14) 1) Chiasmus (reversed parallel construction) is based on the repetition of a

syntactical pattern. The word order of one of the sentences being inverted is
compared with that of the other. (ex. As high as we have mounted in delight, in our
dejection do we sink as low.) In chiasmus the author emphasizes the second part of
the utterance, there is a pause after the first part of the utterance, and then an
unexpected change of word order. The reached effect is the reader‟s penetration
into the author‟s idea, rhythmical arrangement of the utterance, avoiding the
monotony of identical parallel sentences and sometimes humorous effect.
Therefore chiasmus is often used for epigrams and paradoxes. Chiasmus is
sometimes achieved by a sudden change from active voice to passive and visa
versa. (ex. The register of his burial was signed by the clergyman, the clerk, the
undertaker. Scrooge signed it.)
2) He gave the little smile which Anna-Luise had told me was dangerous. It was a
smile of infinite indifference. (detached construction (prepositional object), epithet,
antithesis, simple metaphor).
When one despises, Jones, it’s like a deep and incurable wound, the beginning of
death. (Comparison/Simile, epithet).
15) 1) Repetition (reiteration) is the use of the same word or word combination for
2 or more times. According to the place which the repeated unit occupies in a
sentence repetition is classified into several types:
anaphora – the beginning of the successive sentences or utterances is repeated. (ex.
Once again he fingered the letter in his pocket, once again he read the letter). The
main stylistic function of anaphora is to emphasize the repeated unit which
becomes fore grounded.
Epiphora- the end of the successive sentences or utterances is repeated. (ex. I wake
up and I‟m alone. I talk with people and I‟m alone)
Framing – the beginning of the sentence is repeated at the end of the successive
syntactical unit. The function of framing is to stress the notion mentioned at the
beginning of the sentence. Between the 2 appearances of the repeated unit there
comes a middle part which develops and explains the idea introduced at the
beginning. (ex. Nothing ever happened at that little town, nothing.)
Anadiplosis (catch repetition) - the final word or words of the proceeding sentence
are repeated at the beginning of the next one. The emotional emphasis is very
strong. (ex. There was no room, room to…).
Chain repetition – presents several successive cases of anadiplosis. The effect may
be either smoothly developing logical reasoning or emphasizing the emotional
colouring. (ex. The cook looked at the maid, the maid looked at the coachman, the
coachman at the
master. A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick‟s face, the smile extended into a
laugh, the laugh into a row, and the row became general)
Synonymic repetition – is the expression of the same idea by various synonyms
which differ in their nominative meaning, in the degree of the expressed quality or
idea and differ in connotative meaning. (ex. The poetry of earth is never dead. The
poetry of earth is ceasing never.)
Morphological repetition – is the repetition of the same morpheme. (ex. It was
waiving and laughing, sobbing and growing.)
Tautological repetition and pleonasm. Tautology is the repetition of the same
statement, word or phrase or idea in other words. Pleonasm is the use of more
words in the sentence than are necessary to express the meaning. The distinction
between these 2 terms is very slight. (ex. It was a clear starry night and not a cloud
was to be seen. He was the only survivor, no one else was saved). Tautology and
pleonasm are considered to be a defect of style.
Enumeration is a stylistic device by which separate things, objects, phenomena,
etc are named one by one so that they produce a chain, the links of which, being
syntactically in the same position (homogenous parts of speech) are forced to
display some kind of semantic homogeneity. (ex. He gazes on a blending of all
beauties: streams and dells, fruit, foliage, vine.) Enumeration is often aimed to
produce humorous effect and reflect personal attitude.
2) There were so few people about and there were so many flowers that it seemed
the most natural thing to help ourselves. (antithesis, repetition (anaphora),
hyperbole).
My head was aching violently and I was very far from sober. (hyperbole)
16) Inversion is a syntactic method of reverse word order. Function of Inversion.
Like all literary devices, the main function of inversion in prose or poetry is to help
writers achieve stylistic effect, like laying an emphasis on a particular point, or
changing the focus of the readers from a particular point.
The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently met in prose and
poetry.
1. The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence. (ex. Talent Mr. Micawber
has, capital Mr. Micawber has not.)
2. The attribute is placed after the word it modifies (postposition of the attribute).
This model is often used when there is more than one attribute (with fingers, weary
and worn).
3. The predicative stands before the link verb and both are placed before the
subject. (ex. Rude am I in my speech. And yet wonderful was the touch of her
shoulders!)
4. The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence. (ex. My
dearest daughter! At your feet I fall)
5. Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject. (ex. In went Mr.
Pickwick).
Detachment is a kind of inversion. Its essence lies in the separation of the
secondary part of a sentence with the aim of emphasizing. The separation is
accompanied by violation of customary syntactical connections and leads to a
certain logical break between the member detached and the main parts of the
sentence (subject, predicate). The detached word or phrase becomes more
independent or mobile. The aim of detachment is the same as of inversion, i.e to
make some words or phrases more prominent. In the text detachment is usually
marked by commas, dashes, brackets.
In fact, any secondary member of a sentence may be detached:
a) attribute (ex. He never looked more than 14. Very small and childlike).
b) apposition (ex. He saved my life, brave boy!)
c) adverbial modifier of reason (ex. I shall not see her, being so hurt)
d) adverbial modifier of manner (ex. He entered the room, pipe in the mouth.)
e) adverbial modifier of time (ex. He was crazy about her. In the beginning)
f) direct object (ex. He was very talented, capital he had not)
g) prepositional object (ex. It was, to Forsyte‟s eye, a strange house.)
Parenthesis is a variant of detachment. It is a qualifying or a positive word or
word combination which interrupts a syntactical construction and introduces some
additional information. Its function is to emphasize something or explain and
specify the utterance. It may create the background to the events, reveal the inner
state over the personage, show the author‟s attitude to the events described,
strengthen some facts and disclose evaluative meaning. (ex. The main entrance –
she never ventured to look beyond that – was a combination of glass and iron.)
With the help of parenthesis the author may achieve the impression of a double-
break in narration. (ex. «No, -she thought running up the steps and feeling in her
bag for the key, - she had forgotten it as usual and rattling at the letter box.»
No, no” he said with that small unbearable smile of ineffable superiority.
(oxymoron, Internal rhyme, epithet).
Indeed, of all the region only the beach stirred with activity. (Personification,
Inversion)