreted nitrogen to the consumed nitrogen,
and ammonia-N accounted for 21–32% of the consumed nitrogen, urea for
3–5%, and feces for 8–13%. Nearly 40–50% of consumed nitrogen may be
excreted into culture water (natural environment) in flounder aquaculture when
fish were fed pellet diet. When we look at the excretion per individual fish,
ammonia, urea, and feces-N excretion of immature fish were much higher than
those of juvenile and young flounder. The numbers of fish in the culture tank
usually decrease with the growth of fish in commercial aquaculture; however,
the largest waste load to water treatment system is considered to happen when
106 K. Kikuchi
Table 5.1 Daily rates of nitrogen excretion of juvenile, young, and immature Japanese flounder
Feeding Consumed
Stage rate nitrogen Nitrogen excretion (mg-N/100 g fish/day)
(mg-N/100 g
(%) fish) Ammonia Urea Feces Total
Juvenile 2.8 0.6 206.2 43.3 47.8 11.2 6.0 1.0 27.5 10.8 81.3 19.5
(23.2) (2.9) (13.3) (39.4)
Young 1.3 0.2 98.8 14.5 20.7 5.3 3.8 1.6 12.8 7.8 37.3 10.0
(21.0) (3.8) (13.0) (37.8)
Immature 0.5 0.2 40.4 11.2 12.9 4.3 1.8 0.8 3.1 1.6 17.8 5.7
(31.9) (4.5) (7.7) (44.1)
Figures in the parentheses show proportions to the consumed nitrogen. Data represent means and
standard deviations
fish grows to near commercial size. Therefore, the excretion rate of immature
fish is more important to design water treatment system for dissolved and fecal
wastes.
2. Feeding rate: More detailed information on nitrogenous excretion rate is
required for stable operation of water treatment system. Fig. 5.5 shows hourly
ammonia and urea excretion of immature flounder after feeding commercial
pellet diet at 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5% of their body weight at 20 C (Kikuchi et al.
1991). Although daily feeding rate of the flounder is approximately 0.5% with
commercial pellet as mentioned above, it was not clear that fish feed 0.5% every
day or 1.0% every other day. Hourly ammonia excretion rate increased just after
the feeding from the starved level, reached a peak during 3–6 h after feeding, and
decreased gradually thereafter. The rate during 12–24 h of fish fed 0.5% was not
different from that of the starved fish; however, higher values continued for more
than 36 h for 1.0 and 1.5% feeding groups. Noticeable findings of this study is
that the highest rate of hourly ammonia excretion was almost the same regard-
less of feeding rate and was about 1.0 mg-N/100 g body weight/h. Similar trends
were shown for urea excretion, and peak value was almost equal among three
ration groups. Different from ammonia, urea excretion did not increase during
initial 6 h after feeding and was the highest during 6–12 or 12–24 h. Peak value
of urea was 10–20% of that of ammonia. Existence of upper limit in the
excretion rate regardless of ration level was also reported for plaice (Jobling
1981) and Atlantic cod (Ramnarine et al. 1987).
3. Water temperature: Water temperature is one of the most influential factors
affecting the nitrogen excretion of fish. The daily ammonia excretion rate of
starved flounder increased with increasing temperature from 16 to 25 C, and the
value at 25 C was nearly twice of that at 16 C for juvenile, young, and
immature flounder (Kikuchi et al. 1995). Although urea excretion rate tended
to increase with the temperature, clear relationship was not found between
temperature and the excretion rate. Increasing temperature from 16 to 25 C
also increased ammonia, urea, and feces-N excretion of 6 g size fish fed
Fig. 5.5 Diurnal changes in ammonia and urea excretion of Japanese flounder fed commercial
pellet at 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5% of their body weight at 20 C. Reproduced from Kikuchi et al. 1991
commercial pellet; however, effect of water temperature on the fed fish seemed
to be smaller than that on the starved fish (Kikuchi et al. 1995).
4. Urine and feces: Kidney and gills are major excretory organs in most fish
species, and nitrogenous substances are excreted through both organs. Our
preliminary study showed that volume of urine of 400 g starved Japanese
flounder was about 2 mL/100 g body weight/day containing 500 mg total-N/L
urine, 70 mg urea-N, and 2 mg ammonia-N. The results indicate that ammonia
and urea excreted through urine were extremely smaller than those of total
values even compared with starved fish (Fig. 5.4), therefore, most of ammonia
and urea are considered to be excreted through gills in Japanese flounder. Few
publications were found for feces composition of fish, and our preliminary study
showed that flounder feces fed commercial pellet diet (54% of crude protein,
18% of lipid) contained 19% of protein, 6% of lipid, 56% of ash, and 19% of
other substances including carbohydrates.
Treatment of Ammonia There are some techniques to remove dissolved ammonia

such as ammonia stripping method, breakpoint chlorination, ion exchange, and
biological treatment. Among these, biological method, especially bacterial nitrifi-
cation, is considered to be one of the most realistic techniques for the production of
marine organisms because of its little toxicity and easy operation. Not activated
sludge and immobilized bacteria but fixed film filtration is most popular as bacterial
108 K. Kikuchi
nitrification, and there are several treatment types such as submerged filter, trickling
filter, rotating biological contactor, fluidized bed, and beads filter. However, there
was little information available for the comparison of the technologies. We chose
submerged biofilter as the nitrification unit for closed aquaculture of Japanese
flounder and examined nitrifying activity with artificial filter materials in 10 L
volume of experimental seawater recirculation system at 20 C (Kikuchi et al.
1994a). Earthenware ball (0.27 m2/L, surface area/volume), honeycomb tube with
three different surface areas (0.13, 0.50, 1.00), net filter material (0.35), and
fibriform filter material (1.44) of 1 L volume each were tested (Fig. 5.6). The
nitrification activity seemed to be higher for materials having higher specific
surface area when ammonia was only added to the system as shown in Fig. 5.7.
However, there was not significant relationship between nitrification rate and
surface area of the filter. Daily loading of organic substance (Ehrlich meat extract)
with ammonia for 3 months reduced the nitrification activity of the filter by 30–50%
depending on filter material. The maximum nitrification activity after loading
organic matter was obtained for the filter with net filter material and was estimated
to be 11 mg-N/L filter/h or 0.55 g-N/m2 surface area (including filter walls surface)/
day. This value was similar to those reported by Rijn and Rivera (1990) and Nijhof
and Bovendeur (1990). Alkalinity and pH of recycling seawater decreased with the
progress of ammonia oxidation (Fig. 5.8), and ammonia oxidation was inhibited
when alkalinity and pH reached to 0.5 meq/L and 6.0, respectively.
Design of Water Treatment System for Closed Recirculating Aquaculture The
highest ammonia excretion rate of the flounder and nitrification activity of sub-
merged biofilter with net filter material at 20 C are estimated to be 24 mg-N/100 g
fish/day and 550 mg-N/m2 surface area/day, respectively. Based on these results,
we need at least 45 m2 of surface area for submerged nitrifying filter to treat
ammonia derived from 100 kg flounder of 500 g size. We must consider other
dissolved nitrogen and fecal nitrogen that are decomposed to ammonia during
recirculation; however, sum of these is considered to be less than the value of
ammonia excretion (Table 5.1). Therefore, submerged biofilter with 90 m2 of
Fig. 5.6 Filter materials used to examine ammonia oxidation rate of marine biological filter.
1, earthenware balls; 3, honeycomb tube of 8 mm in cell size (0.50 m2/L); 5, net filter material;
6, fibriform filter material. Reproduced from Kikuchi et al. 1994a
20
Ammonia oxidation rate of

the filter (mg-N/filter /h)
15
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Experimental groups
Fig. 5.7 Ammonia oxidation rate in well-conditioned biological filters with different filter
material. 1, earthenware balls; 2–4, honeycomb tube having different surface area; 5, net filter
material; 6, fibriform filter material. Data represent means and standard deviations. Open column,
oxidation rate after loading ammonia for 3 months; solid column, oxidation rate after loading
ammonia and Ehrlich meat extract for 3 months

between amount of
biologically oxidized
ammonia and alkalinity
decrease in recirculating
seawater in closed system.
Reproduced from Kikuchi
et al. 1994a, b, c
surface area is considered to be enough to produce 100 kg flounder in recirculation

system, corresponding to 260 L volume of the net filter material.
We have little knowledge on the production of particulate substance in the
closed recirculating aquaculture of marine finfish. However, several publications
are recommended to remove suspended solids and leftover feed quickly from
culture water to keep condition good for the growth of aquatic organisms. Based
on the available information (Chen et al. 1994), we chose a combination of
precipitation (settling) tank and drum screen filter as mechanical filtration
(Fig. 5.9) for the closed production of Japanese flounder.
5.2.2 Management of Culture Water
Quality Changes of Recycling Culture Water Decrease in pH and alkalinity of

recycling culture water due to nitrification happen at the early stage of closed
110 K. Kikuchi
Fig. 5.9 Drum screen filter for suspended solids treatment
aquaculture depending on feeding rate and stocking density, and low pH of less than
6 disturbs nitrification as mentioned above.
Quality changes of seawater with the progress of the culture period were examined
with two closed systems of 4.5 m3 and 3.4 m3 in total water volume each. Flounders
were fed commercial pellet for 11 and 8.5 months without replacing culture water,
and total biomass in each system reached to 70 and 40 kg at the end, respectively.
Typical characteristics of culture water at the end of rearing were high concentra-
tions of nitrate, phosphate, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in both systems
(Table 5.2). Almost all excreted ammonia and urea from fish turn to nitrate, and
nitrate accumulates linearly in culture water when the culture system is kept fully
aerobic condition. There are little information on the effect of nitrate on the survival
and growth of aquatic organisms, and 800–1000 mg-N/L is known to affect the
feeding of Japanese flounder in our preliminary study. On the other hand, toxicity of
phosphate is considered to be negligible, and 25 mg-P/L did not show any adverse
effects on the feeding of the flounder in both systems. Furthermore, phosphate
makes precipitation with calcium and magnesium ions in seawater when the
concentration is 40–50 mg-P/L depending on pH and does not increase anymore
(Suzuki et al. 2000). Therefore, phosphate is not considered to be an important
accumulates for the long-term use of recycling culture water.
The other characteristic of long-term used culture water is an accumulation of
“yellow substance” which colors culture water yellowish to brownish with the
progress of culture period (Fig. 5.10). Yellow substance in the culture water
strongly related to DOC concentration (Table 5.2). Little knowledge has been
obtained for the toxicity of yellow substance, and 200–300 mg/L (corresponding
to 40–60 mg DOC/L) was reported to disturb cleavage of oysters (Takeda and
Kiyono 1990). However, 50 mg DOC/L did not show any adverse effects on the
feeding of fish as well as nitrification activity of biofilter in both systems.
Among major elements in seawater, sodium ion increased with the culture
period mainly by an addition of sodium bicarbonate to keep pH of recycling
water (Table 5.3). Calcium and magnesium in seawater made precipitation with
phosphate; however, they did not decrease because of stable supplies from feed or
feces. Changes in major elements were rather smaller and are not considered to
Table 5.2 Changes in carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus compounds in culture water
At the end of rearing
Substances Start Aquarium 1 Aquarium 2
TOC (mg/L) 1.3 56.8 30
DOC (mg/L) 1.3 56.0 29.6
Polysaccharide (uM) 0.1 29.4 20.5
Monosaccharide (uM) 0.4 16.4 13.6
NH4-N (ug/L) 0 203 73
NO2-N (ug/L) 2.8 16.7 8.3
NO3-N (mg/L) 0 305 334
Urea-N (ug/L) 7.7 909 3.7
Organic-N (uM) 0 13 15
PO4-P (mg/L) 0 24.5 25.0
Organic-P (mg/L) 0 <1 <1
Fish were fed commercial pellet for 11 and 8.5 months for Aquarium 1 and 2, respectively
Total biomass at the end was 70 kg for Aquarium 1 of 4500 L water volume and 40 kg for
Aquarium 2 of 3400 L water volume
Fig. 5.10 Culture water at the start (left) and after 20 weeks (right) of rearing
affect the growth of fish. Changes were also shown for trace elements, and nickel,
copper, and zinc at the end were much higher than those of fresh seawater
(Table 5.3). Copper and zinc level in aquarium 1 exceeded the recommended values
shown in Quality Standards for Fishery Water (Japan Fisheries Resource Conser-
vation Association 2013). However, no adverse effects were observed for the
feeding of the flounder in our studies.
Management of Recycling Culture Water Prevent pH (alkalinity) from deceasing is
essential to keep good condition for nitrification in closed aquaculture. Calcareous
filter materials such as crushed oyster shell, gravel, and limestone can supply
alkalinity to recycling seawater; however, acid-insoluble organic substances grow-
ing on the surface of filter materials might reduce the buffering activity with the
112 K. Kikuchi
Table 5.3 Changes in major and trace elements in culture water

At the end of rearing
Substances Start Aquarium 1 Aquarium 2
Na+ 84.28 90.08 86.70
Mg2+ 9.32 9.31 9.17
Ca2+ 1.99 2.09 2.11
K+ 1.77 1.87 1.82
Cl 100 100 100
SO4 5.18 5.40 5.35
Mn (ug/L) 0.3 0.5 0.3
Fe (ug/L) 8 11 < 0.08
Co (ug/L) < 0.2 < 0.2 < 0.2
Ni (ug/L) 0.3 2 2
Cu (ug/L) 0.6 7.3 2.2
Zn (ug/L) 2 13 3
Major ions represent relative molar value to chlorine
Fish were fed commercial pellet for 11 and 8.5 months for Aquarium 1 and 2, respectively
Total biomass at the end was 70 kg for Aquarium 1 of 4500 L water volume and 40 kg for
Aquarium 2 of 3400 L water volume
progress of culture period (Siddall 1974). Nitrification activity is generally high in

closed aquaculture because fish are stocked intensively, and enough amount of
alkaline substance should be supplied continuously. Therefore, natural calcareous
materials are not effective as alkaline sources. Fine calcium carbonate or bicarbon-
ate is considered to be more appropriate and be supplied based on the biologically
oxidized ammonia (Fig. 5.8). Sodium bicarbonate of 0.2 g/L is required to keep pH
at around 8.0 for 20 mg-N/L of ammonia oxidation. Biological denitrification also
supplies alkalinity.
As mentioned above, high level of nitrate is considered to be the most concern
for the long-term use of recycling culture water. Bacterial denitrification is one of
the possible ways to reduce nitrate which requires anaerobic condition and organic
matter. We conducted closed aquaculture of Japanese flounder with 2.25 m3 total
water volume system equipped with denitrification unit of 0.3 m3 volume (Honda
et al. 1993). Fibriform filter material of 240 L volume was filled, and denitrifying
bacteria were inoculated before operation. Culture water was bypassed from the
culture tank to the unit at 5.4 L/h (water in the unit fully exchanged by 2 days), and
2 M of glucose was supplied as an energy source at 4.4 mL/h. Nitrate reduced
successfully after the operation of denitrifying unit and tended to be negligible at
the end of rearing, although fish were fed actively (Fig. 5.11). However, operation
of denitrification unit is not easy work, and nitrate sometimes turns to ammonia or
nitrite depending on reduction condition. Absorption of nitrate (and phosphate) by
plant is also possible. In fresh water recirculation system, closed aquaculture of
tilapia or catfish and hydroponics of tomato and lettuce have been tried to combine
Fig. 5.11 Nitrate

concentration in closed
recirculating culture water
of Japanese flounder.
Denitrification unit started
to operate at 130th day after
the commencement of the
rearing experiment.
Reproduced from Honda
et al. 1993
to utilize nitrogen and phosphate from fish culture (Fig. 5.12; Naegel 1977, Lewis
et al. 1979). On the other hand, there were little trials for seawater system. We
examined nitrate absorption rate of several seaweeds and found that Ulva sp. was
one of the most appropriate due to the absorption rate and easy operation, although
their market value was negligible. Absorption rate was estimated to be 0.3 mg-N/g
Ulva/day at 20 C and 3000 lx fluorescent light. When we utilize all nitrate from
100 kg flounder aquaculture with the seaweed, Ulva production is calculated to be
300 kg, 3 times higher than fish production. Exchange of culture water with fresh
seawater (or artificial seawater) is considered to be more convenient if the seawater
is easily available. Production of 1000 kg flounder (500 g body weight, 2000 fish)
accompanies 45 kg-N of nitrate production when fish are fed commercial pallet, and
75 m3 of seawater is required to keep nitrate level of less than 600 mg-N/L
(non-harmful level). This means that we need to exchange culture water 2–3
times up to the end of production with a system of 25 m3 in total water volume.
Effect of yellow substance on the fish growth is negligible; however, it is
nuisance substance for aquariums and it sometimes produces odd smell in fish
fillet. Yellow substance is generally treated with activated carbon and ozone in
aquarium, although the latter must be used carefully due to its toxicity especially in
seawater. UV sterilizer reduces yellowish color of culture water with a little extent
as well as pathogens. Furthermore, UV can reduce suspended solids of 10–20 um in
culture water which are difficult to remove by mechanical filters, although exper-
imental data were very limited. Quick treatment of fine suspended solids is effective
for easy operation by making visible condition in culture tank and less oxygen
consumption. Therefore, UV is strongly recommended to equip in closed
recirculating aquaculture system for marine finfish.
Discharge of Culture Water Replaced culture water is discharged to natural water
body (river, inlet, and coast) or sewers if the farmer does not have specific treatment
114 K. Kikuchi
Fig. 5.12 Aquaponics at the Department of Aquaculture, Pukyong National University. Left,
hydroponics of common water hyacinth; right, culture tanks for tilapia
basin. We do not have clear regulations (standards) for discharged culture water
from aquaculture facilities in Japan yet, and highest allowed concentrations for
discharged water are 100 mg/L for total nitrogen, 16 mg/L for phosphorus, 160 mg/
L for BOD or COD, and 200 mg/L for suspended solids if the Water Quality
Standard for Waste Water is adapted. Higher values are generally allowed for
sewage treatment. Regulations for discharged water differ by local authorities in
Japan, and we must check specifics before the start of aquaculture production.
5.2.3 Factors Affecting Productivity
Temperature and Salinity Water temperature is one of the most influential envi-
ronmental factors for the growth of fish. Although a few papers have attempted to
elucidate the effect of temperature on the growth of Japanese flounder (Koshiishi
1981; Morizane 1984; Seikai et al. 1986), useful information for grow-out was
limited. Iwata et al. (1994) conducted feeding experiments in which Japanese
flounder of 4, 16, 88, and 176 g initial body weight were fed a commercial pellet
diet twice daily to satiation at 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 C for 20 days. Based on the
results of daily growth rate and feed efficiency of the cultured fish, the study
suggested that the optimum temperature for the production of Japanese flounder
is between 20 and 25 C (Fig. 5.13). They also showed that high temperature
(30 C) negatively affects the growth of fish specifically for larger fish. However,
Fig. 5.13 Effect of water

temperature on the growth
of Japanese flounder with
4 different body weights.
Fish were fed commercial
pellet diet for 20 days
the culture period of 20 days was too short; more research especially with larger fish
(200–500 g initial weight) is required to estimate the optimum temperature for the
commercial production of Japanese flounder.
There is only a preliminary study on the effect of salinity. Salinity of more than
3.3‰ did not affect 5 days survival of 44 g fish; however, all fish died at 2.7‰. One
month’s culture experiment with fish of 8 g initial body weight revealed that the
salinity of 4.4–34.0‰ had no adverse effects on the growth of fish nor did major
blood constituents.
Stocking Density Socking density directly affects the productivity of aquaculture
system, and fish are tried to produce intensively in closed recirculating aquaculture.
As mentioned at the beginning, 15 kg/m2 is the highest stocking density for 1 kg
size fish in commercial production with running seawater. We conducted 5 weeks
rearing experiment with 320–450 g body weight fish at initial stocking density of
5–60 kg/m2 bottom area of the culture tank to elucidate upper limit density for
normal and healthy growth. Feed intake, weight gain, and feed efficiency were
statistically similar among experimental groups except 40 kg/m2 group (Fig. 5.14).
Although data obtained were fluctuated, it is indicated that 2–3 times higher density
of the commercial production can be allowed if the water quality is sustained at the
optimum level.
Availability of Dietary Carbohydrate and Lipid The protein content in commercial
fish diets, while differing for various species, is much higher than that of the protein
content for domesticated animals and ranges from 30% to more than 50% protein
by dry weight. Because most fish have only a limited ability to utilize dietary
carbohydrate as an energy source, they require a much higher percentage of protein
in the diet. Utilization of dietary carbohydrate or lipid as an energy source has been
widely examined among various kinds of fish and resulted in increasing protein
efficiency ratio (PER) and decreasing feed cost (as well as nitrogen excretion) in
some fish species.
We examined the availability of dietary carbohydrate as an energy source in the
diet of Japanese flounder (Kikuchi et al. 1998). Juvenile fish of 3.5 g initial weight
116 K. Kikuchi
Fig. 5.14 Effect of 14

stocking density on the 12
Weight gain (%)

weight gain of Japanese 10
flounder. Fish of 320 to
8
450 g initial body weight
were fed commercial pellet 6
diet for 5 weeks at 20 C 4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80
2
Initial stocking density kg/m
were fed 5 experimental diets containing different ratios of fish meal/potato starch
(protein/carbohydrate; crude protein, 33–53%) twice daily to satiation for 6 weeks
at 20 C. There were no significant differences in PER among dietary treatments;
however, feed efficiency decreased with the increase of potato starch in the diet.
Furthermore, the final body weight and weight gain of fish fed diets with less than
40% crude protein were significantly lower than those of the other dietary groups.
Adverse effects of increasing potato starch in the diet on growth and feed utilization
are reported in other feeding experiments with fish of 50 and 310–360 g initial body
weight, and the effects were more serious in larger fish (Kikuchi et al. 1992a).
When 5 g flounder were fed diets containing glucose, maltose, dextrin, and potato
starch, growth and feed efficiency of the cultured fish increased in dietary groups
with dextrin and potato starch but tended to decrease with decreasing molecular
weights of carbohydrate. Dietary inclusion of glucose and maltose also resulted in a
marked increase of blood sugar level after feeding (Kikuchi et al. 1998), as in other
fish species (Furuichi and Yone 1982).
Sato (1999) examined the utilization of dietary lipid of Japanese flounder. Four
to 5 g juvenile Japanese flounder were fed 18 experimental diets with 6 protein
levels (40, 45, 50, 55, 60, and 65%) and 3 lipid levels each (10–28%) twice daily to
satiation for 8 weeks. Growth of fish generally depended on dietary protein level,
and increasing level of dietary lipid did not produce positive effects at all protein
levels. PER was statistically identical among dietary treatments, regardless of
dietary protein and lipid levels. Similar results were obtained with fish of 55 and
245 g initial body weight; however, PER of fish fed the diet with the highest lipid
level (20.3%) was significantly higher than that of fish fed the diet with the lowest
lipid content (9.8%) in both feeding trials (Kikuchi et al. 2000). Utilization of
dietary lipid of the flounder is considered to increase with the growth of fish;
however, a large quantity of dietary lipid may result in adverse effects on the health
of the cultured fish by increasing blood triglyceride level, liver weight, and crude
lipid content of the liver and muscle (Sato 1999; Kikuchi et al. 2000). Although
more information is required to clarify the optimum inclusion level of dietary lipid
as an energy source, the potential utilization of dietary lipid of Japanese flounder is
considered to be much lower than that of Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout, or

yellowtail.
Alternative Protein Sources for Fish Meal Japanese flounder requires a high
percentage of protein in the diet as mentioned above. Because of the shortage of
sardines that had been the main ingredient (protein source) in the formulated diet of
fish in Japan, finding an alternative protein sources is required to produce a stable
supply of commercial diets at a reduced price. We examined the potential of feather
meal, meat and bone meal, meat meal, and corn gluten meal as alternative protein
sources for the diet of juvenile Japanese flounder (less than 10 g initial body
weight). Previous results indicate that 20–40% fish meal protein can be replaced
by feather meal, 20% by meat and bone meal, 60% by meat meal, and 40% by corn
gluten meal (Kikuchi et al. 1994b, 1997; Sato and Kikuchi 1997; Kikuchi 1999a).
However, most of these protein sources require supplementation of crystalline
essential amino acids that are lacking in each alternative to achieve comparable
growth to the control diet (fish meal is a sole protein source). Ten amino acids –
arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threo-
nine, tryptophan, and valine – are considered to be essential for Japanese flounder
(Kanazawa 1990). A preliminary study on commercial defatted soybean meal
showed that substituting 20 to 50% fish meal protein for the soybean meal and
supplemental amino acids in the diet did not lead to serious adverse effects on
growth of juvenile flounder (Kikuchi et al. 1994c). It is also clear that 47% fish meal
protein in the diet can be successfully replaced with defatted soybean meal (30% in
the diet) in combination with blood meal (10%) without amino acid supplements
(Kikuchi 1999b). Furthermore, inclusion of blue mussel meat, Mytilus
galloprovincialis, (5% of diet) for an equal amount of soybean to this diet improves
the growth of the flounder markedly, mostly due to increasing feed consumption
(Kikuchi 1999b). Stimulation of feeding with the mussel meat is demonstrated with
the diet in which 3% fish meal protein was replaced with the mussel protein
(Kikuchi 1998). Blue mussel meat is an effective protein source that can replace
60% fish meal protein in the diet, with incremental increases in growth and feed
utilization, without supplemental amino acids (Kikuchi and Sakaguchi 1997),
although using blue mussel meat as the main ingredient of fish diet is far from
practical.
These studies revealed that a considerable amount of fish meal protein can be
replaced by several alternatives in the diet of Japanese flounder. However, the
results were obtained from a 6–8 weeks feeding trial with fish of less than 10 g
initial body weight. Therefore, a long-term culture is needed to clarify the practical
use of these ingredients.
118 K. Kikuchi
5.2.4 A Trial to Produce Japanese Flounder with a Closed

Recirculating System
Based on the above mentioned experimental results and additional available infor-
mation on the design and equipment for oxygen supply, solid removal, and disin-
fection that have been developed in western countries, we designed a pilot scale
closed recirculating culture system for Japanese flounder. The system consisted of a
culture tank of round shape, settling tank, drum screen filter, submerged biological
filter, heating-cooling unit, oxygen generator and supplier (contactor), blower, foam
fractionators, and UV sterilizer (Fig. 5.15).
Rearing experiments were conducted with the closed system of 10 m3 in total
water volume installed in a greenhouse (Fig. 5.16, Table 5.4). At the start, 1015 fish
of 2 g in initial body weight were introduced to the culture tank of 4 m in diameter
with 60 cm in water depth and fed commercial flounder pellet diet twice daily to
apparent satiation each by hand. Water temperature was maintained at 23 1 C.
Foam fractionators were not operated in the rearing experiment.
Fish fed actively for the duration of the study and grew to 456 g in mean body
weight during a 259 day period (Fig. 5.17, Phase 1) with good survival rate (85%)
and feed efficiency (97%) as shown in Table 5.5. Culture density at the end was
31 kg/m2 bottom area of the culture tank, corresponding to 39 kg/m3 total culture
water. These results were relatively higher than those of previous studies for the
flounder without drum screen filter and oxygen supplier (Honda et al. 1993; Furuta
et al. 1998). About half of the culture water was exchanged at 148, 225 and
255 days of the rearing to keep the nitrate level at less than 600 mg-N/L. After
259 days, fish were randomly divided into two groups (430 fish each) and placed in
duplicate culture systems and fed the commercial pellet. Water temperature was
controlled at 19 1 C. Fish fed actively and grew to 692 g and 720 g during
78-day rearing period with a greater than 103% feed efficiency (Phase 2; Fig. 5.17,
Table 5.5). Dissolved oxygen ranged from 90 to 130% of saturation level through
the 337-day rearing period. Ammonia and nitrite were maintained at less than 4 mg-
N/L, and no apparent adverse effects on the feeding and growth were observed.
High stocking density did not result in any visible adverse effects such as injuring
dorsal fins for flounders. We produced about 400 kg quality flounders with 25 m3 of
Fig. 5.15 Schematic O2 contactor

diagram of an experimental Heating-cooling unit
closed system
UV
Culture tank Oxygen and
Blower Pump
Settling tank
Foam fractionators
Drum screen filter Submerged biofilter

Fig. 5.16 Closed recirculating aquaculture system of 10 m3 water volume for Japanese flounder
Table 5.4 Electric appliances equipped for the closed recirculating aquaculture system of 10 m3
water volume for Japanese flounder
Rated power
Electric appliances consumption Specification
Circulation pump Magnet pump MDH-400, 380 Maximum flow rate,
Iwaki Co., Ltd 280 L/min
Water temperature Heat pump for seawater 4630 Cooling, 10,700 kcal/h;
controlling unit MR-3750H-TR, Marine River heating, 11,600 kcal/h
Co., Ltd
Drum screen filter HDF501, Hydrotech 180 Filter mesh, 60 μm;
filtration, 350 L/min
Oxygen generator AS12, AirSep 500 Oxygen supply, 5 L/min
Blower Diaphragm blower DF-300, 390 Air supply 270 L/min
Taiko Kikai Industries Co., Ltd
UV sterilizer Sanitron SS-90SMR, Sen Light 110 UV output, 90 W
Co., Ltd
total seawater in Phase 1, similar to that we designed (1000 kg with 50–75 m3

seawater), and was extremely high efficiency (fish/water) compared with conven-
tional flounder farm with running seawater. Additionally, growth rate, feed effi-
ciency, and survival rate for closed aquaculture were superior to those for running
seawater, although there were few information available for comparison.
Based on the results of entire culture period (337 days), the costs for electricity,
seedling, and feed to produce 1 kg Japanese flounder were estimated to be 618, 203,
120 K. Kikuchi
Fig. 5.17 Growth curve of Phase 1

800
Japanese flounder reared Phase 2 A
with closed recirculating Phase 2 B
aquaculture system 600
400
200
0
0 100 200 300
and 352 JPY, respectively (total, 1173 JPY). If it assumes that we construct the
closed system mostly with commercial products including overseas and duration of
the depreciation is 10 years, a construction cost for facility is estimated to be
420 JPY per year. Therefore, total cost except for labor is about 1600 JPY/kg
flounder production, and unfortunately is not considered to be economically feasi-
ble at this moment. However, this value is based on a rearing experiment with a
pilot scale facility, and construction and production costs are able to reduce by an
expansion of production scale with equipments of reasonable prices and cheaper
contracts of electricity.
5.2.5 Quality of Japanese Flounder Produced with Closed

Recirculating System
Because Japanese flounder is one of the most quality fish species having high
market value and mostly is eaten as fresh sashimi or sushi in Japan, the quality of
raw fillet such as taste, texture, and appearance is very important. We conducted
chemical and sensory analyses of the fillet of the flounder reared with closed
recirculation system fed commercial pellet, wild catch, and fish produced with
flow through culture tank fed raw sand lance. The flounder of 3 g initial body weight
were fed the pellet for 20 months in a closed system installed in the building at
nearly 20 C and less than the stocking density of 10 kg/m2 bottom area of fish tank.
The maximum nitrate level was 200 mg-N/L due to partial exchange of culture
water, and ammonia and nitrite were kept under 1 mg-N/L throughout the culture
period. The flounder produced with flow through system was purchased from a
commercial farm in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. The body weights of fish used for the
examination ranged from 637 to 1088 g for closed fish, 841 to 1014 g for flow
through, and 587 to 1193 g for wild catch. Sensory analysis of fresh fillet was done
by panel test with selected panelist working for Japan Food Research Laboratories.
Moisture, crude protein, and ash contents of fillet did not differ to each other.
Crude lipid of the flounder from closed aquaculture was slightly higher than that of
Table 5.5 Results of rearing experiment for Japanese flounder with closed recirculating aquaculture system
Average body Culture
weight (g) density
5 Japanese Flounder Paralichthys olivaceus
Initial Final Survival (%) Final biomass (kg) Additional water (m3) Growth rate (%) Feed efficiency (%) kg/m2 kg/m3
Phase 1 2 456 84.7 393 15 2.1 96.8 31 39
Phase 2 A 440 692 98.1 292 0 0.6 104.4 23 29
B 473 720 99.5 308 0 0.5 102.7 25 31
Culture water was partially replaced with fresh seawater at 148, 225, and 255 days of the rearing in Phase 1
121
122 K. Kikuchi
Favorable
3
Closed Flow through
2
-1
-2
-3
Unfavorable Smell Clearness Elasticity Taste Total
Fig. 5.18 Sensory analyses of fresh fillet (sashimi) of Japanese flounder reared in closed
recirculation and flow through culture tank. Scores are relative value to those of wild catch
flounders
the wild catch but was almost equal to the flow through culture. A similar trend to
the crude lipid was shown for extractive nitrogen content and that of the cultured
fish was slightly lower than the wild catch. There were no differences in free amino
acids and nucleotides among three flounders tested such as glutamic acid, proline,
glycine, inosine monophosphate, adenosine monophosphate, and adenosine tri-
phosphate which are considered to be important substances to affect the taste.
However, sensory analysis on smell, clearness, elasticity, and taste showed that
fillet of the culture flounders were slightly inferior to that of wild catch. Scores were
similar between two culture fish groups regardless of difference in feed. Fillet of
closed fish were more yellowish than that of the wild catch (Fig. 5.18).
5.3 Conclusions
Research on the closed recirculating fish culture was extensively conducted during
the 1950s to early 1970s especially for water treatment system of aquaria in Japan
(Saeki 1958; Kawai et al. 1964, 1965; Hirayama 1970, 1974). Concurrently,
aquaculture production was tried with carp and eel with basic closed system that
consisted of culture tanks and biological filters (Japan Aquicultural Research group
1962). However, few research trials had been conducted on the closed aquaculture
before we stared the project in 1986 (Fisheries Agency 1981; Hirayama et al. 1988).
Based on the basic information on the flounder aquaculture, development of closed
aquaculture techniques for flounder had been tried by private sectors as new
business in the early 1990s in Japan. However, almost all the efforts were finished
with failure, and we have no commercial aquaculture farms for marine fish using
closed recirculation techniques up to now. Although it cannot be overemphasized
that serious recession after 1992 in Japan is considered to affect seriously for the
stagnation of developing technologies. The other major possible reason is that
closed aquaculture was not proved to be promising business mostly due to the
following:
1. Production trials with pilot scale facilities to elucidate the economical feasibility
has not been tried: there were little information on the construction cost of
average closed aquaculture facility nor the operation cost to produce flounder,
basic information for farmers who wish to start closed aquaculture.
2. Environmentally friendly does not earn money: we have little environmental
regulations for net cage aquaculture along the coast in Japan; therefore, less
discharge of organic matter to natural environment, a major characteristic of
closed aquaculture, cannot be an advantage from economical point of view.
3. Less availability of devices for closed aquaculture: we did not have the vendors
specific for aquaculture gears and should obtain some devices from other
industries with high prices; for instance, the market price of a heat pump for
seawater in Japan was 4–5 times higher than that in the United States on power
basis in near around 2000; there is lots of available information on aquaculture
devices in the home page of “Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems,” and we can get
preferable supplies with reasonable prices in the Unites States.
4. Higher cost of electricity: simple comparison of the electricity fee between
Japan and the United States is not realistic; however, electricity occupied more
than half of the total (electricity, feed, and seedling) operation cost in our study
and might be serious issues to increase profitability.
5. Fluctuation in market price of fish: the market price of Japanese flounder was
nearly 3000 JPY/kg in 1990 and decreased to less than half in 2000; such a
drastic change in market price makes aquaculture to be unstable (risky) business.
These situations unfortunately continue nowadays, and closed recirculating
aquaculture is not recognized as a promising business in Japan yet. First priority
for the commercial success of closed aquaculture is that doing a feasibility study
with a pilot scale facility (1) and clarify the major issues in reducing construction
and operation costs (3, 4) required for commercial production. Minimum market
price of the product should be discussed with the data of growth rate and proper
stocking density of target species in relation with construction and operation costs
to stabilize the business (5). Recent scientific and quantitative information on the
closed aquaculture should be provided continuously to the farmers or entrepreneur,
and the role of academic sectors is considered to be very important for the future
development of closed aquaculture.
124 K. Kikuchi
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Chapter 6
Kuruma Shrimp Marsupenaeus japonicus
Yoshihiro Suzuki
Abstract Kuruma shrimps Marsupenaeus japonicus were reared in a closed

recirculating system, which consisted of a culture tank, a foam separation unit, a
nitrification unit, and a denitrification unit. The shrimps used in the test were judged
in advance to be free of the white spot disease virus (WSDV) by the method of loop-
mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). In the growth test of juvenile shrimp
using a bench-scale system, the growth of shrimps, which were fed a commercial
diet, was satisfactory, with the average weight increases of up to 11 times in
4.5 months. The individual density at the end of the culture period was 51 individ-
uals/m2. The foam separation unit maintained oxygen saturation in the water used
for rearing at 101%. Furthermore, contaminants such as suspended solids, chroma-
ticity substances, and bacteria absorbed on the stable foam were removed from the
culture water by foam separation. The turbidity in culture water was kept at less
than two units. Total ammonia nitrogen and nitrite oxidation were accomplished
rapidly and simultaneously in the nitrification unit. When the denitrification process
was operated, nitrate that accumulated in the culture water (20 mg-N/L) was
reduced to 4 mg-N/L. Mating and spawning stages could be attained in the closed
recirculating system less than 1m3 of total water volume. In addition, the large-
sized system (10 m3) was built, and the possibility of utilization for the actual
shrimp production was also proved. Based on these results, the intensive aquacul-
ture of kuruma shrimp can be achieved using a closed recirculating system under
virus-free conditions without emission.
Keywords A closed recirculating system • Juvenile growth • Mating • Spawning •

Production • Virus-free
Y. Suzuki (*)
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of
Miyazaki, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
128 Y. Suzuki
6.1 Introduction
Recently, the aquaculture industry is likewise urged to convert to a new system that
introduces the concept of zero emission, and this requires the development of a
closed recirculating system using innovative technology for fish production. Espe-
cially, production of kuruma shrimp Marsupenaeus japonicus is one of the most
important fish species for aquaculture in Japan (Hamasaki and Kitada 2006).
However, zero-emission aquaculture system in an actual kuruma shrimp farm has
not yet been developed. If intensive shrimp culture and production in a perfectly
closed recirculating system become technically possible, the development of zero-
emission systems can be realized.
With the combined aim of increased fish production and reduced nutrient load in
aquatic environments, we have advanced the development of a zero-emission
system composed of foam separation, nitrification, and denitrification units. Culture
trials of Japanese flounder in saltwater (Maruyama et al. 1999; Suzuki et al. 2000)
and eel in freshwater (Suzuki et al. 2003) were carried out using this almost
perfectly closed system. The survival rate was very high, that is, more than 3 months
despite the high fish density. The advantage of this system is that it is equipped with
an effective foam separation unit as part of its main purification process. Oxygen
supply, removal of suspended substances, and deaeration can be achieved simulta-
neously by the foam separation process (Maruyama et al. 1991, 1996). By applying
the principles of the fish culture system, we tried the development of a closed
recirculating system for culturing kuruma shrimp. An ideal aquaculture system is
one which purifies the rearing water under virus-free conditions while obtaining
high biomass productivity and production of virus-free seeds and seedlings.
6.2 System for Bench-Scale Study
A closed recirculating system with foam separation, nitrification, and denitrification

units consisted of a shrimp rearing tank (water volume, 0.54 m3; water surface area,
1.1 m2), a foam separation tank (0.17 m3) equipped with an inhalation-type aerator
(200 V, 0.2 kw), a nitrification tank (0.13 m3), and a denitrification tank (0.06 m3).
The total amount of water in this system was 0.9 m3. The construction of the system
is identical shown in Sect. 3.2. A heater for adjusting the conditions of the rearing
water (28 C) was set in the rearing tank. First, sand-filtered saltwater was intro-
duced to the system, and one cycle was carried out for 22 min. The salinity in
rearing water was adjusted to 28 psu using seawater and tap water. The system was
located indoors and the rearing tank was shielded from light.
The difference between fish and kuruma shrimp rearing is that kuruma shrimp
lives in the sand during daytime. Therefore, the sand must be laid at the bottom of
the rearing tank. The sand used in the rearing tank accumulated evacuated matters
and residual feed, and large amount of labor is required to clean the sand. To reduce
6 Kuruma Shrimp Marsupenaeus japonicus 129
the accumulation of polluted substances in the sand, the rearing tank was made with
a double bottom, and the rearing water was made to flow upward under the sand
layer. Coral sand (grain size, 2 mm) was used for this system.
6.3 Growth of Juvenile Shrimp and System Performance

(Suzuki et al. 2010a)
6.3.1 Rearing
Juvenile kuruma shrimps (total gross weight 100 g, 125 individuals, about 0.8 g/
individual) were placed in the rearing tank. The shrimps used in the test were
judged in advance to be free of the white spot disease virus (WSDV) by the method
of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) (Kono et al. 2004). Throughout
the rearing experiment, the shrimps were fed a commercial diet (crude protein,
above 51.0%; crude lipid, above 5.0%; fiber, less than 5.0%; crude ash, less than
22.0%; calcium, above 0.5%; phosphorus, above 0.080%; Kyowahakko Co., Japan)
daily. In the initial stage, 5 g of the feed was given once daily every evening.
Shrimps were cultured for 135 days.
6.3.2 Analytical Methods
To determine the quality of rearing water, a sample was collected every 2 or 3 days
from the rearing tank before feeding. Dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity as kaolin
standard (Mitsubishi Kagaku Co., SEP-PT-706D), total organic carbon (TOC,
Shimadzu Co., TOC-5000), color as cobalt-platinum standard, absorbance at
260 nm (E260, Shimadzu Co., UV-2200), total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) (HACH
Co., DR-2000), NO3-N (HACH Co., DR-2000), NO2-N (HACH, DR-2000), total
nitrogen (T-N), phosphate (PO4-P), and total phosphorus (T-P) were analyzed. The
standard platinum-cobalt method of measuring color was used, in which the unit of
color is that produced by 1 mg-Pt/L in the form of chloroplatinate ion. The
collapsed-foam water samples were also obtained, and TOC, color, E260,
suspended solids (SS), T-N, and T-P were analyzed. The analytical methods
followed that of the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS K 0102) or HACH
Co. analytical manual.
Nitrogen in the solid samples, such as feed, shrimp tissue, ecdysis shell, and
dried sludge, were analyzed using an elemental analyzer (CHNSO Analyzer 2400,
Perkin Elmer Co.). Phosphorus in solid matter was decomposed in a mixture of
perchloric acid and nitric acid and analyzed in the same way as T-P in rearing water.
130 Y. Suzuki
6.3.3 Growth of Juvenile Shrimp
The shrimp growth during the experimental period (135 days) is shown in Fig. 6.1.
Throughout the rearing period, the shrimp fed actively, and their total weight
increased over time. The individual weight increased from an average of 0.80 g
to 8.72 g during the experimental period. The growth rate was 1.98 g/month, and the
rearing density was 51 individuals/m2 by the end of the study. Although there was
no dead individual throughout the rearing period, total population decreased from
125 to 61 individuals. The survival rate through the trial was 49% because of
cannibalism.
6.3.4 Quality of Rearing Water
The changes in DO of the rearing water are shown in Fig. 6.2. The oxygen
saturation percentage was kept above approximately 101% throughout the exper-
imental period. The maximum and minimum DO concentrations were 7.0 mg/L and
6.0 mg/L, respectively, with a mean of 6.55 mg/L. While this system does not
provide an extraneous source of oxygen except for the aerator in the foam separa-
tion tank, a high DO concentration was properly maintained in the rearing water.
The changes in the concentrations of TAN, NO2-N, and NO3-N in the rearing
water are shown in Fig. 6.3. The TAN concentration was kept low throughout the
study period at less than 0.4 mg-N/L. The NO2-N concentration was maintained at a
very low level less than 0.02 mg-N/L for 135 days. In contrast, NO3-N was formed
via TAN oxidation in the absence of denitrification, and NO3-N steadily accumu-
lated in the rearing water. However, when the denitrification process was initiated
on the 78th day, NO3-N concentration began to decrease after about 1 week and was
reduced to 4 mg-N/L by the end of the study. In the period without denitrification,
Fig. 6.1 Shrimp growth 12

Average body weight (g/individual)
during the rearing period

(Modified from Suzuki et al. 10
2010a)
8
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Rearing period (day)
Concentration Saturation
Dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L)

8
7 100
Oxygen saturation (%)

6 80
5
60
4
3 40
2
20
1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Fig. 6.2 Dissolved oxygen level in the rearing water (Modified from Suzuki et al. 2010a)
TAN
NO3-N
NO2-N
25 1
Denitrification TAN, NO2-N (mg-N/L)
20 0.8
NO3-N (mg-N/L)
15 0.6
10 0.4
5 0.2
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Fig. 6.3 Concentration of nitrogen compounds in the rearing water during the rearing period
(Modified from Suzuki et al. 2010a). TAN total ammonia nitrogen
the cumulative amount of feed intake (x) and the amount of NO3-N (y) in the
system showed a good correlation (y ¼ 0.031x, r ¼ 0.934). For example, when
100 g of feed was given to the shrimp, 3.1 g of NO3-N accumulated continuously in
132 Y. Suzuki
the rearing water without denitrification process. The fundamental parameters such
as pH, water temperature, and salinity were kept at 8.0, 28 C and 28 psu, respec-
tively, throughout the trial. By the neutralizing by coral sand, a mechanical control
of pH was unnecessary for this shrimp system. Though the concentration of calcium
ion in rearing water was not determined, it is assumed that calcium was supplied
with dissolution of calcium carbonate from the coral sand.
6.3.5 Characteristics of Foam Separation Process
The foam which concentrated the polluted substances was generated from the duct
of the foam separation unit during the rearing period. The average quantity of water
discharged per day was 293 mL (n ¼ 36, 0.02% per day, 0.293 L/1300 L ¼ 0.0002).
Total volume of foam water was less than 40 L during the rearing period. It has been
reported that foam generation of fish mucus is dependent on the concentrations of
mucus and coexisting solvent ions (Suzuki et al. 2003). It was proven that the
mucus substance acts on the foam separation process for not only fish rearing but
also shrimp rearing.
The SS were significantly concentrated in the separated foam water, and the
turbidity of the separated foam water was two orders of magnitude higher than that
of the rearing water (Fig. 6.4). The turbidity of the rearing water was maintained in
the range of one to two units, whereby almost no suspended substances could be
observed. The turbidity in the foam water changed irregularly and varied from 50 to
600 mg/L, making it necessary to remove suspended substances from the system by
a foam separation process. SS was not analyzed in the rearing water since only
small amounts were observed, and the turbidity of the rearing water was retained at
less than 1.0 unit. Moreover, a brown material was significantly concentrated in the
foam water. The color unit of the foam water (average, 369 units; n ¼ 36) was
100 to 1000 times higher than that of the rearing water (Fig. 6.5). The foam
separation process was able to remove the color components, which are difficult
to remove by biological treatment or physical filtration. Furthermore, an analysis of
the effect of bacterial removal was undertaken (Fig. 6.5). The bacteria were
concentrated markedly and suspended in the foam water.
6.3.6 Mass Balances
About 25% of the total weight of feed remained in the system as SS. The total of the
residual amount of SS was considered as 100%. The total N and P contents in the
feed were considered as 100%. The mass balances of this system for SS, N, and P
are shown in Fig. 6.6. The N and P contents in the dried feed were 9.4% and 1.5%,
respectively. The N and P contents in the shrimp body were 11.7% and 1.0%,
respectively.
Turb. in rearing water Color in rearing water

Turb. in foam water Color in foam water
1200 1200
1000 1000
Turbidity (unit as kaolin)
Color (unit as platinum)

800 800
600 600
400 400
200 200
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Fig. 6.4 Changes in turbidity and color in the rearing water and the foam water during the rearing
period (Modified from Suzuki et al. 2010a). Turb. turbility
Fig. 6.5 Changes in Foam water

bacteria counts in the Rearing water
rearing water and the foam
water during the rearing 108
Heterotrophic bacteria (cfu/mL)

Suzuki et al. 2010a) 107
106
105
104
1000
90 100 110 120 130 140
In the case of the SS, about 60% was accumulated in the nitrification tank, and
5.9% was removed by foam separation unit (Fig. 6.7a). The nitrification tank
functioned as both nitrification and sedimentation units. The point to be noticed is
that the accumulation of SS in the sand was small, less than 3%. In general, a huge
amount of labor is needed for cleaning and maintenance of the sand in the shrimp
culture tank. The upflow type of rearing tank is possible to drastically ease the
maintenance of rearing tank or pond for shrimp culture.
134 Y. Suzuki
Foam water
3.1%
Denitfirication tank Sand
Sand Foam water 3.1% 0.7%
2.8% 5.9%
Mesh seet
6.4%
Denitfirication tank
14.0%
Nitfirication tank
8.5%
Shrimp
Mesh seet 51%
18.6%
Nitfirication tank Nitrogen removal
58.4% 8.5%
Rearing water
Husk (b) Nitrogen
3.1%
(a) Suspended solid 2.5%
Sand
0.7% Foam water
3.1%
Mesh seet
5.9%
Shrimp
Denitfirication tank
27.2%
3.1%
Husk
4.7%
Nitfirication tank
42.9% Rearing water
5.0%
(c) Phosphorus
Fig. 6.6 Mass balances of suspended solid (a), nitrogen (b), and phosphorus (c) in the closed
recirculating system (Modified from Suzuki et al. 2010a)
In the case of total nitrogen, 51% was utilized for shrimp growth, 3.1% was
accumulated in the rearing water as NO3-N and organic nitrogen, 2.2% was
removed by foam separation, and 9.5% was accumulated in the nitrification and
denitrification tanks as sediment (Fig. 6.7b). Regarding mass balances in the
culture, the assimilation of nitrogen in the fish body varied from 25 to 35% of the
50 50
Mating
40 40
Exuvium (counts)
Mating rate (%)
30 30
Exuvium
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (day)
Fig. 6.7 The relationship between mating rate and cumulative number of shrimp exuviae (Mod-
ified from Suzuki et al. 2008)
total nitrogen input without regarding the difference in fish species (Folke and
Kautsky 1989; Hall et al. 1992; Maruyama and Suzuki 1998; Skjølstrup et al. 1998;
Suzuki et al. 1999). The nitrogen assimilation in shrimp was higher than that in fish.
Almost all the nitrogen that must be treated in this system was present as a dissolved
fraction. In this study, the remaining 34.2% of nitrogen in the system was removed
as nitrogen gas by denitrification. Denitrification could have removed the residual
NO3-N in the rearing water if the operation was continued for a few days after the
shrimp was harvested.
In the case of total phosphorus, 27% was utilized for shrimp growth, 5% was
accumulated in the rearing water, 2.1% was removed by foam separation, and 60%
was accumulated in the nitrification and denitrification tanks as sediment
(Fig. 6.7c). Because of analytical error, the total percentage exceeded 100%. In
case of a recirculating aquaculture system for saltwater fish, it has been reported
that the phosphorus accumulates in high concentration in the sludge, because the
phosphorus reacted with calcium and magnesium in the saltwater and formed
insoluble compounds (Suzuki et al. 2000).
6.4 Mating Test (Suzuki et al. 2008)
6.4.1 Rearing for Mating
Ten individuals of adult kuruma shrimp (five male individuals, five female indi-
viduals, about 40 g/individual) were placed in the rearing tank. The shrimps used in
the test were judged in advance to be free of the white spot disease virus (WSDV)
136 Y. Suzuki
by the LAMP method in the same as rearing of juvenile shrimp. For 95 days in the
rearing experiment, the shrimps were fed a commercial diet once daily every
evening (4.5 g/day). In the final period of mating test remaining 10 days, the
shrimps were fed both frozen lugworm daily (4.5 g/day). To judge the mating
evidence, formation of a stopper at the thelycum on the female shrimp was checked
every 1 to 2 weeks. Adult shrimps were cultured for 105 days.
6.4.2 Mating
The foam separation unit maintained oxygen saturation in the water used for rearing
at 99% (6.45 0.16 mg/L, mean SD, n ¼ 37). The turbidity of the rearing water
was maintained in 0.038 0.133 units. There were few suspended substances
(SS) in rearing water throughout the mating test. Ammonia and nitrite oxidation
were accomplished rapidly and simultaneously in the nitrification unit. TAN and
nitrite concentrations were kept at less than 0.2 mg-N/L. Furthermore, contami-
nants such as SS, chromaticity substances, organic substances, and proteins
absorbed on the stable foam were removed from the culture water by foam
separation. This system was able to maintain good water quality for culturing
shrimps under a closed condition without water exchange when shrimps were fed
both a commercial diet and frozen lugworm.
The survival rate in the mating test for 105 days was 100%. Throughout the
rearing period, the shrimp fed actively, even when which of the commercial diet
and frozen lugworm was fed. The individual weight increased from an average of
42 g to 54 g during the experimental period. The relationship between mating rate
and cumulative number of ecdysis shrimp shell is shown in Fig. 6.7. The mating
rate was defined as the rate of female shrimps which formed a stopper to the total
number of female shrimps. In the closed recirculating system less than 1m3 of total
water volume, 40% of the population of female shrimps formed a stopper at the
thelycum within 1–2 months after the mating test was started. The increase in a
mating rate was not observed by feeding frozen lugworm. After the mating test, the
shrimps cultured in the system were judged WSDV-free by the LAMP method. It
was verified that female shrimps possessing a stopper could be produced under
virus-free conditions.
6.5 Spawning Test (Suzuki et al. 2010b)
6.5.1 Rearing for Spawning
The inner side of a plastic cage (39 cm 56 cm 28 cm) was covered with the
mesh sheet (opening size 1 mm), and the cage installed in the rearing tank of a
system (Fig. 6.8) for individual rearing of shrimp. A cylinder type of spawning cage
consisted of 1 mm mesh sheet in the inner side, and 100 μm mesh sheet in the
outside was also prepared.
The female shrimps (nine individuals, average body weight 65 g) used in the test
were unqualified for seedling production in the actual shrimp farm because they had
a spermatophore but immaturity of their ovary. Before the spawning test, blood was
taken from each shrimp, and the shrimps were judged in advance to be free of
WSDV by the LAMP method. The nine females were treated with unilateral
eyestalk ablation using a rubber tag and cultured in the individual cages set in the
rearing tank (Fig. 6.9). Unilateral eyestalk ablation is the advanced treatment for
promoting maturity of the ovary (Sano et al. 2002). The females were fed live
lugworm (5 g/individual). Ovarian development was visualized by employing a
flashlight to distinguish the development ratio of the ovary in the dorsal exoskel-
eton. Ovary maturation was checked every day throughout the spawning test. When
the ovary matured, the female was transferred to a spawning cage. After spawning,
the eggs were collected from the mesh sheet of the cage, and then the number of
Fig. 6.8 Exterior of individual rearing cage (a) and spawning cage (b) (Modified from Suzuki
et al. 2010b)
138 Y. Suzuki
Fig. 6.9 Female shrimp

treated with unilateral
eyestalk ablation using a
rubber tag
eggs was counted under the microscope. The spawning test was carried out for
15 days. All individuals in the system survived throughout the test period (15 days).
After the spawning test, the females cultured in the system were judged WSDV-free
again by the LAMP method.
6.5.2 Spawning
This system was able to maintain good water quality for culturing shrimps under a
closed condition without water exchange through the spawning test.
All the female shrimp treated with unilateral eyestalk ablation fed actively, and
then the ovary matured even in the small individual cages. The observation data of
the development ratio of the ovary (ovary width/body width) and spawning for each
female are shown in Table 6.1. Five individuals within nine females spawned
within 12 days. There were two individuals which spawned two to three times
until the period. The average number of eggs in spawning was 5.1 104/tail. The
development ratio of the ovary just before spawning was over 0.5, and then the
ovary shape became clear and changed to black. The photographs of both individ-
uals which spawned and did not spawn are shown in Fig. 6.10. It is useful to judge
the timing spawn by the development ratio of the ovary and the ovary color. After
the spawning test, the females cultured in the system were judged WSDV-free by
the LAMP method. In the small scale of closed recirculating system, it was verified
that female shrimps could be spawned under virus-free conditions.
Table 6.1 Changes in the ratio of the ovary in dorsal exoskeleton and spawning for individual female shrimp in the spawning test
Identification A B C D E F G H I
Body weight (g-wet) 41.10 84.19 61.66 92.18 46.90 64.47 68.65 57.46 71.02
Body length (cm) 18.5 23.2 20.2 20.1 19.4 18.8 20.0 19.5 20.5
Virus check Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative Negative
Rearing period (d) Ratio () Ratio () Ratio () Ratio () Ratio () Ratio () Ratio () Ratio () Ratio ()
1 0.31 0.66 0.31 0.63 0.65 0.65 0.40 0.58 0.50
2 0.31 0.67 0.40 0.70 0.78 0.70 0.44 0.63 0.61
3 0.29 0.74 0.37 0.75 0.82 0.67 0.44 0.65 0.58
6 Kuruma Shrimp Marsupenaeus japonicus
4 Ecdysis Spawning 0.32 Spawning 0.78 0.66 0.29 0.59 0.71

5 0.38 0.32 0.40 0.85 0.66 0.33 0.64 0.72
6 0.38 0.36 0.47 0.88 0.67 0.37 0.62 0.54
7 Ecdysis 0.36 0.46 Spawning 0.61 0.36 0.71 0.52
8 0.38 0.28 0.31 0.65 0.39 0.71 0.53
9 0.35 0.37 0.24 0.60 0.36 0.74 Spawning
10 0.19 0.47 0.30 0.57 0.38 Spawning 0.50
11 0.21 0.28 Ecdysis 0.42 0.25 0.44 0.50
12 0.17 0.34 0.37 0.28 0.63 Spawning
13 Ecdysis 0.32 0.26 0.26 Spawning 0.44
14 0.31 0.27 0.31 0.19 0.55
15 0.33 Ecdysis Ecdysis 0.21 Spawning
139
140 Y. Suzuki
Spawning
Ecdysis
E
Day 1 3 6 7 9 10
Ecdysis
G
Day 1 3 5 7 10 12 14
Spawning
Spawning
I
Day 1 3 5 8 9 11 12
Spawning
Finish
Day 14 15
Fig. 6.10 Development of the ovary for female shrimp until the rearing period. Shrimp E, ecdysis
after spawning; shrimp G, ecdysis without spawning; shrimp I, spawning three times (Modified
from Suzuki et al. 2010b)
6.6 Actual Scale System
When the large-sized (50–100 g/individual) female shrimp, which mated and
matured, can be reared and maintained under virus-free conditions throughout the
year, it will be possible to produce virus-free shrimp as a year-round product. Using
the existing aquaculture pond in an actual farm, a large-sized system (rearing pond,
10 m2, 0.6 m depth) equipped with all the functions such as foam separation,
nitrification, and denitrification was designed and constructed (Fig. 6.11). The
amount of the maximum rearing individuals was designed to fully breed the total
of 200 shrimps as over 100 g/individual size. All processing units in the system
were attachment types. Since repairs were not constructed in the existing pond, it is
easy to restore to the conventional aquaculture pond.
Adult shrimps (male 100 individuals, female 100 individuals, about 30 g/indi-
vidual) were placed in the rearing pond. The shrimps used in the test were judged in
advance to be free of the white spot disease virus (WSDV) by the LAMP method in
Plan view
Water conditioner pump
Circulating pump
Rearing pond
(10 m2, 0.6 m depth)
Foam separation unit Denitrification tank

M M
Cross-sectional view
Nitrification tank Cooler
Heater
Foam water
Sand
Fig. 6.11 Actual scale system with foam separation, nitrification, and denitrification units
the same as the bench-scale study. Throughout the rearing experiment, the shrimps
were fed a commercial diet (Goldprawn, Higashimaru Co., Japan) daily. About
30–70 g of the feed was given once daily every evening. Shrimps were cultured for
4 months.
As the same in the bench-scale study, the rearing water qualities were
maintained satisfactorily throughout the test of the actual scale system. The foam
separation unit maintained oxygen saturation in the water used for rearing at 100%.
The turbidity of the rearing water was maintained in less than 1 unit. The ammo-
nium ion and nitrite concentrations were kept at less than 0.2 mg-N/L. The shrimp
grew up 30 g to 50 g at the end of actual scale experiment. More than 20 individuals
of female, which mated and matured, were observed within this experiment period
(Fig. 6.12). The survival rate in the mating test for 105 days was 70%. The cause of
the decline in the survival rate was cannibalization of individuals. In the actual scale
system, it is possible to maintain the female shrimp used for the base of seeds-and-
saplings production under virus-free conditions throughout the year.
142 Y. Suzuki
Fig. 6.12 Female shrimp

formed a stopper at the
thelycum and matured
ovary in the actual scale
system
6.7 Conclusions
Our proposed system achieved kuruma shrimp culture in a perfectly closed cycle
for more than 4 months. Under good water quality and virus-free condition, shrimp
growth and survival rate were satisfactory during the several study periods such as
growth, mating, and spawning tests. Oxygen was efficiently supplied to the rearing
water by a foam separation unit, and oxygen saturation was maintained at 100%
throughout the experiment. Simultaneously, the foam separation process removed
the brown colloidal substances generated by shrimp mucus. The nitrification tank
removed SS and likewise rapidly nitrified ammonia. While NO3-N accumulated in
the rearing water in the absence of denitrification, after initiation of denitrification,
NO3-N was effectively removed and reduced to less than 10 mg-N/L. In addition,
the large-sized system was built, and the possibility of utilization for the actual
shrimp production was also proved.
In this study, the rearing trial serves as a starting point. Further development to
minimize the capital and operating costs of this system will be necessary prior to
potential commercial viability. This system has an application potential for the
production of kuruma shrimp under a perfectly closed rearing condition free of
WSDV. Furthermore, the closed recirculating system can be utilized for
maintaining pathogen-free brood stocks since this system makes it easy to control
the condition of a specific pathogen-free environment.
Acknowledgment This work was supported in part by grants from the Research and Develop-
ment Program for New Bio-industry Initiatives, Japan.
References
Folke C, Kautsky N (1989) The role of ecosystems for a sustainable development of aquaculture.
Ambio 18:234–243
Hall POF, Holby O, Kollberg S, Samuelsson M (1992) Chemical fluxes and mass balances in a
marine fish cage farm. IV. Nitrogen. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 89:81–91
Hamasaki K, Kitada S (2006) A review of kuruma prawn Penaeus japonicus stock enhancement in
Japan. Fish Res 80:80–90
Kono T, Savan R, Sakai M, Itami T (2004) Detection of white spot syndrome virus in shrimp by
loop-mediated isothermal amplification. J Virol Methods 115:59–65
Maruyama T, Suzuki Y (1998) The present stage of effluent control in Japan and pollutant load
from fish culture to environmentpossibility of intensive recirculating fish culture systems.
Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 64:216–226. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Maruyama T, Okuzumi M, Saheki A, Shimamura S (1991) The purification effect of the foam
separating system in living fish transportation and preservation. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi
Maruyama T, Okuzumi M, Satoh Y (1996) The purification of rearing saltwater of Japanese
flounder with the closed foam separation-filtration system. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi
Maruyama T, Suzuki Y, Sato D, Kanda T, Michisita T (1999) Performance of a closed
Japanese flounder. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 65:818–825. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Sano M, Minagawa M, Tamaki M, Hayashibara T, Shimizu H (2002) Effects of water temperature
on the spawning interval of kuruma prawn Penaeus japonicus after unilateral eyestalk ablation.
Suisanzoshoku 50:433–434. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Skjølstrup J, Nielsen PH, Frier FO, McLean E (1998) Performance characteristics of fluidized bed
biofilters in a novel laboratory scale recirculation system for rainbow trout: nitrification rates,
oxygen consumption and sludge collection. Aquac Eng 18:265–276
with foam separation, nitrification and denitrification units for the intensive culture of eel. J Jpn
Soc Water Environ 22:896–903. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Suzuki Y, Maruyama T, Sato D, Kanda T, Michisita T (2000) Water quality and mass balances in a
culture of Japanese flounder using a closed recirculation system with foam-separation and
nitrification units. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 66:1–9. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Suzuki Y, Maruyama T, Numata H, Sato H, Asakawa M (2003) Performance of a closed
recirculating system with foam separation, nitrification and denitrification units for the inten-
sive culture of eel: towards zero emission. Aquac Eng 29:165–182
Suzuki Y, Suzuki T, Sagisu Y, Mekata T, Kono T, Koshio S, Yokoyama S, Sakai M, Itami T
(2008) Mating test of kuruma shrimp in a closed recirculating system including foam separa-
tion, nitrification and denitrification units. Suisanzoshoku 56:479–485. (In Japanese with
English abstract)
144 Y. Suzuki
Suzuki Y, Takeshima T, Mekata T, Kono T, Sakai M, Itami T, Maruyama T (2010a) Performance

of a closed recirculating system with foam separation, nitrification and denitrification units for
intensive culture of kuruma shrimp, Marsupenaeus japonicus: a bench scale study. Asian Fish
Sci 23:483–496
Suzuki Y, Sagisu Y, Suzuki T, Mekata T, Kono T, Koshio S, Yokoyama S, Sakai M, Itami T
(2010b) Spawning test of Kuruma shrimp in a closed recirculating system. Suisanzoshoku
Chapter 7
White Shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei
Marcy N. Wilder and Setsuo Nohara
Abstract The importation of shrimp into Japan at more than 250,000 tons/year is
thought to be related in certain aspects to the serious environmental problems that
have been caused by shrimp farming in Southeast Asian countries. This includes
mangrove deforestation and marine pollution due to the discharge of wastes and
leftover feed from intensive and semi-intensive farms. Moreover, because of the
advent of a new disease, early mortality syndrome (EMS), which first appeared in
China and Vietnam in 2009, shrimp production volumes have decreased, and the
industry is becoming rapidly unstable. In order to minimize the impacts of this
industry on the environment, an industry-government consortium was formed in
Japan to promote the sustainable and safe technical development of shrimp farming
on a practical level. Major development themes are as follows: (1) establishment of
Litopenaeus vannamei freshwater aquaculture technology based on physiological
studies, including the engineering of a high-density recirculating shrimp-production
plant, (2) development of techniques for evaluating and reducing shrimp stress, and
(3) development of a low-cost feed that does not degrade water quality. In addition,
we have conducted preliminary work on seed production technology using closed
systems for purposes of serving domestic supply. A commercial plant was set up in
Niigata Prefecture on the basis of the results of this research, and production
commenced in 2007. Here, we describe our research efforts, the challenges we
faced, and the progress made so far.
Keywords Automatic cleaner • Biological filtration • Freshwater rearing •

Litopenaeus vannamei • Oxygen cone • Recirculating aquaculture systems •
Wave-generating system
M.N. Wilder (*)

Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences, Tsukuba, Japan
S. Nohara
IMT Engineering Inc., Tokyo, Japan
146 M.N. Wilder and S. Nohara
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Growth of the World’s Aquaculture Industry
In the 19 years from 1990 to 2009, the global aquaculture industry grew at 8% annually
in terms of both production volume and production yield (Table 7.1). By 2009 the
value of the global aquaculture industry had grown to $110 billion (FAO 2011). This is
against a projected growth in the world’s population from 6.1 billion in 2000 to
9 billion in 2050. The need for food production is thus increasing because of population
growth, and global expansion of grain production is approaching its limit. In addition,
with the effects of diseases such as bird flu and mad cow disease and the current trend
toward replacing red meats with other proteins, the demand for fish has risen and is
being boosted worldwide by a boom in health-conscious fish eating (FAO 2011).
As income levels improve, and lifestyles become richer in developing areas, it is
seen that there is an increased trend toward eating more animal protein, including
fish, rather than grains (Fisheries Agency 2007: Fig. 7.1). However, to produce 1 kg
of beef, 11 kg of feed (corn equivalents) is needed, 3.5 kg is required to produce
1 kg of pork, and 2.3 kg of feed is required to produce 1 kg of chicken (Kumamoto
Pref. 2014). Because of the above-described population growth, if we take into
account the increase in meat production, it can be calculated that if twice as much
grain is not produced in 2050 than was produced in 2000, production will not cover
the demand for grain or meat. However, grain production has reached its techno-
logical limits in terms of yield per unit area, and the availability of arable land has
also reached its limit; the only other alternatives are to produce grain by using
special technologies or genetically modified strains (Kumamoto Pref. 2014).
7.1.2 Selection of Target Species Suitable for Land-Based

Aquaculture in Japan
The costs associated with conventional aquaculture are generally lower than those
incurred by land-based aquaculture; this includes not only the costs of electricity
and other utilities, and feed, but also construction and design costs of the aquacul-
ture facility. We considered that if a target species of sufficiently high added value
is not selected, then the business will not be viable. In our project, selection criteria
included the following: (1) species capable of fast growth (reaches market size in
less than 1 year) as this reduces production costs and various associated risks;
(2) species exhibits good feed-utilization efficiency (feed conversion ratio of 2.0 or
less); (3) species has stable supply of seed throughout the year (especially if specific
pathogen-free (SPF) seed are available, disease risk can be minimized), and species
is of high value and is widely marketable. Furthermore, if the unit cost of produc-
tion exceeds 1000 yen/kg, then due to the high cost of energy in Japan, there will be
difficulties in making the enterprise viable as a whole.
7 White Shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei
Table 7.1 Transitions in global aquaculture production and value (FAO 2011)
1990 1995 2000 2005 2009 2009/1990 Growth rate (/year)
Production volume (tons) 16,840,078 31,232,447 41,723,758 57,825,241 73,044,604 4.34 8%
Production value (US $1000) 27,167,197 44,126,958 52,899,513 72,995,975 110,149,041 4.05 8%
Unit price ($/kg) 1.61 1.41 1.27 1.26 1.51
147
Fig. 7.1 Seafood supply and demand globally and in Japan (Fisheries Agency Japan 2007)
7.1.3 Why Were Shrimp Selected?
We selected shrimp as the target species in our recirculating aquaculture system

based on the criteria described above. Nearly 280,000 tons of shrimp are consumed
per year in Japan, of which nearly 90% is imported (including processed goods) and
the remainder is supplied by domestic conventional fishing activity of species that
cannot be cultured (Fisheries Agency 2012). Moreover, shrimp is of high value
(especially processed goods have added value) and sells well irrespective of season.
In addition, because Japan relies on imports for such a large portion of its total
consumption, if shrimp culture were to be more actively promoted, competition
with existing fishermen would be minimal. Therefore, shrimp production can help
to improve Japan’s current level of food self-sufficiency. Worldwide, shrimp
farming accounted for 13% of the total value of all aquaculture production in
2009 and has now become a major industry (Table 7.2) (FAO 2011).
The system that we have developed for shrimp aquaculture is unique throughout
the world, although the species we are targeting is Litopenaeus vannamei (Pacific
white shrimp) (Fig. 7.2), which is native to Ecuador and other countries in middle
and South America. Currently, SPF shrimp seed for L. vannamei are available for
five types of viral pathogen that have been recognized to have spread worldwide.
L. vannamei is the only species of shrimp for which seed are available free of all of
the major pathogens throughout the year (Moss and Arce 2003). This is one of the
reasons for which we have chosen this species for our technology development.
7 White Shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei
Table 7.2 Trends in shrimp farming (FAO 2011)

1990 1995 2000 2005 2009 2009/1990
Production volume 680,255 928,281 1,136,953 2,667,614 3,004,802 4.42 8%
Production value 4,224,209 6,055,871 7,161,168 10,430,824 14,647,123 3.47 7%
Unit price 6.21 6.52 6.30 3.91 4.87
149
Fig. 7.2 White shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) ready for the market
Furthermore, we have also confirmed that L. vannamei can be raised on

low-protein diets through consortium-based research on optimal protein and fatty
acid levels (Wilder et al. 2009). In brief, we established that lowering protein
content to a level of 38% in the feed does not sacrifice growth rates at various
life stages, and at this level of protein, fatty acid levels can be set to 7%. Indeed, it is
common knowledge that L. vannamei does well on low-protein diets which utilize
higher proportions of vegetable-based protein compared to other economically
important shrimp species. In this way, we have also been able to lower costs
associated with feed in commercial production.
Because L. vannamei usually lives in estuaries (low-salinity water), it can be
cultured in either saltwater or freshwater; culture is therefore possible even in
inland areas where saltwater is not available. The growth of this species is faster
than that of other shrimp; in our system, seed shrimp (0.002 g) reach market size of
about 15–18 g in about 4 months. Unlike Marsupenaeus japonicus and Penaeus
monodon, L. vannamei does not bury itself in the sand and can grow well while
swimming, as do fish. Therefore, in the case of L. vannamei culture, it is not
necessary to provide sand at the bottom of the tank, and therefore we do not
encounter the problem of feces and uneaten feed becoming mixed in with sand.
This simplifies the process of removing solid materials, and water quality manage-
ment becomes relatively easy, making the species suitable for high-density inten-
sive aquaculture. Litopenaeus vannamei now accounts for 80% of all shrimp being
produced by aquaculture globally (FAO 2014), but most of it is done by conven-
tional aquaculture, not by recirculating systems.
In theory, closed-cycle systems used in land-based aquaculture can be used for
food production with minimal water use. Animals and plants consume certain
quantities of water during their rearing period, but although shrimp and fish need
to be in a tank with water, they do not actually consume the water. It takes 20,700 L
7 White Shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei 151
of water to produce 1 kg of beef and 4500 L of water to produce 1 kg of chicken. For

wheat production, 2000 L/kg is needed, and there has been a general increase in the
amounts of water used in agriculture in general (Oki et al. 2003). Conventional
outdoor pond systems used for shrimp aquaculture in Southeast Asia generally
require 10,000 L/kg. In contrast, the indoor-type shrimp production system that we
have developed requires only 315 L/kg, thus enabling food production with a
minimum amount of water (Nohara 2009).
7.1.4 Development Strategy (Industry-Government

Collaboration)
We developed a unique recirculating aquaculture system for shrimp culture

through industry-government collaboration (sponsored by a research grant from
Japan’s Bio-oriented Technology Research Advancement Institution: BRAIN)
and considering the pros and cons of other types of recirculating systems in the
United States and Europe. We initially set a target to meet the need for mass
consumption of shrimp in Japan, where the rate of shrimp self-sufficiency is less
than 10%, by developing a domestic production technology that will also help to
establish a safe food supply. The system is also designed for adaptation to Japan’s
energy situation. By realizing high-density, intensive production of L. vannamei
with the added benefit of short production cycles, it is possible to maximize the
use of energy. In addition, the system uses a simplified manual for feeding
methodology, with the use of a dedicated feed that is high in vegetable protein
and low in environmental impact, thereby being suitable for high-density inten-
sive aquaculture. Finally, we have demonstrated that this system reduces the stress
of animals under high-density rearing as described in the research results section
below. Our ultimate goal is to achieve production of L. vannamei at the world’s
highest density (10 kg/m3) for a full year and to thus to promote further stability of
the business model.
The overall research was coordinated by the Japan International Research Center
for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS). IMT Engineering Inc. was responsible for the
design and engineering of the system, to reflect the physiological parameters
required by L. vannamei in a closed system, including dissolved oxygen, and
salinity and calcium levels as elucidated by basic research by all of the project
partners. The National Research Institute of Aquaculture developed methods for
evaluating and reducing stress in shrimp in the system. Higashimaru Co. Ltd.
developed an optimized feed for closed systems (Fig. 7.3). In a second research
grant, JIRCAS, IMT Engineering Inc., and Marinetech Co. Ltd. explored method-
ology for producing L. vannamei seed domestically, including the development of
preliminary maturation technology.
Research consortium outline

JIRCAS IMT Engineering
Establishment of low-salinity rearing Development of land-based
techniques based on physiological recirculating techonology
research
Engineering based on physiological data

Rearing conditions for seed
production Development of safe,
stable shrimp
production systems
National Research Institute
of Aquaculture which do not impact the
environment Higashimaru
Technology to detect/reduce stress
Feed development
Elucidation of low-stress conditions

Low-cost feeds that minimize
effects on water quality
Fig. 7.3 Development strategy for shrimp culture system based on industry-government collab-
oration showing the roles of the participating organizations
7.2 Main Achievements
7.2.1 Osmoregulatory Mechanisms in L. vannamei
Examination of the osmoregulatory mechanisms in L. vannamei revealed that

rearing in low-salinity water (salinity 5 ppt, hardness 1400 ppm) constitutes the
most suitable and economic conditions for shrimp culture starting from an early
stage (Fig. 7.4). For acclimation to this level of low salinity, experiments revealed
that more than 1 day is required (Jayasankar et al. 2009).
7.2.2 Reproductive Mechanisms in L. vannamei
As part of our examination of reproductive mechanisms in L. vannamei, a detailed

analysis of peptides derived from the sinus gland in the eyestalk revealed that six
out of seven peptides had vitellogenesis-inhibitory activity (Fig. 7.5). From this
point on, we succeeded in identifying vitellogenesis-inhibiting hormone (VIH)
(Tsutsui et al. 2007), and JIRCAS has been working on developing a technology
Fig. 7.4 Increase in body 8

weight of Litopenaeus 30 ppt, 6,600 ppm
vannamei (starting at 5 ppt, 1,400 ppm c
Body weight (g)

0.014 g) reared in different 6 2 ppt, 1,300 ppm b
salinities and hardness 1.5 ppt, 450 ppm
levels for 3 months b a
4 b
(Jayasankar et al. 2009) a
a a
2
b b a a
0
1 month 2 months 3 months
Rearing period
Fig. 7.5 Vitellogenesis-

inhibitory activity of
peptides (A–G) derived
from the sinus glands of
L. vannamei eyestalks
(Tsutsui et al. 2007)
Fig. 7.6 Parent shrimp used for artificial insemination (arrows indicate mature ovaries)
for using this hormone as part of a means of increasing the efficiency of female
reproduction in captivity. In addition, in order to help stabilize domestic shrimp
production in the long term, we have been attempting to develop seed production
technology for the domestic market and have succeeded in inducing the maturation
of parent shrimp (Fig. 7.6).
7.2.3 Optimum Water Temperature and Oxygen

Consumption Levels
For purposes of optimizing costs in our shrimp-production plant, we determined the

optimum water temperature at each growth stage of L. vannamei, as well as oxygen
consumption levels under high-density intensive water recirculating (Fig. 7.7:
oxygen requirement is three times that of other prawn species). We also optimized
flow rate and established methodology to control water quality. As a result, we were
able to set up the “Indoor Shrimp Production System (ISPS)” and obtain patents for
the relevant technology for operating this system. A schematic diagram of the ISPS
is shown in Fig. 7.8.
7.2.4 Unique Equipment
The ISPS consists of unique equipment (wave-generating gate, micro-screen,

sediment-removal equipment, oxygen mixer, artificial seaweed, low-head and
high-flow cycle pump, and four-armed spoon net) that we developed under this
project and is included in our commercial-scale production plant that was
established in Niigata Prefecture. The plant achieves a 75% final survival rate,
thereby realizing a density of 9.43 kg/m3. We have also compiled operational
manuals that can be easily employed by plant personnel with a minimum of
training.
））
Fig. 7.7 Oxygen consumption in L. vannamei (0.4–0.5 mg/gh)

Fig. 7.8 Schematic diagram of the patented “Indoor Shrimp Production System (ISPS)”
7.2.5 Evaluation of Stress
We have also evaluated whether shrimp experience stress under this system using
markers that indicate ability to cope with disease. In more detail, by applying stress
such as reduced levels of dissolved oxygen levels, increased concentration of
ammonia concentration, and subjection to fasting or handling, it is possible to
ascertain the stress response of the shrimp based on the expression levels of immune
defense-related genes (Wilder et al. 2009). We therefore investigated the relation-
ship between stress index and stocking density in laboratory tests or actual rearing
in the commercial plant. We found that even if shrimp were cultured at the highest
target densities, if water quality was maintained adequately, then the stress indices
could be kept within an appropriate range (Fig. 7.9).
7.2.6 Basic Nutritional Requirements of L. vannamei
We elucidated the basic nutritional requirements of L. vannamei, and taking into

consideration the rearing environment in low-salinity water, we determined the
basic feed composition for culture of this species including calcium and phosphorus
Fig. 7.9 Stress indices and rearing densities of shrimp grown in the commercial plant (black circles,
average values; yellow squares, standard deviation; bars, range). Red bands indicate areas that fall
outside the appropriate range of stress to maintain shrimp in a healthy condition under commercial
production (Logarithmic scale displays values relative to beta-actin expression levels)
requirements (Wilder et al. 2009). In addition, we examined protein combinations

in the basic feed and were able to decrease feed costs by increasing the amount of
plant-based protein over that of animal-based protein. We therefore established an
economical composition that yielded a thick-textured feed. We were also able to
improve the underwater shape and retention of the feed by using appropriate
binders, and thus the stability of the feed, allowing us to prevent degradation of
the feed and maintain good water quality.
7.2.7 Summary of Development Strategy
In conclusion, having studied the examples of others engaging in recirculating

shrimp culture, we amalgamated our results to produce a complete system unique
throughout the world. The machinery component of the ISPS technology was
patented in 2007, and in 2010 we acquired a patent for the “soft technology”
operation of the system pertaining to water quality and health management. This
research was made possible by research funding supplied for 8 years by BRAIN.
By integrating the knowledge of each partner in the research consortium, we
were able to create a full technology package for producing shrimp on a commercial
scale. Our first commercial plant was built in Myoko City, Niigata Prefecture, and
commercial operations commenced in September 2007 (Figs. 7.10 and 7.11). Since
December 2009, the product has been sold mainly in the Kanto region and locally
under the trade name Myoko Snow Shrimp®.
Fig. 7.10 Exterior view of the commercial ISPS plant in Myoko City, Niigata Prefecture
Fig. 7.11 View of the inside of the ISPS plant showing the two 600-ton grow-out pools
7.3 Features of the Development System
The ISPS plant currently in operation at Niigata is comprised of four 20-ton nursery
tanks that are used for the first month of rearing and two 600-ton grow-out pools
used to bring shrimp to market size. By using these facilities in rotation, it is
possible to achieve six to seven production cycles per year, yielding a total
production volume of 24–40 tons of shrimp. A detailed technical description of
the various components of the plant is given below.
7.3.1 ISPS Technology Components
Water Circulation Technology

Up until the present, horizontal water circulation systems have been mostly used in
conventional land-based aquaculture, and the associated costs of electricity in
operating pumps found in this type of system is generally very high. This has
made it difficult to use such systems in countries like Japan where energy costs are
high. We therefore developed a vertical pumping system that agitates the water by
using wave force and exhibits only 1/10 the energy usage of conventional land
aquaculture (Fig. 7.12). Moreover, the agitation and water cycling control the
environment in the pools to be uniform (Fig. 7.13).
Water circulation is achieved by raising the water to be fed into the system to a
height of 1 m by the vertical pump, where it is briefly stored in the tank of the wave-
generating apparatus (Fig. 7.14). The water gate that opens into the grow-out pool is
opened once per minute, generating a wave. The wave travels across the surface of
the pool, hits opposite side of the pool, and travels back along the bottom of the
Fig. 7.12 Vertical pump with capacity of 250 tons water/hour

Tank flow (IN: X = +10 m, Y = +10 m wave gate area)
：surface layer ：IN water deep：

：-0.5m ：OUT wave-making interval：
：-1.0m
：-2.0m
Fig. 7.13 Flow of water in the grow-out pool
Fig. 7.14 Wave-generating

apparatus
pool, causing the water to be recirculated. This action also makes the artificial
seaweed sway and stirs the rearing water, thus causing the quality of the water to be
homogeneous throughout the pool. Moreover, through the use of a timer, the
opening and closing of the wave-generating apparatus can be adjusted, thus pro-
viding the shrimp with optimal wave strength. When the water is released from the
wave-generating tank, a waterfall-like effect is brought about, such that excess
carbon dioxide in the water is dissipated into the air.
The actual production pools used in the ISPS plant in Myoko are 40 m in length
and 12 m width and are built to scale according to the schematic diagram shown in
Fig. 7.15. Both pools (A and B) are equipped with a wave-generating apparatus and
Fig. 7.15 Plan model of the Indoor Shrimp Production System
a vertical pump. The water is deepest in the center of the pool (2.5 m). As shown in
Fig. 7.13, there were four observation levels for water flow analysis: the surface
layer, 0.5 m, 1.0 m, and 2.0 m depth (“—” symbol is used to indicate depth, e.g.,
below water surface).
In further detail, the following observations were made regarding water flow in
the grow-out pools. First of all, parameters such as wave-generating intervals, water
level, and quantity of water outflow could be controlled via the wave-generating
apparatus. However, while pools A and B had the same basic structure, it was noted
that there were subtle differences in slope. Thus, slight differences in water level in
the pool appeared to have arisen from differences in the flow in each aquarium.
Furthermore, (1) a rise in water level occurred with the return wave; when the next
wave was generated, because the water level was higher, the wave was smaller and
flow was halved; (2) the flow rate tended to accelerate when the water was shallow
on both sides of the pool; (3) the optimum water level was 2.50 m and the optimum
wave-making interval was 55 s; (4) if the wave-generating interval in the pool was
55 s, the first wave returned in about 25 s and the second in 35 s; (5) under these
conditions, active flow was observed not only in the surface layer but also
(depending on the direction) in the waves in the 0.5 m layer; (6) from the differ-
ences in observations between pools A and B, we also found that flow changes
depended on the water level at that time; (7) large flows did not occur when the
water level was excessively high; and (8) the motion became unvarying when the
water level was too low; this phenomenon was governed by the left and right
movements of the layers.
Finally, by changing the water level and adjusting the extent to which the wave-
generating gate is opened, the flow rate within the pools could be modified, and this
enabled us to adjust the flow rate to the shrimps’ growth as well as exercise
capacity. This created an optimum feeding environment for the animals being
reared. In this way, if water flow is present in the rearing tanks, shrimp attempt to
swim against the current; thus, the rearing tanks can be utilized in a complete three-
dimensional capacity. This leads to greater rearing density and increased produc-
tion capacity.
Prevention of Cannibalism and Removal of Suspended Materials by Using

Artificial Seaweed and Screen Filters
Materials suspended in the water are removed by passage through a screen filter
with an 800-μm flow-through mesh (Fig. 7.16). In addition, the placement of
artificial seaweed in the grow-out pool provides shelter for shrimp that show
reduced exercise capacity after molting. This helps to prevent cannibalism and
thus improves survival rates. Artificial seaweed absorbs suspended materials and
cleans up the water as a type of biological filtration (Fig. 7.17).
Fig. 7.16 Screen filter
Fig. 7.17 Artificial

seaweed
Use of Probiotics to Stabilize Water Quality

Floating objects (800 m2/m3) made from polyethylene (PE) are floated inside the
filtration tank, thereby increasing the contact time with the water being recirculated
and achieving effective biofiltration. We used commercial probiotic kits and regu-
larly inserted nitrifying bacteria into the system. This assisted in keeping the water
quality stable.
Water Pollution Load Reduction by Use of a Sediment Recovery Unit
and Calculation of Leftover Feed Quantities
Because the pool has an inverted triangle shape (Fig. 7.18), sediment (leftover feed,
feces, dead shrimp, and molting exuvia) naturally collects in an elongated pit at the
bottom of the pool. On every occasion before feeding the shrimp, any sediment
present in the pit is scraped off using the automatic cleaner (Fig. 7.19) and is
discharged as solid material by air lift. This eliminates the occurrence of sludge,
Fig. 7.18 Cross section of the production pool showing the suspension of artificial saltwater
Fig. 7.19 Automatic

cleaner being used to
remove sediment
which adversely affects water quality in the pool. By using this device, we can
always determine the amount of leftover feed and can adjust feeding quantities
accordingly. We can also obtain raw materials for making fertilizer which can be
recycled for used in agriculture and animal husbandry.
Supply of Oxygen to Pools
In order to supply oxygen to the pools, pressurized air is separated into oxygen and
nitrogen and the nitrogen is adsorbed onto zeolite. Remaining pure oxygen is
extracted, using a special apparatus, an “oxygen cone” (Fig. 7.20). We have also
installed an oxygen mixer that efficiently produces supersaturated oxygenated
water containing oxygen at 24 ppm by applying pressure inside a vessel (water
normally contains oxygen at a level of 7–8 ppm.) By injecting the super-oxygenated
water from four locations into the pool, we can achieve a uniform oxygen environ-
ment within the pool. L. vannamei is one of the most actively swimming shrimp
species and requires about three times the oxygen of other prawns. Therefore,
blowers and water mills used in conventional shrimp aquaculture generate insuffi-
cient oxygen for high-density L. vannamei culture.
Fig. 7.20 Oxygen cone

Operational Manuals for Training and Health Management

Conventional aquaculture conducted in coastal areas is often affected by various
uncontrollable factors such as typhoons, occurrence of red tide, and decreases in
water temperature. Because such parameters affect the growth and survival,
rearing is quite difficult for operators with no previous training in aquaculture
techniques. We have compiled a series of manuals for operating the ISPS tech-
nology, based on demonstration of operational performance and basic research
for a total of more than 10 years. Therefore, even a person without prior experi-
ence can operate an ISPS plant and produce shrimp through the use of these
manuals.
The following manuals constitute the total operational package for the ISPS
technology:
1. Introduction of seed into the facility and first-stage acclimation (methods of
adaptation to freshwater from saltwater)
2. Basic training procedures (day-to-day operations, feeding, water quality
standards)
3. Harvesting, farming, and shipping procedures
4. Measurement of water quality, mineral content, and hardness of the pool water
5. Bacterial counting procedures for rearing water
6. Feeding methodologies and regimens
7. Production schedule
8. User’s manual for plant equipment
9. Maintenance procedures for plant equipment
10. Troubleshooting manual for plant equipment
11. Recording sheets for all pertinent data
12. Hygiene management
13. Daily maintenance check sheets
7.3.2 Learning Curve: Problems Encountered during

the Research Development Phase
Management of Water Quality

There was often the increased risk of ammonia and nitrite levels to become
elevated in the grow-out pools in situations where the breakdown of nitrogenous
compounds would be compromised. In initial endeavors, we employed a fixed
honeycomb filter medium in the biofilter component of the system, but the
material often clogged through overuse, halving the nitrification capacity of the
system. We also had to clean the filter once every production cycle, which was
very time-consuming, requiring a large number of personnel and increasing oper-
ating costs (Nohara 2012). Therefore, for 2 years we ran an experiment to compare
various filter media, and we have now changed to a floating system that uses a
floating carrier within the biofilter tank. This greatly increases nitrification capacity,
and the filter medium does not require frequent cleaning, thus reducing operating
costs.
Light Conditions
Because we initially operated the system disregarding light conditions, as would be
the case in conventional outdoor pond aquaculture, we had not considered the
optimization of the light environment to be critical. However, lighting experiments
in which we changed the illuminance and the light source revealed significant
effects of light conditions on survival and growth rates. Multi-halogen lamps
were found to be the best type of light source, and to obtain optimal results,
illuminance should be less than 150 lx, and light should be received for 12 h
daily (Nohara et al. 2012a, b).
Mineral Balance
Regarding the importance of mineral balance in near-freshwater rearing,
L. vannamei has attracted attention as a target species of aquaculture because it
can be acclimated to either saltwater or near-freshwater conditions. In a manual
published by the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute in Florida (Wyk et al.
1999), it is stated that the shrimp can be reared in freshwater. However, in many
countries, freshwater is often hard, unlike the soft water of Japan. This difference
has a marked impact on shrimp rearing, as minerals such as calcium that are present
in hard water are indispensable to shrimp rearing.
The question arises, why do shrimp need minerals during rearing? Adult or
near market size L. vannamei molt about once every 2 weeks, and smaller
animals molt much more frequently. Calcium is deposited in the carapace of
crustaceans including shrimp in the form of calcium carbonate and allows the
shell to become hardened after molting. Calcium is normally obtained from the
rearing water and feed. If calcium, and to a certain extent, magnesium, are
lacking, the animal may fail to develop a healthy carapace after molting. This
can especially lead to “black spot disease,” where the animal develops melanized
lesions all of its body, for example, after injury such as scraping against the sides of
the rearing facilities (Wyk et al. 1999). This leads to decreased market value and
lower growth rates during culture. We experienced such problems firsthand in the
early days of our research development. Thus, we adapted the rearing water in the
pools to be of low salinity (5 ppt) and high hardness (1400 ppm). However, solving
this problem involved more than just adjusting the water hardness: the balance of all
principle elements, e.g., calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium was highly
important. If this balance was not optimal, even if the hardness was maintained at
high levels, molting failure could occur. Experimental work relating to water consti-
tution is described in Jayasankar et al. (2009).
7.4 Challenges Relating to Business Promotion
7.4.1 High Cost of Production
In the case of production in cold climates such as that of Niigata Prefecture, heating
costs have a direct effect on production costs. Therefore, we initially planned to use
excess heat released from an adjacent waste incineration plant that was scheduled to
be built. However, these plans did not materialize, so we are currently using our
own gas boiler. This accounts for 23% of operating costs and has thus pushed up the
unit cost of production. In addition, because this is a land-based aquaculture facility
and the scale of production is limited, personnel costs are relatively high. A rearing
water temperature of 28 C is necessary for this species of shrimp, so in future
business endeavors in Japan, cost-effective production is expected to require the use
of natural heating sources, such as from hot springs, excess heat from waste
incineration plants, biomass power generation, and the like. If a low-cost heat
source can be tied to shrimp production, business activity will improve markedly.
7.4.2 Finding Steady Customers
We originally thought that a production volume of about 30 tons/year could easily

be consumed locally. However, this point was a much greater hurdle than we had
expected, owing to our lack of experience in the food industry. The price of our
shrimp was very expensive, being double that of imported frozen shrimp. We were
not able to make the consumer aware that the ISPS technology constitutes a safe and
biosecure production system that does not use any chemicals or additives during the
rearing process. Therefore, at first, we were therefore not able to sell sufficient
quantities of the product locally. However, through the use of frequent advertising
in the mass media, including on television shopping, we are now selling 60% of the
product in Niigata Prefecture. The remaining 40% is being sold mainly to restau-
rants in the Tokyo metropolitan area.
7.4.3 Current Efforts
L. vannamei as a species is becoming well known in Japan and is advertised

frequently in the mass media, so we consider this to be a timely opportunity to
expand sales further. We are collaborating with local producers of food goods in
Niigata Prefecture to produce not only conventional products, e.g., fresh or frozen
whole shrimp, but also value added products such as “tsukudani” and ready-to-eat
shrimp curry. It is hoped that such products will become famous as local specialties.
The outbreak of EMS that was first observed in 2009 in China and Vietnam has
spread to other major shrimp-producing countries throughout Southeast Asia

(Hirono 2014). In Thailand, it severely impacted the country’s shrimp production
volume, especially in 2013. Because of this situation, prices of imported frozen
shrimp in Japan have soared, and the price difference between our product and
frozen imported products is becoming smaller. In addition, there have been a
number of food-related scandals if late in Japan, most famously the incident in
October 2013, in which several major hotel chains and restaurants featured the
high-priced, naturally fished “shiba-ebi” (Metapenaeus joyneri) on their menus, but
actually used inexpensive frozen imported L. vannamei (perhaps up to 90% of the
shiba-ebi served in Japan was actually L. vannamei). This scandal did not present
any problems with food safety, but it was a form of cheating the consumer and
making excess profits. However, the flip side is that the Japanese public has learned
that L. vannamei can actually be quite tasty.
7.4.4 Ideal Business Model
Currently, the commercial ISPS plant in Myoko consists of two 600-ton rearing
pools, but in order to supply full shipments of shrimp year-round, it would be
preferable to have at least six rearing pools of 750 tons as an ideal business unit.
This would make it possible to ship shrimp all the time and would make operations
more efficient, including costs associated with personnel. In such a situation, the
unit cost of production would be lowered from 2300 yen/kg to 2153 yen/kg,
becoming more competitive with the retail cost of 1700 yen for frozen imported
shrimp. However, even at such a level, if the retail price does not exceed 3500
yen/kg, no profit will be possible, and our market research indicates it would be
difficult to sell all of the product at this level. We have done several exercises to
calculate the cost reduction achieved by expanding the production scale (Table 7.3).
Increasing the capacity of the theoretical 3-pool plant to 30 750-ton grow-out
pools would further reduce the unit cost of production to 1300 yen/kg. In this case,
the selling price could be set at 2500 yen and yield a sufficiently high profit, such
that the ISPS technology would be attractive to potential investors. Therefore, along
the lines of the above, in land-based aquaculture, if production capacity for the
targeted aquatic species does not realize economy of scale, then the enterprise will
not be profitable and is not likely to continue. However, the benefits of land-based
aquaculture, not only for shrimp but also for various fish species, in terms of
environmental preservation and stimulating the local economy, are indeed signif-
icant. It is our hope that such production systems can be made more viable by
recognizing the important of not only having good technology but also a good sense
of business management.
Table 7.3 Economic analysis of ISPS business employing six grow-out pools
Grow-out pools (750 tons) 6 units
System scale and breakdown of costs Nursery tanks (35 tons) 4 units
20 production cycles using
Annual production volume 750-ton pools in 1 year 80 tons
Item Cost yen/per year % of total cost
Shrimp seed 31,250,000 18.0%
Feed 34,020,000 20.0%
Other materials 15,250,000 9.0%
Personnel 21,600,000 12.5%
Electricity 26,500,000 15.5%
Heating 27,600,000 16.0%
Other (packing, business matters) 8,400,000 5.0%
Maintenance 7,500,000 4.0%
Total operating expenses 172,120,000
Unit production cost 2152 yen/kg
7.5 Global Developments
Shrimp culture has been a major worldwide industry for over 20 years, but land-
based recirculating systems are very recent, and most of them have been experi-
mental up until now. At present, the world’s closed recirculating systems for shrimp
aquaculture can be categorized into three main categories: 1) raceway system
developed by the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution in Florida (Wyk et al.
1999; Fig. 7.21) and also being developed by a number of other workers, such as
Dr. Addison Lawrence (Lawrence 2010); 2) biofloc systems such as described by
Dr. Yoram Avnimelech of Israel (Avnimelech 2009), and our ISPS technology
(Kang and Nohara 2013). The raceway system was tested dating from nearly
20 years ago in the United States but had not been used commercially. However,
since around 2011, large-scale systems, such as that belonging to the company Blue
Oasis near Las Vegas which aims to supply shrimp to the hotel industry, are being
implemented; however, the details of the technology and actual business are
difficult to obtain.
Regarding the biofloc systems, in particular, they are being developed with the
support of the South Korean government. Commercial-scale plants began oper-
ating at two locations last year. However, these plants are difficult to operate
without personnel who have advanced knowledge and previous experience
(Kang and Nohara 2013). Representative examples are shown in the text
(Figs. 7.22 and 7.23).
Fig. 7.21 Shrimp production using a raceway system (Wyk et al. 1999) and schematic diagram of
water flow in the system
Fig. 7.22 Biofloc system in South Korea (Reproduced from Kang and Nohara 2013)
Fig. 7.23 Experimental shrimp-rearing facilities at the South Korea National Research Institute of
Fisheries Science (Reproduced from Kang and Nohara 2013)
7.6 Integrated Approaches to Developing Land-Based

Aquaculture
In order to further promote land-based aquaculture in Japan, it is often considered

that amalgamating production facilities with restaurants and exhibition halls, as a
way of also drawing in tourists, would be highly effective. We are also considering
such schemes, but it is also worthwhile to couple shrimp production with that of
other salable agricultural goods. Here, we introduce aquaponics as an example. A
detailed explanation of aquaponics is given in Chap. 11.
7.6.1 Approaches to Aquaponics in Japan
Between 2003 and 2005, IMT Engineering Inc. attempted aquaponics trials using
the wastewater from shrimp culture at an experimental facility located in Tsukuba
City (this facility was the predecessor to the current commercial plant in Myoko).
The crops that were attempted were water spinach and watercress (Nohara 2014). In
the experimental facility, a 1200-ton grow-out pool was in operation, and we set up
a very simple hydroponic trough (50 m2) having a moderate gradient and measuring
2.5 m 20 m with a depth of 10 cm (Figs. 7.24, 7.25, and 7.26). In the first trial,
watercress was grown with no major problems, although the nitrogen removal rate
was not as high as expected. Thus, in the second trial, a water recirculation system
Fig. 7.24 Schematic diagram of IMT Engineering’s experimental aquaponics system in Tsukuba
Fig. 7.25 Outside view of the hydroponic trough in Tsukuba
Fig. 7.26 Water spinach in

the hydroponic trough
was added to the hydroponic trough. This increased the nitrogen removal rate from
30% to a maximum of 53%.
7.7 Summary
Research and development on land-based shrimp culture of shrimp is advancing

rapidly throughout the world, and the past couple of years have seen a great deal of
investment in other countries. However, there have not been many workers
involved in the field in Japan for the following reasons: (1) a support structure for
promoting land-based aquaculture has not been established in this country;
(2) energy costs (electricity, heating) are high; (3) the market does not yet consis-
tently value safe and secure aquaculture products; and (4) equipment and materials
needed for advanced land-based aquaculture are expensive and difficult to obtain.
However, since the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011, the domestic situation
has changed greatly. In particular, the public’s faith in the safety of seafoods
obtained from natural sources is declining. Nevertheless, while aquatic foods
produced by land-based aquaculture are safe and tasty, they are still more expensive
than fish from the sea, but people willing to purchase them are beginning to increase
in number. If government support could be obtained as a component of regional
development, then land-based aquaculture of shrimp should become a promising
business, especially if costs can be reduced through, for example, the effective use
of underutilized energy sources.
Acknowledgments We thank the Bio-oriented Technology Research Advancement Institution

(BRAIN) of Japan’s National Agriculture and Food Research Organization for supporting this
research from FY 2004–2011. We thank Dr. Takuji Okumura of the National Research Institute of
Aquaculture of the Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency for collaboration under the
BRAIN project and assistance with Fig. 7.9 in this text.
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March 26–30. Abstract no. 935. (In Japanese)
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Services
Chapter 8
Abalone Haliotis spp.
Yoshikazu Koizumi and Youichi Tsuji
Abstract Abalone is considered as one of the most valuable fishery products

elsewhere in the world. However, landings from legal fisheries are declining year
by year because of overexploitation, illegal harvesting, and habitat degradation.
Thus, abalone farming plays increasingly an important role in maintaining abalone
supply. Methods of abalone production vary country by country and are still
developing. Although most developed land-based abalone aquaculture by using
closed recirculating systems is more advantageous than conventional abalone
production, water treatment systems are essentially required to maintain water
quality without saltwater replacement. Water quality standards and water treatment
technologies for abalone rearing have been acquired through various experiments.
The key to succeeding with abalone culture by closed recirculating aquaculture
system is avoidance of accumulation of solids, nitrogen compounds, and recalci-
trant dissolved organic matters. Moreover, calcium supplement and adjustment of
pH and alkalinity by the addition of some chemicals are required as considering
chemical interreaction. Reduction of capital expenditure and operating expense,
increase of abalone productivity, and sales and marketing management must be
intensively promoted in order to disseminate the technology of closed recirculating
system.
Keywords Abalone culture • Business strategy • Denitrification • Nitrification •

Organic matters • Water quality • Water treatment system
Y. Koizumi (*)
Applied Life Science Research Center, Tamagawa University Research Institute, Machida,
Japan
Food Research and Developments Japan Corporation, Saitama, Japan
Y. Tsuji
Food Research and Developments Japan Corporation, Saitama, Japan
176 Y. Koizumi and Y. Tsuji
8.1 General Information on Abalone
8.1.1 Species and Geographical Distribution
Abalone is phylogenetically classified into Phylum Mollusca, Class Gastropoda,

Order Archaeogastropoda, Family Haliotidae, and Genus Haliotis. There are
approximately 75 species of abalone in the world oceans, but 20 species are
commercially valuable (Uki 1989). Four species are intended as fishery in Japan,
Haliotis discus discus, H. discus hannai, H. gigantea, and H. madaka.
H. d. hannai and the others are distributed in the northern and southern part of
Japan, respectively. In Korea, the measurement of isothermal line is conducted in
which water temperature in 25 m depth reaches 12 C in February (FAO 1990).
With the isothermal line as a basis for identification, abalone species distribution
can be roughly divided into two parts: northern and southern species. Hara and
Fujio (1992) investigated phylogenetic relationship among four types of Japanese
abalone by isozyme analysis. As a result, the relationship between H. gigantea and
the others was subspecies level. The relationship among the other types of abalone
was subspecies or local variety level. Furthermore, Hara and Sekino (2005)
revealed that H. d. discus and H. d. hannai were obviously differentiated by using
microsatellite DNA markers.
Abalones are found at depth up to 30 m in the intertidal zone, and their
distributions are segregated depending on geographic and water depth. The distri-
bution of three southern species of Japanese abalone tends to be separated by water
depth. Generally, H. d. discus and H. madaka dominated shallower than 10 m and
deeper than 10 m, respectively. H. gigantea evenly spreads between 0 and 20 m
(Ino 1952).
They eat a wide range of natural grown seaweeds in their distribution. They
prefer to eat mainly the Class Phaeophyceae (brown algae) such as the Order
Laminariales including Laminaria, Macrocystis, and Eisenia (also known as
kombu, giant kelp, and arame, respectively), the Family Alariaceae including
Undaria pinnatifida (also known as brown seaweed or wakame), and the Phylum
Rhodophyta (red algae). Growth efficiency of the abalone of the above species
varies among seaweed type (Uki et al. 1986).
In the world, commercially captured abalone includes H. rufescens (red abalone)
in west coast of North America, H. ruber (black lip) and H. laevigata (green lip) in
Australia, and H. midae in South Africa.
8.1.2 History and Culture
Archaeological excavation of shell mounds have evidenced that abalone has been
eaten since initial Jomon period (about 10,000 years ago) in Japan. Since then,
abalone is deeply rooted in Japanese culture, trade, cuisine, and history. There are
8 Abalone Haliotis spp. 177
many records regarding digging abalone shells from mounds, exporting dried
abalone to China in the Edo era (more than 300 years ago), discovery of abundant
abalone habitats, and progresses in development of the instruments of capture and
in biological researches.
Abalone as ancient artifacts, fishery, food, and expressions of someone’s feel-
ings were dealt with in anthologies of WAKA poems (Nonaka 2011). In Edo era,
dried seafood including abalone, sea cucumber, and shark fin was most important
for the trade with China. Huge amount of dried abalone between 100 and 200 t
(1000–2000 t of equivalent live abalone with yield ratio 10%) was exported at that
era (Nonaka 2011). It takes a plenty of time and labor intensive to make Japanese
dried abalones. Japanese dried abalones are branded and mostly exported to China
(25,849 kg), Taiwan (266 kg), Macau (650 kg), and Singapore (446 kg) even now
(Trade Statistics of Japan 2013). In particular, 92% of them are exported to Hong
Kong and are dealt with high prices. The cooked dried abalone in Hong Kong is
recognized the most expensive and traditional dish as it also takes a few days and
special techniques to cook dried abalone. Cooked dried abalones are served with
prices 85–1770 US dollars per kilogram (1 US dollar equals to 7.8 HK dollar, as of
June 2019) depending on size ranging 20–120 g (dried weight) in Hong Kong
(personal communications). After the Meiji Restoration (1968), new plentiful
habitats of abalone in deeper depth than before have been found with developing
diving equipment and hydroscope, resulting in overexploitation. From the Taisho to
the early Showa era (1912–1940), abalone resource protection started with capture
regulation of size (shell length), setting of close season, and fisheries conservation.
In 1952, Takashi Ino (1915–1984) reported about early development of H. d.
discus and H. d. hannai and taxonomic position of H. d. hannai. This pioneering
academic research has strongly promoted artificial reproduction of abalone.
Kikuchi and Uki (1974) reported spawning induction by using UV-irradiated
saltwater and contributed to the establishment of a seed production system in
many countries including the USA, Mexico, Taiwan, China, Korea, Chile, and
South Africa.
Abalone can be considered as one of the most expensive seafood in the world.
People especially in Japan, China, and Korea savor taste of abalone in many ways
such as sashimi, steamed, grilled, congee, and so on. In these countries, the
technology for breeding and culturing abalone is also well promoted and actively
conducted.
8.1.3 Current Trends of Abalone Production in Japan,

China, and Korea
The total supply of abalone to the world market from all sources including fisheries
and farming increased drastically from 23,541 t in 1970 to 149,017 t in 2015 (FAO
Fishery and Aquaculture 2017). But landings from legal fisheries are declining from
23,532 t in 1970 to 7,227 t in 2015 (Fig. 8.1a) because of overexploitation, illegal

harvesting, and habitat degradation. Thus, abalone farming increasingly plays an
important role in filling in a gap between supply and demand.
Commercialized abalone farming started with a production of 9 t in Korea at the
beginning of 1970s when farm production was almost negligible. Farming produc-
tion in Taiwan gradually increased from 130 t in 1980 to 2,496 t in 2001 but then
decreased until 79 t in 2011.
The huge increase in abalone farming occurred in China. Figure 8.1b shows that
the farm production in China exponentially increased from 9,810 t in 2003 to
Fig. 8.1 Change in fishery landings (a) and farming production (b) of abalone in main countries
(http://www.fao.org/fishery/en)
127,967 t in 2015. Chinese farm production in 2015 amazingly accounts for 90.2%
of total around the world. There are more than 300 abalone farms operated in China.
The majority of facilities are land-based flow-through aquaculture systems with
free-flowing natural saltwater. The bulk of all production is in the southern province
of Fujian and Guangdong. Much of the seed production is near Dalian in the
northern province of Liaoning. Fujian produces about half of all abalone that are
produced and sold in China. And their significant proportion is Haliotis diversicolor
supertexta which is smaller and cheaper than H. discus (Cook and Gordon 2010).
Farm production in Korea is proportionally growing from 20 t in 2000 to 10,090 t
in 2015 (Fig. 8.1b). Abalone fisheries have also been conducted at the level of a
few hundred tons production. Most Korean abalones come from Wando County in
South Jeolla Province because seaweeds are abundantly harvested in this area. The
total fishery landings in this area account for about 70% of all taken in Korea. About
85% of that farm production is exported to Japan (Cook and Gordon 2010). The
majority is marine culture using floating cages because initial cost for facilities is
low. There are about 200 farm producers and 3,700 related workers. Feeding of
seaweeds and uplifting of culturing cage are efficiently conducted by crane
operations.
In Japan, artificial propagation and releasing seeds are intensively conducted for
recovery of natural abalone resources. Japanese abalone culture is mainly for
releasing hatchery-bred juveniles into potential on-growing sites of natural sea
and allows them to grow mainly on natural feed organisms. This method considers
the fact that it takes 3–4 years for abalones to attain the desired marketable size.
However, the efforts of releasing seeds do not show an effective recovery of
abalone resources because of rocky-shore denudation, weak resource management,
and illegal catch.
8.1.4 Significance of Abalone Culture by Using

a Land-Based Recirculating System
As described above, methods of abalone production vary country by country. There

are hatchery-bred juvenile releasing to sea, marine culture using floating cages,
land-based culture using the flow-through system, and semi-closed and closed
recirculating system. The properties of those ways for abalone production were
shown in Table 8.1.
Economical efficiencies of juvenile releasing were estimated from number of
seeds, cost for seeds, cost for recapture, and earnings from recaptured abalone,
showing the result that annual percentage of economical yield ranged from 4.2 to
30.9% with regional varieties in Japan (Nonaka 2011). Seed-releasing business
could be profitable between the middle of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s.
Economical efficiencies depend on retrieval rates. Mie Prefecture Research Insti-
tute (2013) reported that retrieval rates largely depended upon year of releasing,
Table 8.1 Comparison of properties among various abalone production systems

Fishery Culture
Sea based Sea based Land based
Juvenile Floating Flow Semi-closed Closed
releasing cage througha recirculatingb recirculatingc
Initial cost for negligible a little middle high highest
facilities
Fishery right necessary necessary when use as same as flow none
natural through
seawater
Geographical many many depend on as same as flow negligible
constraint water through
quality
Water natural natural SW pumped pumped SW or pumped SW
saltwater SW artificial SW or artificial
(SW) SW
Energyd none none a lot much less than less than
flow through semi-closed
Operating negligible depreciation higher than higher than flow higher than
expense and labor sea based through semi-closed
cost
Feed natural diet usually seaweed or seaweed or arti- seaweed or
seaweed artificial ficial diet artificial diet
diet
Labor intensive little tough less than as same as flow comfortable
for growing sea based through working
environment
Harvesting tough easier than easier than as same as flow as same as
catching in sea based through flow through
ocean
Amount of – – a lot much less than extremely
water emission flow through little
Pollution level – – low high low
of emitted
water
Environmental none middle high when as same as flow extremely
pollution artificial through low
food is used
Risk for natural fishery high middle low extremely
disaster landings low
are
decreasing
Yield ratio very low predation much high when as same as
and disease higher than water tempera- semi-closed
sea based ture is
controlled
Poaching inevitable inevitable none none none
a
Flow through indicates daily exchanging of more than 100% of holding seawater quantity
b,c
Semi-closed and closed indicate daily exchanging of less than 10% and 0.1% of holding
seawater quantity, respectively
d
Energy includes electricity and fuel for water temperature control and power pump
fishing grounds, and species. Retrieval rates of H. gigantea in developed fisheries

tend to be higher than that of H. d. discus in natural fisheries. Retrieval rates of
H. gigantea and H. d. discus ranged from 5.6% to 20.1% and from 0.9% to 3.7%,
respectively. The institute estimated that targeted profitable retrieval rates were
10% and 7% in H. gigantea and H. d. discus, respectively. It was presumed that
abalones over 12 cm in length were harvested and sold at a price of 54 US dollars
and 72 US dollars per kilogram, respectively. However, fishery landings are
gradually decreasing year by year (Fig. 8.1a) meaning that releasing has not yet
led to recover abalone resources. Fishery regulation is primarily desired in order to
recover abalone resources.
The poaching (illegal exploitation of abalone) is a serious problem contributing
to population disruption around the world. Annual illegal abalone capture is
estimated from 120 to 155 t accounting for 32.2–52.7% of total landing in Miyagi
Prefecture of Japan (Yamakawa 2006). Another estimation of all amount of
poaching in Japan was 903 t, accounting for approximately 45% of total landings,
which is calculated from the difference between amount of total supply (3,799 t)
and amount of fishery landings (1,996 t) and imports (900 t) in 2004 (Taya 2007).
Fishtech Inc. reported that illegal take is also a big problem in other countries.
Metric ton of 1500, 1500, 1000, 400, and 200 are estimated as amounts of illegal
take in Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, Mexico, and the USA, respectively
(Fishtech Inc. 2012).
Risk of natural disaster such as Tsunami and Typhoon could not be negligible in
the case of sea-dependent farming. For example, all kinds of fish farming damage
by tsunami of the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011 were estimated as much as
980 million US dollar accounting for 25% of annual national farming production
value (Anonymous 2011). Korean abalone farming in Wando County is annually
exposed to typhoon damage. In Fujian province of China, mass mortality due to red
tide derived from eutrophication occurred in 2012, and total financial damage was
26,500,000 US dollar (Anonymous 2012). In Hokkaido prefecture of Japan, mass
mortality in abalone farming using cages under the sea was caused by abnormal low
sea temperature of less than 5 C, resulting in total financial damage of 334,000 US
dollar in 2014 (Anonymous 2014). Climate change has recently affected fisheries.
Sea-independent aquaculture using a land-based recirculating aquaculture sys-
tem (RAS) could contribute to overcoming the weakness of natural sea-dependent
fisheries. Abalone culture by RAS is especially advantageous as described below:
– The methods for abalone hatchery and culture have been almost established.
– Abalone can be cultured with relatively high density because movement of
abalone is less than that of swimming fish.
– Risk for natural disaster and poaching can be evitable.
– Abalone could grow faster than natural environments by controlling water
temperature, amount of food, and light intensity.
– Harvesting from RAS is much easier than that by diving into sea.
– There is a possibility to provide steady supply with scheduled production and
intensive traceability.
However, RAS have some potential disadvantages. There is a risk of disease

breakout once pathogens enter RAS because recirculating system is kind of an
incubator of microorganisms. Thus, it is necessary to definitely prevent RAS from
invasion of pathogen. There is the risk of mechanical failure and the associated
water quality issues. Entrainment spawning in the RAS leads to water quality
decrease and heavy gamete loss. If these accidents happen, serious problems are
inevitable because individuals are reared in the high density within the RAS.
Nevertheless, research and development for successful abalone farming by using
RAS should be pursued in order to increase diversity in fishery production styles
and contribute to food security.
It takes 3–4 years for abalones to attain the desired marketable size based on the
culture method of releasing hatchery-bred juveniles into natural waters and
allowing them to grow mainly on natural feed organisms. Land-based intensive
farming techniques under the control of water temperature, water qualities, and
feeding are largely expected to promote the efficiencies of abalone production.
Additionally, water treatment systems to maintain water quality without exchang-
ing fresh saltwater would contribute to achieving veritable environmentally
friendly closed RAS (CRAS) and inland fish farming. Environmental load from
rearing water emission is estimated by multiplying emitted water quantity by
concentrations of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous compounds. Thus,
water treatment systems for elimination of accumulated substances such as nitrate
and persistent organic matters are required for RAS.
8.2 Abalone Culture
8.2.1 Seed Production
Artificial abalone breeding plays an important role in maintaining supply quantity

of abalone. Abalone hatchery has been well studied and manualized in some
publications (Uki 1989; FAO 1990; Heasman and Savva 2007; Leighton 2008).
In Japan, the three species of abalone other than H. madaka are mainly bred. And
annual total production of abalone seeds for release was approximately 30 million
individuals from 1984 to 2006. H. d. hannai, H. d. discus, H. gigantea, and
H. madaka account for 57.8%, 26.3%, 15.8%, and 0.1% of total seed production
in 2006, respectively (Nonaka 2011).
Abalone reproduces sexually by external fertilization. Haliotis spp. shows
annual spawning cycle. It is thought that temperature, food availability, and pho-
toperiod are the major factors influencing the development of the gonads. In the sea,
season of peak spawning is at water temperature around 20 C irrespective of
northern and southern part in Japan. In the hatcheries, timing of spawning can be
controlled by conditioning of broodstock. There is the theoretical minimum tem-
perature at which gonad growth and development begins. For H. d. hannai, 7.6 C is
biological zero point (Uki 1989). Conditioning times is determined from the
summation of the difference between the biological zero point and the water
temperature (Effective Accumulative Temperature). It is considered that H. d.
hannai are fully mature at 1500 C or more (Uki 1989). After gonad fully develops,
spawning is triggered by desiccation and immersion into UV-irradiated saltwater
(Uki and Kikuchi 1984).
Fertilized ova are maintained in hatching tanks at 18–20 C of water temperature
then start hatching when the accumulative temperature reaches 160 C. After
metamorphosis, larvae settle on clear plates which are coated with diatoms in
advance. Diatoms and mucous secreted by the foot of juvenile or adult abalone on
the plates induce larvae settlement. Larvae grow by eating diatoms and mucous.
When abalone juveniles grow close to or above 10 mm in shell length, they can be
transferred directly from settlement plates to intermediate culture tank. Abalones are
grown up to about 30 mm during the intermediate culture period. For further
information on conditioning broodstock, spawning method, metamorphosis process,
optimum density of rearing larvae or juvenile, culture and maintenance of diatoms,
and weaning method, consult other guidelines (Uki 1989; FAO 1990; Heasman and
Savva 2007; Leighton 2008).
In hatcheries by using RAS, temperature can be maintained at a constant level
very accurately. It is advantageous that this permits accurate prediction of full
maturity. Furthermore, temperature control makes it possible to introduce the
spawning of broodstock on a year-round basis, leading to increasing production
of marketable abalone even in lean season.
8.2.2 Grow-Out Culture
It is important for the sea-based culture, the land-based flow-through culture, or the
semi-closed RAS culture to consider ecological properties of farming sites where
clear and non-polluted saltwater is available. The growth rate of abalones strongly
depends on the water temperature and availability of feed. Water temperature is
preferably kept close to optimum water temperature ranging from 15 to 20 C
(Sasaki 2005). Water temperature below 6 C or over 28 C is not acceptable for
abalone to take food. In the case of CRAS culture, maintenance of water quality by
water treatment system is indispensable in addition to water temperature control.
Nevertheless, comparing with flow-through system, recirculating system largely
contributes to saving energy for water temperature control.
Introduction of excellent juveniles is also important to accomplish high produc-
tivity. Equal-sized juveniles in about 20–30 mm of shell length are introduced to the
rearing tank when water temperature is relatively low at the level around 20 C.
Survival rate decreases with juvenile introduction in high temperature season.
Optimum rearing density of big abalones depends on the culturing systems and
the structure of feeding attachment plates. Further investigation is required to
increase the productivity of abalone in marketable size (>60 mm).
Feeding management is also important to maximize availability of feed. Aba-

lone fed with artificial diet significantly grows faster than that with natural seaweed.
Abalone with average size of 19.8 3.2 mm fed with artificial diet and Undaria
sp. could grow up to 40.4 5.5 mm and 36.6 3.5 mm (n ¼ 30) for 118 days
(from May to September), respectively. Abalone is considered to forage for food
nocturnally or under the cover of darkness. Recording of abalone movement by
an infrared camera showed that active food consumption started about 1 h later
after lights out and continued for 4–5 h then hardly moved (Fig. 8.2). Duration of
abalones actively foraging for food corresponds to circadian rhythm in the
oxygen consumption rates (Uki and Kikuchi 1975). Thus, it is efficient to carry
out feeding in the evening when abalone is fed with artificial diet because
uneaten diet left in the rearing tank begins deterioration and pollutes the rearing
water.
Pest control is always necessary especially in high-density rearing. Amyotrophia
caused by unidentified virus, bacterial disease caused by Xenohaliotis
californiensis, Francisella ap., and Viblio sp., and fungal disease caused by
Haliophthoros sp. are known as abalone infection. Xenohaliotis disease, which is
specific in H. d. discus among Japanese indigenous abalone species, became
epidemic in the USA and Mexico since 1980, and its pathogenesis was also reported
in Europe and Chile. In the hatchery in Tottori, western Japan, about 13,000
juveniles of H. d. discus were infected and incinerated en masse in 2012 for the
first time. Investigation of the wild abalone revealed that less than 1% of H. d.
discus and H. gigantea were potentially infected by Xenohaliotis sp.. Thus, inspec-
tion of infection is important prior to introduction of juveniles into the farming to
prevent from outbreak in the high-density rearing tank. Screening by genetic
diagnosis is recently developed.
Fig. 8.2 Photographs from monitoring feeding behavior of abalone using an infrared camera: 0 h
(light out), 1 h, 3 h, 6 h, 9 h, and 15 h
8.3 Water Quality Requirements and System Overview

for Land-Based Abalone Farming
The breeding and culture technologies have already well developed. There are
many manuals and guidelines for hatchery and culturing of abalone (Uki 1989;
FAO 1990; Heasman and Savva 2007; Leighton 2008). Thus, it is possible to
achieve a land-based recirculating aquaculture of abalone as long as water quality
is maintained. There are internal and external factors contributing abalone growth.
Internal factors are aging and genetical features. External factors are water temper-
ature, water quality, diet, and rearing density. Water quality required for abalone
culture is focused in this chapter as many published papers have regarded other than
water quality.
8.3.1 Importance of Recirculating Water Treatment
In flow-through land-based abalone farming, it is sufficient to exchange rearing

water with pumped saltwater of more than 100% a day for maintaining water
quality. In the case of using natural saltwater, it is necessary to take measures for
temporal change in water temperature, rainy change in specific gravity, and possi-
bility of pathogen contamination.
In RAS, besides water exchanging rate decreasing until less than 10% a day,
treatment waste matters derived from residual food, feces, and excretion is indis-
pensable. In particular, accumulation of “ammonia” and “solid waste” is the main
reason for fail farming with RAS. Ammonia is treated by ammonia- and nitrite-
oxidizing bacteria which oxidize high-toxicity ammonia to low-toxicity nitrate
(nitrification). Solid waste should be removed from the rearing tanks as soon as
possible then filtrated to separate solid from water. It is very important to design
facilities for consistent and steady recirculation because water treatment is mostly
carried out by recirculation. Hydraulic retention time (HRT, t) is traditionally used
for evaluation of recirculating:

t ðhÞ ¼ Volume m3 =Flow rate m3 =h
For example, t of 15–30 minutes has been recommended for design of effective
settle basins (Liao and Mayo 1974). Efficiencies of nitrification are logarithmically
raised with increase of turnover, but too many turnovers may cause plateaus
(Fig. 8.3). In a nitrification biofilter, optimum turnover rate should be designed as
considering cost-effectiveness of nitrification activities, specifications and price of
pump, and electricity expense. Inverter control of pump power is very effective for
energy and cost savings as same as those of blowers and air conditions. Water
treatment efficiencies, concentration of dissolved oxygen, and water temperature
Fig. 8.3 Relationship between nitrification activities and turnover time in a closed RAS using
coral biofilter
can be alterable by inverter control depending on growth stages, rearing densities,

and environmental variable conditions.
Nitrification treatment by biofilter makes it possible that quantity of daily
exchanging water is abundantly reduced until 5–10% of total holding water quan-
tity. But limitations are still remained because a larger amount of fresh saltwater is
necessary and costly when farming facilities become huge. For example, a 100 m3
RAS with a daily exchanging rate of 10% saltwater is calculated to require 3650 m3
saltwater annually. This cost is estimated to more than 200,000 US dollars on the
basis of unit prices of artificial saltwater (60–80 US dollars per m3). Thus, saltwater
acquisition is too costly to commercialize land-based abalone farming because
abalone is very sensitive to water quality especially for salinity and concentrations
of nitrate and persistent colored organic matter as described in the next subsection
of this chapter. Profitable abalone farming facilities are limited to be built near the
sea unless exchanging rearing water with fresh saltwater is required. Furthermore,
measures against eutrophication caused by waste discharge containing nutrient
matters and solid waste should be considered because integrated amounts of
nutrients from a lot of diluted waste water is not negligible. Utilizing artificial
diet particularly aggravates eutrophication of rearing water because of richness in
nutrients.
CRAS including denitrification and colored organic matter treatment systems
has been therefore intensively studied since 1990s in order to extremely reduce
environmental loads and energy (van Rijn et al. 2006). Strict water quality control
and water treatment systems are required because abalone should be cultured
without daily exchanging saltwater. Only loss of vapored fresh water is basically
supplemented with freshwater. Transported natural saltwater or artificial saltwater
is used as initial introduced saltwater in CRAS. Quality of freshwater used for

artificial saltwater is recommended to be analyzed according to water quality
criterion, for example, heavy metals, volatile organics, pesticides, and so on. It is
possible that heavy metals and residual toxic organics are concentrated biologically
and by vaporization even if toxic contaminations are very low. This is also common
in the case of quality control of feed.
8.3.2 System Overview for Abalone Culture in RAS
The principal flow pattern for abalone culture in RAS is shown in Fig. 8.4. The
system basically consists of rearing tanks, solids removal, nitrification, denitrifica-
tion, disinfection, pumps, blower, and temperature control units. The water is
cascaded from the rearing tank located in the highest elevation to the nitrification
tank by gravity. As there are many varieties among water treatment units, appro-
priate principles and sizes of those equipments should be selected depending on fish
species, rearing densities, and the scale of RAS (Timmons et al. 2002). For
example, there are some options for nitrification by biological filters such as fixed
bed, moving bed, and trickling filters. A fix bed biofilter has an advantage that it
captures fine particles in addition to nitrification and degradation of dissolved
organic matters. Thus, the fix bed biofilter is used as the base of nitrification, and
the moving bed biofilters are added when further nitrification is required.
A rectangular tank is suitable and water depth of approximately 40 cm is
sufficient for abalone rearing. Water level of the culture tank is regulated by
overflow pipe arrangement (Fig. 8.4). Low-water rearing enables for multiple-
stage tank arrangement that leads to increase abalone productivity per unit area.
Solids capture is carried out using three types of methodology depending on size
classification of solids. Settleable, suspended, and dissolved solids are removed by
a settling tank (gravity separation), a solid capture tank (filtration), and a foam
fractionation apparatus (flotation), respectively. Abalone rearing water can be
drained to the solid capture tank for tank cleaning since abalone have a desiccation
tolerance of a few hours. After draining the water, the remaining solids in the
rearing tank can be washed out by backwater from the solid capture tank by opening
Fig. 8.4 Schematic overview of RAS for abalone culture

the drain bulb to the solids capture tank. In the case of a certain scale of RAS
(approximately more than 50 m3 of total water volume), microscreen filters such as
a drum filter and a disk filter are recommended on a cost-benefit analysis.
Because water circulation shutdown, aeration system failure, and electricity
blackouts can cause immediate and serious damage to abalone, backup pumps,
blowers, and generators should be installed (Table 8.2). Details of nitrification,
denitrification, and dissolved organic matter treatment by electrolytic electrode will
be described in the following subsections of this chapter.
8.3.3 Parameters and Standards of Water Quality Control

for Rearing Abalone in RAS
Water quality required for fish farming has been well described in published books
and papers (Timmons et al. 2002; Poxton 2003). In this chapter, important param-
eters among them are focused particularly in the case of rearing abalone in RAS.
Table 8.2 shows evaluation of importance of water quality parameters, reasons of
failure, and measures for recovery. Importance of water quality parameters was
evaluated with multiplication of altering speed by tolerability for abalone because
change and significance in water quality varied depends on water quality parame-
ters. Some parameters might change within a few minutes by mechanical failure,
but others might change within a month by biological metabolisms. Measuring
frequency for each parameter is also recommended in Table 8.2 based on evaluation
for importance of water quality control. Standards of physicochemical water quality
for rearing abalone are summarized in Table 8.3.
DO and Water Temperature The most important parameter is dissolved oxygen
(DO) because DO rapidly decrease until lethal concentration once troubles of an
aeration device occur. It is much safer to install a DO monitoring and alarming
system and to prepare a generator and backup devices for aeration just in case of
emergency.
DO has a strong relationship with water temperature. Four species of Japanese
commercially valuable abalone are distributed in the northern and southern part of
Japan and adapt to water temperature in their habitats. Northern abalone (H. d.
hannai) generally grows slower than southern abalone (H. d. discus) in nature
because of lower water temperature. However, it is possible to culture H. d. hannai
under the natural condition of southern part of Japan because H. d. hannai was
differentiated from H. d. discus (Hara and Fujio 1992; Hara and Sekino 2005).
Optimum water temperature for both species ranges between 15 and 20 C (Sasaki
2005). It is more cost-effective to control water temperature in this range according
to seasonal change because temperature adjustment needs a lot of energy. Fujinaga
et al. (1999) investigated the relationship between temperature, amount of food
consumption, and weight gain. As a result, food consumption increased until 25 C,
Table 8.2 Evaluation of importance of water quality parameters, reasons for failure, and measures for recovery
Altering Measuring
Parameters speeda Tolerabilitya Importanceb frequency Reasons for failure Measures for recovery
Water ○ ○ ○ monitoring change in temperature, trouble repair of thermocontrol, insulation of
temperature of thermocontrol building
Salinity △ ○ △ every vaporization, addition of too addition of artificial saltwater or freshwater
month much freshwater
8 Abalone Haliotis spp.
pH ○ ○ ○ monitoring decrease by respiration and addition of sodium bicarbonate, installa-

nitrification tion of denitrification device
DO ◎ ◎ ◎ monitoring respiration, nitrification, trouble repair of devices, installation of backup
of aeration devices devices
Alkalinity △ △ △ every increase by respiration aeration, degassing
month
Total ammonia ○ ◎ ◎ everyday excretion of biological wastes enrichment of ammonia oxidizer, optimi-
(NH3 and NH4+) and residual diet zation of water quality for nitrification
Nitrite ○ ◎ ◎ everyday incomplete nitrification enrichment of nitrite oxidizer, optimiza-
tion of water quality for nitrification
Nitrate ○ ○ ○ every 1 to increase by nitrification exchanging water, installation of denitrifi-
2 weeks cation device
Phosphate △ △ △ every 1 to excretion of biological wastes exchanging water, addition of coral
2 months and residual diet (calcium)
Suspended solids △ ○ △ every 1 to trouble of filtration and solid maintenance or upgrade of solid removal
(SS) 2 months removal systems devices
Color ○ ◎ ◎ everyday accumulation of recalcitrant installation of dissolved organic matter
organic compounds from wastes treatment devices
(continued)
189
190

Altering Measuring
Parameters speeda Tolerabilitya Importanceb frequency Reasons for failure Measures for recovery
Total organic △ ○ △ every 1 to accumulation of organic com- installation of any size of waste removal
carbon 2 months pounds from wastes devices
Calcium ○ ○ ○ every 1 to decrease by shell formation addition of calcium hydroxide, calcium
2 weeks bicarbonate, or calcium chloride
Ion balancec △ ○ △ every 1 to increase of various ions from exchanging water, supplement of
2 months wastes chemicals, absorption of nutrients by
seaweeds
Pathogen △ ○ △ every introduction of infected individ- epidemic control. installation of steriliza-
6 months ual, resident bacteria tion devices, antibiotics
(Free/combined △ ◎ ○ everyday trouble of electrolyzation device setting change of device, neutralization by
residual chlorine) sodium thiosulfate
(Ozone) △ ◎ ○ everyday trouble of ozonizer setting change of device
a
Evaluation criteria (altering speed/tolerability):◎3pt very quick (a few hours)/not tolerate, ○2pt quick (a few days to weeks)/a little tolerate, △1pt slow (a few
months)/tolerate
b
Evaluation criteria (importance):◎6–9pt, ○3–4pt, △1–2pt multiplication of score of (altering speed) and (tolerability)
c
Ion balance means relative concentrations of Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, NH4+, Cl, SO42, Br, NO2, NO3, PO43 compared with natural seawater
Y. Koizumi and Y. Tsuji
Table 8.3 Physicochemical Parameters Standard Unit

standards of water quality for
Salinity 31–38 ‰
rearing abalone
Water temperature 15–22 C
DO 6.5–8 (90–100%) mg O2/L
pH 8.0–8.5
Alkalinity (CaCO3) 200–300 mg CaCO3/L
TANa <1.0 mg-N/L
NH3-N <0.025 mg-N/L
NO2-N <0.5 mg-N/L
NO3-N <50 mg-N/L
SS <10 mg/L
Calcium 360–460 mg/L
Chromaticity <10 Abs 390 nmb
a
TAN means total ammonia (NH3 + NH4+)
b
Measured by using a color meter (WA-PT-4DG, Kyoritsu
Chemical-Check Lab., Corp., Japan)
but maximum weight gain could not be expected over 25 C because metabolic
activities also increased.
DO increase with low temperature and decrease with high salinity. Saturated
concentration of DO is 7.83–7.15 mg/L under the air pressure at the optimum
temperature of 15–20 C and salinity of 32‰ (chloride ion concentration of
19,400 mg/L). In the case of flow-through culturing system, robust water supply
contributes to providing sufficient oxygen and to remove solid waste. By contrast,
oxygen must be supplied by vigorous aeration using blower in RAS. Compared
with flow-through system, RAS is advantageous in reducing energy and cost for
temperature control. Uki and Kikuchi (1975) investigated the relationship between
oxygen consumption, body weight, and temperature in H. d. hannai culture. There
is proportional relationship between temperature and logarithm of oxygen con-
sumption under 20 C, and oxygen consumption did not change over 20 C. Oxygen
consumption of H. d. hannai with body weight of 1.5 g and 151 g were 0.184 and
7.70 mL O2/(individual•hour) (0.245 and 10.2 mg O2/individual •hour), respec-
tively. Moreover, oxygen consumption tended to increase between around sunset
and midnight.
Salinity Range of salinity is required between 31 and 38‰ as same as natural sea.
Salinity of the sea around Japan is ~34‰. It is known that salinity and compo-
sition of animals are close to those of aquatic environments where the animals
evolved. Among marine animals, invertebrates such as mollusk including abalone
rarely have an experience to evolve in freshwater environments. Body fluid and
osmotic pressure of mollusk are likely similar to saltwater. Thus, abalone does not
tolerate low salinity of saltwater. Salinity of water should be paid attention during
abalone culturing. Salinity of saltwater in inner bays is unstable because heavy rain
is possible to dilute saltwater. H. d. hannai start to die after about 15 h when they
are put in 15‰ of diluted saltwater. And H. d. discus is significantly inhibited to
grow under the condition of less than 26‰ of saltwater (Kobayashi 2002). If
salinity is measured by specific gravity, conversion is needed based on temperature.
For example, 35‰ of saltwater at 24 C is converted to 1.0240 of specific gravity.
Salinity measurement using a conductivity meter is recommended because precise
measurement of specific gravity is difficult by general instruments.
Nitrogen Compounds Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for all living organisms and
is found in proteins, nucleic acids, adenosine phosphates, and so on. However,
nitrogen is required in relatively small quantities, and physiological needs are easily
satisfied. Excess quantities become nitrogenous wastes, and removal is necessary.
Abalone creates various nitrogenous waste products through gill diffusion, gill
cation exchange, and urine and feces excretion. Nitrogenous wastes also accumu-
late from the organic debris of dead and dying organisms and uneaten feed.
Decomposing these nitrogenous compounds is particularly important in intensive
RAS because of the toxicity of ammonia and nitrite.
Fujinaga et al. (1999) investigated the amount of nitrogenous compounds
excreted from H. gigantea under the no feeding condition. As a result, an individual
of 37 mm excreted 379, 64, and 34 ug-N/(individual•day) of ammonia, urea, and
feces, respectively. By the same, an individual of 70 mm excreted 2290, 372, and
201 ug-N/(individual•day), respectively. The amount of excretion of ammonia and
urea increased with water temperature.
Unionized ammonia (NH3) is considered to be the most toxic form of ammonia,
while ionized ammonia (NH4+) is much less toxic. Fish can generally cope with
quite large concentrations of ammonia in the form of ionized ammonia. An increase
in pH, temperature, or salinity increases the proportion of the unionized form of
ammonia. Unionized ammonia concentrations should be held below 0.025 mg/L
and total ammonia-nitrogen (TAN: unionized and ionized ammonia) concentrations
below 1.0 mg/L for long exposure (Table 8.3) (Leighton 2008; Timmons et al.
2002).
Nitrite is the intermediate product in the process of nitrification of ammonia to
nitrate and also extremely toxic because it affects the blood hemoglobin’s ability to
carry oxygen (Timmons et al. 2002). Levels in a system for abalone should not
exceed 0.5 mg-N/L (Table 8.3) (Leighton 2008).
Nitrate is the end product of nitrification and is the least toxic of the nitrogen
compounds. However, accumulation of nitrate at high concentration could impact
on mortality and growth. Toxicity of nitrate to fish has not been much investigated
because acute toxicity is not serious. However, chronic toxicity, inhibition of
nitrification, and proliferation of phytoplankton are gradually promoted by abun-
dant nitrate accumulation (Poxton 2003). In the case of abalone, about 100 mg-N/L
of nitrate concentration affected their mortality (Fig. 8.5). In flow-through system,
nitrate levels are usually controlled by daily water exchanges. In CRAS with low
water exchange or high hydraulic retention times, denitrification has become
increasingly important.
Reaching level of nitrate concentrations in RAS can be estimated from “nitrogen
increasing rate (mg-N/day)” and “water exchanging rate (L/day).” For example,
Fig. 8.5 Monitoring of nitrate concentrations (a), chromaticity (b), mortalities (c), and individual
shell length and body weight (d) in a closed RAS rearing Haliotis discus hannai
concentration of nitrate proportionally increased at the rate of 0.87 g-N/(L•day)

when 100 individuals of H. d. hannai (average shell length 41.2 mm and weight 9.1
g) were reared in RAS, which has 390 L of effective volume of water including 95 L
of filtering media, with 10 g of daily artificial diet feeding (1.1% of total body
weight) at constant water temperature of 20 C without water exchange (Fig. 8.5a).
Nitrification smoothly occurred at this time because concentrations of TAN and
nitrite were under the detection limits. But nitrogen of urea, uneaten food, and feces
were not measured. Excretion speed of nitrogen by individual abalone was roughly
estimated at 2600 ug-N/(individual•day). The value from this estimation is much
higher than that by Fujinaga et al. (1999) because of the difference of feeding
condition.
Effects of nitrate concentrations on growth and mortality of abalone were
evaluated in CRAS by using newly developed automated denitrification system.
Experiment was carried out in two plots. Nitrate concentration rapidly decreased by
running denitrification system when nitrate concentration reached 80 mg-N/L
(Fig. 8.5a). Abalone started to die with increase of nitrate concentration and
mortality significantly increased when nitrate concentration reached more than
100 mg-N/L (Fig. 8.5c). Mortality of abalone was repeatedly declined with
decrease of nitrate concentration in both experimental plots. Significant negative
impact of high nitrate concentration on abalone mortality was revealed with
reproducibility. Levels of nitrate concentration ideally should not exceed
50 mg-N/L within RAS. Denitrification system is indispensable in the case of
intensive CRAS. Furthermore, high concentration of nitrate significantly affects
not only mortality but also growth of abalone (Fig. 8.5d). There was lag time
between water quality degradation, growth stagnation, and mortality. It is well
known that abalone starts to die after 5–7 days when factors affecting the mortality
occur, such as deterioration in water quality, growth stagnation, and body damage.
And it takes 7–10 days to recover after excluding wrong factors.
Solids Waste solids accumulating in RAS come from uneaten diet, feces, dead
bodies, and microbial floc. These solids are classified by size into settleable (>100
μm), suspended (0.001 to 100 μm), and dissolved (<0.001 μm) (Timmons et al.
2002). Studies indicate that fish produce 0.3–0.4 kg total suspended solids for every
1 kg of feed fed (Timmons et al. 2002). Waste solids influence the efficiency of all
unit process in RAS and can directly affect fish health by damaging fish gills and
harboring pathogens. The upper limit for fish is tentatively recommended at 10 mg
SS/L (Timmons et al. 2002). Suspended solids do not settle out by gravity settling
basin, therefore require a treatment process as filtration. Dissolved organic matter is
difficult to remove. In particular, recalcitrant dissolved organic matter such as
humic substances is difficult to be degraded by microorganisms.
Effect of accumulated organic matter on abalone has not been much investigated
as well as nitrate because most abalone farming are carried out by flow-through
aquaculture system or marine culture. But accumulated organic matter also signif-
icantly affects molluscan mortality. The effects of accumulation organic matter and
of added nitrate on bloody clam (Anadara broughtonii) mortality were investigated
at the water temperature from 10 to 13 C using 15 L of small RAS (Fig. 8.6).
Mortality was monitored under the conditions with combination of nitrate addition,
denitrification, and activated carbon treatment. Dead clams were confirmed one by
one and removed at the same time. Total organic carbon (TOC) and chromaticity of
Fig. 8.6 Effects of added nitrate and of dissolved organic matter removal on mortality of bloody
clam
Fig. 8.7 Changes of total organic carbon and chromaticity in the rearing tanks of bloody clam
with adding activated carbon and denitrification treatments
the supernatant of the rearing saltwater were measured by total organic carbon
analyzer (Shimadzu Co, Kyoto, Japan) and color meter (Abs. 390 nm) (WA-PT-
4DG, Kyoritsu Chemical-Check Lab., Corp., Tokyo, Japan), respectively (Fig. 8.7).
As a result, survival period in the combination of denitrification and activated
charcoal treatment RAS is prominently prolonged compared with the control.
Durations for 50% survival in control and both charcoal- and nitrate-added
(677 mg-N/L) RAS were 24.4 and 7.6 days, respectively. Survival period in the
RAS of added high concentration of nitrate was significantly shortened irrespective
of charcoal treatment (Fig. 8.6). TOC and chromaticity in the charcoal-added RAS
were maintained lower than those in the control. Chromaticity in charcoal-treated
RAS was kept at 0, while that in the control increased up to 12.5, and TOC up to 8.9
mg/L at that time (Fig. 8.7). The change in chromaticity was related to mortality in
the control. Bloody clams started to die when chromaticity steeply increased on
around 20 days in the control. At this time, nitrite and TAN were detected at 0.2 and
0.6 mg-N/L, respectively. Decay of dead body might trigger mass mortality and
decline quality of rearing water. Thus, rapid removal of dead body and water
treatment system are important to maintain water quality.
In the case of abalone, similar effects of nitrate concentration and chromaticity
on mortality and growth were observed (Fig. 8.5) indicating that this is common
among molluscan shellfish. But there was not a significant relationship between
chromaticity and TOC (data not shown). Chromaticity might tend to affect directly
mortality more than TOC concentration.
Others pH control directly affects shell formation. Natural saltwater has a pH of
8.0–8.5 and is relatively stable by buffer function of bicarbonate and boric acid. pH
decreases due to robust nitrification and abalone respiration (Fig. 8.8a). If the pH
goes below 7.6, the calcium carbonate of the abalone shell starts to dissolve
(Leighton 2008). This must be counteracted by the addition of chemicals containing
hydroxide, carbonate, or bicarbonate ions. Sodium carbonate (baking powder) is
usually used since it is relatively safe, easy to obtain, and dissolved rapidly and
completely in water (Loyless and Malone 1997). To ensure this buffering capacity,
the alkalinity should be maintained at 200–300 mg/L as CaCO3 (Table 8.3).
Fig. 8.8 Changes of pH (a) and calcium concentration (b) in the abalone rearing tank of RAS.
Arrows indicate the addition of sodium carbonate
An increase of pH and temperature increases the proportion of the unionized

form of ammonia nitrogen. pH and temperature adjustment especially in the case of
increase should be gradually carried out with great care.
Calcium concentration in CRAS proportionally decreases without saltwater
exchange (Fig. 8.8b). Calcium concentration in natural saltwater is generally of
around 410 mg/L and should be maintained at 350–450 mg/L in the RAS
(Table 8.3). Shortage of calcium concentration leads shell formation trouble
because abalone shell mainly consists of calcium carbonate. This must be
counteracted by the addition of chemicals containing calcium such as calcium
hydroxide and calcium chloride. The addition of calcium hydroxide could also
increase pH. On the other side, the addition of sodium carbonate decreases calcium
concentration by precipitation of calcium carbonate which degree of solubility is
0.00015 mol/L at 25 C. Thus, adjustment of pH, alkalinity, and calcium concen-
tration by adding one or more of a number of chemicals must be conducted as
considering chemical interreactions.
Potassium and phosphate are relatively highly contained in diet. For example,
100 g of dried kelp (Laminariaceae sp.) contains potassium, calcium, magnesium,
phosphate, and nitrogen at 5,300, 760, 540, 240, and 1,280 mg, respectively.
Artificial diets contain approximately 30% of protein, which is converted into
4800 mg-N/100 g. Although calcium and magnesium are taken in abalone growing,
potassium, phosphate, and nitrogen accumulate in the RAS unless rearing water is
periodically exchanged with fresh saltwater. Thus, removal system for those ele-
ments would be further needed in order to achieve intensive CRAS. Effects of
accumulation of potassium and phosphate on abalone mortality would be also
investigated by intergrading concentrations of those elements as shown in
Figs. 8.5 and 8.6.
Many analytical instruments are used in various water quality analyses. Period-
ical calibration and maintenance must be indispensable to obtain accurate data.
Another point to keep in mind is that water temperature affects measurements of
some parameters such as DO, unionized ammonia, and electric conductivity. For
example, an electric conductivity of 37.0 mS/cm (33.0‰) at 10 C increases to 47.7
mS/cm (35.2‰) and 58.4 mS/cm (36.0‰) at 20 C and 30 C, respectively. Thus,
attention should be paid to temperature when salinity is measured by electric
conductivity.
8.4 Water Treatment Technologies for Maintenance

of Water Quality in RAS
Since abalone does not tolerate low salinity of saltwater, they need fresh natural or
artificial saltwater. It is very costly and labor intensive to obtain fresh saltwater in
the place far from sea. Thus, land-based abalone farming should be established near
the sea if natural saltwater, which has an optimum quality for rearing abalone, can
be abundantly pumped up. However, appropriate coastal place for abalone farming
is restricted in Japan because of geographical condition, water temperature, salinity,
red tide occurrence, and so on. Although Wando district in Korea is robustly
ongoing abalone farming on the sea, uneaten food, feces, dead body, and removed
excrescence accumulate on the bottom of the sea and cause anoxic water leading to
mortality by a shortage of oxygen. Semi-closed RAS is abundantly required to
prevent from damage caused by natural disaster and water pollution. Moreover,
zero-emission land-based aquaculture using CRAS independent of the sea is
expected to save marine environment and to recover indigenous abalone stock in
the future. Although RAS is advantageous for saving energy via temperature
control, feeding control, and rearing management, water treatment technologies
for maintenance of water quality are essential. More strict water quality control is
needed for abalone than teleost fish. In this chapter, three main technologies for
nitrification, denitrification, and dissolved organic matter treatment by electrolysis
are introduced.
8.4.1 Nitrification Using Polypropylene Short Tubular Media
There are many types of biofilters that are commonly used in intensive RAS:
submerged biofilters, trickling biofilters, rotating biological contractors, floating
bead biofilters, and fluidized-bed biofilters (Timmons et al. 2002). Although each
biofilter has its own strength and weakness, basic principle of nitrification is
common among them.
There are two phylogenetically distinct groups of bacteria (ammonia- and
nitrite-oxidizing bacteria) to perform nitrification. They grow slowly because of
chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria. pH of rearing water decreases, and nitrate
accumulates as end product in the RAS with biofilters. Coral gravel is normally
used for nitrification media because it is cheap and has wide surface area. However,
loading a lot of coral gravel into the submerged biofilter tank and washing clogged
media are labor intensive because of its heaviness. Thus, light polypropylene
(PP) short tubular media (ϕ5 mm 5 mm) is preferable and its price is almost
same as coral gravel. Weights per unit volume of coral gravel and PP media are 1.07
and 0.28 kg/L, respectively. Ammonia conversion ratio of PP media (21.0
mg/L•day) was less than that of coral gravel (28.5 mg/L•day) calculated under
the condition of 10 mg-N/L of ammonia at 20 C on a basis of per volume of media.
Although ammonia conversion ratio of PP media decreased by 26% compared to
that of coral, handling of PP media is much easier than that of coral. Nevertheless,
coral gravel is used together for weight on PP media and calcium supply.
Rates of nitrification increased by increasing turnover ratio of biological filter
but reached a plateau at some point (Fig. 8.3). Independent circulation of nitrifica-
tion tank contributes to some extent for downsizing. Continuous addition of ammo-
nia chloride accelerated nitrification activities but reached at plateau after 22 times
Fig. 8.9 Change in nitrification activities by periodic addition of ammonia chloride and seawater
replacement. Arrow indicates saltwater replacement
of addition (Fig. 8.9). But nitrification activities accelerated again after new salt-
water was exchanged. This means that accumulation of nitrate inhibit nitrification.
8.4.2 Automated Batch Processing Denitrification System
Nitrate is the end product of nitrification, and its accumulation is inevitable without
exchanging saltwater or installing denitrification system. Although nitrate does not
show an acute toxicity, it must not be left to accumulate. High concentration of
nitrate may cause chronic toxicity (Fig. 8.5) and inhibition of nitrification (Fig. 8.9).
Abalone started to die with increase of nitrate concentration and more than
100 mg-N/L of nitrate concentration significantly increased mortality (Fig. 8.5c).
Levels of nitrate concentration ideally should not exceed 50 mg-N/L within RAS.
Level of nitrate concentration is determined by “emission speed of nitrogen
compounds from abalone and uneaten diet” and “water exchanging ratio” in the
case of prevention of nitrate accumulation by water exchange. The more saltwater
exchange, the lower nitrate concentration is maintained, but it is more costly in
order to gain saltwater and to adjust water temperature, and environmental load
increases. There is a trade-off between level of nitrate concentration and cost for
fresh saltwater. For example, 630 g-N/day of nitrogen load from abalone, which
corresponds to approximately 200,000 abalone (shell length 70 mm) in a RAS of
42 m3 requires a daily water exchange rate of 25% to maintain the level of nitrate
less than 50 mg-N/L (Fig. 8.10a). Under this assumption, saltwater annually will
cost 190,000 dollars if 1 m3 of saltwater can be purchased at 50 dollars. Thus,
business of marine-independent and land-based abalone farming is impossible to
become profitable unless saltwater can be purchased at an extremely lower price.
Denitrification system has been mainly developed in advanced sewage treatment
(Rittmann and McCarty 2001) but could not be applied to aquaculture system
without any alteration. Criteria for denitrification control of sewage treatment are
Fig. 8.10 Simulation for balanced nitrate concentration in treatment of exchanging water (a) or
denitrification (b)
not likely to apply to aquaculture because water quality for fish farming is severely
required (Colt 2006; Poxton and Allouse 1982). Although there are many studies on
application of denitrification in freshwater and saltwater RAS during more than
30 years period, unifying concept for design and operation of these systems has not
been developed (van Rijn et al. 2006; Klas et al. 2006). We have newly designed an
automated denitrification system specialized for RAS and reared abalone for more
than 1 year without water replacement (Fig. 8.11). The biodegradable aliphatic
polyester was chosen to be used for a denitrification substrate in our study after
classification of turbidity occurrence, hydrogen sulfide production, and denitrifica-
tion activity among commercially available polymers. According to the computer
simulation (Fig. 8.10b), nitrate concentration in the rearing tank reached an equi-
librium, effectively balancing the nitrogen emitted by the abalone and batch
denitrification treatment. Power approximated curve is fitted to the relationship
between the balanced nitrate concentration and the turnover rate of the denitrifica-
tion apparatus. This simulation indicated that excessive turnover is ineffective in
decreasing low nitrate concentration in RAS.
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㻼㻼㻌㼏㼍㼞㼞㼕㼑㼞㻼
㻮㼕㼛㼒㼕㼘㼠㼑㼞㻰㼑㼚㼕㼠㼞㼕㼒㼕㼏㼍㼠㼕㼛㼚
㼟㼥㼟㼠㼑㼙
㻯㼕㼞㼏㼡㼘㼍㼠㼕㼛㼚
㼜㼡㼙㼜
Fig. 8.11 A scheme of automated denitrification system for RAS
8.4.3 Treatment of Recalcitrant Dissolved Organic

Matter (DOM)
As described above, rapid removal of settlement, suspended, and dissolved organic

matters is very important (§8.3.3 Solids). Treatments of DOM are roughly divided
into three groups on a principle basis: physical (form fractionators and activated
carbon), photochemical (UV irradiation), and chemical (ozonation, chlorine and
hypochlorite). Photochemical and chemical treatments also work as bacterial inac-
tivation. Which treatment systems to be suitable should be decided depending on
the situations.
Form fractionator or protein skimmer is commonly used to remove fine solids
(<30 μm) and dissolved organic compounds in the aquarium fields. These devices
work by generating small bubbles. The air/water interfaces of bubbles and surfac-
tants are important for effective removal of DOM and particles. In the case of
abalone culture, foam fractionators are relatively effective because abalone secrete
mucous from the foot. Foam fractionation also contributes to increasing DO and
degassing of CO2 in the rearing tanks.
Activated carbon is widely used as a porous material which can physically
adsorb fine solids and high molecular organic matters. There is a quick effect for
color removal and deodorizing by activated carbon filtration or immersion.
However, adsorption ability is lost after fine polar is saturated with molecules and
organic matters (adsorption breakthrough). Since abalone mortality is strongly
affected by color of culturing water (Fig. 8.5b, c), activated carbon can be helpful
as emergency treatment for decreasing chromaticity.
Flow-through UV sterilizer is commonly used in RAS. The low-pressure mer-
cury-vapor lamp emitting light at a wavelength of 254 nm is used for disinfection.
UV irradiation disinfection is very safe because UV light does not leak from the
apparatus and produce toxic residuals. UV bulb should be changed at least once a
year because output strength gradually decreases at 40% a year (Timmons et al.
2002). Prefilter is needed because organic compounds in water absorb UV irradi-
ation and particles block UV transmission, resulting in reducing the strength of
microbial inactivation. When UV irradiation is used for abalone rearing in the RAS,
attention of induced spawning should be taken. Spawning in a chain reaction leads
to terrible pollution of the rearing water.
Ozonation is utilized in advanced drinking water treatment as well as activated
carbon filtration. Disinfections by UV irradiation or ozonation are two methods
often applied in aquaculture. Oxygen is a reaction end product of ozonation. It is
very helpful for oxygen supply. Non-biodegradable organic molecules that con-
tribute to the yellowing of culture water are rapidly oxidized into smaller and more
biodegradable molecules by ozonolysis (Summerfelt and Hochheimer 1997;
Christensen et al. 2000). Ozone residuals should be toxic to abalone even at a low
concentration although lethal concentration for abalone has not yet been deter-
mined. In general, ozone residuals can be lethal to fish at ozone concentration as
low as 0.01 mg/L (Summerfelt and Hochheimer 1997).
Hypochlorite has been commonly used in disinfection of drinking water and
more than 0.1 mg Cl-/L of concentration is defined as a standard in Japan. In the
case of saltwater RAS, chlorine is economically generated by electrolytic water
treatment. Hypochlorite is generated from chlorine by dissolving with water.
Chlorine disinfection has not been widely used in RAS because of its toxicity and
formation of halogen compounds and chloramines, which are highly reactive and
have a long half-life. Nevertheless, utilization and safety of electrolyzed saltwater
have been investigated since it provides an effective and economically attractive
alternative (Jorquea et al. 2002; Taparhudee et al. 2008 and Katayose et al. 2007).
Katayose et al. (2007) revealed that more than 90% of the generated halogen
compounds were bromoform but its amount was far less than the reference values
for drinking water standards in Japan and the USA. However, application of an
electrolytic chlorine water in a Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)
closed-hatchery system had a lower survival rate and a greater nitrite-nitrogen
level than the control (Taparhudee et al. 2008). In a yellowtail amberjack (Seriola
lalandi) hatchery, nasal cavity was ruptured by the direct electrolytic treatment of
saltwater, though chlorine was removed with activated carbon filter and no detect-
able free Cl- ion was confirmed during experiments. Impact upon widening cavity
depended on the electrical current for chlorine generation (personal communica-
tion). Thus, this technique is not likely to apply abalone hatchery, and further study
is needed to determine the effect of an electrolytic water treatment on fish hatchery.
The direct electrolytic water treatment is effective for the yellowing culture water in
grow-out culture of abalone with monitoring free and combined Cl- ion. Extremely
small bubbles generated from platinum thin-coated titanium electrodes contain
highly concentrated chlorine gas. Thus, recalcitrant DOM might be rapidly oxi-
dized into smaller and more biodegradable molecules in the gas/water interfaces of
bubbles with free residual Cl- ion even at the undetectable level.
8.5 Business Strategy
Abalone culturing business by using RAS is not widespread unless it becomes

profitable, though RAS culturing has many advantageous points compared to
marine culture. There are three important strategies to make RAS culture profitable:
“reduction of capital expenditure and operating expense (engineering),” “increase
of abalone productivity (scientific),” and “sales and marketing managements (mar-
keting).” A consistent and cross-sectoral approach is needed for the successful land-
based abalone farming by RAS. Management perspective must be indispensable.
First of all, a business plan is built as considering income and payout. Once a
project starts, business and financial conditions must be perceived from profit-and-
loss sheet (P/L), balance sheet (B/S), and cash flow statement (C/F).
8.5.1 Reduction of Capital Expenditure and Operating

Expense (Engineering Aspect)
Abalone culturing style has been developed in the order of marine culture, land-
based flow-through culture, and CRAS. Marine and flow-through cultures have
been already profitable and widespread especially in Korea and China, respectively.
Abalone farming remains a matter to grow popular in Japan.
Abalone culture by CRAS is still too costly. Water treatment systems for RAS
(§8.4) might contribute to making abalone farming by CRAS profitable because it
can largely reduce costs for saltwater replacement, temperature adjustment, and
environmental loads. Costs for facility depreciation, seeding, food, labor, and
electricity may account for more than 80% of total annual expense. Building is
planned to provide optimum environments (temperature and light condition) for
abalone culturing. Thermal insulation is helpful for saving energy for temperature
control. The cheapest but secure construction is multi-insulating vinyl film green-
house. Diversion of unused building like closed schools, factories, or storage can
contain a construction cost. Arrangement of water treatment systems and rearing
tanks in the facilities is important to maximize abalone productivity. Elimination of
settleable solids in the rearing tanks by recirculating water flow saves time and
labor-intensive work for cleaning, leading to reduction of labor cost. Every effort
for growing capability and downsizing of water treatment systems and reduction of
production cost should be made to increase abalone productivity.
Utilization of waste heat from industry such as municipal garbage incineration plant
and renewable energy such as solar heat, geothermal heat, underground cold water, and
so on enormously contribute to saving energy payment for temperature control though
the capital expenditure is needed for the installation of heat-utilizing systems. For
example, verification study of air conditioning for an Internet data center by a heat
exchange system of snow cold energy, so-called White Data Center Project, has started
in Bibai city of Hokkaido, a heavy snow area in Japan. Utilization efficiency of mass
snow cold energy and waste heat from server devices in abalone culturing by using
land-based CRAS will be evaluated. Cross-industrial cooperation might remarkably
accelerate commercializing abalone farming by using RAS technologies.
8.5.2 Increase of Abalone Productivity (Scientific Aspect)
Basic data about abalone rearing such as growth curve (shell length, body weight,
and body mass index), yield ratio (mortality and growth variability), and rearing
density must be obtained in order to make a plan for maximizing abalone produc-
tion. Body mass index (BMI) largely affected commodity value in abalone markets.
BMI is empirically calculated as described below:

BMI ¼ body weight ðgÞ=ðshell lengthÞ3 cm3
Mortality directly impacts business profitability. If increase of dead abalone is

observed, a specific reason for mortality should be identified as soon as possible
(Tables 8.2 and 8.3).
There are two strategies to reduce production cost: “reduction of operating
expense” and “increase of productivity.” In the former case, feeding efficiency is
important to save production cost. Food for abalone is seaweeds or artificial diet.
Wild or cultured seaweed is available but there is picking season. Dried and stocked
seaweed can be fed during no picking season. Since dietary value is greatly
different depending on species, appropriate species of seaweed should be chosen
as diet. Uki et al. (1986) investigated dietary value of seaweeds for growth of the
abalone Haliotis discus hannai indicating that Order Laminariales, Desmarestia
spp., Chondria, and Enteromorpha have superior value. On the other hand, many
types of artificial diet are commercially available. Ingredients of artificial diet
remain a matter of improvement. Uki et al. (1985) suggested optimum level of
sodium alginate, lipid, and the mineral mixture in a casein diet based on the results
of growth rate and feed conversion efficiency (FCE). In our study, almost the same
growth rates (shell length, body weight, and BMI) of abalone fed with dried
Laminaria angustata and artificial diet have been achieved in the same rearing
density (7.5–13.4%) (Fig. 8.12). Rearing density is defined as occupancy of total
Fig. 8.12 Changes in individual shell length (a), body weight (b), and body mass index (c),
comparing among food type and rearing density (Tukey HSD; P < 0.05, n ¼ 40–110)
Fig. 8.13 Change in feed amount (a) and feed conversion efficiency (b), comparing among food
type and rearing density
shell area to the area of base. Individual shell area is roughly estimated by 0.7
(shell length)2. FCE of artificial diet (approximately 50%) is about two times higher
than that of algae during half of the experiment period though FCE irregularly
changed (Fig. 8.13). A decision of food type should be made as considering cost-
benefit performance. Weight gain of 10 t is achieved by feeding more than 20 t of
artificial diet or 40 t of seaweeds (dry weight). Monitoring and management of feed
amount and FCE lead to making production more efficient.
In the latter case, maximization of growth rate and rearing density are important
to increase productivity. There is a multiple approach to maximize growth ratio:
selective breeding, environmental control, diet, and rearing density. Some studies
have indicated that selective breeding of abalone could enhance growth rates (Hara
and Kikuchi 1992; Kawahara et al. 1997; Kobayashi et al. 2006). A systematic
approach to breeding abalone will be required on the basis of breeding and genetics.
Optimum environmental conditions such as water temperature, light, and water
quality have been well studied and reviewed in many articles (Uki 1989; FAO
1990; Fujinaga et al. 1999; Sasaki 2005; Heasman and Savva 2007; Leighton 2008).
Environmental control is much easier by CRAS than that by marine and land-based
flow-through cultures. The rearing density largely affects growth properties
(Fig. 8.12) (Ishida 1993; Miyauchi et al. 2006; Akimoto et al. 2007). The shell
length and body weight in the low rearing density (7.5–13.4%) were significantly
higher than those in the high rearing density (15.8–21.9%) (Fig. 8.12a, b). But the
BMI in the low rearing density was lower than that in the high rearing density
(Fig. 8.12c). Efficient production of well-fed abalone might be achieved by growing
Fig. 8.14 Variety of feeding attachment plate for rearing juvenile and adult abalone
in the low density at the beginning then in the high density before the shipment.
Shell length and body weight varied wider as they grew (Fig. 8.12a, b). Thus,
optimum density for rearing should be decided in order to maximize absolute
population of desired marketable size.
High-density rearing is accomplished by using feeding attachment plate. Feed-
ing plate is normally made with corrugated vinyl chloride material in Japan. Width
of peak and valley is decided by size of abalone. There are many kinds of feeding
plates which are empirically designed (Fig. 8.14). Structure of feeding plate, water
current in the rearing tank and feeding operation greatly influence how abalone
distribute in the tank and how dense abalone can be reared.
8.5.3 Sales and Marketing Managements (Marketing Aspect)
Developing sales and sales strategy are important because no income is made unless
grown abalones are sold. Furthermore, it is difficult to set a production schedule in
accordance with the developments of the future market because it takes at least
3 years for abalones to attain the desired marketable size. However, grown abalone
in land-based CRAS has a number of advantages. From an international perspec-
tive, environmentally sustainable and socially responsible aquaculture is demanded
as addressed by Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC). The abalone cultured in
RAS, which discharge minimal waste water into the environments, likely meet the
demand. Marine-independent culture of abalone by RAS can avoid the risk of
natural disaster and disease. Thus, abalone produced in RAS enables more stable
supply and market price than wild abalone.
Creating added value in product is also needed for sales promotion. Production and
hygiene control and product traceability are responsible. Introduction of third-party
certification system such as global GAP (Good Agriculture Practice), ASC
certification, and HACCP is advantageous to prove its safety and add value. Setting a
tough standard in size and body weight of marketable abalone would be valuable since
uniform quality of ingredients is desired in food-processing and restaurant industry.
Analytical evaluation of marketable abalone might support sales promotion. For
example, seafood authentication is recently a growing issue in global marketplace.
Wong and Hanner (2008) investigated market substitution in North American
seafood by DNA barcoding and indicated that 25% of the samples were potentially
mislabeled. Japanese abalone is difficult to discriminate species because morpho-
logical features are very similar. Hamaguchi et al. (2006) developed discrimination
methods by using molecular techniques. Species identification and certification of
origin in an objective manner such as molecular techniques would be an important
judgmental standard for consumers.
Free amino acid (FAA) analysis revealed that abalone fed with artificial diet was
higher in some FAA constituents than that fed with seaweed (Fig. 8.15). Nutritional
and physiological research on FAA has been intensively carried out, and some FAA
constituents affect taste. Thus, FAA rich abalone fed with artificial diet might have an
advantage in human health and taste. Rupture strength was significantly different
between cultured (11.2 1.8, n ¼ 7) and wild (15.6 2.0, n ¼ 8) abalone
(mean SD, Tukey HSD; p < 0.05). Our hearing survey revealed that cultured
abalone is preferred rather than wild one due to its softness when raw abalone is eaten
as Sashimi. These analytical evaluations will corroborate the feature of the cultured
abalone.
Fig. 8.15 Comparison of free amino acid concentration in body of abalone fed with artificial diet
and natural seaweed. All contents in the bar chart showed significant difference between wild and
cultured abalone (Tukey HSD; P < 0.05, n ¼ 3)
8.6 Conclusions
Abalone is considered as one of the most valuable fishery products elsewhere in the
world. However, landings from legal fisheries are declining year by year because of
overexploitation, illegal harvesting, and habitat degradation. Thus, abalone farming
increasingly plays an important role in maintaining abalone supply.
Methods of abalone production vary country by country are still being devel-
oped. Sea-independent land-based abalone aquaculture by using closed
recirculating systems may be most developed and more advantageous than con-
ventional abalone production: avoidance of risk for natural disaster and poaching,
easiness of harvesting, high productivity, scheduled production, intensive trace-
ability, much less environmental load, and so on. The breeding and culture tech-
nologies for abalone have already well developed. Thus, it is possible to achieve a
land-based recirculating culture of abalone as long as water quality is maintained.
Abalone requires more strict water quality than teleostean fish. In the case of the
flow-through aquaculture system, water in the rearing tanks is exchanged with
pumped saltwater to maintain water quality. A larger amount of fresh saltwater is
necessary when farming facilities become huge. Profitable abalone culturing is
impossible in locations where ambient saltwater is not available.
Thus, water treatment systems are essentially required to maintain water quality
in a land-based CRAS. Water quality standards and water treatment technologies
for abalone rearing were have been acquired through various experiments. The key
to success of abalone culture by CRAS is to avoid accumulation of solids, nitrogen
compounds, and recalcitrant dissolved organic matters. Moreover, calcium supple-
ment and adjustment of pH, alkalinity, and salinity by the addition of some
chemicals are required as considering chemical interreaction.
Reduction of capital expenditure and operating expense, increase of abalone
productivity, and sales and marketing management must be intensively promoted to
disseminate the technology of CRAS. For the successful land-based abalone farm-
ing by CRAS, a consistent and cross-sectional approach is required from the aspects
of engineering, scientific, and marketing. Research and development for successful
abalone farming by RAS would be pursued to increase diversity of fishery produc-
tion methods and contribute to recovering wild fishery resources and to strength-
ening food security.
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Part IV
Applications and Other Consideration for
Recirculating Aquaculture Systems
Chapter 9
Seed Production Systems
Yoshihisa Yamamoto
Abstract A practical closed recirculation aquaculture system (CRAS) for seed

production has been developed by Fisheries Research Agency (FRA) in Yashima
Laboratory. This system consists of a culturing tank, reservoir tank (with filter
treatment by collection nets), foam separation unit, biofiltration unit, UV disinfec-
tion unit, water level control tank, and recirculation pump. The foam separation unit
is the most important equipment in CRAS for seed production. This is because
CRAS has a high ability to remove suspended matter in the water by using
microbubbles. Optimum control conditions of CRAS for seed production have
been shown efficient biofilter materials and recirculation rate in biofilter and total
system. Seed production using CRAS is more advanced than the flow-through
system. Using CRAS, the advantages of low salinity seed production of tiger puffer,
Takifugu rubripes, and high density culturing (20,000 fishes/kL of 25 mm in TL) for
red sea bream, Pagrus major, seed production were demonstrated. Preventing
diseases such as VNN was proved in seed production for red-spotted grouper,
Epinephelus akaara, using CRAS in Kagawa Prefectural Fisheries Experimental
Station.
Keywords Closed recirculation system • Seed production • Form separation unit •

Recirculation rate • High rearing density • Disease preventing • Low salinity
9.1 Introduction
Given the characteristics of environment preservation, energy saving, disease

preventing, high productivity, and availability to provide traceability, CRAS aqua-
culture has been in the spotlight for providing security and safety for seafood
supply. Therefore industrial promotion of CRAS can be expected in Japan. Various
accomplishments have been made in this field; however, it still has not been
promoted much in Japan. The problem with seeds and seed production is thought
Y. Yamamoto (*)
Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, National Fisheries University,
2-7-1 Nagata-Honmachi, Shimonoseki, yamaguchi 759-6595, Japan
216 Y. Yamamoto
to play a large part. Prevention of diseases that originate from seedlings is a

required condition for establishing a CRAS (Maruyama and Suzuki 1998).
However, under the current conditions of seed production using a flow-through
system, the disease problem clearly exists. Diseases which originate from seedlings
such as VNN cause mass mortality and cause damage in aquaculture (Yamamoto
and Hayase 2008). Therefore, technical advancements in CRAS to prevent diseases
are extremely important (Yamamoto and Hayase 2008).
On the other hand, many CRAS has been designed and experiments have been
conducted. However, the number of experiments is still insufficient for constructing
a full CRAS for marine fish seed production with high performance and no
maintenance at a low cost (Yamamoto 2013).
Since the year 2000, FRA has started a systematic research on CRAS for seed
production at National Research Institute of Fisheries and Environmental Inland
Sea (NRIFEIS) (Yamamoto 2013). This section will introduce the current status of
developing CRAS for seed production, as well as case studies along with
experiments.
9.2 The Characteristic of Seed Production in CRAS
Fish culturing can be divided into three major stages: broodstock management (the
process of bringing adults into spawning condition and collecting the fertilized
egg), seed production (the process of hatching eggs and nursing hatchlings into
juveniles), and grow-out (the process of culturing juveniles to commercial size).
The culturing method for each stage is different. In the case study explained below
on marine fish seed production, the water management is conducted in a unique
way. First, the culturing tank is filled up with filtrated and disinfected water, and
then the fertilized eggs or hatched larvae are set in the culturing tanks. Second, the
water is not exchanged for several days and after that period; the water exchange
rate is gradually increased to maintain water quality. Another characteristic of this
case study is that the culturing period for seed production is 1–3 months, which is
significantly shorter than the conventional aquaculture method which takes about
1–3 years.
Feed for larvae in this seed production is also supplied in a unique way. In
marine fish seed production, larvae are usually fed rotifer in the first stage, then
nauplius of Artemia salina and finally artificial feed. In the early stages of larvae,
the zooplankton (rotifer) is fed every day, and the density of rotifer in seed
production tank is kept at 5–10 rotifer/mL. This is to increase the survival rate of
larvae because its feeding ability during this stage is low. Meanwhile, management
is necessary to maintain an environment where rotifer can survive in and increase
the density in the seed production tank. Therefore the addition of phytoplankton
(Chlorella sp. or Nannochloropsis sp.), which is food for rotifer is important for
9 Seed Production Systems 217
growing rotifer with high nutritional value. Thus the water in the seed production
tank for larvae at the early stage contains phytoplankton, zooplankton, larvae, and
bacteria. In other words, there are a lot of minute organic suspended matters in the
water (Fig. 9.1).
Since the larvae do not have a completely developed bone formation and
swimming ability, the water current and water recirculation need to be lowered
during seed production. There is a high risk of mortality for larvae in the early stage
when it is cultured in a flow-through system due to the rapid current that occurs
from the high rate of water exchange. Therefore, water exchange (or recirculating)
rate needs to be low during seed production (Yamamoto 2013).
Usually in grow-out, water exchange (or recirculating) rate is set to be high in
both the flow-through system and CRAS. Since the high water exchange
(or recirculating) rate leads to high water quality for fish culturing in grow-out, it
is necessary to use a high-powered pump to achieve a high water exchange rate. In
this aspect, grow-out is different from seed production (Yamamoto 2013). Also,
compared with seed production, the quantity of organic discharge including urine
and feces from fish and the leftover feed are more in the grow-out.
There are obvious differences between seed production and the grow-out such as
culturing period, condition of suspended matters, water exchange (or recirculating)
rate, and quantity of organic discharge matters. In seed production, the key points of
the culturing conditions are as follows: (1) short culturing period, (2) large amounts
Fig. 9.1 Organic matters and organism in rearing water of seed production tank
218 Y. Yamamoto
of minute organic suspended matters in the water, (3) low water exchange
(or recirculating) rate, and (4) low biomass in culturing space (Yamamoto 2013).
9.3 The Characteristic of CRAS for Seed Production
As mentioned above, there are different conditions for seed production and grow-
out. CRAS for grow-out is not completely applicable to CRAS for seed production.
CRAS for grow-out is constructed with the following units: culturing tank, settling
tank, physical treatment units (for example, drum filter unit and foam separating
units), biofiltration units, disinfection units, denitrification unit, oxygen supply unit,
wastewater treatment units, recirculation pump, CO2 removal units, temperature
control units, etc. (Fig. 9.2).
However, CRAS for seed production may not include the following units:
deposit tank and large filtering unit for removing feces, oxygen supply units
which is necessary in high density culturing, CO2 removal units which is necessary
for removing dissolved CO2 in the water from fish, and waste treatment units for
removing waste from the system. These units are not necessary in CRAS for seed
production because oxygen is supplied by aeration units and foam separation unit,
while CO2 is removed by aeration and foam separation unit. The other units can
also be substituted with simpler methods since the scale of the system is smaller for
seed production (Yamamoto 2013).
Fig. 9.2 Formation of CRAS for aquaculture in Wageningen University in Netherlands: 1, rearing
tank; 2, settling tank; 3, drum filter unit; 4, UV sterilization unit; 5, recirculation pump; 6, biofilter
unit; 7, reservoir tank; 8, recirculation pump; 9, oxygen supply unit; 10, wastewater storage tank;
11, denitrification unit; 12, dephosphorylation unit; 13, solid-liquid separation unit after floccu-
lants treatment
9.4 Construction of CRAS for Seed Production
At FRA, a simple CRAS for seed production under the basic concept of fulfilling all
the conditions for seed production with the bare necessities and minimal initial cost
was constructed. This fundamental system consisted of the culturing tank, reservoir
tank (with filter treatment by collection nets), foam separation unit, biofiltration
unit, UV disinfection unit, water level control tank, and recirculation pump
(Figs. 9.3 and 9.4) (Yamamoto 2013).
The system is easily adaptable to the varying conditions of the culturing methods
in seed production. Given the differences from the grow-out system, the total
recirculation rate in the system is set at low level. The distinctive point is that the
recirculation rate in the biofilter unit is kept high. Generally, the low total
recirculation rate will lead to the accumulation of ammonia in the system. In
order to divert this risk, the water exchange rate of the biofilter is kept high. In
addition, the newly developed foam separation unit works efficiently and assists the
biofilter unit in keeping the nitrification performance at a high level. Therefore this
A B
Fig. 9.3 Schema of formation of CRAS for seed production of Yashima station in FRA: 1, rearing
tank; 2, strainer; 3, collection nets; 4, reservoir tank; 5, recirculation pump; 6, foam separation
unit; 7, biofilter unit; 8, water level control tank; 9, recirculation pump; 10, UV sterilization unit; A,
part of physical filter; B, part of nitrification
220 Y. Yamamoto
Fig. 9.4 Setting of prototype CRAS for seed production of Yashima station in FRA: 1, reservoir
tank; 2, collection nets; 3, foam separation unit; 4, biofilter unit; 5, water level control tank; 6, UV
sterilization unit
system will provide a stable operation with high and efficient performance for seed
production.
The purification unit in this system is the foam separation unit, which is
commonly used for sewage disposal. It is especially effective at removing of minute
suspended matters. This function is suitable for removing and treating mass organic
suspended matters in the water for seed production. In the case of inland aquacul-
ture in Japan, Maruyama et al. demonstrated the effectiveness of foam separation
unit in CRAS for food fish culturing (Maruyama et al. 1999; Suzuki et al. 1999).
Also, in seed production in Japan, Dr. Yoshihisa Yamamoto of Yashima Labo-
ratory developed and designed a practical type of CRAS for seed production
(Yamamoto 2013). It was constructed at Yashima station of NRIFEIS in FRA
and Kagawa Prefectural Sea-Farming Center. It has been very successful and has
gotten actual results in producing high-quality seed (Fig. 9.5). And another practical
type of CRAS for mass seed production (rearing tank volume is 40 kL) was
designated by Dr. Yamamoto of Yashima Laboratory (Fig. 9.6) and constructed
at Kagawa Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Station which the fundamental detail
of characteristic and function in several unit and system has been described in
Chap. 2.
Fig. 9.5 Facility of CRAS for seed production of Yashima station in FRA
Fig. 9.6 Diagram of practical CRAS for seed production at Kagawa Prefectural Fisheries
Experimental Station (practical type system was developed by Yashima Laboratory in FRA): 1,
seed production tank; 2, screen net for recirculation; 3, reservoir tank; 4, water level control pipe;
5, filtration net; 6, foam separation pump; 7, foam separation unit; 8, biofilter unit; 9, biofilter
materials; 10, recirculation pump; 11, UV disinfection unit; 12, oxygen generator
222 Y. Yamamoto
9.5 The Fundamental Units, Their Function, and Suitable

Conditions in Operation
9.5.1 Reservoir Tank and Net Filtration Unit
The function of reservoir tank in this system is stocking the water which is drained
out from the culturing tank. Another function is setting the net filtration unit for
collecting the suspended matters in the water. The suspended matters are rotifer,
Artemia, bacteria flock, feces, etc. One or two reservoir tanks are needed in one
system. In the case of a system with one tank, a bypass needs to be set between the
biofilter and this reservoir tank to prevent overflow and control the water level.
The volume of reservoir tank is about 5% for total water volume in CRAS, and it
is necessary for treatment space for changing the filtration nets by maintenance.
9.5.2 Foam Separation Unit
The first function of foam separation unit is the removal of minute organic
suspended matters from the water. The foam separation unit is set to remove the
minute suspended solids which the net filtering could not remove by sticking the
suspended matter in the water to bubbles and collect it by foaming. It also has a
function to degas CO2 and dissolve O2 using mass bubbles generated in the unit.
The CRAS for grow-out is a one-pass treatment. However for seed production,
the water needs to be pumped back to the reservoir tank for foam separation
treatment at a low recirculation rate. This method is recognized as the best way to
purify the water.
The important function of foam separation units for seed production is separa-
tion of minute organic matters which are bacteria flock, Chlorella sp. for additional
rotifer food in rearing water and face of organism, from rearing water. The ability of
this unit has been described in Figs. 2.6 and 2.9 in Chap. 2. Foam separation unit is
most important in CRAS for seed production.
9.5.3 Biofilter Unit
The biofilter unit is for the nitrification process to convert ammonium nitrogen
(NH3-N) into nitrite nitrogen (NO2-N) and nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) by nitrifi-
cation bacteria. In seed production, the amount of organic matter is relatively less
than that of in grow-out. Therefore the volume of biofilter media to the total water
volume in the culturing tank for seed production is about 5%. For grow-out, this
percentage is more than 20%. A downflow-type biofilter is used in this system since
it is easy to set up (Yamamoto 2013).
Using this system, it was confirmed that the higher the water exchange rate in the
biofilter, the higher the nitrification performance (Yamamoto 2013). In this system,
some water goes through the biofilter and UV disinfection treatment and then back
to the culturing tank, while most of the water goes back into the biofilter unit. In
general, nitrification performance of the biofilter will increase when it does
100 cycles per day (Fig. 9.7) (Yamamoto 2013). In addition to the pump, adding
a simple water cycling unit with an air-lift system may lead to saving cost and
energy. Furthermore, introducing an intermittent type to the biofilter can improve
the nitrification performance and make the unit more compact.
9.5.4 UV Disinfection Unit
The function of UV disinfection unit is to decrease bacteria in the water by strong

UV rays. There is a fixed value for operating the UV unit. When the speed of the
water is slow, the time for UV disinfection becomes longer, whereby oxidants with
high toxicity is generated. In the process of seed production, the recirculation rates
Fig. 9.7 Relationship between nitrification ability and recirculation rate in biofilter unit using
pump: ▵ (open triangle), tank 1; □ (open square), tank 2; ○ (open circle), tank 3
224 Y. Yamamoto
gradually increase from 0%/day to 600%/day. Therefore, during the early stages of
seed production, it is important to be aware of the oxidants which are produced. The
solution to this problem is to distribute the UV unit and pipeline in CRAS like
Fig. 9.3.
9.5.5 Recirculation Pump
The function of the recirculation pump is transferring the water among several units
and culturing tank. Once the water is pumped up to the highest position, the water
can flow downward using gravity. The standard output for recirculation pump is
0.25–0.4 kw (for 5–10 kL culturing tank) or 0.75–1.5 kw (for 20–50 kL
culturing tank).
9.6 Cases of Research on CRAS for Seed Production

in Japan
There are few research reports on CRAS for seed production in Japan. Mutsutani
et al. (2001) reported a trial of CRAS in seed production, using the simple system
which consisted of a net filtering unit, biofilter unit, and recirculating pump. This
study showed the possibility of culturing of devil stinger, Inimicus japonicus, from
hatched larvae to the juveniles of 15 mm in total length (TL).
Since 2000, Yashima station, NRIFEIS in FRA, started a research specifically on
CRAS for seed production of marine fish and shellfish. Before this, such an
extensive research had not been done in Japan. The research team constructed a
practical system for seed production. This system consisted of the main unit and the
foam separation unit (Yamamoto 2013).
The research was conducted with a prototype of CRAS in Yashima station, FRA
for red sea bream seed production. The results were reported by Tomoda et al.
(2005) and Kamoshida et al. (2006). Both results revealed the effectiveness of the
CRAS for seed production. The first study was done with 15%/day water exchange
rate, and the water exchange rate for the second study was 1.1%/day (Kamoshida
et al. 2006). The research has so far been successful in developing CRAS for seed
production of juveniles which are 30 mm in TL when the water exchange rate is
under 0.5%/day. In these cases, stable results with high survival rate (45–70%) and
high density culturing (5000–10,000 juveniles/kL) were achieved. So, the focus
was shifted to the technical development of CRAS for seed production (Yamamoto
2013). Along with increasing the productivity, the technical development allow for
a higher culturing density (20,000 juveniles/kL) in red sea bream seed production
that are 25 mm in TL (Table 9.1, Fig. 9.8).
9 Seed Production Systems
Table 9.1 Results of the experiment on high density seed production for red sea bream (Pagrus major)
Experiment
no. Lots Initial Final
Number of Rearing den- Days after Total SD Number of Survival Rearing den-
hatched larva sity (ind./kL) hatching (days) length juveniles (ind.) rate (%) sity (ind./kL)
(ind.) (mm)
1 Control 64,400 16,100 45 25.4 3.7 28,640 44.5 7160
Experiment 214,500 53,625 45 24.1 4.0 80,830 37.7 20,208
2 Control 65,000 16,250 42 24.8 3.2 31,250 48.1 7813
Experiment 205,500 51,375 42 23.5 4.6 79,210 38.5 19,803
*Control: Usual density of egg stocking in seed production tank
*Experiment: High density of egg stocking in seed production tank
225
226 Y. Yamamoto
Fig. 9.8 Photo in the case

study of seed production of
higher rearing density over
20,000 juveniles/kL
(rearing water) in red sea
bream Pagrus major
For system development, an original foam separation unit (patent number;

5130428 in Japan) and a new intermittent biofilter unit (patent number; 4670087
in Japan) which require less maintenance and is high in performance was devel-
oped. To improve the performance of the biofilter unit, nitrification ability
according to the recirculation rate of the biofilter unit, water temperature, dissolved
oxygen, and biofilter media were examined (Yamamoto 2013). Also, the effective-
ness of foam separation unit in CRAS for seed production was examined. In this
section, detailed subjects about biofilter media and foam separation unit are
explained (Fig. 9.9).
9.6.1 Optimum Biofilter Media and Its Relationship

with Foam Separation Unit
The concept of the selection for the optimum biofilter media for seed production is
different from that of grow-out. The major differences between grow-out and seed
production are the biomass and the amount of organic matters. In CRAS, the
biofilter media get covered by biofilm and organic matter. When it is too covered,
the nitrification ability decreases. However, if the foam separation unit can remove
organic matter in the water, it will prevent the biofilter media from losing its
nitrification ability. Therefore combining a foam separation unit in the CRAS and
the selection of biofilter media is most important since they remove ammonia.
The effectiveness of the foam separation unit was examined via comparative
experiment. As a result, in the system without a foam separation unit, organic
matter accumulated in the biofilter and blockage occurred in the biofilter unit.
Consequently the biofilter overflowed 30 days after hatching. In the biofilter unit,
Fig. 9.9 Newly developed

foam separation unit of
Yashima station in FRA
(Yamamoto and Doi 2012,
patent number; 5130428)
organic matters accumulated 2–3 times more when the system did not have a foam
separation unit. In addition, the survival rate of the system without foam separation
unit was lower than the system with foam separation unit. These results showed that
the foam separation unit is important in CRAS, especially for seed production
(Table 9.2, Fig. 9.10).
The search for the optimum biofilter media for seed production was conducted.
After being matured for 3 months, the biofilter media had significantly higher
nitrification ability, and coral showed the best results. The nitrification ability of
the different types of media exhibited in the following order: coral > ceramic ¼ car-
bon > fiber (Fig. 9.11) (Yamamoto 2013).
Considering all of the results, the most important unit in CRAS for seed
production is the foam separation unit. It maintains a clean condition in the biofilter
by removing the organic matters. In addition, the most effective biofilter media was
the porous media such as coral.
228
Table 9.2 Result of comparative experiment for red sea bream seed production with and without foam separation unit
Estimation of survival
Initial of experiment 6 DAHa 15 DAHa Final
Number Number Number Occurrence
of of of Days Number of
hatched Rearing survival survival after Total of Rearing overflowing
Experiment larva density fish Survival fish Survival hatching length juveniles density Survival trouble in
no. Lots (ind.) (ind./kL) (ind.) rate (%) (ind.) rate (%) (days) (mm) SD (ind.) (ind./kL) rate (%) biofilter unit
1 Control 80,000 20,000 67,700 84.6 38,550 48.2 43 23.4 2.8 23,946 5987 29.9 ○
(without
use)
Experiment 80,000 20,000 64,700 80.9 40,730 50.9 43 24.5 3.0 33,411 8352 41.8 –
(use)
2 Control 75,200 18,800 65,170 86.7 48,970 65.1 46 22.0 4.1 28,800 7200 38.3 ○
(without
use)
Experiment 75,200 18,800 70,850 94.2 54,260 72.2 46 22.6 3.1 39,030 9758 51.9 –
(use)
a
DAH: days after hatching
Y. Yamamoto
Fig. 9.10 Comparison of

accumulated TN and TP in 18
biofilter after seed
production of red sea bream 16
by systems with a foam
separate unit or without 14
it. □, system with foam 12
separation unit; ■, system
without foam separation 10
unit
8
6
4
2
0
Totai nitrogen Total phosphorus
Fig. 9.11 Comparison of nitrification ability in several biofilter materials by nitrification test
9.6.2 Culturing Water; Artificial Seawater, Low Salinity
For the water, the possibility of using artificial seawater for red sea bream (Yama-
moto 2013) and the effect of using low salinity for culturing tiger puffer (Imai et al.
2010) and red-spotted grouper were examined. Artificial seawater for CRAS is
230 Y. Yamamoto
effective at maintaining stable salinity and preventing disease. Artificial seawater is

expected to lead to stable production, especially for seed production. The culturing
results between filtrated seawater and commercially sold artificial seawater were
compared, and the comparison showed that there were no differences in growth or
survival in seed production for juveniles of 25 mm in TL (Table 9.3).
In addition, artificial seawater is highly effective for preventing disease, so it can
be used in seed production. When the effect of salinity on tiger puffer, Takifugu
rubripes, was studied with 50% diluted seawater, it improved the growth and
survival rate significantly (Table 9.4) (Imai et al. 2010). The effect of low salinity
in CRAS for large-scale seed production has been conducted and has been proven to
be effective (Katayama et al. 2013).
9.6.3 Suitable Recirculation Rate in CRAS for Seed

Production
The optimum recirculation rate for red sea bream seed production in CRAS was
examined (Yamamoto 2013; Yamamoto et al. 2013). The larvae are sensitive to
water current and water quality. A strong current during the early stages will have
negative effects on the larvae, especially those with low swimming ability. There-
fore in the flow-through culturing system for seed production, the water exchange
method is important. During the first 5–10 days after hatching, the water is not
exchanged, but after that period the water exchange rate is gradually increased. On
the other hand, in CRAS for seed production, low recirculation leads to low quality
water due to insufficient water purification. Therefore the optimum recirculation
rate in CRAS for red sea bream seed production was examined. The results of the
experiments showed that the optimum condition of recirculation rate was between
3 and 6 cycles/day. This recirculation rate allows for a stable clean water condition
and high survival rate (Fig. 9.12) (Yamamoto et al. 2013).
Thus, Yashima station in FRA will promote the systematic research on CRAS
specializing in seed production and work to spread the technology. However, it is
necessary to unify separate units into one compact system, as suggested by Yoshino
(2003). Making it into one compact system will save cost and lead to a more
efficient system. It is also important to arrange the system according to each site.
In the near future, consulting business will be necessary for promoting CRAS in
Japan.
9 Seed Production Systems
Table 9.3 Comparison between natural seawater treated by sand filter and artificial seawater in seed production for red sea bream (Pagrus major)
Experiment
no. Lots Initial Final
Days after Total
Number of hatched Rearing density hatching length Number of juveniles Rearing density Survival
larva (ind.) (ind./kL) (days) (mm) SD (ind.) (ind./kL) rate (%)
1 Control 58,600 14,700 40 29.3 3.5 29,300 7325 50.0
Experiment 60,900 15,200 40 29.7 3.6 30,100 7525 49.4
2 Control 61,000 15,300 40 29.9 3.4 28,100 7025 46.1
Experiment 56,200 14,100 40 29.1 3.9 29,900 7475 53.2
*Control: Rearing water is used natural seawater treated by sand filter
*Experiment: Rearing water is used artificial seawater
231
232 Y. Yamamoto
Table 9.4 Body weight and survival rate of tiger puffer (Takifugu rubripes) cultured in three
different salinity for 40 days in CRAS for seed production at Yashima station in FRA
Designed salinity (psu) Total body weight (g) Mean body weight* (g) Survival rate (%)
16 7040 0.471 0.016ab 24.9
24 6370 0.524 0.034a 20.3
32 3930 0.444 0.057b 14.8
*
Values are mean standard deviation, and those having different superscript letters are signif-
icant difference at P < 0.05 (Tukey-Kramer multiple comparison test)

between survival rate of
seed production in red sea
bream and recirculation rate
in CRAS for seed
production in Yashima
station, in this study (●), in
data of Tomoda et al. 2005
(□), in data of Kamoshida
et al. 2006 (■)
9.7 Cases on Demonstration of CRAS for Seed Production
This section will introduce some cases of demonstration tests using the practical
type of CRAS at Kagawa Prefectural Fisheries Experiment Station and Hiroshima
Prefectural Technology Research Institute of Fisheries Marine Technology Center.
Yashima station in FRA has been collaborating with both institutions since 2009.
The purpose of the collaboration at Kagawa Prefectural Fisheries Experiment
Station was to prevent viral nervous necrosis (VNN) disease during seed production
for red-spotted grouper, Epinephelus akaara. The purpose of the test at Hiroshima
Prefectural Technology Research Institute of Fisheries Marine Technology Center
was to demonstrate high productivity in low salinity.
The concept was to make the system practical, effective, and compact. The
principle was to maximally utilize existing materials at each work site. The system
also needed to be flexible to change so improvements could be made accordingly.
9.7.1 The Case of Disease Prevention; Kagawa Prefectural

Fisheries Experiment Station
The VNN virus in marine fish is a threat in grow-out and seed production. In
particular, VNN is the most deadly virus for grouper at the larval stage. Before
2009, there were several cases of the mass mortality caused by VNN at Kagawa
Prefectural Fisheries Experiment Station during seed production of red-spotted
grouper. Kagawa Prefectural Fisheries Experiment Station took various preventive
measures against VNN, and the application of CRAS was their final measure.
The most possible source of infection was considered to be the seawater intake
by water pump. Therefore incorporating a dissociation unit in the CRAS was the
perfect disinfection treatment. For a 40 kL culturing tank, the CRAS for seed
production consisted of a 5 kL reservoir tank, a II type foam separation unit (patent
number; 5130428 in Japan), a 1.5 kw recirculation pump, a 5 kL biofilter tank (the
downflow submerged type), a 0.75 kw recirculation pump, and a UV disinfection
unit. The units and tanks were joined with pipes or hoses (Fig. 9.13).
The effect of preventing VNN using this system in Kagawa Prefectural Fisheries
Experiment Station has been conducted every year since 2009. In the 18 seed
production trials in CRAS, diseases caused by VNN were not observed until the
juveniles of 50–60 mm in TL after hatching. The survival rate in CRAS seed
production increased four to five times more than that of the flow-through system.
Therefore these results demonstrated the effect of CRAS in preventing diseases.
Specifically, CRAS for seed production is effective at preventing VNN which lead
to stable of seed production (Fig. 9.14).
9.7.2 The Case of High Productivity in Low Salinity;

Hiroshima Prefectural Technology Research Institute
of Fisheries Marine Technology Center
Hiroshima prefecture is located in Seto Inland Sea, where inshore fisheries are
prosperous. The project to increase stock of coastal fish, e.g., marbled rock fish
Sebastiscus marmoratus, red-spotted grouper Epinephelus akaara, devil stinger
Inimicus japonicus, etc., is conducted on this site. It is necessary to accomplish
the project to produce the mass seeds for releasing. Several coastal fish are adapted
to the low salinity condition at specific periods in their life cycle. The growth and
survival rate in 25–75% diluted seawater are better than those in 100% seawater.
There are some studies which report this kind of phenomenon for rock fish, tiger
puffer, etc. Therefore Hiroshima Prefectural Technology Research Institute of
Fisheries Marine Technology Center examined the effect of low salinity during
culturing. In CRAS it is necessary to keep a certain salinity level. In Hiroshima
Prefecture, it was demonstrated that in CRAS it is easy to keep the optimum
condition that leads to high productivity with higher growth and survival rate.
234 Y. Yamamoto
Fig. 9.13 Setting of practical type CRAS for seed production at Kagawa Prefectural Fisheries
Experimental Station (practical type system was developed by Yashima station in FRA): 1, rearing
tank; 2, reservoir tank; 3, foam separation unit; 4, biofilter unit; 5, UV sterilization unit
40
VNN VNN VNN
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013
Fig. 9.14 Case study of avoidance against external disease risk of VNN in seed production of
red-spotted grouper Epinephelus akaara using CRAS for seed production at Kagawa Prefectural
Fisheries Experimental Station, its system design by Yashima station in FRA
Fig. 9.15 Setting of practical type CRAS for seed production at Hiroshima Prefecture, Fisheries
and Marine Technology Center (practical type system was developed by Yashima station in FRA):
1, reservoir tank; 2, recirculation pump; 3, foam separation unit; 4, biofilter unit; 5, UV steriliza-
tion unit; 6, rearing tank
For a 5 kL culturing tank, CRAS for seed production consisted of a 0.5 kL

reservoir tank, a I type foam separation unit (patent number; 5130428 in Japan), a
0.4 kw recirculation pump, a 1 kL biofilter tank (the downflow submerged type), a
0.4 kw recirculation pump, and a UV disinfection unit (Fig. 9.15). The units and
tanks were connected with pipes and hoses. Using this system, the effect of 50%
diluted seawater was compared with the flow-through system. The survival rate of
larvae in seed production using CRAS was 1.6 times as higher than that of the flow-
through system. This result showed the effectiveness of CRAS for seed production.
In seed production, it is possible to achieve high productivity with CRAS.
9.8 Conclusion
As mentioned in the beginning, it is essential to produce healthy seedlings in order

to properly conduct land-based aquaculture and spread the technology. It is also
important to produce seedling without disease and to create the supply system in
Japan because many inland aquaculture businesses closed down due to mass
mortality caused by disease-infected seedling. In CRAS, there is a higher risk of
236 Y. Yamamoto
disease spread once a pathogen enters the system since it is a closed system.
Therefore it is necessary to prevent the disease with an ironclad treatment. Except
for a few companies conducting seed production in semi-closed recirculation
systems in Japan, there are not many private companies that use CRAS for seed
production. Therefore, it is necessary to encourage private seed production com-
panies to use CRAS in order to promote inland aquaculture. In Japan there are over
100 fish farming centers so it is necessary to construct a cooperation system
between the public institutions and the private sector for technological support.
References
Imai T, Arai D, Morita T, Kogane T, Yamamoto Y, chida N, Endo M, Takeuchi T (2010) Effect of
low salinity on growth and survival of tiger puffer Takifugu rubripes, and the purification of
rearing water in closed recirculating seed production. Aquac Sci 58(3):373–380
Kamoshida M, Yamazaki H, Yamamoto Y (2006) Seed production of red seabream, Pagrus major,
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larviculture of red sea bream, Pagrus major. Fish Sci 71:1179–1181
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Chapter 10
Aquarium Recirculation System
Naoyuki Kato and Mutsumi Kawamata
Abstract This chapter introduces a closed recirculating system that includes the
latest water treatment system recently introduced to aquaria in Japan. Conventional
aquaria have been constructed in coastal areas where large quantities of natural
saltwater can be supplied as needed. Due to the need for increasing profitability,
there has been growing demand for inland aquaria that can attract large numbers of
visitors, but this will require the resolution of operational issues not faced by
aquaria in coastal areas. A closed-circulation system has been developed to resolve
these issues. This chapter describes the three essential components constituting a
closed recirculating system: an artificial saltwater manufacturing system, a high-
performance filtration system, and a saltwater reuse system. The performance of the
denitrification system included in the high-performance filtration system will also
be covered.
Keywords Aquarium • Artificial saltwater • Denitrification (system) • Filtration •

Nitrification • Recirculation • Water treatment
10.1 Closed-Circulation Systems in Aquaria
10.1.1 Background
Aquaria require large quantities of saltwater, supplied continuously, for

maintaining and breeding the exhibited creatures and for cleaning the filtration
equipment. For this reason, until now aquaria have typically been built in locations
where natural saltwater could be obtained. Because these locations are often far
from cities with large populations, the inability of such facilities to attract large
numbers of visitors has been a problem, and aquarium operators have desired to
locate aquaria in inland regions. But unlike coastal aquaria, such inland aquaria
would not have access to saltwater from a nearby ocean, so saltwater would have to
be transported to them by truck. The need to transport saltwater dramatically
N. Kato (*) • M. Kawamata

Taisei Corporation, 1-25-1 Nishishinjuku, Shinjuku, Tokyo 163-0606, Japan
238 N. Kato and M. Kawamata
Reduced Reduced Reduced Stable

operating initial costs environment supply of
costs al load seawater
· Reduced number of transport trucks · Reduced drainage volume

· Reduced impurities · Reduced saltwater replenishment volume
· Reduced storage tank capacity · Reduced equipment space and storage tank capacity
Achievement
of inland aquaria
Saltwater reuse system Operational issues

· Benefits of each system
· Reduced drain water quantity
Fig. 10.1 Features of inland aquarium water treatment system
increases the operating costs of inland aquaria and also creates other operational
problems such as the instability of saltwater supply and the need to reduce the CO2
emissions generated by truck transport. For these reasons, a closed-circulation
system that could resolve these problems was thought necessary to achieve the
vision of inland aquaria.
The closed recirculating type water treatment system described in this chapter is
composed of three components: an artificial saltwater manufacturing system, a
high-performance filtration system, and a saltwater reuse system. Figure 10.1
shows the issues that could be resolved with successful use of the water treatment
system and the objectives of the introduction of each of the component systems.
10.1.2 Overall Configuration of the Latest Water Treatment

System
The water treatment system for an inland aquarium must provide the healthful
saltwater environment needed for the maintenance and breeding of marine animals,
in addition to the lack of turbidity needed for the exhibition tanks. Figure 10.2
shows a simplified view of the water treatment process in the three-component
systems that have been designed to meet these requirements.
Instead of using natural saltwater transported by truck, artificial saltwater
manufactured by the artificial saltwater manufacturing system is sent to each
exhibition tank. The water in the exhibition tanks is constantly purified by the
high-performance filtration system. The backwash wastewater from the filters and
the wastewater from each of the breeding or exhibition tanks is purified and
recycled by the saltwater reuse system and then used for backwashing the filters.
A portion of the saltwater that has been reused repeatedly is mixed with and diluted
10 Aquarium Recirculation System 239
Exhibition tank
Breeding
wastewater
High-performance
filtration system
Artificial Purified breeding
saltwater water
Wastewater
Backwashing
water
Artificial saltwater Saltwater reuse
Tap water
manufacturing system system
Drain water
Fig. 10.2 Overall configuration of water treatment system (simplified)
by ordinary drain water and finally discharged into the sewer system. See 4.2.2
“Three components of the latest water treatment system” for a detailed description
of each component of the system.
10.2 Three Components of the Latest Water Treatment

System
10.2.1 Development of an Artificial Saltwater Manufacturing

System
Background Inland aquaria in many countries generally use artificial saltwater.

However, because there are no artificial saltwater concentrate products for aquar-
ium use that are manufactured by domestic manufacturers in Japan, it has been
difficult to operate Japanese aquaria using artificial saltwater. Nevertheless, given
the unstable supply of materials from overseas manufacturers, a unique artificial
saltwater concentrate that can be used to manufacture artificial saltwater has been
developed for aquarium use. The Kyoto Aquarium, which opened in March 2012,
became the first aquarium in Japan to use artificial saltwater made using the locally
produced artificial saltwater concentrate and is therefore the first aquarium in Japan
that does not require replenishment of its water supplies with natural saltwater.
Objectives The objectives of this system are not only to reduce the cost of
transporting natural saltwater but also to reduce the CO2 emissions that result
from transporting the saltwater by truck. In addition, dissolving a concentrated
solution to manufacture the artificial saltwater makes it possible to reduce the
Reduction of
Environmental
load
Stability of
Artificial saltwater saltwater
manufacturing
system
supply
Effective
space
utilization
Fig. 10.3 Overview of artificial saltwater manufacturing system
capacity of the saltwater storage tanks and thereby reduces the space needed for
installation of the dissolution tanks.
System Functions and Technologies As shown in Fig. 10.3, the artificial saltwater
system combines the following four fundamental technologies:
I. Preparation manufacturing technology: a technology for manufacturing artifi-
cial saltwater concentrate
II. Agitation and regulation technologies: technologies for dissolving the prepa-
ration and regulating it to a suitable concentration
III. Storage technology: a technology for regulating and storing saltwater
IV. Automatic control technology: a technology for automatic control of the
system
Production of Artificial Saltwater Figure 10.4 shows the process used to manufac-
ture artificial saltwater.
① Insertion port
② Agitator
③ Water level gauge
④ Freshwater supply motor valve
⑤ Salinometer
⑥ Aeration pipe
⑦ Blower unit
⑧ Flow meter
⑨ Motor valve
⑩ Control panel
Step I Addition of the artificial saltwater concentrate
First, the saltwater concentrate preparation is added through the insertion port ①
in (Fig. 10.4) to create highly concentrated artificial saltwater. Different prepara-
tions are provided for various species of fish and marine animals. The preparations
Fig. 10.4 Overview of artificial saltwater manufacturing system
are stored in flexible container bags which are transported to the site by truck and
are added to the dissolution tanks using vehicle-mounted cargo-loading cranes.
During this process, the vehicle-mounted cargo-loading crane moves the flexible
container bag directly above the insertion port ①. The bottom of the bag is then
opened, and the preparation is emptied from the bag directly into the tank. This
process eliminates the need to keep the saltwater preparation in stock.
Step II Dissolution of the saltwater preparation
Next, the operator uses the control panel ⑩ to check the remaining capacity in
the dissolution tank as detected by the water level gauge ③. If there are no
problems with the remaining capacity, the operator manipulates the operation of
the agitator ②, freshwater supply motor valve ④, and blower unit ⑦. The interior
of each tank has an aeration pipe (equipped with multiple blow ports) that delivers
compressed air from the blower unit. The agitator in the tank and the compressed air
blown from the aeration pipe agitate the water and the saltwater preparation in the
tank to accelerate the dissolution of the saltwater preparation. In addition, the
agitator can agitate the contents of the tank more vigorously than the blower unit
and thereby effectively prevent the heavier saltwater preparation from settling to
the bottom of the tank. Furthermore, the salinity of the dissolved saltwater is
checked automatically during agitation by the salinometer ⑤. Subsequently,
when the salinity concentration reaches the set level, the freshwater supply motor
valve ④ is closed by the control panel ⑩ to stop the supply of freshwater and the
operation of the agitator.
Step III Regulation of the saltwater to standard concentration and replenishment
When the remaining capacity in the regulation tank is sufficient, the highly
concentrated saltwater that has been generated is automatically transferred to the
regulation tank. After the saltwater salinity in the regulation tank has been checked
by the salinometer ⑤, the freshwater supply motor valve ④ is activated to supply

freshwater for further diluting the saltwater to the concentration for actual use.
Subsequently, by the controlled action of the motor valve ⑨, the artificial saltwater
(which has been regulated to the standard concentration in the regulation tank) is
sent to the replenishment water tank in accordance with its remaining capacity,
where the saltwater remains on standby to be sent to the exhibition tanks.
However, if there is sufficient saltwater in the replenishment water tank, the
artificial saltwater in the regulation tank (which has been regulated to the standard
concentration) is sent back to the regulation tank. But, if there is space in the
replenishment water tank, the artificial water in the regulation tank can be sent to
the replenishment water tank. Similar to the dissolution tank and the regulation
tank, the replenishment water tank is equipped with an aeration pipe for agitating
the saltwater to maintain water quality while the water is being stored.
10.2.2 Development of a High-Performance Water-

Conserving Filtration System
Background In aquaria, approximately 5–10% of the tank volume of saltwater is

generally replenished each day to maintain water quality. In the filtration systems
that have been used to date, biofiltration was performed to nitrify the ammonia and
other organic matter into low-toxicity nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) and prevent the
water quality from becoming degraded by the excess feed, excreta, and other
organic matter generated by the housed organisms. However, when this nitrate
nitrogen accumulates in the water, it can have an adverse effect on the aquarium
organisms (Nishi and Sawatari 2007). For this reason, it is necessary to replenish
the aquarium water with large quantities of fresh saltwater to dilute the organic
matter that would accumulate in the tank water. From the standpoint of operating
costs, it is critical to reduce the amount of replenishment water needed. Accord-
ingly, three technologies have been employed to construct a high-performance
filtration system capable of reducing the quantity of both replenishment water
and drain water.
Objectives One of the objectives was to reduce the daily quantity of replenishment
saltwater required from 5–10% to approximately 1% of the tank volume and also to
reduce the quantity of drain water. These water volume reductions were also
expected to reduce the burden on the aquarium infrastructure and also reduce the
amount of energy needed for water temperature regulation. Another objective was
to reduce the amount of space occupied by the equipment used in the system and
thereby make the facility more compact.
10.2.2.1 System Functions
1. Foam separation technology for removing protein and other organic matter
Tiny air bubbles to which the pollutants adhere are released into the water, which
allows them to be removed from the water. The type of foam separator used in this
system has been used at aquaria in Europe and the USA since the latter half of the
1960s and is considered effective for efficiently discharging feces, excess feed
fragments, exfoliated mucous membranes, and other suspended solids from the tank
water. This type of foam separator has been used in Japan since the 1990s and has
helped to reduce turbidity and improve transparency of water in aquarium tanks
(Suzuki and Nishi 2005).
2. Biofiltration technology including nitrification treatment technology to convert
high-toxicity ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) and non-toxicity ammonia nitrogen
(NH4+-N) into low-toxicity nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N)
The hazardous soluble substances that arise from suspended solids, excreta, and
other residues in the tank water are removed and the treated water is recirculated.
The sand filtration equipment used in this process removes the suspended solids and
the hazardous nitrogen components from the tank water (Honma 1990). Besides its
role in physical filtration, the sand bed plays a crucial role in nitrification treatment
via the action of nitrifying bacteria. Highly toxic NH3-N is converted at the first step
into nitrite nitrogen (NO2-N) and then converted at the second step into NO3-N
with lower toxicity. Percentage of NH3-N into the ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N,
NH4+-N) is dependent on pH and temperature in the water.
3. Denitrification technology to remove nitrogen gas from nitrate nitrogen
(NO3-N)
Although the toxicity of the excretory NH3-N has been decreased through
physical filtration and nitrification treatment, the high concentrations of NO3-N
that accumulate in the tank water may become toxic if it undergoes reduction. To
prevent the NO3-N from becoming hazardous again, nitrogen gas is removed by
reduction of the NO3-N, rather than being diluted with fresh saltwater.
4. Water treatment by means of high-performance filtration
In the high-performance filtration system, the water in the exhibition tanks is
pretreated to continuously remove organic matter by using a foam separator
(protein skimmer). Then biofiltration is conducted using the same biofiltration
technology as in the conventional system, but denitrification is performed simulta-
neously (Fig. 10.5).
5. Denitrification system performance
Denitrification treatment can be generally divided into two types: physicochem-
ical treatment (e.g., ion exchange, chlorine treatment, electrodialysis, reverse
osmosis, or coagulating sedimentation) and biological treatment (e.g., the activated
Previous system New system
Saltwater replenishment Saltwater replenishment

(3-10%/day) (0.1%/day)
Foam separation unit
Filter Filter
Exhibition tank Exhibition tank
Denitrification Nitrogen
System
(reactor)
Fig. 10.5 Process of high-performance filtration water treatment
sludge method, the biofilm method, or the anammox method). However, there are
few examples of using the former methods to treat large quantities of water due to
their high cost. In contrast, biological treatment has been successfully used at many
sewage-treatment plants, and its cost is generally low. The operation of denitrifi-
cation systems based on biological denitrification will be discussed in detail below.
First, various types of tests were conducted to confirm the basic performance of
biological denitrification using marine microorganisms (denitrifying bacteria)
(Kurabe et al. 2010; Hamaguchi et al. 2010b, c; Ono et al. 2010a, b). These
microorganisms were then introduced into an actual aquarium tank, in which
saltwater fish had been raised, to revalidate their performance.
10.2.2.2 Optimization of Denitrification Reaction Conditions
1. Selection of electron donor

To develop a denitrification system using marine microorganisms to remove the
accumulated NO3-N from tank water, a study was conducted to select the electron
donor needed for the denitrification reaction that would be carried out by
denitrifying bacteria in an anaerobic environment (Hamaguchi et al. 2010a).
The denitrification reactor was a fixed upflow denitrification tank with a capacity
of 2 L, connected in series to three cylindrical columns each measuring 1 m in
height. The columns were filled with sponge carriers as fixed-bed carriers
(downflow hanging sponge; DHS G3: ϕ 33 mm 33 mm). Two types of electron
donors, either sodium acetate (Osaka et al. 2008) (organic additive) or elementary
sulfur (sulfur additive), were used. For the initial test conditions, artificial saltwater
Table 10.1 Test conditions

Organic reactor Sulfur reactor
Elapsed time (days) HRT (h) C/N ratio HRT (h) Elementary sulfur (g-S/g)
RUN 1 0–44 10 2 10 120
RUN 2 45–62 6
RUN 3 63–92 3
RUN 4 93–115 10
with a salinity of 3.0% and a NO3-N concentration of 40 mg-N/L from sodium

nitrate was used as simulated tank water. Dissolved oxygen content of greater than
6 mg/L was generated in the simulated tank water through aeration, and the water
temperature was controlled at 25 C. The organic additive denitrification tank was
operated with a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 6–10 h and a carbon/nitrogen
(C/N) ratio of 2–3 (RUN 1–RUN 4). For the sulfur additive denitrification tank,
each column was filled with granulated elementary sulfur (S), equivalent to 120 g-
S, with an HRT of 10 h. Its denitrification performance was then compared with that
of the organic additive denitrification tank. Table 10.1 summarizes the test condi-
tions. When continuous water flow tests were conducted using the organic additive
and sulfur additive denitrification tanks, the NO3-N removal efficiency was 96%
and 35%, respectively. Although in some cases the NO3-N removal efficiency
dropped due to insufficient supply of electron donors, in general, through appro-
priate regulation of the HRT and C/N ratio, a nitrate nitrogen removal efficiency of
96% could be achieved with this system, resulting in a NO3-N concentration of
1.6 mg-N/L in the treated water. This test confirmed that the organic additive
system performed better than the sulfur additive system.
2. Selection of fill carrier
To select the ideal fill carrier, the columns were filled with one of three types of
fill carrier to determine the differences in treatment performance for different
carriers (Hamaguchi et al. 2010a). The HRT was shortened in stages: (1) to 10 h
and 6 h for the fixed-bed denitrification tank filled with sponge carriers; (2) to 12 h,
8 h, 6 h, 4 h, 2 h, and 1.5 h for the upflow sludge blanket (USB) denitrification tank
filled with granules; and (3) to 8 h and 4 h for the coral sand denitrification tank
filled with coral sand sampled from the sand filtration tank (nitrification tank) in an
aquarium.
The oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) for each denitrification tank was in the
range of 200 to 400 mV. In each case, the NO3-N removal efficiencies were
high and stabilized at 95–97% during the test period. Figure 10.6 shows an example
of the denitrification performance of the USB denitrification tank filled with
granules under the test conditions shown in Table 10.2.
ORP (mV) -100
-200
-300
-400
3
Influent water (breeding water)
Treatment water
NO2– -N (mg/L)
10
8
NO3– -N(mg/L)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
•Elapsed time (days)

Fig. 10.6 Changes in ORP, NO2-N, and NO3-N over time
10.2.2.3 Verification
1. Verification of effect on saltwater fish

The denitrification reactor that had been developed above was introduced to a tank
in which saltwater fish had actually been raised to check whether it could attain the
Table 10.2 Test conditions

RUN 1 2 3 4 5 6
Period (days) 1–33 34–69 70–80 81–84 85–94 95–116
HRT (h) DHS nitrification tank 0.09
USB denitrification tank 5.0 2.5 1.2
(treatment water rate %) [24] [48] [100]
Aeration(simulated tank without fish) Yes No Yes
C/N ratio 3.0 5.0
same denitrification treatment performance as in the artificial stimulating water and

whether it would affect the growth of saltwater fish. The test system was composed
of a breeding tank (120 60 60 cm) containing 300 L of artificial saltwater, the
USB denitrification tank (10 L) used in the previous section, a water temperature
regulating cooler, disinfection device, and a filtration tank (nitrification tank). A
total of approximately 900 g of marine specimens including saltwater fish—blue
damselfish Chrysiptera cyanea, striped beakfish Oplegnathus fasciatus, and Hong
Kong grouper Epinephelus akaara—and invertebrates (sea anemone) were held in
the tank to achieve an accommodation density of 3 kg/m3. The feed quantity was
approximately 1% of total fish body weight.
To maintain a preferred water environment for marine organisms in this test, a
high target was set to attain a low NO3-N concentration of less than 10 mg-N/L.
The HRT was 6.7 h and the C/N ratio was set at 3. The other breeding conditions in
a tank were set at a water temperature of 25 C and with dissolved oxygen of more
than 6 mg/L using aeration.
The ORP for the denitrification-treated water was approximately 350 mV, and
denitrification progressed smoothly under these anaerobic environmental condi-
tions. Table 10.3 shows the mean removal efficiency of nitrogen components. Since
ammonia nitrogen in the denitrification-treated water increased slightly, the
denitrification-treated water was not sent directly back to the water tank but sent
back to the filtration tank (nitrification tank). In this denitrification tank, a removal
efficiency of approximately 97% was achieved, and the target value of NO3-N less
than 10 mg-N/L in the tank water was achieved.
2. Microflora analysis of denitrifying bacteria
On the 60th day after the start of the water flow test, DNA was extracted from
sludge sampled from the bottom of the USB denitrification tank, including gran-
ules. A microflora analysis focusing on bacteria and identification of dominant
species was then conducted.
An UltraClean Soil DNA Isolation Kit (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA) was used
to extract DNA from the sludge sample, and EUB 338F-mix and UNIV 1500R
primers specific to bacteria were used to amplify the 16S rRNA gene. A TOPO®TA
Cloning kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) was used for cloning PCR products.
Sequencing of each clone was performed by the Dragon Genomics Center of
Takara Bio. Inc. Among the bacterial 16S sequences obtained, those with greater
Table 10.3 Mean efficiency of removal of nitrogen components

Breeding water Denitrification treatment water
NH4+-N (mg-N/L) 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3
NO2-N (mg-N/L) 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.17
NO3-N (mg-N/L) 4.2 2.1 0.3 0.7
NO3-N removal efficiency (%) 96.8 4.1
Table 10.4 Results of genetic analysis of denitrifying bacteria

Genealogical classification Lower-level classification Ratio (%)
Proteobacteria α-proteobacteria 1%
Azospirillum
β-proteobacteria 19%
Tauera
γ-proteobacteria 3%
Pseudomonas
γ-proteobacteria 1%
Marinobacter
δ-proteobacteria 1%
Desulfobacter
δ-proteobacteria 3%
Denitromonas
Others 35%
Others – 35%
than 97% nucleotide identity obtained in a BLAST analysis against the Greengenes
nucleotide database (http://greengenes.lbl.gov) were judged to be genetically iden-
tical. These sequences were then used to identify and categorize species sampled
from the sludge.
Results of this analysis are shown in Table 10.4. Many of the sampled bacteria
from the phylum Proteobacteria were found in the denitrification tank. Among the
denitrifying bacteria of the phylum Proteobacteria, most belong either to Thauera
(Macy et al. 1993; Song et al. 2000; Garrity 2005b), a β-proteobacteria-class genus
that degrades acetic acid, or to Marinobacter (Gauthier et al. 1992; Yoon et al.
2004; Garrity 2005a; Takai et al. 2005), a marine γ-proteobacteria-class
denitrifying genus. Species from Thauera were found to predominate among the
bacterial populations in this denitrification tank.
10.2.2.4 Demonstration Using USB Denitrification Tank with Granules
1. Short-term demonstration test in a 1-m3 tank

For this demonstration, the recirculating denitrification system developed as
described in the previous chapter was evaluated in a 1-m3 backyard aquarium
Nitrogen gas
Air pump
Denitrification reactor
pH Temperature
Sodium acetate Hydrochloric controller controller
acid
Sand filtration tank(nitrification reactor)
Fig. 10.7 Overview of test apparatus
tank. An overview of the system is shown in Fig. 10.7. For the demonstration, a
granule (USB) type denitrification tank with an effective capacity of 10 L was used,
combined with a sand filtration tank (nitrification tank) and a 1-m3 water tank
equipped with a temperature control device set to 25 C located outdoors at the
Shinagawa Aquarium, Tokyo, for 2 months. The test was begun after four tropical
fish (double-lined fusilier, Pterocaesio digramma) with a mean weight of 245 g
were placed into the water tank that had an accommodation density of 1 kg/m3.
Approximately 10 g of feed was provided per day (Kawamata et al. 2010).
In addition to supplying tank water directly to the denitrification tank, sodium
acetate was provided as the electron donor needed for the denitrification reaction,
with a C/N ratio ¼ 3. The denitrification tank was operated with an HRT of 2.5 h
(the ratio of the water treatment quantity to the total tank water quantity was 9.6%
with a flow rate of 96 L/(m3day)). To ensure that the C/N ratio would not fluctuate
greatly, an additional quantity of sodium acetate was calculated based on the
nitrogen component concentration, which was determined by HACH analytical
methods (HACH Company, Loveland, Colorado, USA).
The pH in the tank was maintained at 8.0 by the addition of a little hydrochloric
acid, and the demonstration test was conducted for approximately 2 months.
Table 10.5 shows the mean values for the parameters measured in the tank envi-
ronment. These results showed that this system could provide the fish in the
Table 10.5 Analysis of water quality of the demonstration environment

Target water quality Tank water Denitrification treatment water
Water temperature ( C) 25 1 24.8 0.3 24.20.2
DO (mg/L) 5–6 6.15 –
pH 7.8–8.3 8.0 0.1 8.1 0.2
ORP (mV) 130 24 278 44
Salinity (‰) 33.3 0.3 33.0 0.2
Fig. 10.8 Performance of the USB denitrification reactor with granules
demonstration tank with high-quality water and also maintain a stable water
environment.
The concentration of NO3-N in the denitrification treatment water in the
demonstration was roughly 0.1 mg-N/L or less. As shown in Fig. 10.8, almost all
of the NO3-N could be removed from the tank water. As a result, the concentration
of NO3-N in the water gradually began to decrease after the test was begun, and by
approximately 20 d after the start of operation, the concentration of NO3-N in the
water had approximated the theoretical convergence concentration (4.2 mg-N/L).
Subsequently, the NO3-N in the tank water actually decreased to 2.1 mg-N/L,
or half of the theoretical convergence concentration, with a calculated denitrifica-
tion efficiency of 95%. A mean NO3-N removal efficiency of 93.3% was achieved
in the period during which the treatment performance had stabilized and the
denitrification performance attained a maximal efficiency of approximately 97%.
2. Long-term demonstration in a 3-m3 tank
A long-term demonstration was conducted in a 3-m3 tank to which a 30-L
denitrification reactor had been introduced (Figs. 10.9 and 10.10). Figure 10.11
Fig. 10.9 30 L
denitrification reactor
Fig. 10.10 Long-term demonstration using a 3-m3 saltwater tank
Fig. 10.11 Denitrifying

bacteria granular carriers
shows the granular carriers (spherical, diameter approximately 2 mm) with which
the denitrification tank was filled.
For this demonstration, a granule (USB) denitrification reactor with an effective
capacity of 30 L was combined with a 3-m3 water tank equipped with a sand
filtration tank (nitrification reactor) and a temperature control device set to maintain
a water temperature of 25 C. The test was conducted with tropical fish and an
accommodation density of approximately 1 kg/m3 tank water.
The water from the sand filtration tank was introduced directly into the denitri-
fication tank, and sodium acetate was provided as the electron donor for the
denitrification reaction, with a C/N ratio ¼ 3. The denitrification tank was operated
with an HRT of 2.5 h. The pH in the tank was maintained at 8.0 using hydrochloric
acid suitably, and the test was continued for more than 2 years without any water
replacement.
3. Test results and conclusions
The short-term and long-term demonstrations showed that the denitrification
system has high efficiency for NO3-N removal and also creates a stable problem-
free water environment for the organisms in the tank. Furthermore, this denitrifi-
cation system could also be installed separately with other recirculation and filtra-
tion systems for water treatment equipment in the same aquaria and can also be
added to the water treatment scheme for existing aquaria. At present, the system
described here has been introduced to the Sumida Aquarium (Fig. 10.12), where it
has attained normal operation and good water quality. This denitrification system
will also be an effective technology for wastewater recirculation and will be
adopted for water treatment at inland aquaria that are constructed in the future.
The system is expected to make a major contribution to the efficiency of a closed-
circulation system.
Fig. 10.12 Denitrification

system at the Sumida
Aquarium, Tokyo
10.2.3 Development of a Saltwater Reuse System
Background The filters in the high-performance filtration system discussed in the

previous section must be cleaned periodically to prevent internal clogging. For this
purpose, previous systems have conducted backwashing of the filters in saltwater
tanks with fresh saltwater. Aquaria constructed in coastal regions can obtain natural
saltwater directly from the ocean, so the backwashing requirement presented no
operational problems even with the conventional systems. In the case of inland
aquaria, however, the constant use of natural saltwater for backwashing increases
operating costs and requires higher capacity storage tanks. Accordingly, a saltwater
reuse system was constructed to recycle used saltwater to use instead of natural
saltwater for cleaning the filters by backwashing.
Objectives The objective was to recycle the used saltwater and reuse it for saltwa-
ter filter backwashing instead of using natural saltwater, overflow water from the
exhibition tanks, or the wastewater from filter cleaning and thereby reduce the
quantity of drain water discharged into the sewer system.
System Functions The saltwater reuse technology described here is used to purify
the reused saltwater into water fit for filter backwashing.
The overflow water from the exhibition tanks and the wastewater from filter
cleaning was treated by first removing the suspended proteins, then by sterilization,
and finally by suspended solid treatment and biofiltration.
Saltwater Reuse In the saltwater reuse system, the overflow tank water and the
filter cleaning wastewater are stored in the reuse tank. The saltwater stored in the
reuse tank is constantly purified. This purified saltwater is sent to the backwashing
tank and used again as backwashing water for cleaning the filter. During the course
of repeated use, the repurified saltwater that has become increasingly polluted is
purified once again and sent to the drain water tank, from which it is discharged as
drain water (Fig. 10.13).
10.3 Conclusions
This chapter has described the closed-circulation systems that have been introduced
for aquaria recently in Japan and covers the three major components in detail: an
artificial saltwater manufacturing system, a high-performance filtration system, and
a saltwater-reuse system. These systems were developed with the aim of addressing
the issues that needed to be resolved for the operation of inland aquaria: reducing
initial and operating costs and reducing environmental load. The artificial saltwater
manufacturing system completely eliminated the need for natural saltwater as
replenishment saltwater. The high-performance filtration system described here
reduced the amount of water required for replenishment, while it maintained the
quality of the tank water. The saltwater reuse system made it possible to purify and
Previous system Exhibition tank New system
Filter Filter
Backwashing Overflow water

water
Cleaning wastewater Cleaning wastewater Backwashing water
Natural
seawater
Seawater
Drain water reuse
system
Backwashing tank
Reuse tank Backwashing tank
Drain water
Drain water
tank
Fig. 10.13 Process of water treatment in saltwater reuse system
reuse wastewater for filter backwashing instead of using fresh saltwater. These
systems have been introduced into the Kyoto Aquarium and the Sumida Aquarium
that opened in March 2012 and May 2012, respectively.
However, these closed-circulation systems that have been used at aquaria have
not yet been introduced to aquaculture facilities that use similar water treatment
equipment. The reason is likely because, as in the aquarium sector, most aquacul-
ture facilities have been situated in coastal areas, where they have access to an
inexhaustible supply of new saltwater, and thus little need to develop technologies
for reusing wastewater. Nevertheless, as in the case of aquaria, some aquaculture
facilities have recently been built in inland regions quite far from the coast.
Needless to say, the most pressing issues have been pointed out, such as the high
cost of drawing and transporting saltwater, the environmental impact of CO2
emissions resulting from long-distance transport, and the discharge of large quan-
tities of wastewater containing high concentrations of nitrogen components into
drains. This system represents one effort to resolve these issues, but further research
and development is needed.
The water treatment technologies introduced in this section have been developed
precisely because of the need for rigorous control of water quality at aquaria, where
water transparency is required. In the future, these technologies will likely be
deployed at aquaculture facilities.
References
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Takai K, Moyer CL, Miyazaki M et al (2005) Marinobacter alkaliphilus sp. nov., a novel alkaline
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deapoensis sp nov., slightly halophilic organisms isolated from seawater of the Yellow Sea
Korea. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 54:1799–1803
Chapter 11
Aquaponics
Toshio Takeuchi and Masato Endo
Abstract Freshwater aquaponics has been performed widely, especially in the

United States, to culture channel catfish and tomato, tilapia and lettuce, or tilapia
and basil/okra. However, many of these systems are used as learning tools in school
science curricula, but not as industrial systems for harvesting aquaponics products.
In Japan, because of marine fish aquaculture’s dominance over freshwater fish
aquaculture, and because the majority of offshore aquaculture use net cage culture,
water pollution from offshore mariculture has become a serious issue. However, if
mariculture can be conducted using a land-based recirculation system and the
associated waste can be recycled for plant cultivation, an organic farming system
to cultivate both fish and plants could be realized, and environmental conservation
could be improved. In this section, we review previously reported approaches to
aquaponics, present the results of our preliminary studies, and discuss the direc-
tional strategy of aquaponics in Japan.
Keywords Aquaculture • Aquaponics • Fish • Hydroponics • Plant • Recirculating

fish culture system
11.1 Introduction
Aquaponics is a term coined to denote aquaculture, as in culture of fish, and

hydroponics, as in hydroculture of plants. In Japan, which is currently in the middle
of its third plant factory boom, a soil-free nutriculture hydroponics system is
conventional. In this system, a nutrient medium containing chemical fertilizers
solubilized in water is circulated in a cultivation bed, where plants can absorb
nutrients necessary for growth via their roots. However, given the rising cost of
chemical fertilizers required to manufacture hydroponic media due to the excessive
T. Takeuchi (*) • M. Endo

Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato, Tokyo 108-8477,
Japan
258 T. Takeuchi and M. Endo
import, especially in Japan, of phosphorus, it is important to address the stable

supply of phosphorus as well as the development of chemical fertilizer-independent
cultivation techniques.
Riding the wave of Japan’s plant factory boom, land-based recirculating aqua-
culture systems have also gained attention. The details regarding such land-based
aquaculture in Japan are covered in Chaps. 1 and 2. Even though net cage culture is
currently the mainstream aquaculture technique, the resultant eutrophication of
nearby marine environments due to leftover feed and waste (containing nitrogen
and phosphorus) from cultured fish creates serious problems, especially frequent
red tides. Therefore, serious discussions have been conducted to develop measures
for enhancing production levels of cultured fish while preventing environmental
eutrophication. At present, there are two directional strategies. One is to place
large-scale offshore aquaculture near fast-moving ocean currents to improve the
quality of fish meat as well as to disperse the waste more broadly in the ocean. This
strategy has just been incorporated into the net cage culture of yellowtail and
bluefin tuna. The second directional strategy is the introduction of land-based
recirculating aquaculture. Although this system effectively recycles uneaten feed
and fish waste, it does not currently include an approach for effective subsequent
processing. Because it overcomes these shortcomings of aquaculture, aquaponics
has been gaining attention in recent years. This system can recycle fish waste for
plant cultivation, thereby enabling the organic farming of both plants and fish. In
many countries, not only are industrial aquaponics systems in place, but home and
backyard aquaponics for freshwater fish are also common. In Japan, however,
saltwater fish are much more popular than freshwater fish; hence it is more
important to develop a saltwater aquaponics system. The establishment of a
polyculture system for farming seaweeds, such as sea lettuce, adjacent to a net
cage aquaculture system has been attempted; the details of this system are presented
in Chap. 12. In the present section, we review the current situation regarding
freshwater and saltwater aquaponics in Japan and explore future directions for
their development.
11.2 Overview of Aquaponics
Aquaponics technology has been advanced by Rakocy and colleagues, who are well
known for their combined tilapia and lettuce cultivation in the Virgin Islands
(Rakocy 1989). As Table 11.1 shows, plants and freshwater fish are the most
common aquaponics combination, particularly in the United States. Aquaponics
cultivation of barramundi and tomato or lettuce was reportedly commercialized in
Australia; however, in spite of the popular use of aquaponics at home or in school
science classes, fewer than 20 commercial aquaponics facilities have been
established in the United States (Aragon 2013). Aquaponics so far has been
developed mainly in terms of recycling wastewater in a closed recirculation system
to perform hydroponic culture of useful plants. However, because of the recent
11 Aquaponics 259
Table 11.1 Past representative studies of aquaponics

Sutton and Lewis (1982) Channel catfish and tomato
Watten and Busch (1984) Tilapia and tomato
Seawright et al. (1998) Tilapia and lettuce
Adler et al. (2000) Rainbow trout and lettuce/sweet basil
Lennard and Leonard (2004) Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii and lettuce
Tailor Made Fish Farms (2009) Barramundi Lates calcarifer and tomato/lettuce
(industrial)
Rakocy et al. (2004) Tilapia and basil/okra
Jeong, G.S. (personal Catfish/carp and ornamental plants (orchid/miniature
communication) rose)
popularity of organic farming and promotion of local food production, companies

with a large-scale hydroponics system have begun to co-establish closed
recirculation systems for cultured fish in order to generate organic fertilizers.
In Table 11.1, we can see that all currently existing aquaponics facilities use
freshwater instead of seawater and that the majority of the facilities are small scale,
with only a few commercial facilities.
11.3 Preliminary Attempts at Tokyo University of Marine

Science and Technology
In addition to the conventional breeding of carp and tilapia, our institution has been
farming basil in co-culture with carp or tilapia, as well as white radish sprouts with
tilapia. This section describes primarily the experimental approaches that have been
performed in our laboratory.
11.3.1 Nitrogen and Other Minerals in Wastewater from Fish

Culture
Table 11.2 shows nitrogen and mineral contents in wastewater from the respective
closed recirculating aquaculture systems (CRASs) for culturing tilapia, Japanese
flounder, tiger puffer, and kelp grouper. To more clearly show comparisons, data
were converted into relative concentrations, using a relative nitrogen concentration
of 100 mg/L. Large differences in the concentrations of phosphorus, potassium, and
magnesium between freshwater and saltwater aquaponics are obvious. Potassium
and magnesium are major elements in saltwater, and thus their high levels reflect
saltwater-like composition. However, phosphorus is excreted by fish, and its con-
centration is relatively low in freshwater but high in saltwater. When pH decreases
in freshwater, calcium is thought to be eluted from the coral sands contained in the
260
Table 11.2 Composition of nitrogen and other elements in rearing wastewater of respective CRAS for four kinds of freshwater and saltwater fish culture
Tilapia Japanese flounder Tiger puffer Kelp grouper
Oreochromis niloticus Paralichthys olivaceus Takifugu rubripes Epinephelus bruneus
Okubo (2009) Nishimura (2014) Kusakari (2012) Zhang (2013) Takeuchi unpub.
Freshwater Freshwater 8‰ 17‰ 31‰ 32‰
N (mg/L) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
P (mg/L) 2.1 1.2 0.5 6.1 4.9 7.2
K (mg/L) 16.4 17.4 44.0 51.1 159.3 106.1
Ca (mg/L) 111.0 139.6 163.0 132.0 223.0 202.4
Mg (mg/L) 6.7 9.7 90.2 126.3 325.6 220.4
Fe (μg/L) 16.5 8.1 3.3 18.3 20.1 3.4
Mn (μg/L) 43.4 5.0 61.5 10.9 27.8 1.4
Cu (μg/L) 0.8 5.8 7.1 1.0 40.4 10.2
Zn (μg/L) 0.5 12.7 13.2 9.0 25.9 6.8
Co (μg/L) NA NA NA NA 22.2 2.0
NA not analyzed
T. Takeuchi and M. Endo
11 Aquaponics 261
Fig. 11.1 Photograph of hydroponic system of basil Ocimum basilicum on the water surface of
fish tank of outdoor RAS for intensive culture of tilapia
experimental CRAS filtration system, reacting with phosphorus to form sediments

(Endo et al. 2000). However, saltwater that contains various elements tends to
prevent phosphorus from forming sediments. Because pH change greatly affects the
dynamics between solubilization and sedimentation of iron and other trace elements
(Sonneveld and Voogt 2009), it is important to take account of the total amount of
elements in the CRAS, as well as the pH of the system, and optimize cultivation
techniques to meet the needs of the cultivated plants and marine animals. In the case
of halophytes, the salinity of rearing water needs to be optimized as well.
The research data shown in Table 11.2 can serve as basic and useful information
to those who plan to incorporate aquaponics.
11.3.2 Hydroponics of Basil on Fish Tank
Figure 11.1 shows our simple hydroponics system of an outdoor water tank and
self-made Styrofoam floating devices. This system differs from the conventional
aquaponics system, which comprised a CRAS for culturing fish and a connected
hydroponics device for cultivating plants. A special feature of our system is that
plant roots are protected by pots placed on the floating device, and any roots
Table 11.3 Nitrogen and phosphorus budget between tilapia and white radish sprouts under the
aquaponics in indoor system (%)
Control (fish only) Aquaponics
Nitrogen Phosphorus Nitrogen Phosphorus
Accumulation in fish 25.6 39.4 25.8 37.4
Waste materials 2.1 6.7 1.9 9.9
Rearing water 67.9 49.3 33.9 20.6
Accumulation in radish – – 19.0 30.8
Unknown 4.9 4.6 19.5 1.3
outgrowing the pot will be eaten by the fish in the tank. Furthermore, as the water
surface is partially covered by the floating devices, our system is thought to be less
stressful to fish. As illustrated here, hydroponics can be performed by simply
placing floating cultivation beds in a rearing fish tank.
11.3.3 Culture of Tilapia and White Radish Sprouts
We also developed an indoor rearing tank for tilapia associated with hydroponic
cultivation beds for white radish sprouts. Tilapia with an average weight of 100 g
and average body length of 17 cm were cultured in 24 C for 8 days. As the results
show (Table 11.3; Takeuchi 2014), no significant difference in the fractions of
nitrogen and phosphorus accumulated in fish or in sediments was observed between
the control section and the aquaponics section with the associated hydroponics
devices. However, the fractions of nitrogen and phosphorus in the circulating
rearing water in the aquaponics section were half that of the control section, the
nitrogen and phosphorus appearing to have been accumulated in the white radish
sprouts. It is unclear whether denitrification takes place during transpiration, but the
fraction of missing nitrogen was higher in the aquaponics section. Although further
study is needed to investigate this phenomenon, the present results clearly show that
nitrogen and phosphorus excreted by fish quickly accumulate in plants in a rela-
tively short period.
Although this result has been shown previously (Rakocy 2010), our study again
showed the efficiency of aquaponics in which nitrogen and phosphorus from fish
can be effectively absorbed by plants.
11.3.4 Saltwater Aquaponics
In Japan, assuming that fish in land-based aquaculture are being produced for
commercial use, and assuming that such aquaculture will focus on saltwater fish
11 Aquaponics 263
Fig. 11.2 Photograph of

common ice plant
Mesembryanthemum
crystallinum culture
given their higher market price than freshwater fish, it will be necessary to use
rearing water containing salts for farming. Edible halophytes that can be grown in
hydroponic systems include New Zealand spinach, common ice plant (Fig. 11.2),
Suaeda japonica Makino, common glasswort, and Swiss chard. Among these,
common ice plant has been investigated by Saga University to evaluate its value
as an edible vegetable and to establish a method for producing it (www.barafu.jp/).
As indicated by sales of common ice plant in supermarkets and on the Internet, its
value appears to be high.
Our laboratory aims to develop an aquaponics system for combined cultivation
of a halotolerant or halophilic plant and a saltwater fish, such as Japanese flounder,
tiger puffer, or kelp grouper. According to previous studies (Saitoh et al. 1995; Imai
et al. 2010), even 8‰ was sufficient to farm Japanese flounder and tiger puffer and
even had a minor growth-promoting effect. Because no previous information was
available when we conducted this study, we farmed kelp grouper at 8, 16, 24, and
32‰ and found that their growth and survival were adversely affected at 8‰
(Matsumoto et al. 2014). For this reason, kelp grouper were farmed in 32‰
saltwater for an extended period of time, and the rearing water with a concentration
of nitrate nitrogen of 500 ppm was then diluted to one-fourth for hydroponic
cultivation of common ice plant at 20 C. The initial rate of decline of nitrogen
and phosphorus due to absorption by the common ice plant was 9.7 and 1.7 mg/kg
plant fresh wt./day, respectively. Because common ice plant can gradually accli-
mate to saltwater, it is possible to farm it in 100% saltwater (Agarie et al. 2007) and
to directly connect its cultivation system to an aquaculture system for a wide range
of fish species, from stenohaline fish, which prefer saltwater, to euryhaline fish,
which grow even in low-salinity water. However, as is the case with fish species, the
relationship between salinity and optimal growth of halotolerant and halophilic
plants varies by species. Therefore, it is important to evaluate and optimize culti-
vation methods by adjusting the salt content and diluting wastewater. In the future,
we plan to improve the accuracy of aquaponics and to incorporate it with the
polyculture of flatfishes and tiger puffer.
11.4 Conclusions
Although this section mainly introduces research efforts made by our institution,
other research conducted in Japan includes land-based aquaculture of Japanese tiger
prawn combined with plant cultivation (watercress and Chinese water spinach)
(Nohara 2013), flexible manufacturing of tilapia and tomato (Nakamura 2013),
aquaponics of goldfish and leafy vegetables (Japanese mustard spinach, red-leafed
lettuce, green onion, and crown daisy) at Miyagi Prefectural Fisheries High School,
and small-scale aquaponics of tilapia and soybean or tomato (Abe 2016), all of
which use freshwater. For this reason, we feel that aquaponics in Japan, especially
saltwater aquaponics, has only just begun. Before the study and development of
aquaponics can make further progress, land-based aquaculture must be industrial-
ized; nonetheless, studies exploring the early development of aquaponics should be
continued.
One characteristic of common ice plant is that it accumulates high levels of
heavy metals from the soil. However, we predict that the level of heavy metals
excreted by fish will not cause increases to problematically high levels in common
ice plant if fish are given a formula feed produced in accordance with the Law
Concerning Safety Assurance and Quality Improvement of Feed. In other words,
this new system enables the farming of safe-to-eat organic plants and fish. In the
future, we believe it will be necessary to raise the general public’s awareness of
aquaponics by introducing and demonstrating aquaponics at schools and by devel-
oping a system to display aquaponics at restaurants and aquariums.
11 Aquaponics 265
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Aragon SC (2013) Action for aquaponics in foreign countries. RIKUJOUYOUSHOKU (Land
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Endo M, Takeuchi T, Yoshizaki G, Satoh S, Ohmori K, Oguchi M, Nakajima A (2000) Studies on
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Imai T, Arai D, Morita T, Kogane T, Yamamoto Y, Chida N, Endo M, Takeuchi T (2010) Effect of
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rearing water in closed recirculating seed production. Aquaculture Sci 58:373–380.
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integrated, gravel bed, aquaponic test system. Aquacult Int 12:539–553
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kelp grouper Epinephelus bruneus in closed recirculating fish culture systems. Abst Metg
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Jhohou Kikou, Tokyo, pp 254–260. (In Japanese)
Nishimura T (2014) Studies on Spirulina culture with waste water and solid wastes discharged
from recirculating tilapia culture system. Masters dissertation, Tokyo University of Marine
Science and Technology
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Symp SEE and RASJ, Tokyo, 08 Nov. 29–34. (In Japanese)
Okubo Y (2009) Studies on the establishment of closed ecological recirculating aquaculture
system by material cycle between tilapia and Spirulina. Masters dissertation, Tokyo University
of Marine Science and Technology
Rakocy JE (1989) Hydroponic lettuce production in a recirculating fish culture system. Virgin
Islands agricultural experiment station, island. Perspectives 3:4–10
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(eds) Recirculating aquaculture, 2nd edn. NRAC Pub, New York, pp 807–864
Rakocy JE, Bailey DS, Shultz C, Thoman ES (2004) Update on tilapia and vegetable production in
the UVI aquaponic system. In: Bolivar RB, Mair, GC, Fitzsimmons K (eds) Proceedings from
the Sixth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, Manila, Philippines. pp 676–690
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Chapter 12
Advantages of Environmentally Sound
Poly-eco-aquaculture in Fish Farms
Shusaku Kadowaki and Yuuki Kitadai
Abstract Environmentally sound poly-eco-aquaculture enables the preservation of

aquatic environments to be compatible with that of sustainable aquaculture. With this
method, not only healthy fish can be cultured in purified water, but also the productivity
will increase by recycling seaweed to feed the fish. The maximum nitrogen uptake rate
of each seaweed per square meter of seaweed area was 2.9 mg N/ms2/day for “Konbu”
Laminaria japonica, 3.1 mg N/ms2/day for “Wakame” Undaria pinnatifida, and 3.6 mg
N/ms2/day for sea lettuce Ulva pertusa. The maximum phosphate uptake rate was
0.43 mg P/m2/day, 0.54 mg P/m2/day, and 0.19 mg P/m2/day, respectively. The
calculated values of nitrogen and phosphate uptake rates, obtained by integrating the
nutrient concentrations, light intensity, and water temperatures, corresponded well with
each observed value. The minimum seaweed cultural density necessary per unit area of
yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata farm was calculated using the values of the maxi-
mum nitrogen uptake rate. The maximal production rates were 0.75 mg O2/g wet/h for
L. japonica, 0.83 mg O2/g wet/h for Un. pinnatifida, and 6.39 mg O2/g wet/h for Ul.
pertusa. The minimal weight of cultured seaweeds necessary to accommodate the
oxygen consumption of an individual S. quinqueradiata was calculated as 1.17 kg
wet/fish, 0.83 kg wet/a fish, and 0.21 kg wet/fish.
Keywords Poly-eco-aquaculture • Seaweed • N uptake • P uptake • O2

production • Fish farm • Yellowtail
12.1 Introduction
The industry of marine aquaculture in the twenty-first century is expected to be

practiced in harmony with the environment. It is our responsibility to hand down a
blue and abundant sea for our future generations to inherit. Environmentally sound
poly-eco-aquaculture is a technical innovation of aquaculture used to purify water
S. Kadowaki (*)
Emeritus Professor, Kagoshima University, 20-14-901 Tenpozan, Kagoshima 890-0061, Japan
Y. Kitadai
“Hakase” Cramming School, 1-1 Minobayashi, Anan, Tokushima 774-0017, Japan
268 S. Kadowaki and Y. Kitadai
and promote a balanced ecosystem by breeding seaweed and shellfish around

coastal fish farms. The seaweed is used to feed for fish and shellfish. “Eco” in the
word “eco- aquaculture” means “a harmony of ecology for nature” and “economy
for humanity.”
In order to establish coastal fish farms which enable sustainable aquaculture,
there is a recent requirement for concrete measures to be taken to improve water
quality in the farms. Biological water purification is necessary for preventing
eutrophication and for reducing oxygen deficiency in water (Kadowaki 2001,
2004). Seaweed cultivation is currently attracting much attention as a plausible
measure in this plight.
When seaweed is cultivated in the eutrophic water of coastal fish farms, it
uptakes dissolved inorganic nitrogen and phosphate while supplying dissolved
oxygen, which is essential for the farms.
Aiming to improve the water quality of coastal yellowtail Seriola
quinqueradiata farms in the warmwater zone over a year-long period, different
seaweed species were cultivated in the farm during each season. “Wakame”
Undaria pinnatifida was grown during the winter months, “Konbu” Laminaria
japonica in the spring, and sea lettuce Ulva pertusa in the summer and autumn.
Following this, the relationship between nitrogen and phosphate uptake rates,
oxygen production rate by the different seaweeds, and the nutrient concentration,
light intensity, and temperature of the water in the farm was estimated (Kitadai and
Kadowaki 2003, 2004a, b; Kitadai 2005). Next, the improvement in nitrogen uptake
in relation to nitrogen load by yellowtail aquaculture, as well as the cultivation scale
of seaweeds necessary for oxygen production in relation to oxygen consumption per
individual yellowtail and per cubic meter of the net cage, was estimated.
This study exemplifies the extent to which water quality of feeding fish farms
was improved by cultivating seaweed, proposing specific measures.
12.2 Heavy Environmental Load by Mono-aquaculture
The mainstream in predominant fish cultivation has been that of mono-aquaculture

breeding only one kind of fish. With this method, oxygen consumption by the
cultured fish increases, and the load of carbon dioxide becomes heavier. In addition,
nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphates from feces or remaining fish feed,
dissolve in the seawater, making it eutrophic. This causes red tides, fish
pathologies, and oxygen deficiency in seawater, resulting in the mass mortality of
fish, auto-pollution, etc. This was a significant problem in the Southwestern part of
the Yatsushiro Sea, Kumamoto, Japan, in 2002, when the nitrogen load by fish
aquaculture reached 700 to 2600 times that of the nitrogen uptake by seaweed
breeding (Kadowaki and Kitadai 2005).
12 Advantages of Environmentally Sound Poly-eco-aquaculture in Fish Farms 269
12.3 Environmentally Sound Poly-eco-aquaculture
In order to create a truly rich production by cultured fish, we would like to propose
that in the part where the balance of the ecosystem has been broken, the balance is
restored by the introduction of poly-eco-aquaculture which directly utilizes solar
energy as shown in Fig. 12.1. The primary principle of poly-eco-aquaculture is
breeding seaweeds, such as Un. pinnatifida, L. japonica, and Ul. pertusa, through-
out the year to create an artificial sea forest around cultured fish cages. The seaweed
will uptake nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphate from fish feces and remaining
feed. The seaweed also inhibits pathogenic bacteria (Nagahama and Hirata 1990)
and red tide organisms (Hirata et al. 1986). Grown seaweeds will be fed to abalone
Haliotis discus hannai, H. discus discus, H. gigantea, sea urchin Stichopus japon-
ica, Holothuria pervicax, yellowtail, and red sea bream Pagrus major. Sea cucum-
ber Stichopus japonica is grown in symbiosis with abalone in aquaculture net cages.
Feces generated by the abalone are fed to sea cucumber. Scallop Chlamys nobilis
can be cultured because they eat organic suspended substances, such as remaining
feed and fish feces. Environmentally sound poly-eco-aquaculture enables the pres-
ervation of aquatic environments to be compatible with that of sustainable aqua-
culture. With this method, not only healthy fish can be cultured in purified water,
but also the productivity will increase by recycling seaweed to feed fish.
When cultured abalone and sea cucumber are dried, they can be stored for long
periods and can be shipped long distances at room temperature. It was also found
that half pearls could be grown in cultured giant abalone H. gigantea in 5 months
after a pearl nucleus was inserted into them. The shells can also be used for mother
Solar
Natural Diets Artificial Diets
Fish cage culture

Abalone etc
cage culture
Excretion Excretion
CO2 CO2
Eutrophication,
Water conservation Seaweed culture Low oxygen
Fig. 12.1 Environmental conservation by eco-polyculture with fish, seaweed, shellfish, and sea
cucumber in coastal fish farm
of pearl work. With poly-eco-aquaculture, there is a higher additional value, as well

as expectation of increasing job opportunities.
The capability at which seaweeds can uptake nitrogen has been researched, and
it was found that the purification of aquatic environments to allow a large amount of
cultured fish became feasible when the area of seaweed breeding was larger than the
area of fish aquaculture. Based on these research results, Azuma-cho Fisheries
Co-operative Association decided in 2000 to employ seaweed breeding near marine
aquaculture farms in an effort to increase the proportion of the area of seaweed to
the area of fish aquaculture, aiming at safe, sustainable aquaculture. The fishermen
themselves are practicing poly-eco-aquaculture.
12.4 The Cultural Density of Seaweed Necessary for Water

Purification in Fish Farms
This study was conducted in fish farms producing S. quinqueradiata, P. major, and
puffer fish Takifugu rubripes in Goshoura-cho, Kumamoto Prefecture, located in
the southeastern part of the Yatsushiro Sea as shown in Fig. 12.2. During this
research, the water temperature and oxygen concentration 3 m below the sea
surface in fish farms A to E were measured every 3 h. The dissolved inorganic
nitrogen (DIN) and dissolved inorganic phosphate (DIP) concentrations 2 m below
the sea surface in fish farms were analyzed once a week (Strickland and Parsons
1972). The light intensity at 1.3 m and 2.0 m below the sea surface was measured
automatically every hour using a photo sensor (190SA of LI-COR Biosciences).
L. japonica was cultivated between December of 2000 and July of 2001, Ul.
pertusa was cultivated during August of 2002 and November of 2002, and Un.
pinnatifida was cultivated from November of 2002 to May of 2003, respectively.
Fish farms in Goshoura-cho, Yatsushiro, obtain seed yarns of Un. pinnatifida and
L. japonica from Yoshida Fisheries Ltd. in Shimabara City and Aomori Fisheries
Farming Center in late November (below 21 C) and late December (below 20 C),
respectively. The hanging layer of L. japonica and Un. pinnatifida was located
between 1 m and 4 m below the sea surface, while that of Ul. pertusa was only
between 0.5 m.
The blade length of L. japonica and Un. pinnatifida and the blade area of Ul.
pertusa were identified and measured twice a month. Also, the area, wet weight, dry
weight, and nitrogen and phosphate content of the different seaweeds were mea-
sured every month to obtain observed values of nitrogen and phosphate uptake
rates. The nitrogen and phosphate uptake rates (PN,P, mg N,P/m2/day) in relation to
the seaweed area were calculated using the following equation:
PN, P ¼ ðCN, Pt CN, P0 Þ α=t

Fig. 12.2 Map showing the cultured sites of seaweeds at stations A–E of Goshoura coastal fish
farms in the Yatsushiro Sea
where CN,P0 represents the nitrogen and phosphate content (mg N,P/g dry) on the
initial day of the experiment, while C N,Pt represents the nitrogen and phosphate
content (mg N,P/g dry) t days after the experiment started. α represents the dry
weight of the seaweed per square meter of seaweed area (g dry/m2), while
t represents the number of cultivation days.
The oxygen production and consumption rates were measured over 4 h from
10:00 to 14:00 during fine weather conditions using light and dark oxygen bottles,
whose value per unit of chlorophyll-a was shown. The hanging level of the oxygen
bottles for L. japonica and Un. pinnatifida was 2 m below the sea surface, while that
for Ul. pertusa was only 0.5 m. Oxygen concentration was titrated using Winkler’s
method. The relationship between the nitrogen and phosphate uptake rates (PN,P,
mg N,P/m2/day), as well as the oxygen production rate (P0 cN,P, mg O2/mg chl.a/h)
of the seaweed area and DIN and DIP concentrations in the fish farm, was analyzed
using the Michaelis-Menten formula (Dudale 1967). The PmN,P, P0 cm, and K were
calculated by the following formula:
PN, P ¼ PmN, P SN, P =ðK N, P þ SN, P Þ
where PmN,P represents the maximum nitrogen and phosphate uptake rates of
seaweed area (mg N,P/ms2/day) and S N,P represents DIN and DIP concentrations
(μg N,P/L). KN,P represents the minimum DIN and DIP concentrations for growth
of seaweed as Michaelis-Menten constants (μg N,P/L):
P0 cN, P ¼ P0 cmN, P SN, P =ðK N, P þ SN, P Þ
where P0 cm N,P represents the maximum oxygen production rates of the seaweed’s
chlorophyll-a (mg O2/mg chl.a/h).
The minimum nitrogen and phosphate concentrations necessary to obtain the
maximum nitrogen and phosphate uptake rates and the maximum oxygen produc-
tion rate were calculated. The relationship between the nitrogen and phosphate
uptake rates of the seaweeds and light intensity was analyzed using the Steel
formula (Steel 1962) in order to obtain the optimum light intensity for the maxi-
mum nitrogen and phosphate uptake rates. The saturation irradiance Im (μmol/mf2/
s) to PmN,P was calculated by the following formula:
PN, P ¼ PmN, P ðI=ImÞ expð1 I=ImÞ
where I represents the downward irradiance per fish cage area (μmol/mf2/s) and Im
represents the optimum light intensity to PmN,P. (μmol/mf2/s).
The relationship between the nitrogen and phosphate uptake rates of the sea-
weeds and water temperature was analyzed by the allometric formula (Kadowaki
and Tanaka 1994) in order to obtain water temperature coefficients, Q01N,P. The
Q01N,P was calculated by the following formula:
PθN, P ¼ PTN, P Q01N, PðθTÞ
where Pθ N,P represents the PN,P at θ C (mg N,P/ms2/day), PT N,P is the PN,P at T C
(mg N,P/ms2/day), Q01N,P represents water temperature coefficients, θ represents
water temperature ( C), and T represents water temperature 20 C for L. japonica,
16 C for Un. pinnatifida, and 25 C for Ul. pertusa.
In addition, seaweed cultural density (kg wet/mf2) in relation to the area of a fish
farm was calculated, which is necessary for determining the uptake of nitrogen load
in fish aquaculture. Furthermore, the seaweed cultural weight necessary for the
oxygen consumption of individual S. quinqueradiata (g wet/a fish) and the seaweed
cultural density necessary for oxygen consumption per cubic meter of the net cage
(kg wet/m3) were calculated.
12.4.1 Environment of the Seaweed Cultivation
The water temperature ranged between 12 C and 28 C, and the oxygen concen-
tration was in the range of 5.7 mg/L and 10.7 mg/L in fish farms during the seaweed
cultivation period. The nitrogen concentration hovered between 31 μg N/L and
150 μg N/L, while the phosphate concentration was between 7.0 μg P/L and 27 μg
P/L. The ratio of nitrogen to phosphate was in the range of 3.1 and 8.4. The mean
for downward irradiance of the layer 2 m below the sea surface (standard
deviation) was 650 74 μmol/m2/s.
12.4.2 Growth of Seaweeds
The blade length of L. japonica and Un. pinnatifida grew up to 250 cm and 182 cm,
respectively, in the layer 2 m below the sea surface. The maximum daily growth
rate of L. japonica and Un. pinnatifida was 3.0 cm/day and 4.2 cm/day, respec-
tively. The blade area of Ul. pertusa grew up to 640 cm2 in the layer 0.5 m below
the sea surface, and the maximum growth rate was 7.6 cm2/day (Table 12.1).
12.4.3 Nitrogen and Phosphate Uptake Rates of Seaweed

Species
The maximum nitrogen uptake rate of each seaweed species per square meter of
seaweed area was 2.9 mg N/ms2/day for L. japonica, 3.1 mg N/ms2/day for Un.
pinnatifida, and 3.6 mg N/ms2/day for Ul. pertusa, respectively. The nitrogen
uptake rate of Ul. pertusa was the highest of all. The maximum phosphate uptake
rate was 0.43 mg P/m2/day, 0.54 mg P/m2/day, and 0.19 mg P/m2/day, respectively.
In addition, the minimum nitrogen concentration necessary for the growth of
L. japonica, Un. pinnatifida, and Ul. pertusa was 29 μg/L, 17 μg/L, and 26 μg/L,
while the minimum phosphate concentration necessary for growth was 8.7 μg/L,
6.2 μg/L, and 8.0 μg/L, respectively.
Table 12.1 Maximum growth and growth rate of blade length (BL) of L. japonica and Un.
pinnatifida and thallus area (TA) of Ul. pertusa
Items Unit L. japonica Un. pinnatifida Ul. pertusa
Layer (m) 2.0 2.0 0.5
Blade length (cm) 250 182 –
Thallus area (cm2) – – 640
Growth rate of BL (cm/day) 3.0 4.2 –
Growth rate of TA (cm2/day) – – 7.6
Table 12.2 Maximum N and P uptake rates (PmN,P), the maximum irradiance to PmN,P (Im),
Michaelis-Menten constants (K ), and the water temperature coefficients (Q01) of L. japonica, Un.
pinnatifida, and Ul. pertusa
N P N P N P
Water temp. ( C) 16–23 12–20 18–28
Pm (mg/ms2/day) 2.9 0.43 3.1 0.54 3.6 0.19
Im (μmol/mf2/s) 720 670 730
K (μg/L) 29 8.7 17 6.2 26 8.0
Q01 1.071 1.062 1.090 1.081 1.076 1.084
The optimum light intensity for nutrient uptake of L. japonica, Un. pinnatifida,
and Ul. pertusa was calculated as 720 μmol/m2/s, 670 μmol/m2/s, and 730 μmol/m2/
s, respectively. Additionally, the water temperature coefficient (Q01) in relation to
the nitrogen uptake rate of each seaweed was 1.071, 1.090, and 1.076, respectively,
while the Q01 in relation to the phosphate uptake rate was 1.062, 1.081, and 1.084,
respectively (Table 12.2). The calculated values of nitrogen and phosphate uptake
rates, obtained by integrating the nutrient concentrations, light intensity, and water
temperatures, corresponded well with each observed value.
12.4.4 Production and Consumption of Oxygen by

the Seaweeds
Oxygen production and consumption rates of L. japonica, Un. pinnatifida, and Ul.
pertusa were maximized when water temperature was 23 C, 20 C, and 28 C,
respectively. The maximum oxygen production rate of each seaweed was 2.6, 2.7,
and 2.8 (mg O2/mg chl.a/h), while that for the oxygen consumption rate was 0.29,
0.24, and 0.35 (mg O2/mg chl.a/h), respectively.
With these values, the maximum oxygen production rate of the seaweed in
reference to the oxygen consumption rate of individual fish was calculated as 8.9
for L. japonica, 11.2 for Un. pinnatifida, and 8.0 for Ul. pertusa (Table 12.3). This
means that the oxygen production rate of the seaweed during the daytime under fine
weather conditions is eight to eleven times as high as the oxygen consumption rate,
indicating that seaweed cultivation would be effective for supplying oxygen to
water in fish farms.
12.4.5 Seaweed Cultural Density in Relation to Nitrogen

Load in Fish Farm Area
It has been reported that the nitrogen load rate per square meter of area of a
yellowtail S. quinqueradiata farm during the seaweed cultivation period is
Table 12.3 Maximum O2 production rates (P0 cm) and O2 consumption rates (R0 c) of L. japonica,
Un. pinnatifida, and Ul. pertusa
Water temp. ( C) 23 20 28
P0 cm (mg O2/mg chl.a/h) 2.6 2.7 2.8
R0 c (mg O2/mg chl.a/h) 0.29 0.24 0.35
P0 cm/R0 c 8.9 11.2 8.0
290 mg N/m2/day for L. japonica, 115 mg N/m2/day for Un. pinnatifida, and
520 mg N/m2/day for Ul. pertusa (Kouchi Fisheries Experimental Station 1989).
The minimum seaweed cultural density necessary per unit area of a
S. quinqueradiata farm was calculated using the values of the maximum nitrogen
uptake rate obtained above Sect. 12.4.3. With the maximum nitrogen uptake rates
of the seaweeds mentioned above, the minimum seaweed cultural density necessary
for the area of this particular S. quinqueradiata farm was obtained. The cultural
density of L. japonica was 105 kg wet/m2, 2 kg wet/m2 for Un. pinnatifida, and
7.6 kg wet/m2 for Ul. pertusa (Table 12.4).
It is considered that the effective cultural density of Ul. Pertusa in a fish farm is
3.0 kg wet/m2 (Maesako et al. 1985). For this reason, the nitrogen uptake rate of Ul.
pertusa in relation to the nitrogen load in a fish farm is calculated up to approxi-
mately 40% (3.0/7.6) when the area of cultured seaweed is the same as the area of
the farm. In other words, the cultured area of Ul. pertusa necessary to purify the
nitrogen load in an inner-bay fish farm is 2.5 times (7.6/3.0) as large as the fish farm.
12.4.6 Seaweed Cultural Density to Oxygen Consumption by

Cultured Fish
The oxygen consumption rate of an individual S. quinqueradiata while L. japonica,

Un. pinnatifida, and Ul. pertusa were cultured was calculated as 879 mg O2/a fish/h,
695 mg O2/a fish/h, and 1392 mg O2/a fish/h, respectively (Kadowaki 1990, 1994).
The required mass of the seaweed necessary to accommodate oxygen consumption
by an individual S. quinqueradiata was calculated using the seaweeds’ maximal
oxygen production rate per unit weight of each seaweed species. The production
rates were 0.75 mg O2/g wet/h for L. japonica, 0.83 mg O2/g wet/h for Un.
pinnatifida, and 6.39 mg O2/g wet/h for Ul. pertusa.
In addition, the minimal weight of cultured seaweeds necessary to accommodate
the oxygen consumption of an individual S. quinqueradiata was calculated as
1.17 kg wet/a fish, 0.83 kg wet/a fish, and 0.21 kg wet/a fish, respectively. The
minimum seaweed cultural density necessary to accommodate the oxygen con-
sumption per cubic meter of the net cage was calculated as 5.6 kg wet/m3 for
L. japonica, 4.0 kg wet/m3 for Un. pinnatifida, and 1.3 kg wet/m3 for Ul. pertusa
(Table 12.5).
Table 12.4 Comparison of minimum density of seaweeds cultured per fish farm area for nitrogen
load of S. quinqueradiata in L. japonica, Un. pinnatifida, and Ul. pertusa
Un. Ul.
Items Formula Unit L. japonica pinnatifida pertusa
N load rate of A (mg N/mf2/day) 290 115 520
S. quinqueradiataa
PmN B (mg N/mf2/day) 2.9 3.1 3.6
Weight of seaweed C (kg wet/indiv.) 0.116 0.192 –
Area of seaweed D (ms2/indiv.) 0.11 0.26 –
Area per weight of D/C ¼ E (ms2/kg wet) 0.95 1.35 19
seaweed
Minimum density of sea- A/(B・E) (kg wet/mf2) 105 27 7.6
weed per fish farm area
a
Kouchi Fisheries Experimental Station (1989)
Table 12.5 Comparison of minimum amount of seaweeds cultured per a fish and minimum
density of seaweed cultured per fish cage volume for O2 consumption of S. quinqueradiata in
L. japonica, Un. Pinnatifida, and Ul. pertusa
Un. Ul.
Items Formula Unit L. japonica pinnatifida pertusa

Water temperature C 23 20 28
Body weight of kg 2.0 1.8 2.6
S. quinqueradiataa
Density of S. quinqueradiata A fish/m3 4.8 4.8 6.3
per cage volumea
O2 consumption rate of B mg O2/fish/h 879 695 1392
S. quinqueradiatab
Maximum O2 production rate C mg O2/g wet/h 0.75 0.83 6.39
of seaweed
Minimum amount of sea- B/C kg wet/fish 1.17 0.83 0.21
weed per a fish
Minimum density of seaweed AB/C kg wet/m3 5.6 4.0 1.3
per fish cage volume
a
Kadowaki (1990); bKadowaki (1994)
12.5 Conclusions
From the results, it was obvious that all of the seaweed species had the capacity to
take in nitrogen and phosphate loads and that they fulfilled the role as oxygen
producers. However, it may be difficult for seaweed to completely take in nitrogen
and phosphate loads alone. Even with Ul. pertusa which uptakes nitrogen and
Conditions of Laminaria japonica culture

∑ temperature ：20∼23 The rate of N uptake by seaweed
∑ length of seeding yarn :10 c for N load by fish cultured
∑ spacing of seeding insertion : 10 c 32 kg/mf2
∑ length of ropes with seeding yarn : ∑ 30 ％=
105 kg/mf2
160 ｍ = 4 ｍ 40 ropes
Amount of Laminaria japonica production
∑ 3200 ｋｇ(20 kg ) = 1.7 kg N uptake =0.29 kg P uptake
4ｍ
Fig. 12.3 An example of seaweed cultured around the fish culture cage
phosphate loads most effectively, it would take an area two and a half times that of a
fish farm in order to take in the loads completely. Still, it is considered important to
cultivate effective seaweed for the eutrophication of each fish farm and improve the
water quality.
It was also shown that seaweed worked effectively in supplying oxygen. This
indicates that it is both possible to reduce the environmental load and supply the
oxygen necessary for feeding fish, in addition to managing the water environment,
using seaweed.
Kadowaki (2006) has proposed a specific model on how to cultivate seaweeds as
shown in Fig. 12.3. It assumes that L. japonica and Un. pinnatifida are cultivated
around cultured fish cages. The cultivation area is 4 m below the sea surface in
consideration of the growth of seaweed and water exchange. Stem ropes, in which
10 cm length of seeding yarns are inserted at 10 cm spacings, are hung down at 1 m
intervals around the cage (Ohyama et al. 2005). It is expected that 3.2 mt of
L. japonica can be grown, and about 30% of the nitrogen load of the feeding fish
will be reduced with the grown seaweed.
The time to fully implement poly-eco-aquaculture is now! In order to reproduce
marine aquaculture farms, concrete measures need to be taken to promote year-
round seaweed breeding inside and outside of fish farms, artificial formation of
seaweed beds, and reuse and circulation of output biomass of seaweed. Environ-
mentally sound poly-eco-aquaculture answers the needs of both environment and
industry, because it will enable environmental conservation through water purifi-
cation, compatible with sustainable aquaculture that would culture healthy fish.
When various groups of living things support the sea, the productivity of fish farms
will be developed, and a rich sea having sustainable productivity might be realized.
It is our hope that those in the aquaculture industry will try this eco-friendly
approach to promote sustainable aquaculture.
References
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tail, Seriola quinqueradiata. Doctoral thesis of Hokkaido University, 123pp. (In Japanese)
Kadowaki S (1994) Energy budget for a yellowtail, Seriola quinqueradiata in pen culture.
Environmental management in Aquaculture, Bulletin of National Research Institute of Aqua-
culture, Supplement 1, pp 45–59
Kadowaki S (2001) Creations of sea, fishes and human in 21th century for environmental
conservation of mariculture. The Society of Naval Architects of Japan, 16th Ocean Engineer-
ing Symposium, pp 1–16. (In Japanese)
Kadowaki S (2004) Advantages of environmentally sound poly-eco-culture in coastal fish farms
for the way of recycling of resources. Jpn Fish Resour Conserv Assoc Mon 407:7–9.
(In Japanese)
Kadowaki S (2006) The minimum density of seaweed cultured for water purification in coastal fish
farms. Yousyoku Mon 541:14–17. (In Japanese)
Kadowaki S, Kitadai Y (2005) Fish and seaweed aquaculture in the Yatsushiro Sea. Kaiyo Mon
415:69–73. (In Japanese)
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water. Suisanzoshoku 42:267–272. (In Japanese with English abstract)
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the United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences Kagoshima University, 132 pp.
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cultured in coastal fish farms. Suisanzoshoku 51:15–23. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Kitadai Y, Kadowaki S (2004a) The growth and N, P uptake rates of Ulva pertusa cultured in
coastal fish farms. Suisanzoshoku 52:65–72. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Kitadai Y, Kadowaki S (2004b) The growth process and N, P uptake rates of Undaria pinnatifida
cultured in coastal fish farms. Suisanzoshoku 52:365–374. (In Japanese with English abstract)
Kouchi Fisheries Experimental Station (1989) Load volume of nitrogen. Bull Kochi Prefecture
Fish Exp Station 85:34–41. (In Japanese)
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Chapter 13
Closed Ecological Recirculating Aquaculture
Systems
Toshio Takeuchi
Abstract Closed habitation experiments are essential for global environment

improvement and maintenance of self-sustaining ecosystems. Hydro-ecosystems,
which utilize aquatic organisms, are a promising prospect in habitation experi-
ments. The utilization of aquatic organisms in closed systems can essentially be
divided into three parts: (1) cultivation of phytoplankton for oxygen supply,
(2) rearing of fish as a protein source, and (3) utilization of fish and shellfish for
recycling of organic waste. Utilization of aquatic organisms (e.g., phytoplankton,
zooplankton, and fish) to realize CO2 and O2 circulation and the construction of
food chains are essential for the promotion of closed ecological systems.
Recently, fundamental data were collected using the Closed Ecological
Recirculating Aquaculture System (CERAS). Essential biomass was estimated
from feeding trials between phytoplankton and fish, between phytoplankton and
zooplankton, and between zooplankton and fish, and the CO2 and O2 budgets
between phytoplankton and fish were investigated during development of the
experimental equipment. In this chapter, we summarize simple CERAS food
chains in freshwater and saltwater environments and give the results of photope-
riod experiments.
Keywords Ecological aquaculture • Closed system • Algae • Zooplankton • Fish •

Fish culture waste • Food chain • Photoperiod
13.1 Introduction
If humans are to establish permanent space colonies, the production of food,

purification of water, regeneration of oxygen from carbon dioxide, and recycling
of waste into usable resources through various physicochemical and biological
methods will become vitally important. Controlled ecological life support systems
(CELSS) are life-support systems that are capable of performing these regenerative
T. Takeuchi (*)
Japan
280 T. Takeuchi
functions (Matsumoto and Hamazaki 1992). Many studies are currently being
carried out with the aim of constructing atmospheric, geospheric, and hydrospheric
CELSS subsystems (Nitta et al. 1996).
As one such CELSS prototype, Closed Ecological Recirculating Aquaculture
Systems (CERAS) (Takeuchi et al. 1997) have recently been developed for hydro-
spheric use with aquatic organisms such as phytoplankton, zooplankton, and fish
(Fig. 13.1: Takeuchi 2011). In CERAS, fish are spawned and hatched, and the
larvae, juveniles, and adults are reared on plankton. The use of aquatic organisms
(e.g., phytoplankton, zooplankton, and fish) to realize the circulation of CO2 and O2
and the construction of food chains are essential for the promotion of these closed
ecological systems. CERAS is a relatively large project requiring a large amount of
energy for food production. However, for use in space stations or during develop-
ment of lunar bases, a small low-energy system is required. Accordingly, to
establish a compact fish-culturing system, removal of the zooplankton stage from
the CERAS food chain has been suggested (Takeuchi and Omori 2005).
Recently, recirculating system technology for aquaculture has been advancing
rapidly due to growing concern over environmental conservation and food safety.
For application of CERAS, aquaculture factories are based on saltwater fish. This
system aims to provide efficient aquaculture within an artificial environment that
Commercial diet
Harvest Food process
Fish-Rearing Cyst
System Oreochromis
Stock breeding
niloticus Moina macrocopa
Reproduction Zooplankton-
Temperature Cultivating System
Photoperiod feeding
Hatchery development
Adult Juvenile Batch or continual cultivation
Anaerobic
Liquid excreta Solid excreta treatment
Decomposition
Direct
utilization as
Mixing Direct
nutrients
Sterilization utilization
Hydrophyte- Microalgae-
Cultivating System Cultivating System
Ceratophyllum Chlorella, Euglena, Feeding
Feeding Scenedesmus, Spirulina
Fig. 13.1 Material cycles in the Closed Ecological Recirculating Aquaculture System (CERAS)
(Modified from Takeuchi 2011)
13 Closed Ecological Recirculating Aquaculture Systems 281
closely resembles the natural environment. The following are therefore necessary:
(1) culture of fish in an environment completely free of medicines as well as
harmful biological, chemical, and physical substances, (2) an established tracking
system, (3) established methods for the prevention of environmental pollution (N,
P), and (4) aquaponics, which is the combination of aquaculture (fish) and hydro-
ponics (plant) in a recirculating system.
13.2 The Closed Recirculating Fish-Rearing System
13.2.1 Freshwater
The freshwater fish Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus has many attributes suitable
for culture on Earth as well as in space. For example, it has an excellent growth rate
and is tolerant of a wide range of environmental conditions including dissolved
oxygen levels as low as 0.7 mg/L, temperatures as high as 42 C, and NH4+-N
concentrations as high as 80 ppm (Yada and Miyashita 1988). Tilapia also shows
low susceptibility to disease and is amenable to handling and captivity. Moreover, it
has a short generation time and is capable of breeding in captivity (Takashima
1997). Most importantly, it is widely accepted as a food fish because of its high
palatability and history of use in aquaculture. With all these advantages, tilapia
shows particular potential for the use in aquaculture.
We developed a closed recirculating fish-rearing system (Fig. 13.2) consisting of
an airtight tank with an O2/CO2 exchange unit and subsequently established a long-
term feeding experiment with tilapia. In this experiment, with the exception of
Fig. 13.2 A sealed fish-rearing tank with an artificial lung (Cited from Endo and Takeuchi 2013)
282 T. Takeuchi
evaporation/condensation to and from the air and water analysis, the water
remained unchanged. The experiment was conducted for 189 days at 28 C with
two additional open tank systems under different experimental conditions for
comparison. In this closed fish-rearing system, tilapia showed normal growth and
high feeding efficiency over the entire 189-day period compared with the
recirculating open tank under a high concentration of NO3-N. After completion,
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) budgets were calculated: 38.2% and 50.7% were
retained as fish growth; 3.4% and 38.5% were removed as solid waste; and 49.3%
and 1.4% accumulated in the rearing water, respectively (Endo et al. 1999). Other
minerals, such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), iron (Fe), man-
ganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu), were examined as well. Among the
elements excreted by tilapia, the main constituents Mg and K accumulated in the
rearing water, while others, such as P, Ca, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu, were deposited and
removed as solid waste. Over 80% of the P in these solids was bound to Ca (apatitic
P), with the remaining forms (non-apatitic inorganic P and organic P) negligible
when compared with fish diet (Takeuchi and Omori 2005).
13.2.2 Saltwater
Recirculating aquaculture in saltwater is described in prior chapters. Our group

chose the tiger puffer Takifugu rubripes, Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus,
and longtooth grouper Epinephelus bruneus for the closed recirculating aquaculture
system (CRAS). However, these experiments did not include a closed recirculating
fish-rearing system (Fig. 13.2). Tiger puffer waste in CRAS was therefore collected
for the use in algae culture. These experiments are described in detail later (see
Sect. 13.5.4).
13.3 Microalgae–Tilapia Culture
Construction of simplified production links such as the food chain between phyto-
plankton and fish is necessary to minimize the size and save energy and labor. In its
natural habitat, tilapia changes its diet and feeding mode from carnivorous to
omnivorous at a total body length of 2–3 cm and then again to phytoplanktivorous
at about 6–7 cm (Yada 1982; Getachew 1987; McDonald 1987). Adult tilapia are
filter-feeding herbivores with blue-green algae being common components of their
diet (Fry and Iles 1972; Trewavas 1983; Yada 1982; McDonald 1987). To inves-
tigate the feasibility of the food chain between phytoplankton and tilapia, we
examined the growth and reproduction of tilapia fed solely on raw Spirulina
platensis from the onset of exogenous feeding. Spirulina is generally regarded as
a rich source of protein (60–70%), vitamins, essential amino acids, minerals,
essential fatty acid [e.g., γ-linolenic acid (GLA)], and antioxidant pigments such
as carotenoids (Cohen 1997). Its thin and soft cell wall (about 50 nm), made up of
80% pectin and 20% cellulose (Hedenskog and Hofsten 1970), is thinner than that
of Chlorella (about 50–200 nm, with >90% cellulose) (Matsumoto and Hamazaki
1992) and can be readily digested. Moreover, Spirulina has unique characteristics,
such as the presence of glycogen instead of starch as the photosynthetic stock
nutrient (Cohen 1997). In addition to its nutritional value, it is also effective in
immune modulation and radiation protection (Belay et al. 1996) and is reported to
be an effective exchanger of O2/CO2 (Oguchi et al. 1987). Mass production is
possible under conditions of high salinity and alkalinity, ensuring a stable supply of
algae in harsh environments where water availability is limited (Takeuchi and
Omori 2005).
13.3.1 Tilapia Fed a Microalgae Diet
In the first experiment, we confirmed that juvenile tilapia at the feed transition stage
grew normally when fed solely on raw Spirulina (Takeuchi et al. 2002). Next, the
effect of Spirulina on larval tilapia was compared with that of two other species of
microalgae (Euglena gracilis and Chlorella vulgaris). Larval tilapia ingested sig-
nificantly more Spirulina than Euglena and Chlorella, and Spirulina was more
readily assimilated (61.4–80%) from the onset of exogenous feeding. Comparisons
of assimilated levels further showed that Spirulina appeared superior to Euglena
and Chlorella in terms of available carbon for accumulation in the larval tilapia
body. These results suggest that Spirulina is more acceptable than Euglena and
Chlorella as a sole food source for larval tilapia from the onset of exogenous
feeding (Omori et al. 2000; Lu et al. 2002; Takeuchi and Omori 2005).
13.3.2 Tilapia Egg Quality
Studies of spawning and egg quality in tilapia fed solely on raw Spirulina through-
out three generations were subsequently conducted to investigate the effect on
maturation and reproduction (Lu and Takeuchi 2004). There were no significant
differences in spawning performance (including first spawning, spawning period-
icity, and fecundity) or egg and larval quality (egg size, hatchability of fertilized
eggs, the survival time of starved hatchlings, and the rate of hatchling abnormali-
ties) between the three generations of broodstock tilapia fed solely on raw Spirulina
and commercial diets, respectively (Fig. 13.3: Lu and Takeuchi 2004). These
findings suggested that the investment in reproductive effort remains remarkably
consistent throughout sexual differentiation and growth. That is, tilapia fed solely
on raw Spirulina are able to maintain normal reproduction throughout three gener-
ations (Takeuchi and Omori 2005).
284 T. Takeuchi
Fig. 13.3 Growth of tilapia (P, F1, F2) fed raw Spirulina and a commercial diet and their first
spawning (Cited from Lu and Takeuchi 2004)
13.3.3 Tilapia Taste
This set of experiments focused on the ultimate objective: the taste and flesh quality
of tilapia fed solely on raw Spirulina compared with those fed commercial diets.
One worry was that the tilapia might acquire off-flavors as a result of feeding solely
on raw Spirulina, because the most prevalent off-flavors in aquaculture are related
to blue-green algae (Boyd and Tucker 1999). The flesh of raw Spirulina-fed fish
contained a higher amount of proteins and a lower amount of lipids than those fed
the control diet. Moreover, the color, odor, texture, and fatness evaluations of the
raw Spirulina-fed tilapia were slightly superior. Furthermore, the rheological
parameters of the muscle were found to coincide with the results of sensory
assessment (Lu and Takeuchi 2002; Lu et al. 2003). These findings demonstrate
that tilapia fed solely on raw Spirulina have high flesh quality, to the extent that
they are suitable for use as sashimi (Takeuchi and Omori 2005).
13.3.4 Summary
This study verified the feasibility of rearing tilapia solely on raw Spirulina, clearly
confirming the feasibility of constructing a food chain between phytoplankton and
tilapia in CERAS. Simplified CERAS with a food chain between Spirulina and
tilapia is therefore a promising approach, with potential ecological engineering
applications in space exploration and exploitation. Furthermore, construction of the
Spirulina–tilapia food chain opens up the possibility of aquaculture practice using
recirculating aquaculture systems in harsh environments such as deserts, where
regular aquaculture in ponds or flow-through tanks is not possible because of the
scarcity or absence of suitable resources.
13.4 Transgenic Nile Tilapia
To strengthen the safety and security of aquaculture, we propose closed

recirculating aquaculture technology that allows for full control of pollution and
contamination both to and from the surrounding environment. The aim is to thereby
provide safe and secure aquaculture products through selection of optimal cultivat-
ing species suitable for closed recirculating aquaculture systems (CRASs). Such
species should possess characteristics that help reduce the environmental load from
CRAS by decreasing waste discharge. Moreover, since CRAS tends to be energy
intensive, with large running costs and high initial investment, the productivity of
the cultivated species should also be high. Growth hormone (GH)-transgenic fish
are currently the first choice, because they showed markedly enhanced growth.
Our research group developed “all fish,” GH-transgenic tilapia (GHTi), that
overexpress the GH gene throughout their bodies. They carry a tilapia GH com-
plementary DNA fragment gene spliced to a medaka β-actin gene promoter con-
struct integrated into the tilapia genome (Kobayashi et al. 2007). This GHTi has
become the first choice for CRAS culture since it exhibits highly efficient produc-
tivity. Compared with pedigree common domestic strain tilapia (CTi) reared to the
same edible size under visual satiation feeding, rearing of GHTi was achieved
69 days faster at a 1.4-fold higher specific growth rate and 37.3% higher feeding
efficiency when fed 38.1% less (Lu et al. 2009). Moreover, the total N and P
discharge loads from GHTi were lower: 50.1 and 61.1% of the control fish,
respectively (Fig. 13.4). Thus, GHTi is suitable for CRAS because it possesses
characteristics that reduce discharge load, thereby minimizing the overall cost of
the water recycling treatment (Lu et al. 2009).
However, these fish have undergone morphological changes, resulting in a short
body that is less acceptable for consumers. Early adult GHTi showed incomplete
bone mineralization, while late adult GHTi had skeletal abnormalities. We there-
fore focused attention on the association between these morphological changes and
the altered mineral requirements. In CTi, body ash, Ca, and P contents in the whole
body increased with growth; however, they decreased in GHTi. Furthermore, the
Ca/P ratio increased from 1.70 to 1.88 in CTi but decreased from 1.66 to 1.57 in
GHTi. It was therefore speculated that when fed conventional commercial diets to
satiety, GHTi with a body weight (BW) of more than approximately 230 g were
unable to retain sufficient Ca, while those with a BW of more than approximately
429 g could not retain sufficient P (Lu et al. 2013). This significantly lower total Ca
retention may be attributable to the synergistic effect of the 38.1% lower total food
intake resulting from the shortened rearing period, as well as the significantly lower
Ca retention rate (42.6%) in GHTi compared to CTi (50.9%) when both were fed
the same commercial diet. The significantly lower total P retention, on the other
hand, can only be attributed to the lower total P intake since the P retention rates of
GHTi and CTi were similar (38.0% and 37.3%, respectively). These findings may
be physiologically associated with changes in Ca and P metabolism and homeosta-
sis in GHTi (Lu et al. 2009).
286 T. Takeuchi
Intake, retention & load of N & P

90
80
Growth curve 70
T-N g/kgΔBW
60 Total N load (T-N
50
66%
g/kgΔBW)
40
Half Total N retention (T-N
250 53% g/kgΔBW)
30
20
47% 34%
200 10
0
Body weight (g)
3 months
GH Control
150
25
100
20
T-P g/kgΔBW
GH Total P load (T-P
15
50
Control
63% g/kgΔBW)
10
60% Total P retention (T-P
62% g/kgΔBW)
0 5 37%
85 135 185 235 285 38%
0
DPH (days)
GH Control
Fig. 13.4 Efficient productivity and the lowered nitrogen and phosphorus discharge load of
growth hormone (GH)-transgenic tilapia under visual satiation feeding (Modified from Lu et al.
2009)
After determining the association with changes in nutritional status, we then

attempted to reduce the prevalence of morphological deformities in GHTi via
dietary compound regulation by supplying a high amount of dietary Ca [6.82%,
Ca supplementation diet (Ca-S)] or P [4.75%, P supplementation diet (P-S)]. Both
the Ca-S and P-S improved mineral retention, and fish fed the Ca-S showed a lower
prevalence of deformities, close to size-matched CTi. These results suggest that the
requirements of dietary Ca and P were significantly higher in GHTi than CTi and,
consequently, that conventional levels of Ca and P in commercial diets cannot meet
the mineral requirements of GHTi (Lu et al. 2013). We therefore propose develop-
ment of an optimal diet that meets these altered nutritional requirements of
GH-transgenic tilapia for optimal growth promotion. This may become a prereq-
uisite for rearing the GHTi line in CRASs, thereby allowing application of these
new “domesticated fish” in CRAS and CERAS.
13.5 Fish Waste–Microalgae Culture in Freshwater
To determine whether the waste generated from fish culture in closed culture
systems could promote algal growth and efficiently substitute algal culture medium,
the waste composition was compared with the elemental composition of algal
culture media used for Chlorella, Spirulina, and Scenedesmus, respectively. The
Cu content of the rearing water was sufficient for culture of all three microalgae, as
were the contents of P, Fe, Mn, and Zn in the removal solids. However, the latter,
being insoluble precipitate, cannot be used directly for algal culture because it
requires ionization prior to utilization. The K and Mg content were insufficient for
algal culture. These results show that several elements in the waste require ioniza-
tion and/or supplementation if they are to serve as nutrients for algal growth in a
closed culture system (Endo et al. 2000) and that sedimentation of these minerals is
regulated by the chemical equilibria in the system (Takeuchi and Omori 2005).
13.5.1 Scenedesmus
In order to determine algal growth in fish culture wastewater and the effect of
adding digested fish culture solid waste, 7-day culture experiments with the green
alga Scenedesmus quadricauda were conducted at a constant temperature of 15 C
under continuous light and aeration. Media treatments were derived from diluted
wastewater (WW) and solid waste (SW) digested with concentrated sulfuric acid
and hydrogen peroxide at 440 C. Treatments included diluted wastewater, diluted
wastewater with solid waste after digestion (WW + SW), and diluted wastewater
with sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide (WW + SA + HP) as a control. Algal
growth occurred in all media treatments, although significantly lower growth and N
removal were recorded in WW and WW + SA + HP. Final P readings in WW and
WW + SA + HP could not be detected. These results indicate that the two
treatments without solid waste had insufficient P and were comparable to algal
growth observed in synthetic medium. The final readings in WW/SW for N, P, K,
Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu were reduced by more than 70% compared to the initial
readings. Overall, it was clear from these findings that the addition of digested
solid waste resulted in superior N removal from fish culture wastewater by
S. quadricauda (Endo and Takeuchi 2004; Takeuchi and Omori 2005).
13.5.2 Spirulina
Using culture waste of tilapia fed solely on Spirulina under closed conditions, we
subsequently cultured Spirulina to elucidate the tilapia–Spirulina matter cycle with
the aim of evaluating the possible production of Spirulina biomass (Endo et al.
2009). Results revealed that WW alone was insufficient, whereas Spirulina grew
well in the presence of a WW and SW blend. However, growth in this medium was
poorer than that in Spirulina–Ogawa–Terui (SOT) medium. Moreover, the addition
of P and Zn enhanced growth in the WW + SW medium to the same level as that in
SOT. These results were consistent with previous reports whereby P in particular
was effective for culture of Spirulina (Endo et al.2009).
288 T. Takeuchi
WW and SW generated under the optimal condition for tilapia growth (salinity,
8 psu) were also used to prepare media for Spirulina culture (Nishimura et al. 2012).
The resulting biomass was 0.95 g/L, 1.18 g/L, and 1.21 g/L when used for SOT
medium, WW + SW medium at a salinity of 4 psu, and WW + SW medium at a
salinity of 8 psu, respectively. This indicates that more biomass was produced in the
salt-containing media than SOT, thereby suggesting that the appropriate salinity for
culture of Spirulina is 4 or 8 psu.
13.5.3 Chlorella–Moina Feedback Culture
To develop a total production system involving the above culture steps, we

established an experimental system using fish culture waste products of tilapia to
culture C. vulgaris and Moina, which were then used to support further tilapia
aquaculture (Mori et al. 2006). Following this, we constructed a prototype of the
Moina-cultivating system, to provide effluent from the Moina cultivation supply for
continuous consumption and growth of C. vulgaris (Fig. 13.5) (Endo and Takeuchi
2013). Tilapia culture waste was absorbed at a twofold higher efficiency by this
Moina culture system than by Moina fed solely on C. vulgaris. The results reveal
that the use of fish culture waste from tilapia enables effective production of feed, in
this case Moina, via C. vulgaris cultivation.
Fig. 13.5 A nutrient feedback rearing system for water fleas. The system was constructed using an
algal cultivation flask (left side) (Cited from Endo and Takeuchi 2013)
13.5.4 Fish Waste–Microalgae Culture in Salt Water
Chaetoceros gracilis contains a high level of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), while

Tetraselmis tetrathele contains high levels of protein and linolenic acid; therefore,
both can be effective feed for prawn larvae and short-neck clams. Zhang (2013)
evaluated the composition of medium containing fish culture waste products gen-
erated by tiger puffer, for the cultivation of C. gracilis and T. tetrathele. One
component of a saltwater recirculating aquaculture system is a foam fractionator,
which also discharges WW and SW from tiger puffer culture. Previous studies
suggest that the WW + SW medium obtained from tiger puffer aquaculture waste
lacks certain ingredients essential for algae culture, namely, iron and manganese.
Here, WW + SW medium supplemented with Fe and Mn proved an effective
medium for growth of both algal species. The time to reach maximum density
was longer when C. gracilis was cultured in medium supplemented with WW + SW
compared to control medium (F medium), while the crude lipid content and
nonessential amino acid content were 1.4-fold and 2.2-fold higher, respectively,
in the WW + SW supplemented medium than F medium. The yields and compo-
sitions (crude protein content, crude lipid content, amino acid composition, and
fatty acid composition) of the cultured T. tetrathele were similar between the
WW + SW supplemented and F medium.
These findings suggest that the waste generated during aquaculture of tilapia and
tiger puffer, which are freshwater and saltwater fish species, respectively, can be
used for algae cultivation. Supplementation with minerals may be necessary,
depending on the algae species under cultivation. These results further suggest
the feasibility of constructing a CERAS, an aquaculture system that performs both
feed production and water purification.
13.6 Gas Exchange between Chlorella and Tilapia
To more precisely elucidate gas circulation and the behavior of oxygen and carbon
dioxide, Endo and Takeuchi (2013) developed an experimental aquaculture system
that enables gas exchange between tilapia and microalgae chambers (Fig. 13.6). A
2-week experiment examining gas exchange between C. vulgaris and tilapia
showed that levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide gradually stabilized with growth
of C. vulgaris, subsequently allowing a sufficient amount of oxygen for tilapia
culture and, as a result, successful fish survival and maintenance of water quality.
290 T. Takeuchi
Fig. 13.6 Experimental unit for gas exchange between microalgae and fish
13.7 Estimation of the Mass Balance
In the introduction of this chapter, we mentioned that the final goal in the develop-
ment of CERAS is smooth loops for transfer of substrates that function with a
higher overall bioconversion rate. The initial loop of the food chain starts with the
waste processor, where water-soluble nutrients are cycled to the microalgal com-
ponent. These nutrients are utilized for synthesis of C. vulgaris biomass, which are
then transferred to the next component. The Moina macrocopa and tilapia biomass
are then returned to the waste processor and recycled into nutrients for algal growth.
Gases flow, namely, oxygen and carbon dioxide, and the resulting concentrations
are controlled by a storage device.
Various experiments were conducted to estimate N and P flow and the biomass
conversion rate of the artificial CERAS food chain. First, we determined the
percentages of N and P removal from the tilapia cultural medium with
C. vulgaris (75.2% and 71.9%, respectively). Next, the percentages of biomass
conversion, and N and P retention between M. macrocopa and C. vulgaris, were
obtained. Values were 20.4%, 24.9%, and 17.0%, respectively. As a third step, a
feeding trial with tilapia fed solely on M. macrocopa was conducted. The biomass
conversion and the N and P retention rates were subsequently calculated as 25.4%,
27.3%, and 45.3%, respectively. Using these values, a schematic flow diagram
using estimated biomass values was obtained (Fig. 13.7). Details of the calculation
Processed waste
N: 100 P: 26.8(100)
N: 94.9 P: 25.3
(94.5)
N: 75.2% P: 71.9%
Microalga C. vulgaris
Biomass: 835 (100) N: 75.2 P: 19.2 (71.9)
Biomass: 20.4% N: 24.9% P:17.0%
Zooplankton M. macrocopa N: 81.2

P: 23.4
Biomass: 170 (20.4) N: 18.8 P: 3.27 (12.2)
(87.8)
Biomass: 25.4% N:27.3% P:45.3%

N: 13.6 P: 1.79
Fish larvae O. niloticus (6.68)
Biomass: 43.2 (5.17) N: 5.12 P: 1.48 (5.54)
Nutrients:
Biomass:
Waste:
Fig. 13.7 Schematic flow diagram showing the estimated values of biomass, nitrogen (N) and
phosphorus (P) conversions, and their retention in each aquatic organism based on the nitrogen-
containing processed waste (Modified from Endo and Takeuchi 2005)
formula were described in a previous paper (Endo and Takeuchi 2005). Values in
the figure are expressed by the amount of N contained in the processed waste
converted to a value of 100. Values of P retention and biomass conversion in
parentheses are represented by the converted P contained in the waste and the
biomass of microalga as a value of 100, respectively.
In this study, the overall mass flow of the artificial food chain, that is,
aquacultural waste to C. vulgaris to M. macrocopa to tilapia larvae, and oxygen
balance in the system were calculated. Values were obtained according to the
assumption that fish were reared from larval tilapia (body weight, 0.01 g) fed on
M. macrocopa acquired through the food chain. The estimated fish biomass pro-
vided by the food chain was 5.17% of the C. vulgaris biomass, while N and P
retention in the fish body from aquaculture waste were 5.12% and 5.54%, respec-
tively. The amount of oxygen regenerated by C. vulgaris was estimated as more
than twice that consumed by tilapia and M. macrocopa. These results suggest that
the oxygen supply is sufficient for normal operation of the system (Endo and
Takeuchi 2005).
292 T. Takeuchi
13.8 Photoperiod Studies
It is well known that the photoperiod can influence growth, reproduction, and many
other physiological functions in various animal species. However, in fish, photo-
period experiments have been carried out only under 24-h light/dark cycles. A 24-h
light/dark cycle is one of the most pervasive epigenetic influences on organisms,
from single-celled organisms to humans. Any discrepancy from this circadian
rhythm has been shown to influence physiological performances. It is further
thought that extreme circadian cycles exert differing influences on physiological
functions, subsequently reflected in differential physiological performance. Thus, it
is possible that growth may occur at different speeds if an organism lives through
more cycles than another within the same time span. This possibility has been
evidenced in some mammals where it was concluded that the rate of body weight
increase is not determined by real time but rather by subjective time represented by
the number of light/dark cycles (Madrid et al. 1992; Vilaplana et al. 1996). This
reinforces the necessity of investigating this phenomenon in fish.
13.8.1 Tilapia
The overall goal here was to determine the optimal photoperiod regime for
improved growth rate and to determine the feasibility of using photoperiod manip-
ulation to control excessive reproductive activity, which can lead to problems of
overcrowding in CERAS tanks. Our previous studies (Biswas and Takeuchi 2002;
Biswas et al. 2002) showed that oxygen consumption in both young and adult
tilapia is influenced by different artificial photoperiod regimes (e.g., 3 L:3D,
6 L:6D, 12 L:12D, and 24 L:24D). The higher postprandial increase in metabolic
rate or energy loss does not always act to reduce the scope of activity. Therefore, the
effects of different photoperiod regimes and feeding interval on food intake and
growth of tilapia were investigated (Biswas and Takeuchi 2003). Fish exposed to a
6 L: 6D had a significantly higher growth rate than those exposed to other photo-
periods. Moreover, when fed to satiation, significantly higher food consumption
and feeding efficiency as well as lower adiposity were observed in fish exposed to
6 L:6D compared to 12 L:12D. These results indicate that a 6 L:6D regimen results
in improved growth through stimulated food intake; however, it would be prema-
ture to suggest this as the optimal photoperiod for rearing fish without careful
analysis of how photoperiod affects stress levels. Therefore, further experiments
were carried out to determine the levels of stress indicators in fish exposed to the
different photoperiod regimes. Physiological responses (cortisol, glucose, Cl,
hematocrit, lymphocyte, and neutrophil counts) were used as stress indicators.
The results demonstrated that an artificial photoperiod regime does not cause a
significant acute or chronic stress response, although a slightly higher cortisol level
was observed in fish exposed to 6 L:6D. These elevated levels of cortisol may play
an important role in positively controlling the physiological functions of fish

exposed to this regime (Biswas et al. 2004). One interesting observation was that
fish exposed to 6 L:6D showed higher blood lymphocyte concentrations than those
exposed to 12 L:12D. This may indicate a positive effect of 6 L:6D, because
lymphocytes possess all the necessary components required for an independent
extra-neuronal cholinergic system for the regulation of immune function. A major
problem in tilapia aquaculture is excessive reproduction of female fish, which leads
to increased competition for food and stunted somatic growth. The feasibility of
using photoperiod manipulation to arrest reproductive performance was therefore
examined. Fish exposed to 12 L:12D and 14 L:10D spawned successfully through-
out the experiments. Although fish exposed to 6 L:6D spawned successfully
immediately after initiation of the photoperiod regime, spawning was arrested
after two to four spawning cycles. This was further paralleled by a significant
decrease in plasma levels of estradiol-17β (Fig. 13.8: Biswas et al. 2005a). In
contrast, there were no major differences in testosterone levels among treatments.
These findings suggest that photoperiod manipulation can be used to arrest
spawning in tilapia and, moreover, that growth and reproduction could be
controlled by manipulation of photoperiod and feeding interval (Takeuchi and
Omori 2005).
13.8.2 Saltwater Fish
The convincing findings in tilapia motivated scientists in Japan to carry out studies
on the effect of photoperiod manipulation on the growth performance of various
commercially important marine species. Red sea bream Pagrus major is considered
one of the most commercially important marine species in Japan, as it has a range of
Fig. 13.8 Changes in plasma levels of estradiol-17β (E2) in the reproductive cycle of tilapia
maintained under different photoperiod regimes as a function of days post-spawning (Modified
from Biswas et al. 2005a). * Means SD (n ¼ 3 fish/treatment)
294 T. Takeuchi
uses and is traditionally consumed at festive occasions due to it symbolizing good

fortune. A series of experiments were therefore carried out to determine whether
photoperiod manipulation could be used to stimulate growth performance at dif-
ferent growth stages of this species. Four photoperiods (6 L:6D, 12 L:12D, 16 L:8D,
and 24 L:0D) were designed to investigate the effect at the following growth stages:
1–30 g, 20–100 g, 200–400 g, and 1.0–2.0 kg. In all cases, both continuous
(24 L:0D) and long (16 L:8D) photoperiods resulted in a 20–50% increase in
weight gain compared to a 12 L:12D photoperiod (Biswas et al. 2005b, 2006b,
2008a, b, 2009, 2010a). The higher growth, especially that at 24 L:0D, was
attributed to higher food intake, digestibility of nutrients and energy, and feed
conversion efficiency (Biswas et al. 2005b, 2006b, 2008a, b, 2009, 2010a). The
higher food intake under a continuous photoperiod is believed to have been the
result of increased activity of these diurnal fishes under this regime as well as
increased foraging activity when food was delivered or to have been related to the
positive effect of growth hormone on appetite (Johnsson and Bj€ornsson 1994). In a
different attempt using a self-feeder with different photoperiods, the 24 L:0D
photoperiod similarly resulted in increased growth performance compared to the
control (12 L:12D) (Biswas et al. 2011). Here, the longer access time to the self-
feeder under a continuous photoperiod compared to the 12L12D regime might have
allowed slower and more efficient digestion, thus improving conversion efficiency.
Because stress is known to reduce growth and disease resistance in fish, investiga-
tion of the physiological responses to artificial photoperiods is also necessary.
Therefore, a number of stress indicators were investigated under each approach.
The results demonstrated that levels of the different stress indicators in fish exposed
to the manipulated photoperiods were far lower than the stress-induced levels
observed in this species (Biswas et al. 2006a, b, 2008a, 2010a, 2011).
A number of experiments have been carried out in striped knifejaw Oplegnathus
fasciatus which has attracted great interest from Japanese fish farmers due to its
high market value and consumer demand. Different photoperiods (6 L:6D,
12 L:12D, 16 L:8D, and 24 L:0D) were designed to investigate the effect at
130–290 g and 280–350 g, respectively. Although there were no significant differ-
ences between 6 L:6D, 16 L:8D, and 24 L:0D, significantly higher growth perfor-
mance was observed compared to fish under the 12 L:12D regime at both growth
stages (Biswas et al. 2008c, d). Similar to the case in red sea bream, the higher feed
intake under the manipulated photoperiods may have been due to the feeding
strategy of these fish, which was closely reflected in the times of maximum appetite
(Azzaydi et al. 1999; Biswas et al. 2006b). Investigation of feeding interval under
16 L:8D and 24 L:0D at 10–70 g revealed no significant difference in growth
performance among 6-, 9-, and 12-h intervals under both photoperiods, indicating
that striped knifejaw can adjust its feeding activity between 6- and 12-h intervals to
maximize growth (Biswas et al. 2010b). In addition, the levels of different stress
indicators under the manipulated photoperiods were shown to be similar to those of
unstressed levels, suggesting that the artificial photoperiods caused no physiolog-
ical disturbance in striped knifejaw (Biswas et al. 2008c, 2010b).
In both species, improved appetite, greater food intake and higher feed conver-
sion efficiency, higher digestibility, and superior retention efficiency were factors
reportedly responsible for the faster growth rate under the manipulated photope-
riods. These findings show that photoperiod manipulation is therefore a major
factor in the promotion of production in both species.
13.9 Conclusions
So far, we have been investigating the construction of CERAS, with application of

the experimental results (Fig. 13.9) currently being explored. Recently,
recirculating system technology for aquaculture has been rapidly advancing due
to the growing concern over environmental conservation and food safety. In order
to establish successful CERAS technology, the following are important: (1) com-
plete control of the commercial diet, with establishment and full analysis of the
permissible values of hazards and methods for removal of these hazards from the
diet; (2) complete control of the water environment, with monitoring of the
aquaculture ground and culturing of organisms in water free of hazards; and
(3) establishment of “visible” aquaculture methods, the hazard analysis critical
control point. Development of computer technology to support the above is also
necessary.
So far, basic CERAS experiments have been concerned with the following:
achievement of highly efficient fish production through artificial control of
Space base
Factory for animal and
plant production Space Station
Closed ecological
recirculating fish
rearing system
Closed ecological
recirculating aquaculture
system (CERAS)
Closed recirculating Hydro-ecosystem kit

Earth cartridge rack
aquaculture factory for science education
Fig. 13.9 Scenario for the strategic application of CERAS

296 T. Takeuchi
illumination, utilization of low-priced and unused resources in the development of

new fish feeds, and development of a cartridge rack fish culture system (Omori et al.
2006; Yamada et al. 2009). In the future, various results are expected as develop-
ment of CERAS progresses, for example, improvements in food quality, safety, and
security, stabilization of distribution, promotion of the aquaculture industry,
employment of elderly individuals, creation of regional industry, reduction in
environmental loading and pollution, and the creation of urban and desert
aquaculture.
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Chapter 14
Local Survey and Consideration of Land-Based
Factory for Closed Recirculating Aquaculture
Using Waste Heat Discharged from Biomass
Power Plants
Masato Endo, Kunihiko Mouri, and Toshio Takeuchi
Abstract To assess the potential for realization of biomass power plants and for
utilizing their waste heat in water temperature control of closed recirculating
aquaculture system (CRAS), here we examined project feasibility of closed
recirculating land-based aquaculture factory (CRLAF) using waste heat generated
from biomass power plants in the northern Tohoku region of Japan, namely, Kuji
City, Hirono Town, and Noda Village located in Iwate Prefecture. Three types of
biomass were selected from survey data of biomass abundance, and the processing
capabilities, construction costs, and energetic budgets of three relevant power
plants—combustion of poultry manure, methane fermentation of swine manure,
and combustion of wood chips—were examined to uncover the feasibility of
implementation for each system. A model system for a CRAS was also established
for tiger puffer culture, and the required heat energy and production costs were
calculated. The results indicated that the biomass power plant utilizing poultry
manure combustion is feasible, due to the ability to easily purchase manure for
processing and generate additional income by selling processed fertilizer.
Processing capacity and biomass utilization policy were examined for other
power plants as well. The cost of tiger puffer production was calculated to be
2650 yen/kg, and 250 yen/kg of this cost in energy could be reduced by waste heat
utilization. The waste heat discharged from a power plant processing 50 tons/day of
poultry manure was estimated to be capable of providing the heat power for nine
units of a 100-ton CRAS.
M. Endo (*) • T. Takeuchi

Japan
K. Mouri
eL Power Technology Ltd, 2-26-6 Misakidai, Hachinohe, Aomori 031-0842, Japan
300 M. Endo et al.
Keywords Closed recirculating aquaculture system • Waste heat utilization •

Biomass power plant • Tiger puffer • Wood chips • Poultry manure • Swine
manure • Methane fermentation
14.1 Introduction
The closed recirculating aquaculture system (CRAS) is currently seeing active

research and development to secure the sustainable supply of aquatic resources as
well as the safety of food, and its technical maturity is advancing remarkably. To
this end, various studies have been conducted, especially in fundamental research
of the elemental technologies used in culture systems, such as residue management,
efficient ways of feed supply, and developments of effective feed and seedling fish.
Studies have also focused on fundamental technologies for industrialization, com-
prising the application of engineering technologies for the exploitation of animals’
biological traits (Endo 2008, 2014). However, because initial facility expenses and
running costs are high relative to the cost of the products, economic efficiency has
been considered low. In particular, the running cost is a source of this inefficiency,
as an extreme amount of energy is consumed for the temperature regulation. The
development of a 100% closed recirculating land-based aquaculture factory
(CRLAF) with a stable and inexpensive heat supply would allow for the establish-
ment of a new culture industry without restrictions on location near a saltwater
supply and with no need to obtain fishery rights. The development of this technol-
ogy is anticipated to become the backup of conventional fishery industry within
Japan, as well as contribute greatly to exports to the global fish market.
The Tohoku region of Japan is rich in biomass resources, but few investigations
have emphasized livestock biomass as an untapped resource. Swine manure, poul-
try manure, wood (from forest thinning), and recirculating land-based aquaculture
residue can be transformed into energy sources adapted to the specific regional
characteristics, which can be used efficiently to provide a stable heat source for
recirculating aquaculture systems. By simultaneously utilizing the minerals (ash),
and methane fermentation digested liquid produced as by-products of fertilizing
grains for animal consumption, it can be expected that a recycling society in which
the fishery, forestry, and livestock industries cooperate will be established. How-
ever, because each region has its own distinct biomass resources, fishery catch, and
processing methods, proposal of model plans that suit each region’s individual
characteristics and needs is crucial. Surveys and studies were therefore conducted
as a part of promoting the establishment of CRAS that make use of exhaust heat
generated by the operation of power plants, with a focus on biomass. Specifically,
as a starting point for solving the abovementioned problems, a model plan was
assembled for CRLAF that makes use of clean energy to establish novel industries
in the Tohoku region. This chapter describes these results.
14 Local Survey and Consideration for CRAS Using Waste Heat 301
14.2 Research Outline
Provision of a stable supply of secure and safe products throughout the year is one
of the advantages of CRLAF. However, for the establishment of this project,
various simulations were necessary to understand the specific regional characteris-
tics for the selection of fish species, feed price, quantity of production, electricity/
fuel costs, labor costs, construction, operation, and maintenance fees. Whereas
ordinary aquaculture utilizing natural bodies of water must face business con-
straints such as acquisition of fishery rights, CRASs do not have such restrictions.
This leads to the expectations of reducing costs through scale enlargement and
system optimization.
Therefore, in this study, the Kuji Area (comprising Kuji City, Noda Village, and
Hirono Town in Iwate Prefecture) was selected as the model construction site, and
simulations and plans for the industrialization and implementation of CRLAF
powered by waste heat from biomass power generation were conducted. Currently,
this area is attempting to push forward with a post-earthquake revival plan based on
the improvement of employment opportunities and activation of the regional
economy while reducing its carbon dioxide emissions.
Accordingly, this project is defined as a necessary condition for the establish-
ment of an enterprise that utilizes the regionally abundant supplies of poultry
manure, swine manure, and wood chips and gives an internal rate of return (IRR)
of 5–10%. In the current plan, the optimization of systems such as the transforma-
tion of aquacultural residues into energy by gasification and incineration will be
promoted in view of energy usage, rearing apparatus, and methods in fish. The
energy supply plan by biomass energy type is shown in Fig. 14.1.
Specific evaluation of industrialization such as fishery supply chains on site was
performed for the Kuji Area. In addition, investigations and research were
performed on the selections of fish species with high feasibility and estimation of
ecological energy source and the possibilities for the construction of smart com-
munity to select the appropriate construction fee and effective business model. For
the evaluation of industrialization, the feasibility of a CRAS that uses poultry
manure power generation as a heat and power source, as well as one that considers
the recycling of its residues, was evaluated. Also, model cases that utilize swine
manure and wood biomass were investigated.
In addition, a graphic representation of the enterprise was constructed for the
visual materialization of an integrated recirculating food production plant called
“eco-farm” that utilizes renewable, natural energy.
302 M. Endo et al.
Case 1 Biomass incinerator

Fish
System using poultry manure and power generation Feed Company
system Feed
Broiler farms Fish markets
Water
purification
system
Poultry Steam
manure Fuel generator Closed recirculating
aquaculture system
Layer farms
treatment
Farmed Marine product processing
Fish plants
Poultry SMART
manure community
Power system
Case 2 interconnection
System using Case 4
cattle and swine manure System using natural energy
Sediment
Cattle and swine Geothermal
farms cooling system
Power system
Storage Fermented gas interconnection
Tank production
Cattle and swine manure Biogas power Power Power
Generation system controller controller
Case 3
System using wood chips Small gas Wind turbine
Boiler Photovoltaic power
generator generator system
generating system
Thinned
wood
Wood chipping Hot-water

plant boiler
Planted forest
Fig. 14.1 Conceptual scheme of the relationship between biomass energy supplies and the closed
recirculating aquaculture systems
14.3 Survey of Biomass Abundances and Needs Assessment

on Fisheries Products in the Kuji Area
14.3.1 Biomass Abundances in the Kuji Area
Using the Kuji Area as a model, fundamental research and analyses were performed
in preparation of discussion and decisions for the industrialization plan of a land-
based aquaculture that utilizes biomass energy and takes characteristics and needs
of the area into consideration, as well as supports the use of renewable energy and
production of marine produces. This research was performed in February and
March of 2012.
First, examinations on the amount of available renewable energy in the region
and composition analyses of the biomass resources were performed. The total
amount of livestock biomass as farm animal manure and forestry biomass as
logging residue and construction waste products contained across the entire Kuji
Area is estimated in the “New Energy Vision” (Iwate Prefecture 1998), which was
drafted by the government of Iwate Prefecture together with each municipality.
However, in the specific investigation of feasibility, the available amount of
biomass decreases due to the necessity for individual business owners and farmers
Hirono Town Cattle
Ohno, Swine
Study area Hirono Town
Taneichi,
27,400 t Hirono Town
8,000 t Poultry
Ohno,
Hirono Town
1,700 t
Japan Ohno,
Akogi,
Hirono Town
Hirono Town 3,600 t Akogi,
4,700 t Hirono Town
1,450 t Natsui-cho,
Kuji City,
2,090 t
Taishima,
Mizusawa, Hirono Town
Hirono Town Samuraihama-
620 t
8,560 t
cho,
Kuji City
5,675 t
Kuji City
Yamagata- Osanai-
cho, machi,
Kuji City Kuji City
8,810 t 4,710 t
Noda Village
Iwate Noda,
Noda Village
1,020 t
Prefecture
Tamagawa, Tamagawa,
Noda Village Noda Village
3,600 t 3,148 t
Fig. 14.2 Annual livestock manure production by region in Kuji City, Hirono Town, and Noda
Village, Iwate Prefecture, Japan
to make the business judgment to support the project, and agreements must be
reached regarding the price as well. Accordingly, to clarify the actual available
amount of biomass, the structure of “biomass energy utilizing CRLAF” was
introduced to the business owners in the subject area. A biomass availability
study was conducted by questionnaire on the cattle, swine, and poultry farmers
and wood chip-producing lumber mills in Hirono Town, Kuji City, and Noda
Village, which were located based on the listings at a web telephone directory
(i Town Pages; http://itp.ne.jp/). Of the sources of livestock biomass, three beef/
dairy cattle farmers, four swine breeders, and 62 poultry farmers collaborated, and
of the wood biomass source, two business owners answered, for a total response
rate of 64.5%. Composition analysis of the regional biomass was performed based
on the responses.
Figure 14.2 shows the regional annual discharge quantity of livestock excre-
ments reported by business owners. The amount of discharge is represented per
category of livestock (cattle, swine, poultry), together with the name of the relevant
304 M. Endo et al.
administrative unit and village, town, or city. The size of the circle corresponds to
the quantity of discharge. The individual data are not shown; however, there is little
variation in the cattle and swine manure by month. For poultry manure, at the
individual farm level, there are some farms with a large, nearly fourfold fluctuation
over a 3-month period due to the breeding cycles, but for the industry as a whole,
these fluctuations are leveled due to the peaks occurring at different times for each
farm. Poultry excrement can thus be considered to have a near-constant amount of
discharge throughout the year. The survey on wood chips revealed that one lumber
mill produces 550 m3 of wood chips per year from conifers. From the above results,
an investigation was conducted on biomass power generation that best utilizes these
distinct characteristics of the Kuji Area.
14.3.2 Needs Assessment on Fisheries Products
Furthermore, an opinion poll among fisheries was conducted in the form of a

questionnaire, for the reference purpose on selecting the fish species upon con-
struction of the CRAS. Thirty-seven responses were obtained from business owners
in the aquatic products processing industry and aquatic products retail businesses,
for a response rate of 34%. There were high percentages of responses stating that
salmonids, mackerel, squid, sea urchin, and abalone were current local species for
which augmented production is desired. However, 70% of respondents did not
respond to the question concerning the circulation of nonlocal aquatic products. A
high percentage named tunas, salmonids, flatfishes, broadbanded thornyhead
Sebastolobus macrochir, sea urchins, and abalones as personally preferred prod-
ucts, and a high percentage named tunas, broadbanded thornyhead, tiger puffer
Takifugu rubripes, abalones, and sea urchins as preferred luxury products. These
results clearly indicated desire for increased production of salmonids, sea urchin,
and abalone. Recognition of a CRAS was estimated at 31% at the most.
The result suggests that a high degree of support of or even participation in
CRAS could be expected, as “expansion of fish farming” was the most numerous
answers to the question of what is necessary for the future revival of Tohoku’s
fisheries area; together with the response “expansion of aquaculture,” they
accounted for over half of the total response.
From these results, tiger puffer, flatfish, and abalone became apparent as feasible
fish species for aquaculture productions in this region, taking the profitability of
CRLAF into considerations.
14.4 Consideration of a Land-Based Facility

for Recirculating Aquaculture Using Waste Heat
Discharged from Biomass Power Plants
Based on the results of survey and analyses described in the previous section on the
biomass available as energy source around the Kuji Area, the construction and oper-
ation of a biomass power generation facility that utilizes poultry manure, swine manure,
and wood chips was investigated, using the unitized CRLAF system as a model.
14.4.1 CRAS
A closed recirculating aquaculture system was designed based on a unit consisting

of two 45-kL rearing tanks and one 10-kL seedling tank, and estimations were made
for the construction cost, production capacity, and energy requirement. Figure 14.3
shows the schematic flow diagram. The apparatuses are connected sequentially
from rearing tanks, liquid cyclone separators (Itoh et al. 2010, 2011), foam frac-
tionator, biological filtration tank, and ultraviolet sterilizer. Water temperature of
each tank is controlled by the temperature monitoring and heat exchange with hot
water produced by waste heat of biomass power plants. The circulation of rearing
water to the heat exchanger is regulated by a control panel.
Brower Brower
Heat
Heat
exchanger
exchanger
Rearing tank Thermocouple Rearing tank 10 kL
45 kL Thermocouple
Ultraviolet
sterilizer Water Ultraviolet
pump sterilizer
Water
pump Foam Bio-filter
Liquid cyclone fractionator 10 kL
separator
Foam fractionator Bio-filter Artificial seawater
Liquid cyclone 20 kL Control
separator device
Brower Temp.
Heat Flow
exchanger Hot water produced
Rearing tank
from waste heat
45 kL Thermocouple
Ultraviolet Flow control

sterilizer valves Thermocouple
Water Water
pump Hot water
pump storage tank
Foam fractionator Bio-filter

Liquid cyclone 20 kL
separator
Fig. 14.3 Schematic flow diagram of one unit of the recirculating aquaculture system for tiger
puffer Takifugu rubripes production
306 M. Endo et al.
Fig. 14.4 Graphic of one unit of the recirculating aquaculture system. Images display the rearing
system (left), the constructed roof frame made from thinned lumber (center), and solar battery
panels (right)
Fig. 14.5 Graphic of multiple units of the recirculating aquaculture system. Images display the
rearing system (left), the constructed roof frame made from thinned lumber (center), and solar
battery panels (right)
A graphic model of the building construction is given in Fig. 14.4. The necessary
floor space of a building containing a single culture system, which is the basic unit,
is 12.6 m 21.6 m. The layout is such that a nursery tank is placed between two
rearing tanks, and each tank has independent water treatment equipment placed in
its vicinity. The building was designed as a wooden building with 100-mm-thick
urethane insulation, in consideration of the effective use of thinned wood provided
by the forest products industry. In addition, snow-melting solar battery panels were
placed on the roof, as electricity is necessary to power circulation pumps and other
machinery required for the effective use of thermal energy produced from bio-
masses. Figure 14.5 depicts joined basic units. Each unit can be accessed via the
work platform placed over the aquaria. Shipments can be executed through the rear
part, which is closest to the rearing tank. Rearing tanks will be made from FRP
panels and vinyl sheets, and the final construction cost for one unit, excluding the
solar panels, was estimated to be 75 million yen.
Figure 14.6 represents an aquaculture unit in which small-scale combined
marine species aquacultures would be performed. The required lot size for this
unit is 12.6 m 14.4 m 2 units. Based on the results of the questionnaire, one of
Fig. 14.6 Graphic of the recirculating aquaculture system for production of multiple species (fish,
sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc.). Images display the rearing system with constructed roof frame
(left) and with solar battery panels (right)
the two units is designed for rearing of fish such as tiger puffer and flatfish and the
other for culturing shellfish such as sea urchin and abalone. The closed recirculating
aquaculture system unit for fish rearing consists of the abovementioned basic unit
with the rearing tanks placed to minimize required floor space. The system for
shellfish cultures employs recirculating raceway-type tanks. Water treatment equip-
ment is placed three dimensionally in a similar arrangement to the basic unit.
Requirement of heat for management water temperature of CRAS was deter-
mined by the calculation of the overall heat transmission about the CRAS building
under the condition that temperature of rearing water for tiger puffer is maintained
at 22 C. The surface area of building excepting floor area was 416 m2, and the

coefficient of overall heat transmission was set to 0.329 W/m2 K. The floor area
was 182 m2 and that was 0.465 W/m2. The estimation of the requirement of heat
was moved forward with the condition that specific latent heat of water at 22 C is
649 kW/kg and the evaporation rate of rearing water is 10 kg/hunit.
Figure 14.7 represents the thermal energy required for the basic unit, based on
the monthly temperature at Kuji City. The estimated thermal energy requirement
was calculated on the basis of the monthly minimal temperature, which shifts from
12.3 to 14.7 C. The required heat quantity is the highest in winter and the lowest
in summer, shifting from an estimated 9.0–20.2 kW/unit. Power other than that
from the thermostat is assumed to be supplied as electricity, at an estimated amount
of 11.1 kW/unit. Electric power consumption of CRAS was estimated based on the
power dissipation, load factor, and rete of operation of apparatus equipped to
CRAS. The actual consumption of air blowers, water pumps, foam fractionators,
ultraviolet sterilizer for rearing water, and luminaire of fluorescent tubes was 1.7,
2.9, 1.6, 4.3, and 0.6 kW, respectively.
However, these are trial calculations, and in the future it would be necessary to
correct these trial values in light of actual measurements in which energy, outside
temperature, and rearing water temperature are monitored.
The aquarium usage plan of the culture unit for tiger puffer farming (Takii 2005;
Kikuchi 2006) is shown in Fig. 14.8. The usage plan for one seedling tank and two
308 M. Endo et al.
25
Heat requirement
20
(kW/unit)
15
10
5
0
20
air temperature (ºC)
10
Minimum
0
-10
-20
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Fig. 14.7 Heat requirement of one unit of the closed recirculating aquaculture system based on
the monthly minimum air temperature at Kuji City, Iwate, Japan, in 2012
Introduction of fish larvae

10 kL
1 system Nursery tank Tank for preparation of fish forwarding
360 fish/kL
45 kL
1 system Grow-out tank
90 fish/kL
Grow-out tank
Grow-out tank
Grow-out tank
45 kL
2 systems Period of forwarding
45 fish/kL
Grow-out tank
Period of forwarding
Month Jun Sep Dec Mar Jun

Fig. 14.8 Sample of fish growth, stock density, and feeding ration for tiger puffer Takifugu
rubripes production
rearing tanks is represented, with shipping set at around 65 weeks after the
introduction of seedling fish. The rearing of fish from introduction of seedling
fish up to week 15 will be done in the juvenile tank, after which the fish will be
transferred to rearing tank 1 and the teeth trimmed. After 20 additional weeks, teeth
trimming and size sorting are performed, and some fish are sorted into rearing tank
2. The tiger puffers in one tank are eventually shipped 25–30 weeks after sorting,
and those in the other tank are shipped 30–35 weeks after sorting. Between the
transfer of juvenile fish and the introduction of new juvenile fish in the following
year, the juvenile tank is used for preparing the rearing water and as a work tank
during teeth trimming and shipping.
One nursery tank One grow-out tank Two grow-out tanks

(10kL) (45kL) (45kL 2)
(kg body weight/fish)

Stock density Fish growth 1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
60
497 fish/kL 106 fish/kL 50 fish/kL
40
(kg/kL)
20
0
20
Feeding
(kg/day)
ration
10
0
Week 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Month Jun Sep Dec Mar Jun Sep Dec
Fig. 14.9 Usage plan of tanks in the recirculating aquaculture systems for tiger puffer Takifugu
rubripes production
Trial calculations for tiger puffer growth and required feed rations are
represented in Fig. 14.9. Growth was calculated assuming that the fish are fed at
the feeding rate by Mishiro (1997) and supposing a feed efficiency of 85%.
Maximum population density was estimated at approximately 5% of rearing
water volume, which was 5.1% in the juvenile tank and 4.6% in rearing tanks.
Overall rations were estimated as 2.2 kg/day at the start of rearing and 18.8 kg/day
at the maximum. When farming tiger puffers with the current conditions of shipping
in 10 weeks, it was deemed possible to produce 4721 kg/year/unit with the produc-
tion costs (material costs: seedling fish, rearing water, cost of feed) of 717 yen/kg.
The production cost is estimated to be lower for heterosomata such as Japanese
flounder Paralichthys olivaceus and brown sole Pseudopleuronectes herzensteini
due to their higher feed efficiency than tiger puffers. From these results, the required
amount of thermal energy and electricity to be provided by each biomass power
plant was calculated at 20.2 kW/unit of thermal energy and 11.1 kW of electricity.
14.4.2 Biomass Plants
Construction costs and operation costs for energy plants were calculated for the
following three locations, upon consideration of the biomass characteristics and
other responses for each location extracted from the survey:
• Hirono Town (combustion): Poultry manure biomass, 50 tons/day
• Noda Village (methane fermentation): Swine manure biomass, 10 tons/day
• Kuji City (combustion): Wood chip biomass, 100 tons/day
310 M. Endo et al.
Basic information was obtained from a well-established biomass power plant

construction company, and construction fee and expenses for each power plant
were calculated independently based on the obtained information. In investigating
the current project, wood chips and poultry manure were considered as combustible
energy sources (fuels). However, swine manure instead required that a methane
fermentation system be employed, as the water content of the manure was too high
for direct combustion. Methane fermentation has been widely introduced in small-
and medium-scale livestock farms, but it is characterized by a relatively high
construction cost per kW produced due to costs associated with operation and the
management of gas. Wood chips and poultry manure combustion is a more ideal
technology for large-scale implementation. Since 2003, a poultry manure power
plant has been operating in south Kyushu, processing more than 300 tons/day
(Takuma Corporation 2011). Measurement of the effects of economy of scale
was set based on the data for 50 tons/day and 100 tons/day, which are attainable
values, and the construction cost for 10 tons/day was calculated by substitution.
Typically, projected construction costs are given in an official estimation upon
determination of detailed specifications, and exact inlet and outlet conditions of
biomass resources are exhibited. In the early stage of investigation for industrial-
ization and other processes, it is possible to respond quickly to the drafting of
project plan and evaluation of industrialization and present a sure direction by
understanding the approximate numbers.
Therefore, the measure of the economy of scale for construction cost was set to
0.56, given the established data for 100 tons/day and 50 tons/day. It is common for
the calculation of electronics to use 0.6–0.75; however, 0.56 was considered to be
an appropriate factor as it lies close to the commonly used coefficient and also
because supplies at private sector levels were taken into account.
The equation used is shown below:
Construction cost of scale A ¼ ðConstruction cost of scale CÞ

ðscale C=scale AÞ α:
When the measure of the economy of scale α ¼ 0:56:
Measure of the economy of scale 0.56 was calculated by the following calcula-
tion on the ground that the construction cost of the design for 100 tons/day,
excluding maintenance cost, is 1.084 billion yen and the actual construction cost
for 50 tons/day is 733 million yen.
α ¼ flogð1084=733Þg=logð100=50Þ ¼ 0:56
If the data are accurate at the reference point of investigation, it would become
possible to estimate the approximate construction cost and variable costs of a given
scale using this coefficient. It would become possible to broadly understand the
effects of scale without having to repeat drafts for each project. The combined
construction costs of actual biomass plants and construction costs of those currently
under investigation estimated by this method are as summarized in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1 Estimation of costs of biomass power plants

(million yen)
Capacities of biomass processing
Type of biomass power plant 10 t/day 50 t/day 100 t/day
Poultry manure-fueled power plant 326 803 1221
Methane biogas power plant 297 733 1084
Wood-burning power plant 1499 3691 5171
Cost data of power plants processing 50 t/day and 100 t/day biomass were estimated by plant
company, and the data for processing 10 t/day were calculated using a scale factor
When construction costs of auxiliary facilities are taken into consideration with the
costs shown, the total construction cost in the case of Hirono Town handling
50 tons/day of poultry manure is 923 million yen, including auxiliary facilities
costing 120 million yen; the total construction cost for Noda Village handling
10 tons/day of swine manure methane fermentation is 319 million yen, including
auxiliary facilities costing 22 million yen; and the total cost for Kuji City handling
100 tons/day of wood biomass is 5863 million yen, including auxiliary facilities
costing 693 million yen.
For each biomass plant facility, the specifications of well-established power
plants were used. The material flow of the power generation system for power
generation from combustion of poultry manure is represented in Fig. 14.10. Poultry
manure is transported from a loading hopper to a chopping device and then into the
boiler via a conveyor belt. In this case, the type of conveyor belt would be
determined by the moisture content of the poultry manure; in the current trial
calculation, 30% moisture content was assumed. The moisture content of poultry
manure is about 40% in broiler chickens and 75% in layers. In this investigation, the
moisture was reduced to 30% using a ventilation desiccating technique. For boiler
chicken manure, the stoker method was employed, which is known to be resistant to
high calorific power when used in garbage incineration. Currently, an electricity-/
heat-generating plant is operating in south Kyushu and handles 300 tons/day of
poultry manure by fluidized bed combustion (Takuma Corporation 2011). Investi-
gation of the use of fluidized bed boiler is necessary for possible future applications.
As boilers must be supplied with water, water management is an essential factor,
and the water will therefore be softened with chemical solutions. Because there will
be heavy water usage, an apparatus for water retrieval may have to be set up in case
industrial water is hard to obtain. For the current investigation, specifications are
based on the assumption that there is sufficient water; thus, the construction cost is
kept low. For the generation of power, the design employs a screw-type power
generator, making it possible to use both electricity and heat, at least part of which
will be recovered. Multi-cyclone, high-performance bag filter with a filtering
efficiency of over 99% will be installed for dust collection to clean up the exhaust
gas, which must be cooled to below 200 C, to avoid damaging the filter cloth.
Although this recovered heat can be used for recirculating aquaculture systems, this
option was not adopted this time.
312 M. Endo et al.
Venting to
Electricity atmosphere
Generator
and heat
Pre-
Steam
Water
treatment Venting to
atmosphere
Air
cooling
tower
Material Boiler Multi-
Storage Bag
(poultry cyclone
tank filter
manure) separator
Induced
draft fun
Air
Forced
draft fan Chimney
Combustion Phosphate and
Air Granulation
ash potassium fertilizer
Fig. 14.10 Material flow diagram of electric power plant with combustion of poultry manure
The flow of the power generation system for methane fermentation of swine
manure is shown in Fig. 14.11. Swine excrement is placed in the reception tank by
suction using a vacuum truck, due to the manure’s high moisture content. Swine
manure is pumped from the reception tank to the methane fermentation tank, where
biogas will be produced by mesophilic fermentation at around 50 C. Biogas is
stored in the gas holder after passing through the microbial desulfurization tank by
air injection and is then used in the gas engine generator and recovery of exhaust
heat. The liquid phase is transferred from the methane fermentation tank to the
equalizing tank via plumbing and then stored for about 3 days before solid-liquid
separation using coagulants. The sludge is eventually released to a composting
facility and the liquid digest discharged after biological treatment. Raw swine
manure, the separated solid phase, and sludge are composted and could be subse-
quently sold as fertilizer.
The flow of the power generation system for combustion of wood chips is
presented in Fig. 14.12. First, the wood chips are transported from the loading
hopper to a batch dryer by a chopping device. The wood chips are dried by the dryer
because their moisture content varies depending on region, storage method, and
season; the moisture content has been estimated as 20% in this investigation. The
exhaust gas from engines and other machineries is used as the heat source for this
drying process. Subsequently, the dried chips are heated in a pyrolyzer, and a
reduced zone is formed to raise the temperature of pyrolysis gas for separating
char and gas. Combustion is promoted in part by blowing air into the upper part of
the reforming furnace, elevating the temperature of pyrolysis gas. Char and tar are
gasified by steam. Unreacted char and ash that exit the reforming furnace are passed
through a sieve to separate large char particles from small ash particles, after which
char is recycled and reused. The produced gas is cooled after it leaves the reforming
furnace and particulate matter is scavenged by a dust collector while the gas is sent
to the engine. Electricity is produced by turning the generator with the gas engine.
Gas
Electricity
purification Generator
and heat
system
Material Receiving Pre- Methane Treatment Sludge Purification and Advanced Waste
(Swine manure) tank treatment fermentation tank separation sedimentation treatment water
Separated
Sludge Sludge Composting
manure
Fig. 14.11 Material flow diagram of electric power plant with methane fermentation of swine
manure
Material Hot water Water LPG Water

(Wood chips) or steam
Induced draft
Gas cooling Dust fan
Engine tower collector
exhaust
Flare
stack
Drier Pyrolyzer
Cyclone Hot air blast Rotary
generator Electricity
generator engine
LPG Exhaust
Water
O2
Reforming
furnace
Air
Vibrating
screen
Char Ash outlet
Ash and char
Fig. 14.12 Material flow diagram of electric power plant with combustion of wood chips
The exhaust gas of the gas engine is sent to the hot blast generator, where the ash
and char from the reforming furnace are combusted to raise the temperature of the
exhaust gas. The exhaust gas that leaves the outer case of the pyrolyzer is cooled to
approximately 150 C before being sent to the dryer to be used for drying the wood
chips. Purified gas and exhaust gas are cooled by heat exchangers that perform
temperature adjustment at each stage, and the cooling water is recovered as warm
water and reused. In the event that purified gas from the reforming furnace is not
used by the gas engine for power generation, it is released into the atmosphere after
the combustible gas is burnt off in a flare stack.
For the calculation of energy balance by region, an energy balance model at the
time of power generation was constructed, and each biomass power generation
method was investigated accordingly. Figure 14.13 represents the constructed
model. In this case, 13% of the heat input will be ultimately utilized for electricity,
314 M. Endo et al.
Efficiency: 20%
Heat input Waste heat (Exhaust gas) Heat exchange Waste heat
(1) (0.15) (0.03) (0.12)
Power plant
Heat loss due to radiation
(0.07) Heat utilization for Waste heat
Efficiency: Recirculating (0.47)
13% aquaculture
(0.18)
Electric Hot water
Power Recovery (0.15)
(0.13) power Efficiency: 30%
generation Waste steam Heat exchange Waste heat
(0.5) (0.15) (0.35)
Heat exchange
(0.09)
Fig. 14.13 Energy flow diagram of biomass power plant with heat utilization for closed
recirculating aquaculture systems
and 18% will be exploited as thermal energy in the CRAS. Table 14.2 shows the
result of adapting this model to the poultry manure, swine manure, and wood
biomass power plants.
According to the questionnaire, it is possible to utilize poultry manure for
biomass energy in Hirono Town; therefore, the survey results were used to inves-
tigate the potential power generation and usable energy balance. The annual
biomass availability of poultry manure in Hirono Town is 18,250 tons. The total
conversion equivalent in energy was calculated based on the net calorific value of
standard poultry manure, which is 2300 kcal/kg. Assuming that approximately 13%
of this total calorific value could be harnessed for power generation, annual energy
production would amount to 266 MWh. Heat balance was estimated considering
that 18% of heat input is heat with ability to do work (high-exergy heat), such as the
heat discharged during energy production and exhaust gas heat, which can be used
for the temperature adjustment of the CRAS. The remaining heat is discharged via
heat dispersion and drainage, which can then be used for household functions such
as floor heating, despite its low exergy. The energy balance investigated based on
the outcome of the questionnaire of Noda Village and in the trends in thinking
expressed for Hirono Town resulted in 3148 tons annually of swine manure in Noda
Village, which converts to a total energy value of 600 kcal/kg based on the net
calorific value of standard swine manure. Assuming that approximately 13% of this
total calorific value could be used for power generation, annual energy production
will amount to 11.8 MWh. Similar investigation on the energy balance on Kuji City
based on the survey outcome, applying the same process as for Hirono Town and
Noda Village, revealed that it is possible to collect an annual total of 36,500 tons of
wood. Assuming that approximately 13% of this total calorific value could be used
for power generation, annual energy production would be 623 MWh.
Table 14.2 Estimation of electric power production and available heat for recirculating aquacul-
ture produced by biomass power plants
Net calorific Produced Heat utilization for
Assumed Input value*2 electric recirculating
Type of biomass installation material (kcal/kg w. power aquaculture*1
power plant site (t/year) b.) (MWh) (MWh)
Poultry manure- Hirono 18,250 2300 266 367
fueled power Town
plant (50 t/day)
Methane biogas Noda 3148 600 11.8 16.3
power plant Village
(10 t/day)
Wood-burning Kuji City 36,500 2700 623 863
power plant
(100 t/day)
Compared to thermal power generation, which is used in the general power

industry (maximum efficiency of 55%, based on gross calorific value), biomass
power generation is 13%. This is below 1/3 that of thermal power, as biomass is an
inefficient system that produces redundant heat that is wasted. The aim of this
project is to make use of this redundant heat source to realize a CRAS, which has a
stable demand for heat. The feasibility of the project could be elevated through the
combination with CRAS, even if there is no large revenue to the power generation
industry. The use of heat cascades already has a proven track record as a cogene-
ration technology used in energy-saving strategies for buildings. This project plan
proposes the integration of fisheries and industry by combining aquaculture and
forestry/livestock biomass power generation.
14.4.3 Energy Matching
In matching the energy requirement of the CRLAF and the energy production by
the biomass power generating system, calculations were performed on the possible
scales of CRAS that could be operated using the amount of heat and electricity
produced as shown by the results of trial calculations in Sect. 4.1 CRAS. In
investigating the Hirono Town poultry manure power plant, trial calculation was
based on the estimation that the energy demand will not greatly exceed that
provided by the 50 tons/day scale energy plant. The thermal output of this facility
is 484 kW and electricity production is 90 kW, which led to the calculation that
24 units of aquaculture facilities could be run thermal energy-wise and 8 units
electricity-wise. For the swine manure power plant at Noda Village, the thermal
output of the facility is 44 kW, and electricity is 24 kW which is just below the heat
requirement for two units of CRAS that meets the electricity requirement for
two units. For Kuji City’s wood biomass power generation, forestry in the region
is cooperative and the availability of biomass is high. Therefore, the scale of
316 M. Endo et al.
100 tons/day was selected as the range in which the current balance of supply and
demand will not be greatly influenced. The thermal output of this facility is
3354 kW and electricity production is 1820 kW, which led to the calculation that
thermal energy was sufficient for 166 units of aquaculture facilities and the elec-
tricity was sufficient for 164 units.
It has become clear from the trial calculations of the three biomass power plants
that the energy provision from those biomass power generation systems to the
CRAS is sufficient to provide the heat source required for rearing water temperature
adjustment in CRLAF and that there is a possibility for substantial energy saving.
However, the direct use of electricity produced by biomass power generation is not
suitable, because using part of the electricity as energy source for the water
streaming pump and other machinery will lead to a shortage for operating the
facility. It is desirable to introduce the electricity required for CRLAF from the
main power system, because the biomass power generation facility itself utilizes
part of its generated electricity as internal consumption.
Moreover, the Kuji Area has plentiful sunlight as well as biomass resources, and
there are many suitable locations for solar panels. It is also a suitable area for
installing offshore wind power systems; it will therefore become necessary to
investigate a hybridized model of CRAS that includes renewable energy.
14.5 Evaluation of Projects on Heat Utilization of Biomass

Power Plant for Closed Recirculating Aquaculture
Because effective use of exhaust heat requires that the CRAS is in the vicinity of
biomass power plant, and because the fishery industry will not likely accept waste
disposal in coastal areas, we considered it most appropriate to construct the power
generation facility adjacent to swine, cattle, or poultry farms, or wood thinning
disposal facility, and construct the aquaculture facility in the vicinity. This location
is ideal for the additional reason that livestock excrement is associated with the
problems of smell and high transportation cost. The specific candidate location for
which the present hearing was conducted was situated on a hill, far from the coast.
From this, we decided to perform the conceptual planning and trial calculations for
a level area on a hill. From the result of hearings conducted with individuals with
ties to fisheries and fishing households, it became apparent that the problem of
transportation of livestock excrement would occur when the system would be
introduced in the vicinity of supply chains for the marine products processing
industry. The project was deemed to advance more smoothly by situating the
energy plant and CRAS in the vicinity of livestock biomass resource rather than
at a coastal location, due to past withdrawals of livestock farmers from the project.
14.5.1 CRAS
The evaluation of feasibility was carried out separately for CRAS and each of the
energy production plants, to understand their respective characteristics clearly. For
CRLAF, trial calculations of economic potential were conducted for the case of
tiger puffer farming based on the aquaculture unit assumed in Sect. 14.4.1. The
result is shown in Fig. 14.14. Trial calculations were performed for the costs of
production per kilogram. The cost directly concerned with fish rearing, which
comprises the cost of feed, fish seedlings, creation of rearing water, and labor,
was 929 yen/kg production in total. The facility cost, which is the initial cost, was
calculated as 1059 yen/kg production, assuming amortization in 15 years. Energy
cost was calculated as rate of electricity conversion in this trial calculation. The
costs of water quality management and illumination were calculated as the power
cost, which was estimated to be 412 yen/kg production. Concerning this point, it is
considered necessary to develop a water circulation system that aims for further
energy consumption reduction. It was clear that the cost of 250 yen/kg production is
required for the temperature adjustment of rearing water under the condition that a
heat pump (coefficient of performance (COP) 3.0) is used, which can be covered by
the exhaust heat from biomass power generation. The costs for temperature control
were kept lower than expected in this trial calculation, as it was assumed that the
aquaculture facility would be insulated using 100-mm-thick urethane foam. Con-
versely, the facility expenses were higher than anticipated due to the additional
insulation cost. Concerning this point, it is desirable to vary the thickness of
Facility: 1,059 yen Feed: 474 yen

(40.0%) (17.9%)
Depreciation Energy-saving and
(15 years’ useful life) efficient operation
Seeds: 211 yen

Facility Total cost (8.0%)
construction 2,650 yen/kg
cost cutout Rearing water: 32 yen
(1.2%)
Labor: 212 yen
(8.0%)
Electricity
(Water temp. control) Biomass power generation
Electricity introduction
250 yen
(9.4%) (Water purification and O 2 supply): 412 yen
(15.5%)
Fig. 14.14 Breakdown of costs for tiger puffer Takifugu rubripes production. Percentages
represent the costs per 1 kg fish production. Energy usages were calculated as electric power
costs (20 yen/kWh)
318 M. Endo et al.
insulation according to the quality and quantity of exhaust heat obtained during
power generation. For instance, it would be possible to bring down the initial cost
by making the facility insulation thinner if there was abundant exhaust heat.
14.5.2 Biomass Plants
In the evaluation of biomass energy power plant, the present disposal of livestock
waste is regarded as profit, as it will be disposed of by the biomass plant. In
considering a long-term operation, a market value of 20 yen/kWh was applied to
biomass power generation. Furthermore, the by-products after energy exchange
were counted as profit in the trial calculation, as they have value as fertilizer. The
amortization period of the energy plant was set to 15 years, and trial calculation was
executed by evaluating labor, utility, and maintenance cost. Property and corporate
taxes were evaluated as tax-free. Trial calculation was performed on the premise
that the heat energy used for the CRAS would be used for increasing the feasibility
of the aquaculture business instead of being sold.
It is necessary to clarify the actual disposal costs of excrement for power plants
utilizing livestock biomass. However, disposal systems differ for swine, poultry,
and cattle and their costs vary. According to the survey, the most common disposal
method is fertilizer production via composting. Thus, investigation was pursued
considering disposal via composting. The value employed for the cost of this
method was 6000 yen/ton, which was taken from a survey response. However, as
other business owners reported having spent 10,000 yen/ton for excrement disposal
by composting, it was unclear what exactly was understood to be included in the
disposal cost. This needs to be closely inspected for the specific execution of the
project. This current expense of excrement disposal by the livestock farmers is
considered to be reduced to “0” by the introduction of power plant, and thus this
deferred disposal cost can be considered as profit by the power plant.
First, the result of feasibility evaluation for the 50 tons/day poultry manure
power plant is shown in Table 14.3. Calculation of the internal rate of return
(IRR) for the 50 tons/day scale was performed based on the biomass survey on
the potentially available poultry manure. Total annual business income of biomass
electric power plant with poultry manure combustion was estimated to be
283,167 thousand yen/year. The breakdown of the income is processing cost
equivalent, electric power, and solid fertilizer selling. The processing cost equiva-
lent of poultry manure was regarded 6000 yen/ton, and the processing of
16,425 tons/year can be performed in the power plant under 0.9 of the operation
rate. The processing cost was expected to be 98,550 thousand yen/year. The
revenue from sales of electric power was calculated to be 102,492 thousand
yen/year. The ash of the portly manure can be sold as a mineral fertilizer, and the
income was estimated to be 82,125 thousand yen/year. While the ordinary expen-
diture consists of plant depreciation, labor cost, utilities cost, industrial water, and
maintenance cost, these were estimated to be 61,533, 35,000, 30,747, 5913, and
14
Table 14.3 Project evaluation of biomass electric power plant with poultry manure combustion at 50 t/day capacity
Amount (thousand
Item yen) Bases Remarks
(A) Business income
(1) Processing cost equivalent 98,550 Processing cost 6000 yen/t, annual throughput 16,425 t Low-cost subscription
(2) Electric power (all-quantity 102,492 Annual energy production Electric power for
buyback) ¼ 350 kWh 24 h 365 days 0.9 ¼ 2759 MWh (20 yen/ transmission
kWh)
(3) Fertilizer 82,125 Unit price 20,000 yen/t 16,425 t 0.25
Sum 283,167
(B) Ordinary expenditures
(1) Plant depreciation 61,533 923,000,000 yen/15 years No subsidy
(2) Labor cost 35,000 7 employees: chief electrical engineer, etc.
(3) Utilities cost 30,747 Internal consumption of electricity (2050 MWh 15 yen/
kWh)
Local Survey and Consideration for CRAS Using Waste Heat
(4) Industrial water 5913 Unit price 100 yen/m3 7.5 m3 24 h 365 days 0.9
(5) Analysis cost 1000 Exhaust gas, water quality and ash, etc. (5000 yen/item 200
items)
(6) Maintenance cost 27,690 3% of total construction costs (machinery cost:
923,000,000 yen)
(7) Internal electricity cost 0 Exclude
(8) Insurance premium 2769 0.3% of machinery cost (923,000,000 yen)
(9) Taxes and public dues 12,922 1.4% of machinery cost (923,000,000 yen) Real estate tax
(continued)
319
320

Amount (thousand
Item yen) Bases Remarks
Sum 177,574
(C) Project evaluation
Pretax profit 105,593 40.87% of pretax profit
Corporation tax 43,564
After-tax profit 62,029
Cash flows from operating 123,562
activities
IRR 18%
M. Endo et al.
27,690 thousand yen/year, respectively. The total expenditure was 177,574 thou-
sand yen/year including analysis cost, insurance premium, and taxes and public
dues. The internal electricity cost was excepted from this calculation. The resulting
IRR was 18%, which is a high score for feasibility. This calculation took into
account the high calorific value of poultry manure (four times more than other
livestock excrements), the large power output, the full amount tariff fixed at 20 yen/
kWh (twice the current tariff of 10 yen/kWh, including the environmental value set
by power company in south Kyushu), and the poultry manure disposal cost and
profit of fly ash fertilizer sales. Another factor is that combustion-based poultry
manure power plants have a simpler system and cheaper construction cost com-
pared to plants for fermentation-based poultry manure power generation. Poultry
manure power generation is considered to be a biomass resource technology with
high feasibility, as it has a proven track record in south Kyushu, but whether it is
possible to consider the annual disposal cost as profit is the key to the accelerated
introduction. Additionally, investigation into the possibility for poultry farmers to
distribute the costs of poultry manure disposal as part of the costs of power
generation is highly relevant for the overall evaluation of livestock biomass plants.
Next, the feasibility of the 10 tons/day swine manure methane fermentation plant
is shown in Table 14.4. The calculations were done similarly as for Hirono Town,
based on the potential availability of swine manure reported in the biomass survey.
Total annual business income of biomass electric power plant with biogas from the
methane fermentation of swine manure was calculated to be 25,142 thousand
yen/year. The breakdown of the income is processing cost equivalent, electric
power, and liquid fertilizer selling. The processing cost of swine manure same as
the cases of processing of poultry manure was assumed 6000 yen/ton, and the
processing of 3148 tons/year can be performed in the power plant under 0.9 of the
operation rate. The processing cost was expected to be 18,888 thousand yen/year.
The revenue from sales of electric power was calculated to be 3626 thousand
yen/year. The digested liquid which is the coproduct of methane fermentation of
swine manure can be sold as a liquid fertilizer, and the income was estimated to be
2628 thousand yen/year. On the other hand, the ordinary expenditure mainly
consists of plant depreciation, utilities cost, maintenance cost and the values. The
total expenditure was 20,559 thousand yen/year including analysis cost, internal
electricity cost, and insurance premium. The labor cost, cost of water usage, taxes,
and public dues were excepted from this calculation. The labor cost is coordinated
as that for swine farm. IRR was calculated for the scale of 10 tons/day, which
resulted in a negative value and the conclusion that commercialization would be
difficult with an annual availability of 3148 tons. The factors behind this is the
relatively high construction cost that causes high water content and low energy
potential of swim manure, which lowers the profit from power generation. To
improve its feasibility, it is essential to bring down the construction cost of the
methane fermenter, as well as increasing the scale of swine farming to increase
power output. Trial calculation has not taken any particular subsidies for facilities
and construction cost into account. The future condition of business feasibility
322
Table 14.4 Project evaluation of biomass electric power plant with methane fermentation of swine manure at 10 t/day capacity
Item Bases Remarks
(A) Business income
(1) Processing cost equivalent 18,888 Processing cost 6000 yen/t, annual throughput 3148 t
(2) Electric power (all-quantity 3626 Annual energy production ¼ 23 kWh 24 h 365 days 0.9 ¼ 181 MWh Electric power for
buyback) (20 yen/kWh) transmission
(3) Fertilizer 2628 Unit price 8000 yen/t 1 t production/day 365 days 0.9
Sum 25,142
(1) Plant depreciation 10,633 319,000,000 yen/15 years Subsidy: 50%
(2) Labor cost 0 Labor cost is coordinated as that for swine farm
(3) Utilities cost 591 Internal consumption of electricity (39.4 MWh 15 yen/kWh) Approximation
(4) Industrial water 0 Well water Approximation
(5) Analysis cost 1000 Exhaust gas, water quality and ash, etc. (5000 yen/item 200 items)
(6) Maintenance cost 7500 3% of total construction costs (machinery cost: 249,000,000 yen) Approximation
(7) Internal electricity cost 35 Electricity under plant inspection 80 yen 438
(8) Insurance premium 800 0.3% of machinery cost (249,000,000 yen)
(9) Taxes and public dues 0 Tax benefits
Sum 20,559
Pretax profit 4583
Corporation tax 0 Tax benefits
After-tax profit 4583
activities
IRR 4%
M. Endo et al.
would include the desired subsidization policy of more than 50% as well as an
appropriate setting of electricity price based on feed-in tariff.
Finally, feasibility evaluation for 100 tons/day wood chip power plant was
conducted. The results are shown in Table 14.5. Total annual business income of
biomass electric power plant with wood chip combustion was estimated to be
422,582 thousand yen/year. The breakdown of the income is the selling of electric
power and solid fertilizer made of an ash after wood combustion. The revenue from
selling electric power and solid fertilizer was calculated to be 383,162 and
39,420 thousand yen/year, respectively. While the ordinary expenditure consists
of plant depreciation, labor cost, utilities cost, wood chip cost, and maintenance
cost, these were estimated to be 390,933, 35,000, 72,138, 197,100, and
175,000 thousand yen/year, respectively. The total expenditure was 888,671 thou-
sand yen/year including other costs. The procurement of the wood chips is mostly
needed for the management of the power plant. IRR was calculated on the poten-
tially available wood biomass indicated by the biomass survey based on the scale of
100 tons/day. It was not possible to calculate IRR, as the profit was negative,
leading to the conclusion that feasibility is poor. The main reason for this is that
wood chip acquisition is purchase based and was thus accounted as expenditure,
unlike livestock excrement, where the disposal costs could be considered as profit.
The supply of wood chips must be substantially increased to scale up power
generation and improve feasibility. There are current examples of commercialized
wood biomass power generation, but this is thought to be due to the economies of
scale of large-quantity cheap imports of wood biomass and the scale of the facility
exceeding 1000 tons/day, which ameliorates the cost of construction and purchase
value.
As there are no detailed statistical records of biomass utilization in Japan, and as
there are many varied types of biomass energy, the characteristics of the country
and region in question must be considered. Although Japan is rich in forestry
resources, there has not been much development in large-scale power generation
from wood as in Europe and the USA, due to the geographical difficulties in
collecting the wood biomass. For livestock biomass, there is decentralization of
farms to avoid infectious outbreaks of diseases such as influenza. However, recently
there has been movement in the poultry industry toward the secondary sector, and
some business owners are keeping approximately 2 million birds per farm. There-
fore, large-scale power generation utilizing the immense volume of poultry manure
can be expected.
The developments of biomass energy from unutilized sources such as sludge
disposal, food debris, and garbage combustion are issues worth noting in the future.
There should be a special focus on the price of whole tariffs for biomass power
generation, after which the current feasibility evaluation will need to be revised. In
addition, as the technical issues of energy plants could be addressed using existing
technologies, there is a need to evaluate cost reduction and the effective use of
energy from the consumer’s point of view by attempting a comprehensive energy
accommodation via a decentralized energy network, which aims to accelerate the
introduction of renewable energy. The balance between the energy demand of the
324
Table 14.5 Project evaluation of biomass electric power plant with wood chip combustion at 100 t/day capacity
Item Bases Remarks
(A) Business income
(1) Electric power (all-quantity 383,162 Annual energy production ¼ 2430 kWh 24 h 365 days 0.9 ¼ 19,158 MWh Electric power for
buyback) (20 yen/kWh) transmission
(2) Fertilizer 39,420 Unit price 20,000 yen/t 1971 t Ash content: 15%
Sum 422,582
(1) Plant depreciation 390,933 5,864,000,000 yen/15 years No subsidy
(2) Labor cost 35,000 7 employees: chief electrical engineer, etc.
(3) Utilities cost 72,138 Internal consumption of electricity (4809 MWh 15 yen/kWh) Approximation
(4) Wood chips cost 197,100 Unit price 6000 yen/t, throughput: 32,850 t/year Utilization rate: 90%
(5) Industrial water 0 Well water Approximation
(6) Analysis cost 1000 Exhaust gas, water quality and ash, etc. (5000 yen/item 200 items)
(7) Maintenance cost 175,000 3% of total construction costs (machinery cost: 5,834,000,000 yen) Approximation
(8) Internal electricity cost 0 Exclude
(9) Insurance premium 17,500 0.3% of machinery cost (5,834,000,000 yen)
(10) Taxes and public dues 0 Tax benefits
Sum 888,671
Pretax profit 466,089
Corporation tax 0 Tax benefits
After-tax profit 466,089
activities
IRR
M. Endo et al.
CRAS and the supply of biomass energy must be considered as well. Energy plants
produce excessive heat, but this is not always utilized effectively. It is essential to
set the scale of CRAS to be applicable to the range of exhaust heat.
14.5.3 Eco-farm
To clarify the abovementioned trial calculations and future prospects, as well as to

deepen the understanding of CRLAF hybrid model that makes use of natural and
renewable energy, including that from biomass, an integrated food production
system (eco-farm) that utilizes renewable and natural energy was designed and
modeled (Fig. 14.15). This image represents a relatively flat location in the Kuji
Area with a circular road encircling an area of about 10 ha, within which a large-
scale CRAS complex consisting of multiple aquaculture facilities is formed. One
unit of such a facility is comprised of two 45-ton recirculating culture tanks and one
10-ton seed fish tank. The buildings for aquaculture and related facilities are
equipped with solar-powered 1-MW batteries, and energy plants for production of
electricity from swine manure, wood chips, and poultry manure are situated on the
outside edge of the circular road. Also, wind power stations are placed in the
vicinity of a transmission line system, and an upper reservoir of a small-scale
pumped-storage hydroelectricity system was placed for nighttime leveling of sur-
plus electric power. The image reflects an efficient use of heat, with the residence of
the employees working at the plant and culture facilities placed inside the circular
road, and vegetable, mushroom, and processing facilities are placed on the down-
stream side of energy plant in the view of “winter farm” that utilize excessive heat
energy from the energy plant. A senior citizen-friendly urban development is
expected for the further effective use of heat, where the facilities are integrated
on the outside of the circle.
Investigations into the industrialization of such an energy plant and the CRLAF
facility are taking place to increase feasibility. Approximately 30–50 people are
estimated to be employed, but expansion to the employment of over 300–500
people is expected due to the additive effect of the secondary and tertiary industrial
sectors, known as the so-called sixth industry in which employment in the
processing and service industries is combined. In particular, the aquaculture facil-
ities can be built from timber from wood thinning and related enterprises, which
intends to simultaneously boost local employment and save on construction. Oper-
ational management for the entity and visitor center is based in the central part of
the complex, as the energy balance of the entity is composed of several end users
and several power plants, requiring energy circulation by the smart community as
well as the whole-community management. The total amount of investment is
estimated to be around 30 billion yen, which includes around 10 billion yen for
energy plants, another 10 billion for aquaculture facilities, and the rest for infra-
structure such as roads. Detailed inspections will be required for this total invest-
ment, but by doing so it would become possible to deepen the understanding of both
326 M. Endo et al.
Fig. 14.15 Graphic of proposed eco-farm constructed in the northern Tohoku region in Japan. The
eco-farm is small community of various food production systems based on closed recirculating
aquaculture units with renewable energy power plants
experts in CRAS and those involved in fishery, livestock farming, urban develop-
ment, NPOs, and administration, leading to developments that make it possible to
spread this enterprise throughout not just the Tohoku region but the entire country
and abroad.
Together with the development of technologies, definition of the implementing
body is essential for industrialization. However, it is difficult to investigate the
profitability of the current state of CRAS in the aquaculture industry in isolation,
making it unlikely for an independent corporation to discuss investment in a new
business favorably. Further reduction in expenses through cuts in facility running
and construction costs and the application of energy-saving and energy-creating
technologies is necessary for the future of the CRAS. Especially for the CRLAF
performed in the present report, which uses exhaust heat from biomass power
generation, it is necessary to set up a business model on the premise that it is a
novel and integrative business established through the cooperation of multiple
elements, such as fisheries, the livestock industry, forestry, and the waste disposal
power generation industry. It is also crucial to deepen the understanding of potential
business owners through the presentation of concrete examples, for which investi-
gations of the synergetic effects of novel industrial cooperation must be presented
in specific figures to industries and governments, as well as increase the accuracy of
figures by carrying out demonstrations. In particular, the issue is not which side
benefits, but rather to understand who gains the profits and to address this issue by
clarifying the risks. A business proposal that would be welcomed after sorting the
advantages and risks based on adequate data will be crucial. This is one such
proposal, which should be implemented upon gaining the understanding of and

achieving consensus among potential business owners and regional inhabitants.
In this business plan, it is possible for the implementing body to evaluate integrative
business feasibility, as the business owners of aquaculture and energy providers follow
the same premises. For the business feasibility of the CRAS, factors such as the unit
price of a fish species, catch, labor costs, and energy costs must be individually
evaluated. It is also necessary to adapt flexibly to changes in the state of society;
however, it is not easy to respond to variations in energy supply and fuel costs.
Concerning the issue of energy cost in a CRAS, the use of livestock excrement as
energy will allow for the reduction of cost burden for the livestock farmers. Further-
more, profits can be expected from the provision of produced heat energy and
electricity.
14.6 Summary
Evaluation of the feasibility of a CRLAF that utilizes the exhaust heat from biomass
power generation was conducted in the Tohoku region. Considering Kuji City,
Hirono Town, and Noda Village as subjects, the presence and availability of
biomass were investigated, and the feasibility of implementation under the pre-
sumed scales of biomass plants was evaluated. From this, power generation from
poultry manure was found to be highly feasible, with abundantly available mate-
rials. The business feasibility of this clean energy has a proven track record, as
power plants in south Kyushu implements the same process. However, there is only
one example of a business model for stand-alone power generation from poultry
manure, and there are only two examples of businesses providing heat utilization
support to poultry business owners in the vicinity.
The business model with CRLAF as a stable demander of thermal energy was built
based on these examples. It became clear that a stable supply of poultry manure and
the active entry of poultry business owners into CRLAF will lead to good prospects of
a continuous profit structure, enabling a stable supply of thermal energy, which will in
turn greatly contribute to the improvement of CRLAF’s economic efficiency. This
project is an evaluation of the system integration of the fusion of the energy sector,
fishery trade, and livestock industry. It is therefore of importance to proceed by
integrating the knowledge of experts in each of these respective fields.
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Index
A B
Abalone, 6, 7, 175–209, 269, 304, 307 Biofilter, 9, 22, 23, 25, 29–34, 37, 39–42, 49,
culture, 179–184, 187–188, 191, 201, 203, 104, 108, 110, 118, 164, 165, 185–187,
204, 207, 209 198, 218–224, 226–229, 233–235
Activated carbon, 66, 113, 194, 195, 201, 202 medium, 23, 25, 30, 32, 35, 39–42
Actual scale, 140–142 Biofiltration, 29–37, 40, 42, 48, 162, 242,
Algae, 176, 206, 282–284, 289 243, 253
Alkalinity, 81, 85–87, 89, 90, 108, 109, 111, unit, 29–42, 218, 219
112, 189, 191, 196, 197, 209, 283 Biological filtration, 77, 89, 91, 161, 305
Ammonia, 29, 40, 62, 87, 88, 90, 91, 104–110, Biomass
112, 118, 120, 129, 131, 136, 142, 164, energy, 15, 16, 301–303, 314, 318, 323, 325
185, 189, 191, 192, 197–199, 219, 226, plant facility, 311
242, 243, 247 power generating system, 315, 316
Aquaculture, 3–17, 21, 24, 29, 41, 44, 46, power generation, 166, 301, 304, 305, 313,
58, 60, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 79, 89, 90, 315–318, 323
92, 93, 98, 99, 102–123, 128, 135, 140, power plant, 305–316
146–148, 150–152, 158, 163–168, 170, Bloody clam, 194, 195
172, 177, 179, 181, 185, 194, 198–200, Body mass index (BMI), 204, 206
202, 207, 209, 215, 216, 218, 220, 235, Broodstock management, 216
236, 254, 257–259, 262, 264, 267–296, Business model, 13, 151, 167–168, 301, 326,
299–327 327
Japanese flounder, 9, 102–122 Business proposal, 326
Aquaponics, 15, 17, 114, 170–172, 257–264, Business strategy, 203–208
281
Aquaponics system, 171, 258, 261, 263
Aquaria, 122, 237–239, 242, 243, 252–254, C
306 Calcium, 42, 110, 112, 129, 132, 135, 151, 155,
Artificial diet, 180, 184, 193, 197, 204, 206, 165, 189–191, 196–198, 209, 259, 282
208 Cartridge rack, 296
Artificial saltwater manufacturing system, 238, CELSS. See Closed ecological life support
240, 241, 253 system (CELSS)
Artificial seawater, 76, 82, 87, 113, 229–231 CERAS. See Closed ecological recirculating
Assuming amortization, 317 aquaculture system (CERAS)
Atlantic salmon, 11, 12, 117 Chaetoceros, 289
Automatic cleaner, 162 Charcoal treatment, 195
Fisheries Science Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56585-7
330 Index
Chlorella, 28, 216, 222, 283, 286, 288–290 Disease prevention, 233
Chlorine, 29, 31, 42–44, 190, 201–203, 243 Disinfection, 7, 22, 23, 41–46, 49, 91, 187, 202,
disinfection, 202 218, 233, 247
Chromaticity, 136, 191, 193–195, 202 Dissolved oxygen (DO), 9, 29, 36–37, 59,
Chronic toxicity, 192, 199 62, 65, 66, 82, 85, 87, 129–131, 151,
Closed ecological life support system 155, 186, 188, 189, 191, 197, 202,
(CELSS), 17, 280 245, 247, 250
Closed ecological recirculating aquaculture Drum filter unit, 24, 25, 218
system (CERAS), 17, 280, 284, 286, Drum screen filter, 77, 78, 80, 91, 109, 110,
289, 292, 295, 296 118, 119
Closed recirculating aquaculture system
(CRAS), 3–10, 12–17, 21–29, 32, 33,
35, 39–40, 42, 44–50, 182, 183, 186, E
187, 192, 193, 197, 198, 203, 204, Eco-farm, 301, 325–327
207, 209, 215–222, 224, 226, 227, Electricity, 7, 14–16, 119, 120, 123, 146,
229–236, 260, 262, 282, 285, 286, 158, 168, 172, 180, 185, 188, 203,
300, 301, 304, 307, 314–318, 301, 306, 307, 309, 311–317, 319,
325–327 322–325, 327
in brackish water, 75–76 Electrolytic disinfection, 44
Closed recirculating land-based aquaculture Electrolytic electrode, 188
factory (CRLAF), 300, 301, 303–305, Eutrophication, 5, 181, 186, 258, 268, 277
315–317, 325–327 Exhaust heat, 14, 300, 316–318, 325–327
Closed recirculating system, 6, 21–50,
58, 59, 63–72, 128, 134, 136,
142, 168 F
for Japanese flounder, 6, 26, 36, 48, 128 FAA analysis. See Free amino acid (FAA)
Coagulation-sedimentation treatment, 23, 25, 49 analysis
Color components, 69, 70, 132 Feed conversion efficiency (FCE), 204, 206
Controlled ecological life support system Feeding interval, 292–294
(CELSS), 17, 279, 280 Fill carrier, 245
Copper ion, 42, 44–46 filtration
costs, 7, 12–15, 26, 29, 40, 42, 46, 47, 49, 50, bio, 29–32, 37, 40, 42, 48, 162, 218, 219,
71, 92, 115, 119, 120, 123, 142, 146, 242, 243, 253
150, 154, 156, 158, 164–168, 172, 179, biological, 77, 89, 91, 109, 161, 305
180, 185, 186, 188, 191, 197, 199, 203, bio-unit, 29–42
204, 206, 216, 219, 223, 230, 238, 239, granulated, 23, 26
242, 244, 253, 254, 257, 285, 300, 301, high-performance, 238, 239, 243, 244,
305, 306, 309–311, 316–319, 321–324, 253
326, 327 sand, 26, 243, 249, 252
CRAS. See Closed recirculating aquaculture Floating bead bioclarifier, 35
system (CRAS) Fluidised bed filter, 77–80, 90, 98
CRLAF. See Closed recirculating land-based Foam separation, 9, 26–30, 41, 48, 58–61, 65,
aquaculture factory (CRLAF) 68–71, 73, 128, 132, 133, 136, 140–142,
220, 221
unit, 9, 27–30, 41, 48, 58–61, 73, 78, 80,
D 128, 132, 133, 136, 141, 142, 218–224,
Denitrification 226–229, 233–235, 244
reaction, 68, 244–246, 249, 252 Food chain, 280, 282, 284, 290, 291
reactor, 48, 244, 246, 250–252 Forestry/livestock biomass power generation,
system, 193, 199–201, 243–244, 248, 252 315
technology, 243 Fractionator, 118, 201, 289, 307
Denitrifying bacteria, 48, 82, 89, 244, 247, Free amino acid (FAA) analysis, 208
248, 251 Freshwater rearing, 165
Index 331
G M
GAP. See Good aquacultural practice (GAP) Mass balances, 70–72, 132–135, 290–291
Gas circulation, 289 Mating test, 135–136, 141
GH-transgenic tilapia (GHTi), 285, 286 Maturation, 32, 39, 87, 137, 151, 153, 283
Good aquacultural practice (GAP), 5, 207 of biofilter medium, 39–40
Granulated filtration, 23, 26 Mechanical failure, 182, 188
Granule, 245, 248–252 Medaka, 12, 13, 285
Grow-out culture, 35, 183–184, 203 Microalgae, 286–291
Growth curve, 120, 204 Moina, 288, 290
Growth rate, 12, 16, 32, 98, 114, 119, 121, 123, Moving bed filter, 32, 33
130, 147, 150, 165, 183, 204, 206, 273, Mucus, 26, 69, 73, 132, 142
281, 285, 292, 295
N
H Net cage mariculture, 4, 5
Hazard analysis critical control point NH4-N, 77, 87, 88, 90, 111
(HACCP), 5, 208 Nitrate, 9, 31, 40, 48, 60, 62, 71, 110, 112,
High-performance filtration system, 238, 239, 113, 118, 120, 182, 185, 186, 189,
243, 253 192–195, 198–200, 222, 242, 243,
High productivity, 58, 209, 215, 232–235 245, 264
Humic substances, 194 Nitrification, 8, 9, 22, 23, 30–42, 58–60, 62, 67,
Hydraulic retention time (HRT), 185, 192, 245, 68, 70, 71, 73, 79, 85, 89–91, 104,
247, 249, 252 108–112, 128, 133–136, 140–142,
Hypochlorite, 201, 202 164, 165, 185–189, 192, 193, 196,
198–199, 219, 222, 223, 226, 227,
229, 243, 245, 247, 249, 252
I function, 31, 32
Ice plant, 15, 263, 264 Nitrite, 9, 31, 39, 40, 62, 87, 112, 118, 120,
Immobilization filter, 35–36 136, 141, 164, 185, 189, 192, 193,
Integrated food production system, 325 195, 198, 202, 222, 243
Intermittent filter, 32, 34–35 Nitrogen
Internal rate of return (IRR), 301, 318, 320–324 components, 70, 243, 247–249, 254
load, 199, 268, 272, 274–277
and phosphate uptake, 268, 270–274
J NO2-N, 62, 67, 68, 77, 87, 88, 111, 129, 130
Juvenile, 77, 95, 105, 106, 115–117, NO3-N, 62, 67, 68, 70, 73, 81, 88, 89, 111,
129–136, 179, 180, 182–184, 207, 129–131, 134, 135, 142, 282
216, 224–226, 228, 230, 231, 233,
280, 283, 308, 309
O
Octagonal culture tank, 77, 92
K Octagonal tank, 95
Kelp grouper, 259 Organic matters, 21–23, 26, 27, 29, 32, 34, 35,
41, 46, 49, 108, 123, 182, 186–189, 194,
198, 201, 202, 209, 217, 222, 226, 227,
L 242, 243
Land-based aquaculture, 4–9, 13–15, 146, 150, Oxygen
158, 166, 167, 170, 172, 198, 235, 262, cone, 47, 163
264, 300 consumption, 154, 184, 191, 268, 272,
Land-based flow-through aquaculture system, 274–276, 292
179 production, 268, 271, 272, 274, 275
Land-based recirculating system, 179–182 supply system, 47
Litopenaeus vannamei, 146–172, 202 Ozonation, 201, 202
Livestock excrements, 316, 321, 323, 327 Ozone disinfection, 43, 44
332 Index
P 186, 189, 191, 192, 197, 198, 209,

Particle trap, 77–79, 91, 92, 98 229–230, 232–235, 241, 245, 250, 261
Pathogen, 13, 22, 36, 39, 46, 49, 50, 72, 113, Saltwater reuse system, 238, 239, 253, 254
143, 146, 148, 182, 184, 185, 190, 194, Sand filtration, 26, 243, 245, 249, 252
236, 269 Scenedesmus, 280, 286, 287
Pejerrey, 7, 9, 18, 75–98 Screen separation, 24–25
Pest control, 184 Seaweed, 5, 113, 154, 159, 161, 176, 179, 180,
pH, 9, 29, 31, 37, 38, 42, 59, 68, 82, 85–90, 184, 204, 206, 208, 258, 268–277
108–112, 132, 189, 191, 192, 195–198, Sedimentation treatment, 23–25, 49
209, 243, 249, 250, 252, 259, 261 Seed production, 29, 30, 35, 41, 42, 44, 46, 152,
Phosphate, 62, 68, 110, 112, 113, 122, 129, 153, 177, 179, 182, 215–236
189, 192, 197, 268–274, 276, 277, 312 Seed releasing, 179
Phosphorus, 4, 5, 8, 12, 15, 30, 49, 58, 62, Self-feeder, 294
68, 70–72, 111, 114, 129, 134, 135, Self-pollution, 4, 5
155, 229, 258, 259, 261, 262, 264, Semi-closed recirculating system, 179, 180,
282, 286, 291 183, 190, 236
Photo-catalysis, 46 Sixth sector (1 2 3) industrialization, 11
Photoperiod Solar panels, 306, 316
manipulation, 293–295 Solid waste, 8, 185, 186, 191, 282, 287
regime, 292, 293 Spirulina, 280, 282–288
Physical clarification, 21, 23–29, 35 Stopper, 136, 142
Poly-eco-aquaculture, 267–278 Striped knifejaw, 294
Potassium, 165, 197, 259, 282, 312 Submerged filter, 32, 35, 79, 81, 108
Poultry manure, 302, 304, 309–312, 314, 315, Suitable recirculation rate, 230–232
318, 319, 321, 323, 325, 327 Survival rate, 10, 14, 29, 36, 48, 72, 84, 97,
power plant, 310, 315 98, 118, 119, 128, 130, 136, 141, 142,
Power generation system, 302, 311, 312, 316 154, 183, 202, 216, 224–228, 232,
Probiotics, 11, 162 233, 235
Productivity factor, 114–117 Sustainable aquaculture, 268, 270, 277, 278
Purification mechanism, 90 Swimming exercise, 92, 98
Swine manure, 300, 302, 304, 309–311,
313–315, 321, 322, 325
R methane fermentation plant, 321
Rearing density, 63–66, 84, 130, 160, 183, 185,
204–206, 226, 228, 231
Recirculating aquaculture system (RAS), 6, 7, T
16, 181–203, 207, 209 Targeting-induced local lesion in genome
Recycling culture water (TILLING), 12, 13
management of, 109–117 Tetraselmis, 289
quality change of, 109–110 Thermal energy, 14, 306, 307, 309, 314–316,
Red sea bream, 3, 12, 29, 30, 42, 92, 102, 327
224–226, 228–232, 269, 293, 295 Tiger puffer, 7, 11–15, 229, 230, 232, 259, 263,
Red tides, 8, 11, 164, 198, 258, 268, 269 264, 282, 289, 304, 305, 307–309, 317
Removal of carbon dioxide, 48 Tiger puffer farming, 307, 317
Renewable energy, 14, 204, 304, 316, 323, Tilapia, 12, 102, 112, 114, 258–262, 264,
325, 326 281–293
Rotating biological contactor (RBC), 77–81, TILLING. See Targeting-induced local lesion
87, 90, 98 in genome (TILLING)
Rotating disk filter, 32, 34 Total ammonia-nitrogen (TAN), 62, 67, 68, 73,
Running cost, 7, 71, 285, 300 129–131, 136, 191–193, 195
Total organic carbon (TOC), 62, 65–67, 70,
111, 129, 194, 195
S Traceability, 8, 14, 15, 181, 207, 215
Salinity, 6, 8, 38–39, 75, 76, 82, 85–87, 98, Transgenic, 12, 285–286
114, 115, 128, 132, 150–152, 155, 165, Trickling filter, 32, 34
Index 333
Turbidity, 23, 62, 65, 66, 69, 129, 132, 133, Water temperature, 8, 36, 59, 65, 85, 87, 102,
136, 141, 200, 238, 243 104, 106, 107, 114, 115, 118, 119, 132,
154, 164, 166, 176, 180, 182, 183, 185,
188, 189, 192–194, 197–199, 206, 226,
U 242, 247, 250, 270, 272, 273, 276, 305,
Ultra violet ray disinfection, 22, 52–53, 202, 307, 316
219, 221, 223–224, 233 Water treatment system, 23, 104–109, 122,
UV irradiation, 10, 201, 202 182, 183, 186, 203, 204, 209, 238, 239
for closed recirculating aquaculture,
104–109
V for Japanese flounder, 104–109
Viral nervous necrosis (VNN), 216, Wave-generating apparatus, 159
232–234 White radish sprouts, 259, 262
Virus-free, 128, 138, 140–142 White spot disease virus (WSDV), 129,
135–138, 140, 142
Wood chips, 301, 302, 305, 309, 310, 312, 313,
W 323–325
Wastewater, 25, 27, 35, 49, 171, 218, 238, 239,
252–254, 258–261, 264, 287
Waste water treatment, 49, 218 Y
Water quality, 38, 49, 59, 68, 76, 77, 85–93, Yellowtail, 3, 5, 102, 117, 202, 258, 268,
104, 114, 136, 138, 142, 150, 152, 269, 274
154–156, 162–165, 180, 182,
185–203, 209, 216, 217, 230, 242, 250,
252, 254, 268, 277, 289, 317, 319, 322, Z
324 Zero emission, 57–73, 128, 198

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Fisheries Science Series

Toshio Takeuchi Editor

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13529

ISSN 2522-0470 ISSN 2522-0489 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017958819

© Springer Japan KK and the Japanese Society of Fisheries Science 2017

Cover photo: © franck MAZEAS / fotolia

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Tokyo, Japan Katsumi Aida

Tokyo, Japan Toshio Takeuchi

Part I What Is Recirculating Aquaculture Systems?

Part II Basic Information of Closed Recirculating Systems

2.2.2 Sedimentation Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Part III Tackle of Recirculating Aquaculture in Fishes

5.2.3 Factors Affecting Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

7.2.6 Basic Nutritional Requirements of L. vannamei . . . . . . 155

8.5 Business Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

Part IV Applications and Other Consideration for Recirculating

10.2 Three Components of the Latest Water Treatment System . . . . 239

12.4.5 Seaweed Cultural Density in Relation to Nitrogen

14.4 Consideration of a Land-Based Facility for Recirculating

Keywords Land-based aquaculture • Closed recirculating aquaculture system •

© Springer Japan KK and the Japanese Society of Fisheries Science 2017 3

Nitrogen budget of net cage culture In the report of Hino et al.(1999),

Net cage Conversion of TN:

Dispersion of Sedimentation(remain Enormous load in

1.2 Current Status of CRAS

Running saltwater aquaculture system Closed recirculating aquaculture system

Conceptual scheme of running Flow diagram of a typical recirculating aquaculture system

1.2.1 What Is Land-Based Aquaculture?

1.2.2 The Current State of Land-Based Aquaculture

1.2.3 A History of Land-Based Aquaculture

RAS was invented surprisingly early; the concept of a recirculating filter-equipped

1.2.4 Advantages of CRAS

The advantages of CRAS include (1) artificially controllable culture environment

1.2.5 Features of Representative Systems

Central Research Institute of Miyazaki university

1.3 Challenges in the Popularization of Land-Based

1.3.1 Comparisons of Mariculture and Land-Based

1.3.2 Development of New Fish Culture for RASs

Intake, retention & load of N & P

GH 15 Total P load (T-P

1.4 Economics and Feasibility of Land-Based Aquaculture

1.4.1 Economics-Based Approach Toward Planning, Facility

To successfully establish land-based aquaculture as an enterprise, it is necessary to

promotion of the fish’s traceability so as to create an image of safe (e.g., chemical

1.4.2 Costs Involved in Land-Based Aquaculture

Plant and facilities 1, 059 yen

1.5 Possible Business Opportunities

Currently, the Japanese government is promoting the implementation of the “sixth

Selling of heat Subjects

Yamamoto Y, Kobeya N, Takeuchi Y, Alimuddin HY, Satoh S, Takeuchi T, Yoshizaki G (2010)

Abstract The most important requirement for a closed recirculating aquaculture

© Springer Japan KK and the Japanese Society of Fisheries Science 2017 21

removal of dissolved ammonium nitrogen by the biofilter, and the reduction of

Waste: solid–liquid separation

2.2 Physical Clarification

2.2.1 Methods of Physical Clarification