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H. P. Friedrichs (AC7ZL) Homepage

Radio Room

Building the "Pipsqueak" Receiver

Introduction

One fall evening about ten years ago, I was inspired to tinker with some old radio parts I had
accumulated in a box. I found a ten or twelve-inch-square slab of plywood lying about, and
using some wood screws, I secured to its surface a tube socket and a couple of old variable
capacitors. A row of screws, partially driven into the wood, served as battery and phone
terminals. I wound tuning and reaction coils on a chunk of cardboard mailing tube, and then
used a fistful of alligator leads to wire everything up. The circuit was of the classic regenerative
type, and wiring this receiver took all of two minutes.

The radio was grounded to the cover screw of a nearby wall outlet, and the antenna was
nothing more than a fifteen or twenty-foot length of wire which had been thumb-tacked to the
ceiling of the garage. I inserted a #27 triode into the tube socket, and hooked up a set of
batteries The headphones screeched. I fiddled with the controls, and my phones suddenly
filled with strange music and dialog about... vampires! Puzzled, I waited for station
identification and discovered that I had been listening to a radio broadcast of Bram Stoker's
Dracula, broadcast from a BBC station, more than 5000 miles away. If that isn't magic, nothing
is.

It's entirely fair to say that there is no radio circuit, using so few components, that can
outperform a regenerative receiver in terms of sensitivity and selectivity. Regenerative receivers
are simple and fun to build.

Building Something From Nothing

There is a certain pack-rat behavior associated with many engineers and ham radio folks, and I
readily admit my guilt in this regard. Most of us have well-developed junk-boxes. However, my
own propensity to collect junk has nothing to do accumulation for the sake of accumulation.
Rather, I would argue, my eyes see potential in things others are willing to discard. It bothers
me to see a resource go into a landfill when I know I could make something useful out of it. In
my world, no stereo, computer, television, or appliance, for example, should end up in a
garbage can until it has been inspected for and stripped of its bounty of useful pieces and
parts.

There is little point to this activity if the material thus collected is not eventually put to good
use. In this article, I describe a project I call the "Pipsqueak" radio, a simple regenerative
receiving set fabricated from some of the odds and ends I have collected over time.

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The "Pipsqueak" Receiver

How The Pipsqueak Works

The schematic diagram for the Pipsqueak can be found here.

Radio signals are directed from the antenna to a tuning circuit composed of the coil L1 and
capacitors C1, C2 and C3. The combination of these parts comprise the Pipsqueak's tuner. C1,
C2, and C3 are adjustable and are all attached to the same shaft. As the tuner shaft is
adjusted, the values of C1, C2, and C3 change. This changes the resonant frequency of the
tuner, that is to say, the frequency at which the Pipsqueak will "listen."

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The Pipsqueak schematic. Click on the image for better resolution.

Energy from the station of interest is applied to the control grid of a 1T4 pentode vacuum tube,
which functions as an amplifier and detector for this receiver. Resistor R1 and capacitor C4
comprise something called a shunt "grid leak," the purpose of which is to accumulate a charge
in order to bias the tube for proper operation.

An amplified copy of the signal emerges from the IT4's plate at pin 2. This is applied to coil L2,
sometimes referred to as a "ticker" coil. L2 is located in close proximity to L1. As energy passes
through it, a magnetic field created by L2, which transfers some of that energy back to coil L1.
This is the feedback path that makes regeneration possible. Signals amplified by the tube and
sent back to its own input can circulate through the tube again and again, providing additional
gain.

The effects of excessive feedback are well known to anyone who has observed a stage
performer who has carried a hand-held microphone too close to the P.A. speakers. Sound
enters the mike, is amplified, and then it blasted by the speakers. The speaker's sound
reenters the microphone, where it is amplifier further, and exits the speakers again. If the
energy of the circulating tone continues to build, the end result is a grating screech or howl.

Likewise, too much regeneration makes the Pipsqueak "squeak," which is not only unpleasant,
but can actually degrade the sensitivity of the set. What is needed is a mechanism for throttling
or controlling the extent to which the tube can amplify. This functionality is implemented with
resistors R2, R3, and capacitor C7. Adjustment of variable resistor R2, called the "reaction" or
"regen" control changes the voltage applied to the 1T4's screen grid. The effect of this is to
modify the gain of the tube.

The output of 1T4 also contains audio information, which was extracted from the radio signal.

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This is applied to a transformer, T1, and eventually to the headphones, where the station can
be heard. Since two kinds of signals are being amplified by the tube simultaneously, both radio
signals and audio, some circuity must be used to separate them. Capacitor C5 and radio
frequency choke L3 perform this function.

As already mentioned, the heart of the Pipsqueak is the 1T4. This is a seven-pin glass vacuum
tube designed for service in battery-powered receivers. The filament of the tube is rated for 1.4
volts DC. Drawing only 50 milliamperes, the tube can be lit with ease from a single D-sized
flashlight battery. By convention, this is called the "A" battery or "A" supply.

The plate voltage specification for the 1T4 is 90 volts DC. While the Pipsqueak works best with
a plate voltage near 90 volts, it was actually designed for operation at 45 volts. Either voltage is
easily supplied by stringing 9-volt transistor batteries in series to achieve the desired total. By
convention, this is referred to as the "B" battery.

One of the advantages of experimenting with the 1T4, then, is that it allows for experimentation
with vacuum tube technology without exposure to the potentially lethal voltages required by
other types of tubes or their circuits.

The Pipsqueak's Chassis

Regenerative receivers can be finicky. Regenerative radio chassis should be robust and
structurally sound, because flimsy physical construction allows for subtle movement in critical
components like the tuning capacitor and tuning coil. This can affect the stability of the circuity,
resulting in a radio that doesn't hold its tune, or is prone is screaching or squeaking when it
shouldn't. Regenerative receivers also require a good internal electrical ground, and the front
panel should be metallic, or least shielded. That shield or panel should be grounded as well.
Failure to provide adequate shielding and grounding can result in a radio that detunes simply
because the operator has placed his hands near the controls.

A rear view of the Pipsqueak. Note the terminals for power, antenna, and ground.

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The Pipsqueak's chassis is made from aluminum scrap. It began life as the housing of a
discarded industrial instrument. The housing was composed of two C-shaped aluminum
extrusions, which together, formed the top, bottom, and sides of the instrument. When the
instrument was discarded the extrusions were saved. One extrusion became the chassis, the
other the front panel. Needless to say, some work with a saw was required to encourage a
cooperative fit. The front panel is secured to the chassis with a couple of 6-32 screws,
lockwashers, and nuts.

The chassis meets all requirements for rigidity and robustness. It's aluminum content is highly
conductive, resulting in a well-grounded chassis and a well-shielded front panel. The black
finish, by the way, is the original paint.

A view of the underside of the chassis.

Connections are made to the Pipsqueak through binding posts, which are mounted through
holes drilled in the aluminum chassis. These posts were all salvaged from discarded electrical
equipment. Two binding posts at the front of the radio allow for the connection of headphones.
Three pairs of binding posts at the rear of the radio allow for the connection of the "A" battery,
the "B" battery, and an antenna and ground.

The Vacuum Tube

The 1T4 tube was a gift from a friend, but this tube, and similar battery-operated tubes, can be
located and ordered through vendors on the Internet. The tube socket was used, and salvaged
from discarded equipment. Electrical characteristics for this tube can be found here and here.

The Variable Capacitor

The tuning capacitor is new-old-stock, and was purchased through an online auction site for a
few dollars. Similar parts show up with regularity. Other sources include hamfests, or suppliers
of vintage radio parts. Thrift store, Salvation Army, or garbage-can stereos are a source of

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similar components.

I really like the capacitor I used because it includes some gearing, which reduces the rate at
which the capacitor blades move. This makes tuning much less "touchy." It was originally
designed for printed circuit board mounting, as evidenced by four post-like feet, clearly
intended to be soldered into holes in a printed circuit board. I found that with a little force, I
could screw a short, threaded, standoff onto each post, which not only extended the feet but
gave me a way to bolt the capacitor to the chassis. To assure that the capacitor's feet would
never pull out of the standoffs, I applied a few drops of epoxy before forcing them together.

The Pipsqueak's tuning capacitor. Note that it has multiple sections which can be accessed
through the tuning coil socket.

The tuning and reaction controls were fitted with some nice knobs that are really intended for
use on 10-turn pots (variable resistors). These knobs not only indicate angular position, but
count revolutions as well. They also feature little brake levers which allow the knob to be
locked in the desired position. They're normally very expensive items, and gross overkill for this
application. As salvage items, however, they were essentially free and lend a nice, clean
appearance to the front of the radio.

The Output Transformer

The type and purpose of transformer T1 deserves some explanation. Originally, the Pipsqueak
design did not call for an output transformer. The headphone binding posts where connected
where the transformer primary now exists.

At one point, during testing, one of my headphone wires came loose. This was the wire that
had been attached to the binding post hooked to L3. The wire dangled for second, and then
came into contact with the grounded chassis of the radio. Since the other headphone lead was
still connected to its binding post, and that post ran back to the plus side of the "B" supply, the
net effect of this accident was to apply the full 45 volts of the "B" battery directly across the
headphones. This did not hurt the phones, but it did cause them to click so loudly that my ears

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rang! I was determined that this should not happen again.

The output transformer is the small, gray cube, just in front of the vacuum tube.

Ideally, T1 should be an audio output transformer that correctly matches the output impedance
of the 1T4 tube to the high-impedance headphones I am using. Small vacuum tube audio
output transformers are difficult to come by these days, and in any event, I preferred to make
due with something in my junk box... after all, that was the whole point of this exercise. There, I
discovered a small 115 volt to 12 volt power transformer. I connected the 115 volt primary of the
transformer to L3 and the "B" supply, and connected the 12 volt secondary to the headphone
binding posts. The presence of the transformer in the headphone circuit not only eliminates the
potential for the accident I described a moment ago, it also eliminates all direct current in the
headphones. This is a good thing when working with vintage headphones, as it protects them
against accidental demagnetization.

Granted, using a power transformer as an audio output transformer is crude, and the electrical
match is poor, but I was not able to detect any significant reduction in output volume.

Miscellaneous Parts

The Pipsqueak contains a handful of capacitors, resistors, and other parts of various types and
values. None of these are critical in nature, and all them were carefully removed from electronic
junk that others had discarded. Substitution with similar parts with ballpark values is not likely
to have significant impact on the functionality of the radio.

A Tuning Coil For the AM Broadcast Band

Years ago, radio part manufacturers sold tuning coils that were wound on plastic or bakelite
forms. These forms were fitted with metal pins, not unlike a vacuum tube, which allowed the
coils to be plugged into sockets. When used in conjunction with the recommended variable
capacitor, one of these standard coils could be used to build a radio that tuned across a
specific portion of the radio spectrum. Being socketed, it was a simple matter to unplug the coil

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and replace it with a different type, to allow receiver "coverage" of frequencies not reachable
with the first coil. Manufacturers even sold empty or blank coil forms, which allowed
experimenters to wind and create their own coils.

A tuning coil suitable for receiving the A.M. broadcast band.

Unfortunately, neither the coils, nor the blank forms, are available anymore. Desiring a plug-in
coil architecture for the Pipsqueak, I endeavored to create my own.

The Pipsqueak coil socket is a standard 8-pin or "octal" socket. These are among the most
common sockets still available. Though vacuum tubes have become passe, octal sockets are
still widely used in industry to accommodate octal-based plug-in relays.

These relays, by the way, are electromechanical in nature, and eventually wear out. Typically,
they are discarded when they become defective. I was given several defective octal-based
relays, and decided their bases could be salvaged and used to make plug in coils.

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The tuning coil's plug was salvaged from an old plug-in relay.

The first coil I fashioned was for receiving the AM broadcast band. I wound 68 turns of #24
magnet wire on a 1-inch PVC plastic pipe coupler. This would correspond to L1 in the
schematic. Next, I wound 16 turns of #24 magnet wire on a short length of 1/2-inch PVC pipe,
which became L2. Coil L2 was installed inside of the L1. The coil leads were soldered to the
relay plug pins, according to the schematic.

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Closing any of these switches increases the capacitance in the tuning circuit, which allows the
coil to cover more the A.M. band than it would, otherwise.

The coil, as designed, only covered half of the AM broadcast band. While I could have
manufactured a second plug-in coil, designed to pick up where the other coil left off, I decided
to try something else. I added a DIP switch which, when closed, adds another variable
capacitor to the tuning circuit. This lowers the frequency at which the coil operates.

When I was satisfied that the coil worked the way I desired, I glued the PVC components to the
relay base with polyurethane glue. Epoxy adhesive works even better.

A Shortwave Tuning Coil

I have experimented with the construction of other coils in the Pipsqueak, primarily for use at
shortwave frequencies. At shortwave frequencies, single-layer coils can pose problems
because of the parasitic capacitance that is present between adjacent windings. While
techniques can be used to introduce space between windings, I've had good luck with
so-called "spiderweb" coils, because the way in which they are wound reduces this parasitic
effect. I had never seen anyone use spiderweb coils in a plug-in format, but I figured I give it a
shake.

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This is a shortwave tuning coil utilizing "spiderweb" windings for reduced self-capacitance.
Winding L1 is visible here.

I began with an empty plastic spool, of the type commonly used to dispense Teflon tape or
solder. Using an inkpen, I marked the flanges of the spool with seven radial lines. Then, using
a hacksaw and these lines as guides, I cut seven radial slots in each flange. One can choose
to cut more or fewer slots, but in order for the coils to wind properly, the number of slots must
be odd.

I chose one of the flanges, and began winding a coil. The #24 magnet wire was started in one
the slots, and then, as the spool was rotated, the wire wire directed through the slots, first
inward, then outward. Overall, the exercise is not unlike weaving. I stopped when I had
accumulate 8 turns. This coil represents L1, the tuning coil.

I repeated this process on the other flange, but only laid down 4 turns. This smaller coil
represents L2, the tickler coil.

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This shows some wiring alternatives in the construction of plug-in coils. Click on the image for
better resolution.

The manner in which this plug-in coil was wired can be seen here. Note the addition of a small
trimmer capacitor in series with the antenna terminal. This is used to decouple the antenna
from the tuning circuit. Sometimes the electrical attributes of an antenna can prevent a
regenerative set from functioning properly. The trimmer capacitor is intended to minimize this
possibility.

Once experimentation with the shortwave coil was complete and the coil was known to be
functional, I glued the coil components together to form a solid, plug-in unit.

Final Thoughts

The Pipsqueak works well, particularly given its simplicity. It's easy to tune, and the
regeneration control is well behaved. I have connected it to a variety of wire antennas, without
problem.

The design of plug-in coils for this set, as with any regenerative radio, is largely a matter of
trial-and-error, but the manner in which the coil socket has been wired offers many options. To
build a coil, one must first decide what portion of the HF spectrum the radio should tune. The
resonant frequency of the tuning circuit is prescribed by the classic formula:

frequency=1/(2 * PI * SQRT(L*C))

It is true that for any given frequency, there exists an infinite number of combinations of
inductance and capacitance that satisfy the equation. However, it is generally accepted that the
higher the ratio of L to C, the more selective the tuner. It is best, then, to go for the lower

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capacitance values.

That said, if the smaller-capacity sections of the variable cap are used, the tuner will exhibit
less of a span when in use. In addition, because of the small size of the Pipsqueak, there is
little room for large coils. These factors argue for using more capacitance. Note that the
amount of variable capacitance utilized by the tuning coil can be varied by making use of some
or all of pins #3, #4, and #5 of the coil socket. In any event, once the amount of capacitance
has been chosen, the required inductance for tuner can be calculated with the formula.

The Pipsqueak receiver with the shortwave coil in place. The tickler winding (L2) is visible.

My experience with tickler coil (L2) winding is that the process involves some voodoo. More
turns and placement to the L1 increases the coupling, and therefore, the ability of the set to
regenerate. Too much regeneration, however, will make the radio scream, and actually
degrades the sensitivity of the set. For any given plug-in, I like to use just enough tickler
windings to assure regeneration with the regeneration control set to 3/4 maximum. Your
mileage may vary.

There are alternate ways of wiring up the plug-in coil, and options with regard to the way the
antenna is coupled to the tuner. Note that the antenna can be connected directly, through a
trimmer capactor, or through its own coil or "link" winding.

If you attempt to replicate this set, and find that regeneration does not occur, you may have a
problem with the phasing of your coils. This is simple to correct. Disconnect the tickler coil,
swap its terminals, and reconnect them.

Another way to modify the Pipsqueak's performance is to tinker with the supply voltages. The
radio was designed for a "B" battery supply of 45 volts. "B" voltages up to 90 volts are
permissible. The higher voltage seems to result in more volume in the headphones. It also
increases the set's tendency to regenerate.

The "A" battery supply, which lights the filament, should never be increased. You'll destroy the

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tube if you do. On the other hand, I have noticed that a slight decrease in filament voltage can
sometimes make weak signals more intelligible. Another trick is to reverse the polarity of the "A"
supply.

Document Revision 1, 01/15/2011

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