Organizational Behavior: Definition,

Importance, Nature, Model

Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in organizational
settings, the interface between human behavior and the organization, and the
organization itself.

Organizational Behavior researchers study the behavior of individuals primarily

in their organizational roles.

One of the main goals of organizational behavior is to revitalize organizational

theory and develop a better conceptualization of organizational life.

As a multidisciplinary field, organizational behavior has been influenced by

developments in a number of allied disciplines including sociology,
psychology, economics, and engineering as well as by the experience of
practitioners.

History and Evolution of Organisational

Behavior Studies
Origin of Organisational Behaviour can trace its roots back to Max Weber and
earlier organizational studies.

The Industrial Revolution is the period from approximately 1760 when new
technologies resulted in the adoption of new manufacturing techniques,
including increased mechanization.

The industrial revolution led to significant social and cultural change, including
new forms of organization.

Analyzing these new organizational forms, sociologist Max Weber described

bureaucracy as an ideal type of organization that rested on rational-legal
principles and maximized technical efficiency.
In the 1890’s; with the arrival of scientific management and Taylorism,
Organizational Behavior Studies was forming it as an academic discipline.

Failure of scientific management gave birth to the human relations movement

which is characterized by a heavy emphasis on employee cooperation and
morale.

Human Relations Movement from the 1930’s to 1950’s contributed to shaping

the Organizational Behavior studies.

Works of scholars like Elton Mayo, Chester Barnard, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker
Follett, Frederick Herzberg, Abraham Mas low, David Mc Cellan and Victor
Vroom contributed to the growth of Organisational Behaviour as a discipline.

Works of scholars like Elton Mayo, Chester Barnard, Henri Fayol, Mary Parker
Follett, Frederick Herzberg, Abraham Maslow, David Mc Cellan and Victor
Vroom contributed to the growth of Organisational Behaviour as a discipline.

Herbert Simon’s Administrative Behavior introduced a number of important

concepts to the study of organizational behavior, most notably decision
making.

Simon along with Chester Barnard; argued that people make decisions
differently in organizations than outside of them. Simon was awarded the
Nobel Prize in Economics for his work on organizational decision making.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the field became more quantitative and produced
such ideas as the informal organization, and resource dependence.
Contingency theory, institutional theory, and organizational ecology also
enraged.

Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and organizational

change became areas of study.

Informed by anthropology, psychology, and sociology, qualitative research

became more acceptable in OB.
Organizational Behavior Definition
Organizational behavior is directly concerned with the understanding,
prediction, and control of human behavior in organizations.” — Fred Luthans.

Organizational behavior is the study of both group and individual

performance and activity within an organization.

This area of study examines human behavior in a work environment and

determines its impact on job structure, performance, communication,
motivation, leadership, etc.

It is the systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals

and groups act within the organizations where they work. OB draws from
other disciplines to create a unique field.

For example, when we review topics such as personality and motivation, we

will again review studies from the field of psychology. The topic of team
processes relies heavily on the field of sociology.

When we study power and influence in organizations, we borrow heavily from

political sciences.

Even medical science contributes to the field of Organizational Behavior,

particularly in the study of stress and its effects on individuals.

There is increasing agreement as to the components or topics that constitute

the subject area of OB.

Although there is still considerable debate as to the relative importance of

change, there appears to be general agreement that OB includes the core
topics of motivation, leader behavior, and power, interpersonal
communication, group structure and processes, learning, attitude
development, and perception, change processes, conflict, work design, and
work stress.
 Features of Organizational Behavior
Organizational Behavior is the study and application of knowledge about how
people, individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a
system approach.

That is, it interprets people-organization relationships in terms of the whole

person, the whole group, the whole organization, and the whole social system.

Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives,

organizational objectives, and social objectives.

Organizational Behavior is;

 A Separate Field of Study and not a Discipline Only.

 An Interdisciplinary Approach.

 Applied Science.

 Normative Science.

 A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach.

 A Total System Approach.

These 6 features or characteristics show the nature of Organizational

Behavior that is the study of understanding and control behavior within the
organization.

Objectives of Organizational Behavior

The organizations in which people work have an effect on their thoughts,
feelings, and actions. These thoughts, feelings, and actions, in turn, affect the
organization itself.
 Organizational behavior studies the mechanisms governing these interactions,
seeking to identify and foster behaviors conducive to the survival and
effectiveness of the organization.

1. Job Satisfaction.

2. Finding the Right People.

3. Organizational Culture.

4. Leadership and Conflict Resolution.

5. Understanding Employees Better.

6. Understand how to Develop Good Leaders.

7. Develop a Good Team.

8. Higher Productivity.

These 8 objectives of organizational behavior show that OB is concerned

with people within the organization, how they are interacting, what is the
level of their satisfaction, the level of motivation, and find ways to improve it
in a way the yields most productivity.

Fundamental Concepts of Organizational

Behavior
Organization Behavior is based on a few fundamental concepts which
revolve around the nature of people and organizations.

 Individual Differences.

 Perception.

 A Whole Person.
 Motivated Behavior.

 The desire for Involvement.

 The value of the Person.

 Human Dignity.

 Organizations are Social System.

 Mutuality of Interest.

 Holistic Concept.

Main Challenges and Opportunities of

Organizational Behavior
Challenges and opportunities of organizational behavior are massive and
rapidly changing for improving productivity and meeting business goals.

1. Improving Peoples’ Skills.

2. Improving Quality and Productivity.

3. Total Quality Management (TQM).

4. Managing Workforce Diversity.

5. Responding to Globalization.

6. Empowering People.

7. Coping with Temporariness.

8. Stimulating Innovation and Change.

9. Emergence of E-Organisation & E-Commerce.

10. Improving Ethical Behavior.

11. Improving Customer Service.

12. Helping Employees Balance Work-Life Conflicts.

13. Flattening World.

Limitations of Organizational Behavior

Recognize the limitations of organizational behavior. Organizational Behavior
will not abolish conflict and frustration; it can only reduce them. It is a way to
improve, not an absolute answer to problems.

Furthermore, it is but part of the whole cloth of an organization.

We can discuss organizational behavior as a separate subject, but to apply it,

we must tie it to the whole reality. Improved organizational behavior will not
solve unemployment.

Organizational Behavior will not make up for our deficiencies, cannot

substitute for poor planning, inept organizing, or inadequate controls. It is
only one of the many systems operating within a larger social system.

3 major limitations of OB are;

 Behavioral Bias.

 The Law of Diminishing Returns.

 Unethical Manipulation of People.

Behavioral Bias
Behavioral Bias is a condition that is a reflection of tunnel vision, in which
people have narrow viewpoints as if they were looking through a tunnel.
They see only the tiny view at the other end of the tunnel while missing the
broader landscape.

Following the behavioral bias, people who lack system understanding may
develop a behavioral bias, which leads them to develop a narrow viewpoint
that emphasizes employee satisfaction while overlooking the broader system
of the organization about all its stakeholders.

It should be clear that the concern for employees can be so greatly overdone
that the original purpose of bringing people together, which is “productivity
organizational outputs for society” could be lost.

An effective organizational behavior should help accomplish organizational

purposes. It should not replace them.

The person who does not consider the needs of people as consumers of
organizational output while fighting for employee needs is not applying the
ideas of organizational behavior correctly.

It is a mistake to assume that the objective of organizational behavior is as

simple as to create a satisfied employee-base, as that goal will not
automatically turn into new products and stellar customer service.

It is also a fact that the person who pushes production outputs without regard
for employee needs is also not applying organizational behavior in the right
fashion.

The most effective OB dwells, acknowledges and appreciates a social system

that consists of many types of human needs that are served in many ways.

Behavioral bias can be so misapplied in a way that it can be harmful to

employees as well as the organization as a whole.

Some individuals, despite having good intentions, so overwhelm others with

the care that the recipients of such care become dependent and unproductive.
They find excuses for failure rather than take responsibility for progress. They
do not possess a high degree of self-respect and self-discipline.

The Law of Diminishing Returns

Overemphasis on organizational behavior, the practice may produce negative
results, as indicated by the law of diminishing returns.

It places an overemphasis on an OB practice that may produce negative

results. It is a limiting factor in organizational behavior in the same way that it
is in economics.

In economics, the law of diminishing return refers to a declining amount of

extra outputs when more of a desirable input is added to an economic
situation.

After a certain point, the output from each unit of added input tends to
become smaller. The added output eventually may reach zero and even
continue to decline when more units of input are added.

The law of diminishing returns in organizational behavior works similarly.

According to the law of diminishing returns, at some point, increases of a

desirable practice produce declining returns, finally resulting in zero returns,
and then follows negative returns as more increases are added.

More of a good thing is not necessarily good. The concept means that for any
situation there is an optimum level of a desirable practice, such as recognition
or participation.

When that point is exceeded, there is a decline in returns realized. To put it

differently, the fact that a practice is desirable does not necessarily imply that
more of the same practice is more desirable.

Unethical Manipulation of People

A significant concern about organizational behavior is that its knowledge and
techniques can be used to manipulate people unethically as well as to help
them develop their potential.

People who lack respect for the basic dignity of the human being could learn
organizational behavior ideas and use them for selfish ends.

They could use what they know about motivation or communication in the
manipulation of people without regard for human welfare. People who lack
ethical values could use people in unethical ways.

Conclusion
The philosophy of organizational behavior is supportive and oriented toward
human resources. It takes to improve the human environment and help
people grow toward their potential.

However, the knowledge and technique of this subject may be used for
negative as well as positive consequences. This possibility is true of knowledge
in almost any field, so it is no special limitation of organizational behavior.

Nevertheless, we must be cautious so that what is known about people is not

used to manipulate them.

The possibility of manipulation means that people in power in organizations

must maintain high ethical and moral integrity and not misuse their power.

Without ethical leadership, the new knowledge that is learned about people
becomes a dangerous instrument for possible misuse.

Organizational Behavior Model

The OB model Shows the 3 levels, Individual-level, Group level, and
Organization System-level and how they impact the elements of human
output.

The above figure presents the skeleton on which constructed the OB model.

It proposes that there are three levels of analysis in OB and that, as we move
from the individual level to the organization systems level, we add
systematically to our understanding of behavior in organizations.

The three basic levels are analogous to building blocks; each level is
constructed on the previous level.
 Group concepts grow out of the foundation laid in the individual section; we
overlay constraints on the individual and group in order to arrive at
organizational behavior.

Key Forces Affecting Organizational Behavior

There is a complex set of key forces that affect organizational behavior today.
These key forces are classified into four areas;

 People.

 Structure.
 Technology.

 Environment.

There is an interaction of people, structure, and technology and these

elements are influenced by the environment.

People
People make up the internal social system of the organization. That system
consists of individuals and groups and groups may be large and small, formal
and informal. Groups are dynamic.

Group form, change and disband. Since the organization is a combination of a

group of people, managers must handle the people in the right direction.

This is very challenging to guide people or employees who have different

educational backgrounds, talent, and perspectives. So managers must
understand predict and control the people.

They build up a relationship among the employees and motivate themselves.

Structure
The structure defines the formal relationship and use of people in the
organization. There are managers and employees, accounts assemblers to
accomplish different kinds of activities.

They are related structurally so that their work can be effectively coordinated.
Because there is no organization can be successful without proper
coordination.
Many organizational structures have become flatter. This downsizing and
restructuring have occurred as a result of the pressure to lower costs while
remaining competitive.

Other structures have grown more complex as a result of mergers,

acquisitions, and new ventures. Several organizations have experimented with
hiring contingent workforces (temporary, part-time, or contract employees).

Finally, many firms have moved from a traditional structure to a team-based

one.

Technology
Technology provides the resources with which people work and affects the
tasks that they perform. They cannot accomplish work with their bare hands.

The technology used has a significant influence on working relationships.

The great benefit of technology is that it allows people to do more and better
work, but it also restricts people in various ways’ It has cost as well as benefits.

Examples of the impact of technology include the increasing use of robots and
automated control systems in an assembly line.

The dramatic shift from a manufacturing to a service economy, the impressive

advances in computer hardware and software capabilities, the rapid move
toward the widespread use of the information highway (internet).

And the need to respond to societal demands for improved quality of goods
and services at acceptable prices.

If any person has a lack of technological knowledge he/she cannot work.

Moreover, technology decrease per unit cost and improve the quality of the
products and services.

Environment
All organizations operate within an internal and external environment. A single
organization does not exist alone.

An organization is a part of a larger system that contains many other

elements, such as the government, the family, and other organizations.
Numerous changes in the environment create demands on organizations.

Citizens expect organizations should be socially responsible; new products and

competition for customers come from around the globe; the direct impact of
unions diminishes; the dramatic pace of change in society quickens.

There is a direct impact of several trade unions of organizations.

So all the elements of environments influence the attitude and provide

competition. It must be considered in the study of human behavior in an
organization.

Contributing Disciplines to the Organizational

Behavior field
There are some important disciplines in the organizational behavior field
which developed it extensively.

Due to the increase in organizational complexity, various types of knowledge

are required and help in many ways.
 The major disciplines are;

 Psychology.

 Sociology.

 Social Psychology.

 Anthropology.

 Political Sciences.

 Economics.

Psychology
Psychology has perhaps the first influence on the field of organizational
behavior because it is a science of behavior. A psychologist studies almost all aspects
Of behavior.

Psychology deals with studying human behavior that seeks to explain and sometimes
change the behavior of humans and other animals.

Psychologists are primarily interested in predicting the behavior of individuals to a

great extent by observing the dynamics of personal factors.

Those who have contributed and continued to add to the knowledge of OB are
teaching theorists, personality theorists, counseling psychologists and primary,
industrial and organizational psychologists.

Some of the numerous areas of interest within the disciplines of psychology are:

 General Psychology

 Experimental Psychology

 Clinical Psychology

 Consumer Psychology
 Personality and Social Psychology

 Industrial Psychology

 Counseling Psychology

 Educational Psychology

 Consulting Psychology

Understanding Psychological principles and its models help significantly in gaining

the knowledge of determinants of individual behavior such as

 the learning process,

 motivation techniques,

 personality determinants and development,

 perceptual process and its implications,

 training process,

 leadership effectiveness,

 job satisfaction,

 individual decision making,

 performance appraisal,

 attitude measurement,

 employee selection,

 job design and work stress.

Sociology
The major focus of sociologists is on studying the social systems in which individuals
fill their roles. The focus is on group dynamics.
 They have made their greatest contribution to OB through their study of group
behavior in organizations, particularly formal and sophisticated organizations.

Sociological concepts, theories, models, and techniques help significantly to

understand better the group dynamics, organizational culture, formal organization
theory and structure, corporate technology, bureaucracy, communications, power,
conflict, and intergroup behavior.

Psychologists are primarily interested in focusing their attention on individual

behavior.

Key concepts of Sociology are;

Most sociologists today identify the discipline by using one of the three statements:

 Sociology deals with human interaction arid this communication are the key
influencing factor among people in social settings.

 Sociology is a study of plural behavior. Two or more interacting individuals

constitute a plurality pattern of behavior

 Sociology is the systematic study of social systems:

A social system is an operational social unit that is structured to serve a purpose.

It consists of two or more persons of different status with various roles playing a part
in a pattern that is sustained by a physical and cultural base.

When analyzing organizing as a social system, the following elements exist:

 People or actors

 Acts or Behavior

 Ends or Goals

 Norms, rules, or regulation controlling conduct or behavior

 Beliefs held by people as actors

 Status and status relationships

 Authority or power to influence other actors

 Role expectations, role performances, and role relationships.

Therefore, organizations are viewed by sociologies as consists of a variety of people

with different roles, status, and degrees of authority.

The organization attempts to achieve certain generalized and specific objectives.

To attain some of the abstract ends such as the development of company loyalty, the
organization’s leaders appeal to the shared cultural base.

Social Psychology
It has been defined as the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings, and
behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied the presence
of others.

It deals with how people are affected by other individuals who are physically present
or who are imagined to be present or even whose presence is implied.

In general, sociology focuses on how groups, organizations, social categories, and

societies are organized, how they function, how they change.

The unit of analysis is the group as a whole rather than the individuals who compose
the group.

Social Psychology deals with many of the same phenomena but seeks to explain
whole individual human interaction and human cognition influences culture and is
influenced by culture.

The unit of analysis is the individual within the group.

In reality, some forms of sociology are closely related to social psychology.

Social Psychologists study an enormous range of topics including conformity,

persuasion, power, influence, obedience, prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping,
sexism and racism, small groups, social categories, inter-group behavior, crowd
behavior, social conflict, social change, decision making, etc.
Among them, the most important topics relevant to the organizational behavior field
are behavioral change, attitude change, communication, group process, and group
decision making.

Social psychologists making significant contributions. Social psychologists making

significant contributions to measuring, understanding and improving attitudes,
communication patterns in how groups can satisfy individual needs and group
decision-making processes.

Anthropology
The main aim of anthropology is to acquire a better understanding of the relationship
between the human being and the environment.

Adaptations to surroundings constitute culture. The manner in which people view

their surroundings is a part of the culture.

Culture includes those ideas shared by groups of individuals and languages by

which these ideas are communicated. In essence, culture is a system of learned
behavior.

Their work on culture and environment has helped us to understand differences in

fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior among people in different countries and
within different organizations.

Much of our current understandings of organizational culture, environments, and

differences between national cultures are the results of the work of anthropologists or
those using their methodologies.

The world is the laboratory of anthropologists, and human beings must be studied in
the natural habitat. Understanding the importance of studying man in natural settings
over time enables one to grasp the range of anthropology.

Familiarity within some of the cultural differences of employees can lead to greater
managerial objectivity and depth in the interpretation of behavior and performance.

Anthropologists contribute to study some aspects of organizational settings – similar

values, comparative attitudes, cross-cultural analysis between or among the
employees.
Political Sciences
Contributions of political scientists are significant to the understanding of behavior in
organizations. Political scientists study the behavior of individuals and groups within
a political environment.

They contribute to understanding the dynamics of power centers, structuring of

conflict and conflict resolution tactics, allocation of power and how people manipulate
power for individual self-interest.

In a business field, organizations wanted to attain supremacy in their field and indulge
in politicking activities to gain maximum advantages by following certain tasks like
Machiavellianism, coalition formation, malpractices, etc.

The knowledge of political science can be utilized in the study the behavior of
employees, executives at micro as well as macro level.

Economics
Economics contributes to organizational behavior to a great extent in designing the
organizational structure. Transaction cost economics influence the organization and
its structure.

Transaction costs economics implies cost components to make an exchange on the

market.

This transaction cost economics examines the extent to which the organization
structure and size of an organization varies in response to attempts to avoid market
failures through minimizing production and transaction costs within the constraints of
human and environmental factors.

Costs of transactions include both costs of market transactions and internal

coordination.

A transaction occurs when a good or service is transferred across a ‘technologically

separable barrier’ Transaction costs arise for many reasons.

So we can assume that there are various types of disciplines that involve
organizational behavior. They, directly and indirectly, influence the overall activities
of OB.
4 Approaches to Organizational Behavior
Studies
Organizational Behavior relates to the relationship between employees and
the employer in an organization.

Both are working towards the realization of the goals and objectives of any
organization, and a close and fruitful coordination between the two is one of
the major factors towards this realization.

Organizational behavior approaches are a result of the research done by

experts in this field.

These experts studied and attempted to quantify research done about the
actions and reactions of employees, with regard to their work environments.

It is a field that has begun developing only recently and new approaches and
results are being expounded every day.

There are 4 Approaches to Organizational

Behavior studies;
1. Human resources approach.

2. Contingency approach.

3. Productivity approach.

4. Systems approach.

And one more approach to study organizational behavior is Interdisciplinary

Approach.

Human Resources Approach

This approach recognizes the fact that people are the central resource in any
organization and that they should be developed towards higher levels of
competency, creativity, and fulfillment.
People thus contribute to the success of the organization.

The human resources approach is also called as the supportive approach in

the sense that the manager’s role changes from control of employee to active
support of their growth and performance.

The supportive approach contrasts with the traditional management approach.

In the traditional approach, managers decided what employees should do and

closely monitored their performance to ensure task accomplishment.

In the human resources approach, the role of managers changes from

structuring and controlling to supporting.

Contingency Approach
The contingency approach (sometimes called the situational approach) is
based on the premise that methods or behaviors which work effectively in One
situation fail in another.

For example; Organization Development (OD) programs, way work brilliantly

in one situation but fail miserably in another situation.

Results differ because situations differ, the manager’s task, therefore, is to

identify which method will, in a particular situation, under particular
circumstances, and at a particular time, best contribute to the attainment of
organization’s goals.

The strength of the contingency approach lies in the fact it encourages

analysis of each situation prior to action while at the same time discourages
the habitual practice of universal assumptions about methods and people.

The contingency approach is also more interdisciplinary, more system –

oriented and more research-oriented titan any other approach.

Productivity Approach
Productivity which is the ratio of output to input is a measure of an
organization’s effectiveness. It also reveals the manager’s efficiency in
optimizing resource utilization.

The higher the numerical value of this ratio, the greater the efficiency.

Productivity is generally measured in terms of economic inputs and outputs,

but human and social inputs and outputs also are important.

For example, if better organizational behavior can improve job satisfaction, a

human output or benefit occurs.

In the same manner, when employee development programs lead to better

citizens in a community, a valuable social output occurs.

Organizational behavior decisions typically involve human, social, and/or

economic issues, and so productivity usually a significant part of these
decisions is recognized and discusses extensively in the literature on OB.

Systems Approach
The Systems Approach to OB views the organization as a united, purposeful
system composed of interrelated parts.

This approach gives managers a way of looking at the organization as a whole,

whole, person, whole group, and the whole social system.

In so doing, the systems approach tells us that the activity of any segment of
an organization affects, in varying degrees the activity of every other segment.
A systems view should be the concern of every person in an organization.

The clerk at a service counter, the machinist, and the manager all work with
the people and thereby influence the behavioral quality of life in an
organization and its inputs.

Managers, however, tend to have a larger responsibility, because they are the
ones who make the majority are people oriented.
 The role of managers, then, is to use organizational behavior to help build an
organizational culture in which talents are utilized and further developed,
people are motivated, teams become productive, organizations achieve their
goals and society reaps the reward.

Inter-Disciplinary Approach
Organizational behavior is an integration of all other social sciences and
disciplines such as psychology, sociology, organizational theories etc.

They all are interdependent and influence each other. The man is studied as a
whole and therefore, all disciplines concerning man are integrated.

Reasons for Studying Organizational Behavior

Organizational Behavior is concerned with the study of what people do in an
organization and how that behavior affects the performance of the
organization.

OB studies put the focus on motivation, leader behavior and power,

interpersonal communication, group structure and processes, learning,
attitude development and perception, change processes, conflict, work design,
and work stress.

OB draws heavily from behavioral and social sciences, most importantly from
psychology.

There are several practical reasons, why we study Organizational Behavior;

1. OB is the study of learning how to predict human behavior and, then,

apply it in some useful way to make the organization more effective. It helps in
the effective utilization of people working in the organization guarantees the
success of the organization.

2. OB helps the managers to understand the basis of motivation and what

he should do to motivate his subordinates.
3. OB helps to maintain cordial industrial relations which help to increase
the overall productivity of the industry.

4. It helps greatly in improving bur inter-personal relations in the

organizations.

5. It helps managers apply appropriate motivational techniques in

accordance with the nature of individual employees who exhibit a learning
difference in many respects.

Conclusion
Organizational Behavior is the study and application of knowledge about how
people, individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a
system approach.

That is, it interprets people-organization relationships in terms of the whole

person, the whole group, the whole organization, and the whole social system.

Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives,

organizational objectives, and social objectives. OB encompasses a wide range
of topics, such as human behavior, change, leadership, teams, etc.

Organizational behavior has a great impact on individuals and also in

organizations that cannot be ignored. In order to run the businesses
effectively and efficiently, the study of organizational behavior is very
essential.
 Personality: Characteristics, Factors, Roles,
Theories of Personality
Personality is a patterned body of habits, traits, attitudes, and ideas of an
individual’s, as these are organized externally into roles and status and as they
relate internally to motivation, goals, and various aspects of selfhood.

The term personality is derived from the Latin word “Persona” which means to
speak through.

This Latin term was used to denote the mask, the actors used to wear in
ancient Rome and Greece, An individual’s personality is the combination of
traits and patterns that influence their behavior, thought, motivation, and
emotion.

It drives individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways; in

essence, it is what makes each individual unique.

Over time, these patterns strongly influence personal expectations,

perceptions, values, and attitudes. In addition to this, personality arises from
within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life. It is a
pattern of stable states and characteristics of a person that influence his or her
behavior towards goal achievement. Each person has unique ways of
projecting these states.

The study of personality focuses on two broad areas;

1. One is understanding individual differences in particular personality

characteristics, such as sociability or irritability.

2. The other is understanding how the various parts of a person come

together as a whole.

What is Personality?
According to Gordon Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organization within
the individuals of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique
adjustments to his environments”.

Feist and Feist said, “personality is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and
unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a
person’s behavior.”

By personality Ogburn means “the integration of the socio-psychological

behavior of the human being, represented by habits of action and feeling,
attitudes and opinions.”

According to Lundberg and others, “The term personality refers to the habits,
attitudes and other social traits that are characteristic of a given individual’s
behavior”.

Lawrence A. Pewin said, “Personality represents those structural and dynamic

properties of an individual or individuals as they reflect themselves in
characteristic responses to situations”.

Hence personality is a sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and

interacts with others. It is individual differences in characteristic patterns of
thinking, feeling and behaving. It is the supreme realization of the innate habit
of a living being.

It is an act of courage flung in the face of life, the absolute affirmation of all
that constitutes the individual, the most successful adaptation to the universal
conditions of existence, coupled with the greatest possible freedom of self-
determination.

For example- he has a very pleasant personality or he was an influential

personality in genetic engineering.

Characteristics of Personality
The term personality is used in various senses.
 Generally, it is used to indicate the external outlook of an individual. In
philosophy, it means internal quality.

But in social psychology, the term personality indicates-neither the external or

outward pattern nor does it indicate the internal quality. It means an
integrated whole. In the modem world and psychology, it has come to
indicate the sum total of an individual’s characteristics and qualities.

Various thinkers, social psychologists, and others have defined personality in

various ways. It is a sum of physical, mental and social qualities in an
integrated manner.

Thus, personality is the sum of the ideas, attitudes, and values of a person
which determine his role in society and form an integral part of his character.
Personality is acquired by the individual as a result of his participation in
group life. It refers to something much more essential and enduring about a
person.

Beyond this basic point of agreement, personality has other characteristics or

features in common.

 Personality is something which is unique in each individual.

 Personality refers particularly to the persistent qualities of an individual.

 Personality represents a dynamic orientation of an organism to the

environment.

 Personality is greatly influenced by social interactions.

 Personality represents a unique organization of persistent dynamic and

social predisposition.

 Consistency.

 Psychological and physiological.

 It impacts behaviors and actions.

 Multiple expressions.

Personality is something which is unique in each

individual
Personality refers to internal as well as external qualities, some of which are
quite general. But it is unique to each individual. It is not possible for a person
to reproduce or imitate the qualities of the personality of another person.

Personality refers particularly to persistent qualities of

an individual
Every individual has a certain feeling as well as other permanent traits and
qualities.

Personality is mainly composed of the persistent or permanent qualities that

exhibit themselves in form of social behavior and attempt to make an
adjustment with the environment.

Personality represents a dynamic orientation of an

organism to the environment
Personality represents the process of learning. It takes place in reference to
the environment. We do not acquire all the traits of personality at once.

Personality is greatly influenced by social interactions

Personality is not an individual quality. It is a result of social- interaction.

In other words, it means that when we come in contact with other members of
society, we acquire certain qualities while We exhibit certain others. All these
come to form personality.
Personality represents a unique organization of
persistent dynamic and social predisposition
In personality, various qualities are not put together.

They are, in fact, integrated into one. This integration is nothing but a result of
organization which may be different from man to man. The behavior of a
person directed to one particular individual may differ from the behavior of
another person.

That is why; we put the condition of a suitable environment. This suitability is

concerned with individual specificity.

Consistency
There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially,
people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.

Psychological and physiological

Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also
influenced by biological processes and needs.

It impacts behaviors and actions

Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our
environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.

Multiple expressions
Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in our
thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.

Actually, personality is the unique combination of patterns that influence

behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion in a human being. There are many
approaches to the modem psychological study of personality, including the
 psychodynamic, learning, humanistic, biological, trait, and cultural
perspectives.

It can be described as how a person affects others, how he understands, and

views himself, and his pattern of inner and outer measurable traits. It
encompasses the relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns a
person has.

In fact, our personality changes over long periods of time.

Factors of Personality
In the field of organizational behavior, personality is the aggregate of a
person’s feelings, thinking, behaviors and responses to different situations and
people.

Our personality differentiates us from other people, and understanding

someone’s personality gives us clues about how that person is likely to act and
feel in a variety of situations. In order to effectively manage organizational
behavior, an understanding of different employees’ personalities is helpful.

Having this knowledge is also useful for placing people in jobs and
organizations. Having a strong personality is the key to success. This is also a
key determinant of good leadership.

A person with a positive attitude can direct his thoughts, control his emotions
and regulate his attitude. Every person has a different personality and there
are a lot of factors which contribute to that personality. We call them the
‘determinants of personality’or the‘factors of personality’.

 Environmental Factors.

 Physical Factors.

 Situational Factors.

 Hereditary.
 Family and Social Factors.

 Identification Process.

 Cultural Factors.

 Intelligence.

 Sex Differences.

 Psychological Factors.

Environmental Factors
Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the
culture in which we are raised; our early conditioning; the norms among our
family, friends, and social groups; and other influences that we experience.

These environmental factors play a substantial role in shaping our

personalities.

It establishes the attitudes, values, norms, and perceptions of an individual.

Based on the cultures and traditions, different senses of right and wrong are
formed in individuals.

These environmental factors also include the neighborhood a person lives in,
his school, college, university, workplace, friends, parents; everybody plays a
role as the determinants of one’s personality.

Physical Factors
There are many physical factors which will determine a person’s personality.
These physical factors include the overall physical structure of a person: his
height, weight, color, sex, beauty, body language, etc.

Physical factors are one of the major reasons for that. Most of the physical
structures change from time to time, and so does the personality. With
exercises, cosmetics, surgeries etc. many physical features are changed, and
therefore, the personality of the individual also evolves.

Situational Factors
The situational factors can be commonly observed when a person behaves
contrastingly and exhibits different traits and characteristics. In this way,
situational factors impact a personality in a significant way.

They often bring out the traits of a person that are not commonly seen. An
individual’s personality, although generally stable and consistent, does change
in different situations.

The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of

one’s personality. So we shouldn’t look at personality patterns in isolation
(canon, & Porter, 19&). This aspect is very important for organization behavior
because the manager has control over the organizational situation.

Hereditary
Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical
structure, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition, and
reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are
generally considered to be either completely or substantially influenced by the
parents.

Hereditary predisposes a certain mental, physical and emotional states. It has

been established through research that those psychological characteristics can
be transmitted through hereditary. However such conclusive proof is not
available for human beings.

Family and Social Factors

Family and social groups have the most significant impact on personality
development. Parents and other family members have a strong influence on
the personality development of the child. Parents have more effect on
personality development as compared to other members of the family.

Besides a person’s home environment and family members, there are other
influences arising from social factors like- friends, neighbor, relatives, etc.
These groups have their impact through socialization and identification
process.

Identification Process
The identification process occurs when a person tries to identify himself with
some person to whom he feels ideal in the family.

First identification can be viewed as the similarity of behavior between the

child and the model.

Second identification can be looked in as the child motives or desires to be

like the model.

Third, it can be viewed as the process through which the child actually takes
on the attributes of the model.

Cultural Factors
Culture is the underlying determinant of human decision making. It generally
determines attitude towards independence, aggression competition, and co-
operation. Each culture expects and trains its members to behave in a way that
is acceptable to the group

Intelligence
There is definitely some relationship between intelligence and personality.
Intelligence is mainly hereditary. Persons who are very intelligent can make a
better adjustment in home, school, and society than those persons who are
less intelligent.
Sex Differences
Boys are generally more assertive, tough-minded and vigorous. They have
better need to succeed with regard to interest and aptitudes. Boys show
interest in machinery and outdoor activities. They prefer adventures.

But girls are less vigorous games. They are quieter and interested in personal
appearance. They are more injured by personal, emotional and social
problems.

Thus sex differences play a vital role in the development of the personality of
an individual.

Psychological Factors
Psychological factors play a big role in the functioning of human behavior and
the development of one’s personality. Some of the psychological factors are-
motives, acquired interests, attitudes, character, intellectual capacities etc.

Beyond the joint influence of these factors however, the relative contribution
of each factor to personality varies with the character or personality process
involved and perhaps with the individual concerned.

Roles of Personality in Organizational Behavior

Personality plays a key role in organizational behavior because of the way
that people think, feel, and behave effects many aspects of the workplace.
People’s personalities influence their behavior in groups, their attitudes, and
the way they make decisions.

In the workplace, personality affects such things as motivation, leadership,

performance, and conflict. The more that management understands how
personality in organizational behavior works, the better equipped they are to
be effective and accomplish their goals.
One factor which determines the importance of personality in OB is the
environment where the personality of an individual is being studied; after all,
personality’s impact on an organization is relative and depends on how the
organization has been structured.

Weakly structured organizations with loosely defined roles tend to get the
most impact, compared to strongly structured organizations with more
defined roles. People have many different views of the world that affect their
personalities.

When a situation arises, an individual will handle it based upon his or her
personal values, beliefs, and personality traits. These traits are developed
throughout a person’s lifetime and cannot be easily changed, so it is more
helpful for managers to attempt to understand this rather than to fight it.

There are 2 types of values governing our behaviors in an organization;

personal values and the commonly held values of an organization.

We tend to act in accordance with these values, which in turn will define what
is ethical and what it is not.

The beliefs and values remain relatively stable regardless of what situation we
are in. Our feelings and behaviors, on the other hand, tend to be easily
influenced by the environment in which we function. Traits such as openness,
emotional stability, and agreeableness all predict that an individual will have
less conflict, work better in teams, and have positive attitudes about his or her
work.

People with this type of personality should be placed in situations where they
would be working with or leading others. Positive-interpersonal skill is a
personality trait that greatly affects the workplace.

Individuals who exhibit this trait generally enjoy working with other people,
and they have the empathy and sensitivity that enables them to get along well
with others.

Decision-making and independence are greatly affected by personality.

Personality traits such as self-efficacy, conscientiousness, and pro-activity
contribute to good decision-making under pressure and independence, while
traits such as neuroticism and not being open do not.

In the light of these reflections, our personal values and personalities govern
our actions and behaviors, and since organizational behavior is built upon our
personal values, it is of paramount importance to understand personalities of
employees to make good use of organizational behavior.

One of the fundamental issues in the understanding of people’s behavior is

how we understand the person in an organizational setting. Jackson and
Carter (2000) pointed out that in work organizations; we often take a limited
view of the person, focusing more on the degree of willingness to pursue
organizational goals.

Work-related behavior of people in an organization stems from both

environmental and individual factors. From the environmental approach,
interpersonal, group, and societal influences and individual factors extend
across cognitive abilities, acquired expertise, personality styles, motivation,
and physical attributes.

A common aspect of personality is the manner in which we think of its effect

on behavior. We tend to think of this in terms of a person with a particular set
of traits.

Theories of Personality
Personality is a combination of behavior, emotion, motivation, and thought
patterns that define an individual. Personality psychology attempts to study
similarities and differences in these patterns among different people and
groups.

Modem personality psychology is heavily influenced by these early

philosophical roots and attempts to identify which components — such as free
will, heredity, or universality — are most influential in shaping human
personality.
 It is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his characteristics behavior and thought. It means the
characteristics or blends of characteristics, which make a person unique.

Almost every day we describe and assess the personalities of the people
around us.

While our informal assessments of personality tend to focus more on an

individual’s personality, psychologists use conceptions of personality that can
apply to everyone. Personality research has led to the development of a
number of theories that help to explain how and why certain personality traits
develop.

Theories of personality are;

1. Type Theory.

2. Trait Theory.

3. Social Learning Theory.

4. Humanistic Theory.

5. Psychoanalytic Theory.

1. Type Theory
Type theory places personalities into clearly identifiable categories.

Classification into type is the beginning of most sciences- types of rocks, types
of clouds, kinds of plants and so on.

Kretschmer and Sheldon are credited with this classification. In type, theories
relationship was sought to be established between features of face or body
and personality.
 Thus, a short plumb person was said to be sociable, relaxed, and even-
tempered; a tall, thin person was characterized as reserved, self-conscious, and
fond of isolation, a heavy Set muscular individual was described as noisy,
callous, and fond of physical activity. The second basis to type personalities is
psychological factors.

One of Freud’s pupils, the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung, divided all
personalities into introverts and extroverts. Introverts are described as people
who have characteristics such as shyness, social withdrawal, and tendency to
talk less. Because of these characteristics, these people appear to be self-
centered, unable to adjust easily in social situations.

Extraverts share a tendency to be outgoing, friendly, talkative, and social in

nature. They prefer social contacts, generous, supportive, and courageous.

2. Trait Theory
A trait differentiates one from another in a relatively permanent or consistent
way. A trait of an individual is abstracted from his behavior and serves a useful
“unit of analysis” to understand personality. In many ways, the trait theory is
multiple models of type theory

are concerned with determining the basic traits and provide a meaningful
description of personality and finding some way to measure them. There are
two ways of assessing personality traits:

1. The person describes himself by answering questions about his

attitudes, feelings, and behaviors.

2. Someone else evaluates the person’s traits either from what he knows
about the individual or from direct observation of behavior.

A personality inventory is essentially a questionnaire in which the person

reports reactions or feelings in certain situations.

A personality inventory asks the same questions of each person, and the
answers are usually given in the form that can be easily scored. A personality
 inventory may be designed to measure a single dimension of personality or it
may measure several personality traits simultaneously.

There are different contributors to trait theory. They are-

Gordon Allport
Gordon Allport was one of the first modem trait theorists. In 1936, Allport and
Henry Odbert worked through two of the most comprehensive dictionaries of
the English language available and extracted around 18,000 personality-
describing words which were reduced to around 4000 words. Allport
organized these traits into a hierarchy of three levels:

 Cardinal Traits: These are traits that dominate an individual’s whole life,

often to the point that the person becomes known specifically for these traits.
People with such personalities often become so known for these traits that
their names are often synonymous with these qualities. Allport suggested that
cardinal traits are rare and tend to develop later in life.

 Central traits: These traits come next in the hierarchy. These are general
characteristics found in varying degrees in every person such as loyalty,
kindness, agreeableness, friendliness, intelligence, honesty, shyness, anxious
etc. are considered as central traits. They are the basic building blocks that
shape most of our behavior.

 Secondary Traits: These are the traits that are sometimes related to

attitudes or preferences and often appear only in certain situations or under
specific circumstances. For example, a friendly person gets angry when people
try to tickle him; another is not an anxious person but always feels nervous
speaking publicly.

Allport hypothesized that internal and external forces influence an individual’s

behavior and personality, and he referred to these forces as genotypes and
phenotypes.

Genotypes are internal forces that relate to how a person retains information
and uses it to interact with the world. Phenotypes are external forces that
 relate to the way an individual accepts his or her surroundings and how others
influence his or her behavior.

Raymond Cattell
In 1965, trait theorist Raymond Cattell reduced the number of main
personality traits from Allport’s initial list of over 4,000 down to 171, mostly by
eliminating uncommon traits and combining common characteristics.

Then, using a statistical technique known as factor analysis, he identified

closely related terms and eventually reduced his list to just 16 key personality
traits.

Cattell argued that it is necessary to look at a much larger number of traits in

order to get a complete picture of someone’s personality. Cattell collected
data from a range of people through three different sources of data.

 L-data – this is life record data such as school grades, absence from
work etc.

 Q-data – this was a questionnaire designed to rate an individuals

personality.

 T-data – this is data from objective tests designed to ‘tap’ into a

personality construct.

Cattell analyzed the T-data and Q-data using a mathematical technique and
identified 16 personality traits/factors common to all people.

Factor Low Score High Score

Warmth Cold, Selfish Supportive, Comforting

Intellect Instinctive, Unstable Cerebral, Analytical

Emotional Stability Irritable, Moody Level Headed, Calm

Aggressiveness Modest, Docile Controlling, Tough

Liveliness Somber, Restrained Wild, Fun loving

Dutifulness Untraditional, Rebellious Conformity, Traditional

Social Assertiveness Shy, Withdrawn Uninhibited

Sensitivity Coarse, Tough Touchy, Soft

Paranoia Trusting, Easy going Wary, Suspicious

Abstractness Practical, Regular Strange, Imaginative

Introversion Open, Friendly Private, Quite

Anxiety Confident, Self-assured Fearful, Self-doubting

Close-minded, Set-in-
Open-mindedness Curious, Self-exploratory
ways

Independence Outgoing, Social Loner, Crave Solitude

Perfectionism Disorganized, Messy Orderly, Thorough

Tension Relaxed, Cool Stressed, Unsatisfied

Based on these 16 factors, he developed a personality assessment called the

16PF. Instead of a trait being present or absent, each dimension is scored over
a continuum, from high to low.
 For example, the level of warmth describes how warm, caring, and nice to
others a person is. If that person scores low on this index, he/she tends to be
more selfish and cold. A high score on this index signifies he/she is supportive
and comforting.

Despite cutting down significantly on Allport’s list of traits, Cattell’s 16PF

theory has still been criticized for being too broad.

Hans Eysenck
Hans Eysenck was a personality theorist who focused on temperament—
innate, genetically based personality differences.

He believed personality is largely governed by biology, and he viewed people

as having two specific personality dimensions: extroversion vs. introversion
and neuroticism vs. stability.

After collaborating with his wife and fellow personality theorist Sybil Eysenck,
he added a third dimension to this model: psychoticism vs. socialization.

 Introversion/Extraversion
Introversion involves directing attention on inner experiences, while
extraversion relates to focusing attention outward on other people and the
environment. So, a person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved,
while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.

 Neuroticism/Emotional Stability
In this case, people high on neuroticism tend to be anxious; they tend to have
an overactive sympathetic nervous system and even with low stress, their
bodies and emotional state tend to go into a flight-or-fight reaction. In
contrast, people high on stability tend to need more stimulation to activate
their flight-or-fight reaction and are therefore considered more emotionally
stable.

 Psychoticism/Socialization
In this dimension, it is said that individuals who are high on this trait tend to
have difficulty dealing with reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-
empathetic and manipulative. People who are high on socialization tend to
have high impulse control—they are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative,
and conventional.

The major strength of Eysenck’s model is that he was one of the first to make
his approach more quantifiable; it was therefore perceived to be more
justifiable. Unlike Allport’s and Cattell’s models, however, Eysenck’s has been
criticized for being too narrow.

3. Social Learning Theory

Through learning one can acquire knowledge, language, attitudes, values,
manual skills, fears, personality traits, and self-insight.

Therefore, a study of the process of learning throws more light on

understanding human’s activity. There are two ways of learning, one is
reinforcement that is direct experience, and another is observing others. The
social learning theory focuses on behavior patterns and cognitive activities in
relation to the specific conditions that evoke, maintain, or modify them.

The emphasis is on what an individual does in a given situation. Some of the

personal variables that determine what an individual will do in a particular
situation include the following:

Competencies
Intellectual abilities, social skills, and other abilities.

Cognitive strategies
Habitual ways of selectively attending to information and organizing it into
meaningful units.

Outcome expectations
Expectations about the consequences of different behaviors and the meaning
of certain stimuli.

Subjective value outcome

Even if individuals have similar expectancies, they may choose to behave
differently because of differences in the subjective values of the outcomes
they expect.

Self-regulatory systems and plans

Individual differences in self-imposed goals, rules guiding behavior, self-
imposed rewards for success or punishment for failure, and the ability to plan
and execute steps leading to a goal will lead to differences in behavior.

4. Humanistic Theory
Though there were so many psychologists developed so many theories of
personality, some psychologists felt that these theories ignored the qualities
that make humans unique among animals, such as striving for self-
determination and self-realization.

In the 1950s, some of these psychologists began a school of psychology called

humanism. They tend to have an optimistic perspective on human nature.

They focus on the ability of human beings to think consciously and rationally,
to control their biological urges, and to achieve their full potential. In the
humanistic view, people are responsible for their lives and actions.

Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and George Kelly became well known for their
humanistic theories.

Abraham Maslow
 One of the most common models used in psychology, the Hierarchy of Needs
was the result of Abraham Maslow’s research. Abraham Maslow is regarded as
the spiritual father of humanism in American psychology.

Maslow explained the human needs in a pyramid-like figure.

At the bottom of the pyramid are the physiological needs like air, food, water,
etc.

Next to it is the safety and security needs for example-shelter, protection, etc.
Love and belongingness need come next i.e. acceptance, affection, friendship,
etc.

The fourth portion includes the self-esteem needs like-sense of mastery,

power, appreciation, etc.

And at the top of Abraham Maslow’s ladder of human motives is the need for
self-actualization, he said that human beings strive for self-actualization, or
realization of their full potential. It involves realizing one’s potentialities for
continued self-development and for being creative.

In this stage, a person wants to do something, which is challenging and since

this challenge gives him enough satisfaction and motivates to work. This type
of work is beneficial for that person in particular and to the society in general.

Maslow believed that our ultimate life goal is self-actualization. Some

characteristics of a self-actualized person are:

 Autonomous and independent.

 Have accurate perceptions of reality.

 Is able to accept himself, others and society.

 Often feels as one with nature.

 Democratic and Appreciative.

 Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers, another humanistic psychologist, proposed a theory called the
person-centered theory.

In Rogers’s view, the self-concept is the most important feature of personality,

and it includes all the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs people have about
themselves. Rogers believed that people are aware of their self-concepts.

According to Rogers, we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which

are consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be.
This theory states that the self is composed of concepts unique to us. The self-
concept includes three components:

 Self-worth: It means what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed

feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the
interaction of the child with the mother and father.

 Self-Image: It means how we see ourselves, which is important to good

psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on
inner personality. At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or
bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image has an effect on how a person thinks,
feels, and behaves in the world.

 Ideal self: This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our
goals and ambitions in life and is dynamic. The ideal self in childhood is not
the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.

Rogers said that people’s self-concepts often do not exactly match reality.
Rogers used the term incongruence to refer to the discrepancy between the
self-concept and reality.

Congruence, on the other hand, is a fairly accurate match between self-

concept and reality. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other,
the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-
worth.
A person is said to be in a state, of incongruence if some of the totality of their
experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-
image.

George Kelly
Kelly’s humanistic theory is based on the Fundamental Postulate, which says
that the manner by which a person anticipates events psychological
channelizes his process. This means that our actions are determined by our
expectancies of the outside world, based on our interpretation of past
experiences.

For instance, if an individual views others as open-minded and friendly, he

would have a greater tendency to become more sociable and open to people.
However, if he sees others as rude and egocentric, he would tend to trust only
himself and become indifferent.

Kelly believed that we can start by developing a set of personal constructs,

which are essentially mental representations that we use to interpret events.

These constructs are based upon our experiences and observations. Kelly also
believed that all events that happen are open to multiple interpretations,
which he referred to as constructive alternativism.

When we are trying to make sense of an event or situation, he suggested that

we are also able to pick and choose which construct we want to use. This
sometimes happens as an event unfolds, but we can also reflect back on our
experiences and then choose to view in different ways.

It is essential to remember the emphasis on individuality in personal construct

theory. Constructs -are inherently personal because they are based upon each
person’s life experiences. It is the individual nature of these experiences that
form the differences between. people. Kelly believed that people have a
fundamental need to predict the events that they experience.

They do so by developing a system of personal constructs, which they use to

interpret new events. Constructs are derived from recurring elements in one’s
experience, but because they’re developed separately by each person, each
person’s system of constructs is unique.

5. Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud is credited with the psychoanalytic theory. In his 40 years of
writing and clinical practice.

Freud acknowledged one of the intellectual giants in the history of modem

thought, developed the first comprehensive personality theory. It is an
extensive body of clinical observations based on his therapeutic experience
and self-analysis. Freud proposed a three-part personality structure consisting
of the id, the ego, and the superego.

It operates on the pleasure principle which is the idea that every wishful
impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.

The id, the largest part of the mind, is related to desires and impulses and is
the main source of basic biological needs. The ego is related to reasoning and
is the conscious, rational part of the personality; it monitors behavior in order
to satisfy basic desires without suffering negative consequences.

The superego, or conscience, develops through interactions with others to

conform to the norms of society. Freud suggested that the three structures, i.e.
id, ego, and superego can be depicted diagrammatically to show how they are
related to the conscious and unconscious.

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has been criticized by someone.

One criticism against the theory is that the approach is not based on
empirically verifiable facts. The psychoanalytic elements are largely
hypothetical constructs and are not measurable, observable items susceptible
to scientific analysis and verification.

Another criticism is that it is based almost entirely upon his observations of

emotionally disturbed individuals. It may not represent an appropriate
description of the normal, healthy personality.
 Personality Traits: Big Five Personality Traits
and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Personality traits reflect people’s characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors.

These imply consistency and stability someone who scores high on a specific
trait like Extraversion is expected to be sociable in different situations and over
time.

Thus, trait psychology rests on the idea that people differ from one another in
terms of where they stand on a set of basic trait dimensions that persist over
time and across situations.

To understand and classify what makes people who they are has been a
longstanding challenge in the world of personality psychology. Numerous
theories and models have been developed over die years to better
understand aspects of human personality.

Big Five Personality Traits

Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal advanced the initial model, based on work
done at the U.S. Air Force Personnel Laboratory in the late 1950s.

J.M. Digman proposed his five-factor model of personality in 1990 and

Goldman extended it to the highest level of organizations in 1993.

The Big Five personality traits, also known as the five factors model (FFM), is a
widely examined theory of five broad dimensions used by some psychologists
to describe the human personality.

Each of these five factors is actually a sort of mega pair of opposites;

1. Openness v. Closedness,

2. Conscientiousness v. Spontaneity,
3. Extroversion v. Introversion,

4. Agreeableness v. Hostility,

5. Neuroticism v. Emotional stability.

Let’s discuss all Big Five personality traits.

Trait Description

Being curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new

Openness
ideas.

Being organized, systematic, punctual, achievement-oriented,

Conscientiousness
and dependable.

Being outgoing, talkative, sociable, and enjoying social

Extraversion
situations.

Agreeableness Being affable, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm.

Neuroticism Being anxious, irritable, temperamental, and moody.

 

1. Openness to experience
Openness addresses one’s range of interests. Extremely open people are
fascinated by novelty and innovation. It is a general appreciation for art,
emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of
experience.

People who are high in this trait tend to be more adventurous and creative.
People low in this trait are often much more traditional and may struggle with
abstract thinking.

2. Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness is a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim
for achievement against measures or outside expectations. It is related to the
way in which people control, regulate, and direct their impulses.

High conscientiousness is often perceived as stubborn and obsessive. Low

conscientiousness is flexible and spontaneous but can be perceived as sloppy
and unreliable.

3. Extraversion
Extroversion reflects a person’s comfort level with relationships. Extroverts are
characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and high
amounts of emotional expressiveness.

Introverts are less sociable, less talkative, less assertive, and more reluctant to
begin a new relationship.

4. Agreeableness
The agreeableness trait reflects individual differences in general concern for
social harmony. They are generally considerate, kind, generous, trusting and
trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others.

High agreeableness is often seen as inexperienced or obedient.

They value harmony more than they value their own say. Low agreeableness
personalities are often competitive or challenging people, which can be seen
as aggressive or untrustworthy. They focus more on their own needs than the
needs of others.

5. Neuroticism
Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger,
anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability, or in
reversed it is referred to as emotional stability. A high need for stability
manifests as a stable and calm personality but can be seen as uninspiring and
unconcerned.

A low need for stability causes a reactive and excitable personality, often very
dynamic individuals, but they can be perceived as unstable or insecure.

The Big Five Model continues to attract the attention of both researchers and
managers.

These researchers began by studying known personality traits and then factor-
analyzing hundreds of measures of these traits in order to find the underlying
factors of personality.

The potential value of this framework lies in the fact that it encompasses an
integrated set of traits that appear to be valid predictors of certain behaviors
in certain situations.

Big five personality traits were the model to comprehend the relationship
between personality and organizational behaviors.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Whereas the Big-Five has recently emerged from considerable basic research
and has generally been demonstrated to significantly relate to job
performance, the MBTI is based on a very old theory, has mixed at best
research support, but is widely used and very popular in real-world career
counseling, team building, conflict management, and analyzing management
styles.

In the 1920s, based on the classical work of Carl Jung the Swiss Psychiatrist,
the Myers-Briggs Type indicator ask people how they usually feel or act in
particular situations.

Based on the answers received, people are differentiated in terms of four

general dimensions: sensing, intuiting, judging and perceiving. He felt that
although people had all four of these dimensions in common, they differ in
the combination of their preferences of each.

After around 20 years after Jung developed his theoretical types, in 1943 by a
mother-daughter team of Isabel Myers and Katherine Cook Briggs developed
 about a 100-item personality test asking participants how they usually feel or
act in particular situations in order to measure the preferences of traits. Here
they said about 16 distinct types of personality traits.

Sixteen Primary Traits

1. Reserved Vs. Outgoing.

2. Less intelligent Vs. More intelligent.

3. Affected by feelings Vs. Emotional more stable.

4. Submissive Vs. Dominant.

5. Serious Vs. Happy-go-lucky.

6. Expedient Vs. Conscientious.

7. Timid Vs. Venturesome.

8. Tough-minded Vs. Sensitive.

9. Trusting Vs. Suspicious.

10. Practical Vs. Imaginative.

11. Forthright Vs. Shrewd.

12. Self-assured Vs. Apprehensive.

13. Conservative Vs. Experimenting.

14. Group dependent Vs. Self-dependent.

15. Uncontrolled Vs. Controlled.

16. Relaxed Vs. Tense.

 The MBTI is a popular instrument used to assess personality types.

It is widely used in the selection process. As many as two million people are
reported to be taking it each year in the U.S.A.; research suggests that the
MBTI is a very useful method for determining communication styles and
interaction preferences.

The survey is criticized because it relies on types as opposed to traits, but

organizations who use the survey find it very useful for training and team-
building purposes. In fact, the Myers & Briggs Foundation has strict guidelines
against the use of the test for employee selection.

How Personality Traits Influencing

Organizational Behavior
 Self-Monitoring.

 Self-Efficacy.

 Proactive Personality.

 Self-Esteem.

 Locus of Control.

 Risk-Taking.

 Positive and Negative Affectivity.

 Type A Personality.

 Type B Personality.

 Machiavellianism.

 Motivation.
 Work Ethic.

Self-Monitoring
A personality trait that has recently received increased attention is called self-
monitoring.

Self-monitoring refers to the extent to which a person is capable of

monitoring his or her actions and appearance in social situations. High social
monitors are sensitive to the types of behaviors the social environment
expects from them.

Their greater ability to modify their behavior according to the demands of the
situation and to manage their impressions effectively is a great advantage for
them.

In general, they tend to be more successful in their careers. They are more
likely to get cross-company promotions, and even when they stay with one
company, they are more likely to advance. They are rated as higher
performers, and emerge as leaders.

Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is a belief that one can perform a specific task successfully. It is
the belief that we can do something is a good predictor of whether we can
actually do it. Research shows that self-efficacy at work is related to job
performance.

This relationship is probably a result of people with high self-efficacy setting

higher goals for themselves and being more committed to these goals,
whereas people with low self-efficacy tend to procrastinate.

Hiring people who are capable of performing their tasks and training people
to increase their self-efficacy may be effective. Giving people opportunities to
test their skills so that they can see what they are capable of doing is also a
good way of increasing self-efficacy.
Proactive Personality
Proactive personality refers to a person’s inclination to fix what is perceived as
wrong, change the status quo, and use initiative to solve problems. Instead of
waiting to be told what to do, proactive people take action to initiate
meaningful change and remove the obstacles they face along the way.

Proactive people are valuable assets to their companies because they may
have higher levels of performance.

They adjust to their new jobs quickly because they understand the political
environment better and often make friends more quickly. Proactive people are
eager to learn and engage in many developmental activities to improve their
skills.

Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is the degree to which a person has overall positive feelings about
his or herself. People with high self-esteem view themselves in a positive light,
are confident, and respect themselves.

High self-esteem is related to higher levels of satisfaction with one’s job and
higher levels of performance on the job (Judge, & Bono, 2001).

On the other hand, people with low self-esteem experience high levels of self-
doubt and question their self-worth. They are attracted to situations in which
they will be relatively invisible, such as large companies.

Locus of Control
Locus of control deals with the degree to which people feel accountable for
their own behaviors.

The people who believe that they control their destinies have been labeled
internals, whereas the latter, who see their lives as being controlled by outside
forces, have been called externals.
Individuals with a high internal locus of control believe that they control what
happens to them is their own doing, while those with a high external locus of
control feel that things happen to them because of other people, luck, or a
powerful being.

It is possible that internals takes more responsibility for their health and adopt
healthier habits, while externals may see less of a connection between how
they live and their health. Successful entrepreneurs tend to have high levels of
internal locus of control.

Risk-Taking
People differ in their willingness to take chances. It is the degree to which an
individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions. Their propensity
to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it
takes managers to make a decision and how much information they require
before making their choice.

High-risk taking managers make more rapid decisions and use less
information in making choices in comparison with low risk-taking managers.

The tendency to assume or avoid risk affects a manager’s behavior’ in making

decisions. In general, managers in large organizations, tend to be risk-averse,
especially in contrast to growth-oriented entrepreneurs who actively manage
small businesses.

Positive and Negative Affectivity

Some people seem to be in a good mood most of the time and others seem
to be in a bad* mood most of the time regardless of what is actually going on
in their lives.

This distinction is manifested by positive and negative affectivity traits. Positive

affective people experience positive moods more frequently, whereas negative
affective people experience negative moods with greater frequency.
 Negative affective people focus on the “glass half empty” and experience
more anxiety and nervousness. Positive affective people tend to be happier at
work and their happiness spreads to the rest of the work environment. As may
be expected, this personality trait sets the tone in the work atmosphere.

When a team comprises mostly negative affective people, there tend to be

fewer instances of helping and cooperation. Teams dominated by positive
affective people experience lower levels of absenteeism.

Type A Personality
The theory describes a Type A individual as ambitious, rigidly organized,
highly status conscious, can be sensitive, care for other people, are truthful,
impatient, take on more than they can handle, want other people to get to the
point, proactive, and obsessed with time management.

The Type A personality generally lives at a higher stress level. This is driven by-

 They enjoy the achievement of goals, with greater enjoyment in

achieving of more difficult goals. They are thus constantly working hard to
achieve these.

 They find it difficult to stop, even when they have achieved goals.

 They feel the pressure of time, constantly working flat out.

 They are always moving, walking, eating rapidly, and they cannot cope
with leisure.

 They strive to think or do two or more things at once.

 They hate failure and will work hard to avoid it.

 They are generally pretty fit and often well-educated.

Type B Personality
 The theory describes Type B individuals, as a contrast to those with Type A
personalities.

People with Type B personality by definition generally live at a lower stress

level and typically work steadily, enjoying achievements but not becoming
stressed when they are not achieved. When faced with competition, they do
not mind losing rather they enjoy the game.

They may be creative and enjoy exploring ideas and concepts. They are often
reflective, thinking about the outer and inner worlds. This is driven by-

 They work steadily, enjoying achievements but not becoming stressed

when they are not achieved.

 They never suffer from’a sense of time urgency with its accompanying
impatience.

 They play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority
at any cost. enjoy exploring ideas and concepts.

 They are often refle

 They may be creative and ctive, thinking about the outer and inner
worlds.

Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism is another important personality trait. This concept is named
after Niccolo Machiavelli, a sixteenth-century author.

In his book entitled The Prince, Machiavelli explained how the nobility could
more easily gain and use power. Machiavellianism is now used to describe
behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others.
Research suggests that Machiavellianism is a personality trait that varies from
person to person.
 Generally, high Machs manipulate more, win more, are persuaded less, and
persuade others more than do low Machs. Yet these high Mach outcomes are
moderated by situational factors. It has been found that high Machs flourish-

 when they interact face to face with others rather than indirectly,

 when the situation has a minimum number of rules and regulations, it

allows freedom for creativeness, and

 when emotional involvement with details irrelevant to winning distracts

low Machs.

Motivation
Sometimes it is difficult to understand what motivates a person.

Some people are motivated solely by money; if they are promised of a raise or
bonus, they are likely to work harder. Other people prefer recognition among
their peers, so celebrating their successes at a staff luncheon or sending out a
recognition email to the staff could keep those employees working at full
steam.

Other people are self-motivated, able to work hard for the personal
satisfaction they receive when they achieve the goal. So firstly, the way of
motivating the persons should be understood.

Work Ethic
A strong work ethic develops in employees who make their jobs a high
priority. Some employees might perform adequately, but without fervor or any
indication they are at work for more than a paycheck.

People with a weak work ethic often require more management and oversight
to keep them focused on their work, while people with a strong work ethic
typically work well with minimum oversight.
Stages of Shaping Personality

Personality development is the

development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes that makes a
person distinctive. Personality development occurs through the ongoing
interaction of temperament, character, and environment.

How personality develops from its infant to the grown-up stages is an

interesting and useful study.

Psychologists have come out with different stages in the development

of personality. The most important of them have been explained here.

Freud’s Stages
Sigmund Freud is probably the most well-known theorist when it comes to the
development of personality. Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development are,
like other stage theories, completed in a predetermined sequence and can
result in either successful completion or a healthy personality or can result in
failure, leading to an unhealthy personality. In 1905, Freud said about the
stages of personality development. Freud believed that the human personality
consisted of three interworking parts: the id, the ego, and the superego;
According to his theory, these parts become unified as a child works through
the five stages of psychosexual development. These stages are:

Oral/Dependency: This stage takes place from birth to age one. During the
oral stage, the infant’s primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. If a child’s
oral needs are not met during infancy, he or she may develop negative habits
such as nail biting or thumb sucking to meet this basic need.

Anal/ Potty Training

In this second stage, the child leams to control their bodily functions. If not
handled properly, then he or she might become anal retentive, controlling, or
rigid. This stage takes place from one to three years.

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was
on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage
is toilet training— the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs.
Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and
independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach to toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for
using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help
children feel capable and productive.

Read More: Theories of Personality

Phallic Stage
In this stage, the child becomes aware of male and female.

Personality is fully developed by this stage. During this stage, preschoolers

take pleasure in their genitals and, according to Freud, begin to struggle with
sexual desires toward the opposite sex parent (boys to mothers and girls to
fathers).

For boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy’s desire for his
mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival for the
mother’s attention. The Electra complex is the female version where the
female child has anger toward her mother.
Stage Age Major Chara

Interest in oral gratification from sucking,

Oral Birth to one year
eating, mouthing, and biting.

Gratification from expelling and withholding

One year to three
Anal forces; coming to terms with society’s
years
controls relating to toilet training.

Interest in the genitals, coming to terms with

Phallic Three to four years Oedipal conflict, leading to identification with
the same-sex parent.

4-6 years to
Latency Sexual concerns are largely unimportant.
adolescence

Adolescence to The reemergence of sexual interests and the

Genital
adulthood establishment of a mature sexual relationship.

Latency Period
The stage begins around the time that children enter school and become
more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests. Children
begin to behave in morally acceptable ways and adopt the values of their
parents and other important adults.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which sexual energy is still

present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and
social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence.

Genital
Starting from age 12 to the peak of puberty, this stage is classified by the
reawakening of sexual interest. During the final stage of psychosexual
development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite
sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a
person’s life

If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should
now be well-balanced, warm, and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish
a balance between the various life areas.

For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as

adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of
us must pass through a series of stages during childhood and that if we lack
proper nurturing and parenting during a Stage, we may become stuck in that
stage.

Erik Erikson’s Stages

Erik Erikson gave a new dimension to the development of personality, which
he claimed was nothing more than a systematic extension of Freud’s
psychosexual development.

Erikson felt that relatively more attention should be given to the social rather
than the sexual adaptations of the individual. Erikson asserted that a psycho-
social crisis occurs within each of the stages and that in order for the person
to have a normal, fulfilling personality; each crisis should be optimally
resolved.

For Erikson, a crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning point in an individual’s

development. Erikson’s eight stages of psychological development are shown
below;

Important
Stages Basic Conflict Outcome
Events

Infancy (birth Trust vs. Feeding Children develop a sense of

 trust when caregivers provide
reliability, care, and affection.
to 18 months) Mistrust
A lack of this will lead to
mistrust.

Children need to develop a

sense of personal control
Early Autonomy vs. over physical skills and a
Childhood (2 Shame and Toilet Training sense of independence.
to 3 years) Doubt Success leads to feelings of
autonomy, failure results in
feelings of shame and doubt.

Children need to begin

asserting control and power
over the environment.
Success in this stage leads to
Preschool (3 to Initiative vs.
Exploration a sense of purpose. Children
5 years) Guilt
who try to exert too much
power experience
disapproval, resulting in a
sense of guilt.

Children need to cope with

new social and academic
demands. Success in this
School Age (6 Industry vs
School stage leads to a sense of
to 11 years) Inferiority
competence, while failure
results in feelings of
inferiority.

Adolescence Identity vs. Role Social Teens need to develop a

(12 to 18 Confusion Relationships sense of self and personal
years) identity. Success leads to an
ability to stay true to oneself,
while failure leads to role
 confusion and a weak sense
of self.

Young adults need to form

intimate, loving relationships
Young
Intimacy vs. with other people. Success
Adulthood (19 Relationships
Isolation leads to strong relationships,
to 40 years)
while failure results in
loneliness and isolation.

Adults need to create or

nurture things that will
outlast them, often by having
children or Creating a
Middle
Generativity vs. Work and positive change that benefits
Adulthood (40
Stagnation Parenthood other people. Success leads
to 65 years)
to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow
involvement in the world.

Older adults need to look

back on life and feel a sense
of fulfillment. Success at this
Maturity (65 to Ego Integrity vs.
Reflection on life stage leads to feelings of
death) Despair
wisdom, while failure results
in regret, bitterness, and
despair.

Jean Piaget’s Stages

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist is credited with ‘cognitive’ or ‘conscious’
stages of personality development. For Piaget, it is conscious instincts which
are important variables in the development of personality.
Being a lover of children, Piaget spent most of his life observing children in
order to understand when and how they developed their reasoning abilities.
He identified four stages of personality development (Aswathappa, 2002).

Stages Age Range Description

Coordination of senses with a motor response,

sensory curiosity about the world. The language
Sensorimotor 0-2 Years
used for demands cataloging object
permanence developed.

Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and

grammar to express full concepts. Imagination
Preoperational 2-7 Years
and intuition are strong, but complex abstract
thought still difficult. Conservation developed.

Concepts attached to concrete situations, Time,

Concrete
7-11 Years space, and quantity are understood and can be
Operational
applied, but not as independent concepts.

Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual

thinking. Abstract logic and reasoning. Strategy
Formal
11+ Years and planning become possible. Concepts
Operational
learned in one context can be applied to
another.

By sensorimotor, Piaget meant that the infant responds to stimuli quite

directly with little in the way of complex information processing. During the
preoperational stage, the child learns to separate himself from the
environment and initially classify objects through the use of symbols and
words.

The concrete operational stage is characterized by an intellectual

understanding of the concept of conservation of a mass, irrespective of its
shape. In the final stage, the formal operational stage, reasoning can take
place on abstract as well as concrete levels.

At this stage, concrete things need to be manipulated to cause behavior as

employees are capable of analyzing, reasoning, imagining, and evaluating
objects.

Personality Fit: Holland’s Typology of

Personality and Types of Personality

Person-job fit is defined as the

compatibility between individuals and the job or tasks that they perform at
work.

This includes compatibility based on employee needs and job supplies

available to meet those needs, as well as job demands and employee abilities
to meet those demands.

According to Holland, workers are not victims of their environments but

actively seek potentially compatible work environments. If an individual’s
personality and the work environment fit then the individual will enjoy the
work and develop and grow in the career.

Matching people to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should result in
higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover.
 Holland has proposed six themes of people and work environments, within which all
jobs can be classified as realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and
conventional.

The key points of this model are there do appear to be intrinsic differences in
personality among individuals, there are different types of jobs, and people in job
environment congruent with their personality types should be more satisfied and less
likely to voluntarily resign than should people in the incongruent job.

Holland’s Typology of Personality

According to John Holland’s theory, most people are one of 6 personality types;

1. Realistic,

2. Investigative,

3. Artistic,

4. Social,

5. Enterprising, and

6. Conventional.
 The characteristics of each of these are described below:

Realistic – “Do-er”
Realistic occupations frequently involve work activities that include practical, hands-
on problems and solutions. They often deal with plants, animals and real-world
materials like wood, tools, and machinery. Many of the occupations require working
outside and do not involve a lot of paperwork or working
closely with others.

 Likes to work with animals, tools, or machines; generally avoids social

activities like teaching, healing,
and informing others;

 Has good skills in working with tools, mechanical or electrical drawings,

machines, or plants and
animals;
 Values practical things you can see, touch, and use like plants and animals,
tools, equipment, or
machines; and

 Sees self as practical, mechanical, and realistic.

Investigative – “Thinker”
Investigative occupations frequently involve working with ideas and require an
extensive amount of thinking. These occupations can involve searching for the facts
and figuring out problems mentally.

 Likes to study and solve math or science problems; generally avoids leading,
selling, or persuading
people;

 Is good at understanding and solving science and math problems;

 Values science; and

 Sees self as precise, scientific, and intellectual.

Artistic – “Creator”
Artistic occupations frequently involve working with forms, designs, and patterns.
They often require
self-expression and the work can be done without following a clear set of rules.

 Likes to do creative activities like art, drama, crafts, dance, music, or creative
writing; generally
avoids highly ordered or repetitive activities;

 Has good artistic abilities — in creative writing, drama, crafts, music, or art;

 Values the creative arts — like drama, music, art, or the works of creative
writers; and

 Sees self as expressive, original, and independent.

Social – “Helper”
 Social occupations frequently involve working with, communicating with, and
teaching people. These
occupations often involve helping or providing service to others.

 Likes to do things to help people — like, teaching, nursing, or giving first aid,
providing information; generally avoids using machines, tools, or animals to achieve a
goal;

 Is good at teaching, counseling, nursing, or giving information;

 Values helping people and solving social problems; and

 Sees self as helpful, friendly, and trustworthy.

Enterprising – “Persuader”
Enterprising occupations frequently involve starting and carrying out projects. These
occupations can
involve leading people and making decisions. Sometimes they require risk taking and
often deal with
business.

 Likes to lead and persuade people, and to sell things and ideas; generally avoids
activities that
require careful observation and scientific, analytical thinking;

 Is good at leading people and selling things or ideas;

 Values success in politics, leadership, or business; and

 Sees self as energetic, ambitious, and sociable.

Conventional – “Organizer”
Conventional occupations frequently involve following set procedure and routines.
These occupations
can include working with data and details more than ideas. Usually, there is a clear
line of authority to
follow.
 Likes to work with numbers, records, or machines in a set, orderly way;
generally avoids ambiguous,
unstructured activities.

 Is good at working with written records and numbers in a systematic, orderly

way;

 Values success in business; and

 Sees self as orderly, and good at following a set plan.

Let’s compare all 6 Holland’s Typology of Personality;

Type Personal Occupation Congruent Occupation

Realistic
Prefers physical activities that Shy, genuine, persistent, stable, Mechanic, drill press operator,
require skill, strength, and conforming, practical. assembly-line worker, farmer.
coordination.

Investigative
Prefers activities that involve Analytical, original, curious, Biologist, economist,
thinking, organizing, and independent. mathematician, news reporter.
understanding.

Social Social workers, teacher,

Sociable, friendly, cooperative,
Prefers activities that involve counselor, a clinical
understanding.
helping and developing others. psychologist.

Conventional
Conforming, efficient, practical, Accountant, corporate manager,
Prefers rule- regulated, orderly,
unimaginative, inflexible. bank teller, file clerk.
and unambiguous activities.

Enterprising
Prefers verbal activities in which Lawyer, real estate agent, public
Self-confident, ambitious,
there are opportunities to relations specialist, small
energetic, domineering.
influence others and attain business manager.
power.
Artistic
Imaginative, disorderly,
Prefers ambiguous and Painter, musician, writer,
idealistic, emotional,
unsystematic activities that interior decorator.
impractical.
allow creative expression.

Person-Organization fit is generally defined as compatibility between employees and

their organizations. Compatibility can result from one party supplying, a need of the
other party, similar values across parties, or both.

Based on the interactionist perspective, in which both personal and environmental

characteristics interact to predict individual outcomes, P-0 fit gained the greatest
prominence in the early 1990s.

Since that time more than 100 studies have been conducted that emphasize the match
between individuals and organizational cultures, not just the jobs within those
organizations. P-O fit has established relationships with three very important
outcomes like- work attitudes, turnover, and Job Performance.

The person-organization fit essentially argues that people leave jobs that are not
compatible with their personalities.

Using the big Five terminology, for instances we could expect that people high on
extroversion fit better with aggressive and team-oriented culture; that people high on
agreeableness will match up better with supportive organizational climate than one
that focuses on aggressiveness; and that people high on openness to experience fit
better into organizations that emphasize innovation rather than standardization.

Following these guidelines at the time of hiring should lead to selecting new
employees who fit better with the organization’s culture, which in turn, should result
in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover.
What is Learning? (Explained)

Learning is described as the process of

having one’s behavior modified, more or less permanently, by what he does
and the consequences of his action, or by what he observes.

It is a process by which an activity originates or is changed through

responding to a situation. Learning involves change.

Change may be good or bad for the organizational point of view.

People can learn unfavorable or favorable behavior. It is the expansion of what

one may already know or perceive. It is the accumulation of knowledge but
more importantly the application of this knowledge.

It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by previous
knowledge. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather than a
collection of factual and procedural knowledge.

Learning produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are
relatively permanent.

If one cannot use newly acquired information for his/her practical use or
benefit than it is doubtful that he/she is engaged in the learning process.
 Learning means behavioral modification, especially through experience or
conditioning.

 Steers and Porter defined learning as, “relatively permanent change in

behavior potentiality that results from reinforced practice or experience.”

 Hulse, Deese, and Egeth defined learning as, “relatively permanent

change in behavior or potential behavior that results from direct or indirect
experience.”

 According to S.P. Robbins, “Learning is any relatively permanent change

in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.”

 According to Scott Miller, “Learning is a change that occurs in response

to thinking or other sensual stimuli.”

 According to S. P. Robbins, “Learning is any relatively permanent change

in behavior that occurs as a result of experience”.

 According to Biswanath Ghosh, “Learning is the modification of behavior

through experience and training.”

 According to Michele Griffin, “Learning is a stance taken by an individual

that allows for the acquisition of information, attitudes, and practices, through
observation, seeking previous knowledge, searching out guides, and looking
within as well as without.”

Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that

occurs as a result of prior experience.

When we observe any change in a person’s behavior, we can say that learning
has taken place. Learning means the act, process, or experience of gaining
knowledge or skill.

It can change our behavior. By birth, every people learned from his
environment.
 On the other hand, knowledge or skill gained through schooling or study is
also called learning.

At last, we can say that learning has taken place if individuals behave, reacts,
and responds taken from others as a result of experiences change in behavior.

Characteristics of Learning
Learning is the process by which one acquires, ingests, and stores or accepts
information. Our experiences with learned information compose our bodies of
knowledge. Learning is a process unique to each individual.

There are some characteristics of learning.

1. Learning involves change.

2. All learning involves activities.

3. Learning Requires Interaction.

4. Constitute Learning.

5. Learning is a Lifelong Process.

6. Learning Occurs Randomly Throughout Life.

7. Learning Involves Problems Solving.

8. Learning is the Process of Acquiring Information.

9. Learning Involves far more than Thinking.

10. Experience is Necessary for Learning.

Learn more about the Characteristics of Learning.

Principles of Learning
 Learning principles are guidelines for how people learn most effectively. The
more these principles are reflected in training, the more effective training is
likely to be.

Research suggests that they apply equally to domestic and international

situations. These are the basic principles or conditions that facilitate learning.

5 principles of learning are;

1. Participation.

2. Repetition.

3. Relevance.

4. Transference.

5. Feedback.

Guidelines for Learning
The guidelines for learning are known as principles of learning. The principles
of learning are theoretical statements summarizing decades of learning
research.

By summarizing these, we can know about the following guidelines of

learning;

1. Readiness.

2. Recency.

3. Repetitiveness.

4. Reinforcement.

5. Relevance.
6. Feedback.

7. Schedules of Learning.

8. Whole vs. Part Learning.

9. Primacy.

10. Boundary Less.

11. Presentation Effect.

12. Multiples Routes.

You must understand how learning principles impact learning.

Theories of Learning
Learning is the individual growth of the person as a result of cooperative
interaction with others. It is the advancement of understanding that enables
the learner to function better in their environment, improve and adapt
behaviors, create and maintain healthy relationships, and achieve personal
success.

Learning has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, and responds taken
from others as a result of experiences change in behavior or formerly behave.

There are several theories of learning;

 Classical Conditioning

 Operant Conditioning

 Cognitive Theory.

 Social Learning Theory.

 4 Theories of Learning

4 Theories of learning are Classical

Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Cognitive Theory, and Social Learning
Theory. Learning is the individual growth of the person as a result of
cooperative interaction with others.

It is the advancement of understanding that enables the learner to function

better in their environment, improve and adapt behaviors, create and maintain
healthy relationships, and achieve personal success.

Learning has taken a place if an individual behaves, reacts, and responds taken
from others as a result of experiences change in behavior or formerly behave.

4 Theories of learning
1. Classical Conditioning

2. Operant Conditioning

3. Cognitive Theory.

4. Social Learning Theory.

These are explained below:-

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of conditioning in which an individual responds
to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such as response.

It is the process of learning to associate a particular thing in our environment

with a prediction of what will happen next.

Classical conditioning, the association of such an event with another desired

event resulting in behavior, is one of the easiest to understand processes of
learning.

When we think of the classical conditioning, the first name that comes to our
mind is Ivan Pavlov, the Russian psychologist.

The normal stimulus for a flow of saliva is the taste of food. But often the
mouth waters at the mere sight of luscious peach, on hearing it described or
even thinking about it. Thus, one situation is substituted for another to elicit
behavior.

This is called conditioning. In the case of classical conditioning, a simple

surgical procedure allowed Pavlov to measure accurately the amount of saliva
secreted by a dog.

When Pavlov presented one dog with a piece of meat, the dog exhibited a
noticeable increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the presentation of
meat and merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate.

Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. After
repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to salivate
as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the
sound of the bell, even if no food was offered.

In classical conditioning, learning involves a conditioned stimulus and an

unconditioned stimulus. Here, the meat was unconditioned stimulus; it
invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way.
The reaction that took place whenever the unconditioned stimulus occurred
was called the unconditioned response. Here, the bell was a conditioned
stimulus.

When the bell was paired with the meat, it eventually produced a response
when presented alone. This is a conditioned response.

Read more: Self-Efficacy Theory by Albert Bandura

Operant conditioning
The second type of conditioning is called operant conditioning.

Here, we learn that a particular behavior is usually followed by a reward or

punishment. What Pavlov did for classical conditioning, the Harvard
psychologist B.F. Skinner did for operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning argues that one’s behavior will depend on different

situations. People will repeatedly behave in a specific way from where they will
get benefits.

On the other hand, they will try to avoid a behavior from where they will get
nothing. Skinner argued that creating pleasing consequences to specific forms
of behavior would increase the frequency of that behavior.

In one famous experiment displaying operant learning, the psychologist B.F.

Skinner trained rats to press a lever to get food. In this experiment, a hungry
rat placed in a box containing a lever attached to some concealed food.

At first, the rat ran around the box randomly.

In this process, it happened to press the lever, and the food dropped into the
box. The dropping of food-reinforced the response of pressing the lever.

After repeating the process of pressing the lever followed by dropping off
food many times, the rat learned to press the lever for food.
People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if they are positively
reinforced for doing so. Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow
the desired response. Also, behavior that is not rewarded, or is punished, is
less likely to be repeated.

For example, suppose you are an employee of ‘X’ Bank limited. Your Branch
Manager has announced in a meeting that you will get a bonus if you can
bring a $100,000,000 deposit for the bank.

You worked hard and found that you have done this successfully.

But when the time comes, you find that you are given no bonus for your hard
work which increases the bank’s deposit by $100,000,000.

In the next year, if your manager again says you about the hard work.

Maybe you will be stopped because last year you did not receive anything for
it. Many activities that we will engage in during everyday life can be classified
as an operant.

Turning your key in a lock, writing a letter, saying “I Love You” to your wife,
calling parents on the telephone all of these are operant acts, operant in this
sense that we do them in anticipation of reward which acts as a reinforcer for
the commission of these behaviors.

Read more: Ohio State Leadership Studies Explained with Examples

Cognitive Theory
Cognition refers to an individual’s thoughts, knowledge of interpretations,
understandings, or ideas about himself, and his environment.

This is a process of learning through active and constructive thought

processes, such as a practice or using our memory.

One example might be that you were taught how to tell time by looking at a
clock.
Someone taught you the meaning of the big hand and little hand, and you
might have had to practice telling the time when you were first learning it.

This process of learning was entirely inside your mind and didn’t involve any
physical motions or behaviors. It was all cognitive, meaning an internal
thought process.

The theory has been used to explain mental processes as they are influenced
by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which eventually bring about learning in
an individual.

Cognitive learning theory implies that the different processes concerning

learning can be explained by analyzing the mental processes first.

It imagines that with effective cognitive processes, learning is easier and new

information can be stored in the memory for a long time.

On the other hand, ineffective cognitive processes result in learning difficulties

that can be seen anytime during the lifetime of an individual.

Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory also called observational learning, stresses the
ability of an” individual to learn by observing what happens to other people
and just by being told about something.

One can learn things by observing models, parents, teachers, peers, motion
pictures, TV artists, bosses, and others.

Many patterns of behavior are learned by watching the behaviors of others

and observing its consequences for them. In this theory, it is said that the
influence of models is the central issue.

4 processes have been found to determine the influence that a model will
have on an individual.

These processes are:

1. Attention process
People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its
critical features.

If the learner is not attentive they would not able to learn anything. We tend
to be most influenced by attractive models, repeatedly available, which we
think is important, or we see as similar to us.

2. Retention process
A model’s influence depends on how well the individuals remember the
models’ actions after the model is no longer readily available.

3. Motor reproduction process

After a person has seen a new behavior by observing the model, the watching
must be converted to doing. It involves recall the model’s behaviors and
performing own actions and matching them with those of the model.

This process then demonstrates that the individual can perform the modeled
activities.

3. Reinforcement process
Individuals are motivated to exhibit the modeled behavior if positive
incentives or rewards are provided. Behavior that is positively reinforced is
given more attention, learned better and performed more often.

At last, we can say that social learning theory is a function of consequences. It

also acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance
of perception in learning.

In this case, a person who wants to learn should identify the target behavior
and select the appropriate model and modeling medium. Then he/she should
create a favorable learning environment and observe the model.
 Here the learners will try to remember and use practically the observed
behavior if there is a positive reinforcement is related to this behavior.

Components of Learning
Learning has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, and responds in a
way that is taken from others as a result of experiences.

Learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change in behavior

potentiality that results from reinforced practice or experience. It can change
our behavior.

By birth, every people learned from his environment.

On the other hand, knowledge or skill gained through schooling or study is

also called learning. Learning has many components.

These components are given below:

1. Learning involves change. Change may sound good or bad from an

organizational point of view. People can learn unfavorable behaviors to hold
prejudices or to restrict their output.

2. The changed must be ingrained. Temporary changes may be only

reflexive and may not represent learning. Therefore the requirement that
learning must be relatively permanent.

3. Some form of experience is necessary for learning. Experience may be

acquired directly through observation or practice, or it may be acquired
indirectly, through reading.

4. Learning involves concentration and participation. It usually is quicker

and long-lasting when the learner participates actively. As a result of
participation, people learn more quickly and retain that learning longer.

These are just a few of all the components of learning.

 Barriers to Learning
Barriers to learning are problems or situations that prevent learners from
accessing programs, make it difficult for learners to go to class or make it hard
for learners to concentrate and learn.

1. Presentation problem.

2. Another barrier to learning is changing the expectation of a new culture.

3. Learners do not get appropriate support.

4. Employment-related issues.

5. Sometimes employees cannot concentrate properly.

6. The financial problem can be a barrier to learning.

7. The political influence can be a barrier.

Learning Barriers and Overcoming Barriers to

Learning

Traditionally, research and studies

around learning focused primarily on early-years learning through childhood
and adolescence.
 However; it is now recognized that learning is a continuous process that
commences at birth and continues until death; it is the process through which
we use our experience to deal with new situations and to develop
relationships.

Learning means the act, process, or experience of gaining knowledge or skill. It

can change our behavior.

By birth, every people learned from his environment. In a few circumstances, people
have faced some barriers at the time of learning.

Barriers to learning are problems or situations that prevent learners from accessing
programs, make it difficult for learners to go to class or make it hard for learners to
concentrate and learn.

7 barriers to learning are;

1. Presentation problem.

2. Another barrier to learning is changing the expectation of a new culture.

3. Learners do not get appropriate support.

4. Employment-related issues.

5. Sometimes employees cannot concentrate properly.

6. The financial problem can be a barrier to learning.

7. The political influence can be a barrier.

Presentation problem
The presentation problem is one of the biggest barriers to learning. Sometimes people
cannot understand the meaning of a topic if it is presented orally without using any
kind of visual methods of presentation.

In this case, sometimes it becomes very difficult for the learner to understand clearly.

learning is changing the expectation of new culture

Another barrier to learning is changing the expectation of a new culture. If people go
to a new culture, sometimes they do not get the expected environment and it hampers
the learning process.

In this case, firstly they have to learn the new culture within a very short period and it
is very difficult for everyone.

learners do not get appropriate support

When the learners do not get appropriate support from the family and the
organization, they cannot learn the things properly.

Employment-related issues
Employment-related issues can be a very big problem in the learning process.

People cannot learn if there is no good relationship with their superior or subordinate.
Not only that, if there is no reinforcement related to the outcomes of learning,
employees cannot be motivated in achieving a good result from it.

Sometimes employees cannot concentrate properly

Sometimes employees cannot concentrate properly on the learning process because of
their family, personal or organizational problems. There are some of the learning
course which requires an amount of money.

Financial problems can be a barrier to learning

Some so many persons have financial problems and because of that, they cannot
attend the learning process. Financial problems can be a barrier to learning.

For insufficient money, people cannot learn a thing properly.

The political influence can be a barrier

The political influence can be a barrier. If the political environment is in favor of the
learners, it becomes an opportunity for the learner. If the environment is not so good,
then they face many problems because of political influences.
 If there is any problem with the person who will give information to the learners, then
it becomes very difficult for the person to learn.

There may have so many problems with the trainer like- lack of skills, language
problem, lack of information, lack of willingness, etc.

10 Ways of Overcoming the Barriers of Learning

Learning is the process by which one

acquires, ingests, and stores or accepts information.

Our experiences with learned information compose our bodies of knowledge.

Learning can change our behavior.

Knowledge or skill gained through schooling or study is also called learning.

In learning, every learner has to face some barriers which have to overcome by the
learner himself.

Otherwise, they stumble while processing information, taking longer to grasp the
concept of requiring numerous exposures over a sustained period.

10 ways to overcome the barriers to learning;

1. Environment.

2. Routine.

3. Verbal Instructions.

4. Respect.
5. Non-curricular Activities.

6. Improving Communication Skills.

7. Giving ICT and Presentation Facilities.

8. Give Concentration.

9. Learn the New Culture before Going There.

10. Provide Effective and Timely Feedback.

Environment
The environment is a large fact for the organization.

In a noisy environment, learning should be difficult for the learner. The organizational
environment should be noiseless.

Besides these, the organization should use visual prompts, gestures and/or a signing
system to reinforce spoken and written language, make a visual timetable, and
eliminate extraneous noise as far as possible.

Routine
This is vital to alleviate confusion and give people a sense of security.

When routines have to be broken, ensure that people are prepared whenever possible
and that someone talks them through what is going to happen.

Verbal Instructions
Verbal instructions should be short and precise. The trainer should ensure that learners
know he/she is addressing them, not someone else.

The trainer should ensure that learners know he/she is addressing them, not someone
else.

One instruction should be given at a time. He/she have to speak clearly, at a natural
pace and make sure that the learner can see the face of the trainer.
Respect
Young people should not be forced to work in pairs or groups if they are
uncomfortable in that situation.

Respect should be shown for differences and be aware of the social networks of the
room where the learning session will be conducted.

Non-curricular Activities
When the session will be running problems often arise at break time, lunchtime, at the
bus stop or any other unstructured time of the day.

It is during these times when computer clubs, organized games, and mentors offer
valuable support and can also provide some training in social skills that will help
pupils to cope with new situations.

Improving Communication Skill

Good communication skills can be better to learn anything. In this case, the trainer
should use the language which is understandable by the learners.

For better learning, we have to improve our communication skills as soon as possible.

Giving ICT and Presentation Facilities

For successfully conducting the learning session, the trainer or the organization should
use the ICT and visual presentation facilities.

It influences the learners to learn things in a short period.

Give Concentration
All of the learners should concentrate on the learning session.

Though the organization arranges such type of session for improving the skills of the
employees, he or she should concentrate on learning to be successful in the career.
Sometimes it is arranged for informing the employees about the process of doing
their, tasks. So, if they do not listen to these things properly, they will not perform
their duties properly.

Learn the New Culture before Going There

Though the culture of different country even different organizations in the same
country are different, before going to a new culture the learner should know about the
new culture and learned it for adjusting there.

Provide Effective and Timely Feedback

This is important for any kind of learning. Make the trainer’s presence known in a
discussion forum by getting involved early and asking questions that keep the
discussion going.

Learners should also be aware of their progress throughout the course.

It has already been asserted that barriers can be located within the learner, within the
center of learning, within the education system and within the broader social,
economic and political context.

These barriers manifest themselves in different ways and only become obvious when
learning breakdown occurs when learners ‘drop-out’ of the system or when the
excluded become visible.

Sometimes it is possible to identify permanent barriers in the learner or the system

which can be addressed through enabling mechanisms and processes.

However, barriers may also arise during the learning process and are seen as
transitory. These may require different interventions or strategies to prevent them.

If the above things should be considered at the time of arranging a different session,
the organization will be successful.

Overcoming Learning Barriers

Knowledge or skill gained through schooling or study is also called learning. In
learning, every learner has to face some barriers which have to overcome by
the learner himself.
 Otherwise, they stumble while processing information, taking longer to grasp
the concept of requiring numerous exposures over a sustained period.

To overcome the barriers learners have to make changes in the ways of

learning.

1. Environment.

2. Routine.

3. Verbal Instructions.

4. Respect.

5. Non-curricular Activities.

6. Improving Communication Skills.

7. Giving ICT and Presentation Facilities.

8. Give Concentration.

9. Learn the New Culture before Going There.

10. Provide Effective and Timely Feedback.

See how these help in overcoming learning barriers.

Learning is the Continuous Process

Learning is a continuous process of life, the pinnacle of the attitude and
vision of the universe.

The learning is the only thing that distinguishes humans from animals. Being a
human, we have a great privilege to think. Thinking is a great thing we all can
do.
Conclusion
Learning gives creativity; creativity leads to thinking, thinking provides
knowledge, knowledge makes you great. The learning process is not rigid, and
it is continuously happening. It shapes our behavior and perspective of the
world.

Therefore, please let us not limit learning just to a subject, if we can see it with
a wide range of thinking, then the whole world looks very small.
The Johari Window Model

History
It is necessary to improve self-awareness and personal
development among individuals when they are in a group. The
‘Johari’ window model is a convenient method used to achieve
this task of understanding and enhancing communication
between the members in a group. American psychologists
Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham developed this model in 1955.
The idea was derived as the upshot of the group dynamics in
University of California and was later improved by Joseph Luft.
The name ‘Johari’ came from joining their first two names. This
model is also denoted as feedback/disclosure model of self-
awareness.

Introduction
The Johari window model is used to enhance the individual’s
perception on others. This model is based on two ideas- trust can
be acquired by revealing information about you to others and
learning yourselves from their feedbacks. Each person is
represented by the Johari model through four quadrants or
window pane. Each four window panes signifies personal
information, feelings, motivation and whether that information
is known or unknown to oneself or others in four viewpoints.
The Johari Window Model

The method of conveying and accepting feedback is interpreted

in this model. A Johari is represented as a common window with
four panes. Two of these panes represent self and the other two
represent the part unknown to self but to others. The information
transfers from one pane to the other as the result of mutual trust
which can be achieved through socializing and the feedback got
from other members of the group.
1. Open/self-area or arena – Here the information about the
person his attitudes, behaviour, emotions, feelings, skills
and views will be known by the person as well as by others.
This is mainly the area where all the communications occur
and the larger the arena becomes the more effectual and
dynamic the relationship will be. ‘Feedback solicitation’ is
a process which occurs by understanding and listening to
the feedback from another person. Through this way the
open area can be increased horizontally decreasing the
blind spot. The size of the arena can also be increased
downwards and thus by reducing the hidden and unknown
areas through revealing one’s feelings to other person.

2. Blind self or blind spot – Information about yourselves

that others know in a group but you will be unaware of it.
Others may interpret yourselves differently than you
expect. The blind spot is reduced for an efficient
communication through seeking feedback from others.

3. Hidden area or façade – Information that is known to you

but will be kept unknown from others. This can be any
personal information which you feel reluctant to reveal.
This includes feelings, past experiences, fears, secrets etc.
we keep some of our feelings and information as private as
it affects the relationships and thus the hidden area must be
reduced by moving the information to the open areas.
4. Unknown area – The Information which are unaware to
yourselves as well as others. This includes the information,
feelings, capabilities, talents etc. This can be due to traumatic
past experiences or events which can be unknown for a lifetime.
The person will be unaware till he discovers his hidden qualities
and capabilities or through observation of others. Open
communication is also an effective way to decrease the
unknown area and thus to communicate effectively.
Example
Linda got a job in an organization. Her co-workers knew a little
about her and in this context the unknown and hidden areas will
be larger and the open area will be small. As the others don’t
know much about her the blind spot also will be smaller and the
model will be as shown in Figure 1.

Linda spent most of her free time sketching in the office which
was her preferred pastime and her co-workers found her very
shy and elusive. With that evaluation she got the idea how she
was and tried to be more talkative and interacted more with
other co-workers. This helped her to increase her open area and
thus making the hidden and unknown areas smaller. (Figure 2)
Through the feedback Linda got from her co-workers she could
perform well in the office and her real capacity could be
obtained as a result of an effective interaction among the
colleagues.