PART TWO.

GAS TURBINE ENGINES

PRINCIPLES, OPERATION, AND CONSTRUCTION
A gas turbine engine is an air-dependent, thermal
jet propulsion device that uses exhaust-gas-driven turbine
wheels to drive a compressor, making continuous operation
of the engine possible.
PRINCIPLES
Although the gas turbine engine differs radically in
construction from the conventional four-stroke, fiveevent
cycle reciprocating engine, both operate on the
same principle. In the piston (reciprocating) engine, the
functions of intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust
all take place in the same combustion chamber
therefore, each must completely occupy the chamber
during its respective part of the combustion cycle. In the
gas turbine engine, a separate section is devoted to each
function; all functions are performed at the same time
without interruption. These sections are the air-inlet
section the compressor section, the combustion section,
and a turbine and exhaust section. The compressor
brings in compresses, and forces air into the combustion
section. Fuel is then injected into the combustion area,
where it mixes with the compressed air. The fuel and air
mixture is ignited by an electrical ignition plug; however,
once started, ignition is shut off and combustion is continuous
and self-supporting. In gas turbine engines
designed for Army use, nearly two-thirds of the energy
available from the products of combustion is necessary
to drive the compressor. The power turbine is designed
to extract as much of the remaining energy as possible
from the gases and transform it into shaft horsepower
which is used to drive an output shaft or propeller from
a power shaft.
A basic gas turbine engine is illustrated in .
A container of compressed air has been provided with an
opening (nozzle) through which the air passes off into the
atmosphere until the pressure is exhausted (A). This
brief high-speed airflow (velocity) through the node
produces a mild momentary reaction force (solid arrow).
The density of the air can be increased by heating (B).
The result of this increased volume is a greater velocity
as indicated by the long arrow (heated air) as compared
to the short broken arrow. In (C) the heated air (solid
arrow) is directed (impinged) onto the airfoil-shaped
blades attached to the rim of the disc (turbine) causing
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the turbine to rotate on its shaft. To provide for the
continuous airflow, an opening is placed in the forward
end of the container(D). A mechanical pump (compressor)
forces air (solid arrow) into the container (E).With
high-velocity air driving the turbin, the rotating motion
of the turbine can be used to drive the compressor by
joining the two rotating parts with a shaft (F). Up to this
point the air container has only provided for the heating
of the air by an outside means. The container becomes
an engine combustion chamber when fuel is introduced
mixed with the air, and ignited internally. Not all of the
air entering the combustion chamber is needed for combustion.
However, all of it is heated and expands rapidly.
It exhausts as hot, high-velocity gas through the nozzle
and is directed (impinged) onto the turbine. As the gases
pass across the turbine, approximately two-thirds of the
available energy is used The remaining energy still possesses
a high work potential. Therefore, a second turbine
is placed in the flow path of the hot, high-velocity gases
and is driven in the same manner as the comprcssordriven
turbine. The second turbine (power turbine), by
means of a shaft system mechanically independent of the
compressor turbine system drives a system of reduction
gears and the output shaft. The output shaft is externally
splined for turboprop application or internallys splined for
helicopter application (G).

ENGINE OPERATION
The front or inlet duct is almost entirely open to
permit outside air to enter the front of the engine. The
compressor works on the incoming air and delivers it to
the combustion section with as much as twelve times or
more the pressure the air had when it entered the engine.
In the combustion section fuel is sprayed and mixed with
the compressed air. The air-fuel mixture is then ignited
by igniter or spark plugs. Once the mixture is lighted the
igniter is turned off as the burning process will continue
without further assistance, providing the engine is supplied
with the right air-fuel mixture. This air-fuel mixture
bums at a relatively constant pressure with only about 25
percent of the air taking part in the actual combustion
process The rest of the air is used for cooling some of
the components of the combustion section, This heated
expanding air is then directed to the turbine. The turbines
are connected to the compressor and accessories
They will extract a major portion (nearly two-thirds) of
the energy to drive them. The remaining energy will be
used to either propel the aircraft through a jet nozzle or
to turn other times (power turbines). Power turbines
will take this energy and transform it into shaft horsepower,
which in turn drives an output shaft or propeller
from a power shaft.

TYPES OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES

The gas turbine engines most commonly used today
are divided into four types:
Turbojet engine – a gas turbine engine in which
the net energy available is used by the air or hot
gas solely in the form of the jet issuing through a
propelling nozzle or nozzles or a jet engine
whose air is supplied by aturbine-driven compressor,
the turbine being driven by exhaust gases.
Turboshaft engine– an engine in which the net
energy available is transmitted from the exhaust
gas-driven turbine wheel through a planetary
gear, which may be integral to the engine or
externally provided by the aircraft manufacturer,
to turn a helicopter transmissiondriven
powertrain system.
Turboprop engine – a turboshaft engine in
which power is transferred from the power shaft
through reduction gearing to a propeller. The
major difference between the two engines is the
gear reduction.
Turbofan engine – in principle, the same as a
turboprop, except that the geared propeller is
replaced by a duct-enclosed axial-flow fan
driven at engine speed .
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The term "turbo" means "turbine." Therefore, a
truboshaft engine is an engine that delivers power
through a shaft, which, in turn is powered by a turbine
wheel. Army aircraft gas turbine engines are generally
the free-type power turbine turboprop or turboshaft
engines. Having a free power turbine enables the power
output shaft to turn at a constant speed while the powerproducing
capability of the engine can be varied to accommodate
the increased loads applied to the power
output shaft. Turbine engines may also be classified into
two general groups, centrifugal-flow and axial-flow,
depending on the type of compressor used. However,
most gas turbine engines in Army aircraft employ a
combination of both types.

AIR INLET SECTION

The amount of intake required by a gas turbine engine
is approximately 10 times that required by a reciprocating
engine. The air entrance is designed to conduct incoming
air to the compressor with minimum energy loss resulting
from drag or ram pressure loss, that is, the flow of air into
the compressor should be free of turbulence to achieve
maximum operating efficieney. Proper design contributes
materially to aircraft performance by increasing
the ratio of compressor discharge pressure to duct inlet
pressure.
The amount of air passing through the engine
depends on the–
Speed of the compressor RPM.
Forward speed of the aircraft.
Density of the ambient air.
Inlets are classified as–
Nose inlets located in the nose of the fuselage,
power lant Pod, or nacelle.
Winq inlets– located along the leading edge of
the wing usually at the root for single-engine
installations.
Annular inlets – encircling in whole or in part
the fuselage or power plant pod or nacelle.
Scoop inlets -projecting beyond the immediate
surface of the fuselage or nacelle.
Flush inlets – recessed in the side of the
fuselage, power plant or or nacelle.
Bellmouth inlets– a bell-shaped funnel with
carefully rounded Shoulders, mounted to front
of engine.
There are two basic types of air entrances in use:
single entrance and divided entrance. Generally, it is best
to use a single entrance with an axial-flowengine to obtain
maximum ram pressure through straight flow. Single
entrance is used almost exclusively on wing or external
installations where the unobstructed entrance lends itself
readily to a single short, straight duct (Figure 3-5).
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A divided entrance offers greater opportunity to
ditluse the incoming air and enter the plenum chamber
with the low velocity required to utilize efficiently a
double-entry compressor (refer back to Figure 3-3).
(The plenum chamber is a storage place for ram air,
usually associated with fuselage installations.) It is also
advantageous when the equipment installation or pilot
location makes the use of a single or straight duct impractical.
Inmost cases the divided entrance permits the use
of very short ducts with a resultant small pressure drop
through skin fiction.
The air inlet section of turboprop and turboshaft
engines (Figure 3-6) also incorporates some type of particle
separator or inlet screens to protect compressors
from foreign object damage (FOD). Systems will vary
among manufacturers. Consult the aircraft or engine
technical manuals for a descrip. tion of the inlet duct and
its particular air inlet protective device.
Air inlet ducts have an anti-icing system. Turbine
engine air inlets use hot engine oil, hot bleed air, or a
combination of both These systems prevent icing in a
turbine engine air inlet. They are not designed to melt ice
that has already formed on or in the inlets.
Guide vanes are included in some turbine engines
These vanes direct air coming through the inlet into the
compressor at the most efficient angle. The angle
depends on the speed of the engine. On most engines the
vanes are hollow to allow hot air or oil to flow through to
prevent ice buildup.

COMPRESSOR SECTION
The compressor section of the turbine engine has
many functions. Its primary function is to supply enough
air to satisfy the requirements of the combustion burners.
The compressor must increase the pressure of the mass
of air received from the air inlet duct and then discharge
it to the burners in the required quantity and pressure.
A secondary function of the compressor is to supply
bleed air for various purposes in the engine and aircraft.
The bleed air is taken nom any of the various pressure
stages of the compressor. The exact location of the bleed
port depends on the pressure or temperature required
for a particular job. The ports are small openings in the
compressor case adjacent to the particular stage from
which the air is to be bled. Varying degrees of pressure
and heat are available simply by tapping into the appropriate
stage. Air often bled from the final or highest
pressure stage because at this point pressure and air
temperature are at a maximum. At times it may be
necessary to cool this high-pressure air. If it is used for
cabin pressurization or other purposes where excess heat
would be uncomfortable or detrimental the air is sent
through a refrigeration unit.
Bleed air has various uses including driving the
remote-driven accessories. Some current applications of
bleed air are–
In cabin pressurization heating and cooling.
In deicing and anti-icing equipment.
For pneumatic starting of engines.
In auxiliary drive units (ADUs).
In control booster servo systems.
As power for running instruments.
Compressor section location depends on the type of
compressor. In the centrifugal-flow engine the compressor
is between the accessory section and the combustion
section; in the axial-flow engine the compressor is between
the air inlet duct and the combustion section.
Centrifugal-Flow Compressor
The centrifugal-flow compressor basically consists
of an impeller (rotor), a diffuser (stator), and a compressor
manifold. The impeller and the diffuser are the two
main functional elements. Although the diffuser is a
separate component positioned inside and secured to the
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manifold, the entire assembly (diffuser and manifold) is
often referred to as the diffuser.
The impeller’s function is to pick up and accelerate
air outward to the diffuser. Impellers may be either of
two types – single entry or double entry. Both are similar
in construction to the reciprocating engine supercharger
impeller. The double-entry type is similar to two back-to
back impellers. However, because of much greater combustion
air requirements in turbine engines, these
impellers are larger than supercharger impellers.
The principal differences between the two types of
impellers are size and ducting arrangement. The doubleentry
type has a smaller diameter but is usually operated
at a higher rotational speed to ensure enough airflow.
The single-entry impeller permits convenient ducting
directly to the impeller eye (inducer vanes) as opposed
to the more complicated ducting necessary to reach the
rear side of the double-entry type. Although slightly
more efficient in receiving air, the single-entry impeller
must be large in diameter to deliver the same quantity of
air as the double-entry type. This of course, increases the
overall diameter of the engine.
Included in the ducting for double-entry compressor
engines is the plenum chamber. This chamber is necessary
for a double-entry compressor because air must
enter the engine at almost right angles to the engine axis.
To give a positive flow, air must surround the engine
compressor at a positive pressure before entering the
compressor.
Multistage centrifugal compressors consist of two or
more single compressors mounted in tandem on the same
shaft. The air compressed in the first stage passes to the
second stage at its point of entry near the hub. This stage
will further compress the air and pass it to the next stage
if there is one. The problem with this type of compression
is in turning the air as it is passed from one stage to the
next.
The diffuser is an annular chamber provide with a
number of vanes forming a series of divergent passages
into the manifold. The diffuser vanes direct the flow of
air from the impeller to the manifold at an angle designed
to retain the maximum amount of energy imparted by the
impeller. They also deliver the air to the manifold at a
velocity and pressure satisfactory for combustion chambers.
The compressor manifold diverts the flow of air from
the which, which is an integral part of the manifold, into
the combustion chambers. The manifold will have one
outlet port for each chamber so that the air is evenly
divided. A compressor outlet elbow is bolted to each of
the outlet ports. These air outlets are constructed in the
form of ducts and are known by a variety of names
including "air outlet ducts", "outlet elbows," and "combustion
chamber inlet ducts.” These outlel ducts perform
avery important part of the diffusion process. They
change the airflow direction from radial to axial. The
diffusion process is completed after the turn. To help the
elbows perform this function efficiently, turning vanes
(cascade vanes) are sometimes fitted inside the elbows.
The vanes reduce air pressure losses by presenting a
smooth, turning surface.
The centrifugal compressor is used best on smaller
engines where simplicity, flexibility, and ruggedness are
primary requirements. These have a small frontal area
and can handle high airflows and pressures with low loss
of efficiency.
Centrifugal-flow compressors have the following advantages:
High pressure rise per stage.
Efficiency over wide rotational speed range.
Simplicity of manufacture with resulting low
cost.
Low weight.
Low starting power requirements.
They have the following disadvantages:
Large frontal area for given airflow.
Impracticality if more than two stages because
of losses in turns between stages.