Chapter 3

1. d = vt
2
r + r0 = d + 2hd
Equivalent low-pass channel impulse response is given by

c(τ, t) = α0 (t)e−jφ0 (t) δ(τ − τ0 (t)) + α1 (t)e−jφ1 (t) δ(τ − τ1 (t))

√
α0 (t) = λ4πdGl
with d = vt
φ0 (t) = 2πfc τ0 (t) − φD0
τ0 (t) =Rd/c
φD0 = t 2πfD0 (t)dt
fD0 (t) = λv cos θ0 (t)
θ0 (t) = 0 ∀t√ √
λR Gl λR Gl
α1 (t) = 4π(r+r 0) = 2h2
with d = vt
4π(d+ d
)
φ1 (t) = 2πfc τ1 (t) − φD1
2
τ1 (t) =R(r + r0 )/c = (d + 2hd )/c
φD1 = t 2πfD1 (t)dt
fD1 (t) = λv cos θ1 (t)
h
θ1 (t) = π − arctan d/2 ∀t

2. For the 2 ray model:

l
τ0 =
c
x + x0
τ1 =
c
p p
x + x0 − l (ht + hr )2 + d2 − (ht − hr )2 + d2
∴ delay spread(Tm ) = =
c c
when d À (ht + hr )
1 2ht hr
Tm =
c d
ht = 10m, hr = 4m, d = 100m
∴ Tm = 2.67 × 10−9 s

3. Delay for LOS component = τ0 = 23 ns

Delay for First Multipath component = τ1 = 48 ns
Delay for Second Multipath component = τ2 = 67 ns

τc = Delay for the multipath component to which the demodulator synchronizes.

Tm = max τm − τc
m

So, when τc = τ0 , Tm = 44 ns. When τc = τ1 , Tm = 19 ns.

4. fc = 109 Hz
10
τn,min = 3×108s
1010
∴ min fc τn = 3×108
= 33 À 1

5. Use CDF strategy.

Z Z Z2π Zz
1 −(x2 +y)2 1 −r2 −z 2
Fz (z)= P [x2 +y 2 ≤ z 2 ] = e 2σ 2 dxdy = e rdrdθ = 1 − e 2σ 2 (z ≥ 0)
2πσ 2 2πσ 2 2σ 2
x2 +y 2 ≤z 2 0 0

df z (z) z − z22
= 2 e 2σ → Rayleigh
dz σ
For Power:
√ −z 2
Fz 2 (z)=P [Z ≤
z] = 1 − e 2
2σ
1 −z
fz (z)= 2 e 2 → Exponential
2σ 2σ
6. For Rayleigh fading channel
2
P r(Pr < P0 ) = 1 − e−P0 /2σ
2σ 2 = −80dBm, P0 = −95dBm, P r(Pr < P0 ) = 0.0311
2σ 2 = −80dBm, P0 = −90dBm, P r(Pr < P0 ) = 0.0952

7. For Rayleigh fading channel

2
Poutage = 1 − e−P0 /2σ
0.01 = 1 − e−P0 /Pr
∴ Pr = −60dBm

8. 2σ 2 = -80dBm = 10−11
Target Power P0 = -80 dBm = 10−11
Avg. power in LOS component = s2 = -80dBm = 10−11

10−5
P r[z 2 ≤ 10−11 ] = P r[z ≤ √ ]
10
10 −5
Let z0 = √
10  
Z z0 −(z 2 +s2 ) ³ zs ´
z −
2σ 2
= e I0 dz, z≥0
0 σ2 σ2
= 0.3457
To evaluate this, we use Matlab and I0 (x) = besseli(0,x). Sample Code is given:

clear P0 = 1e-11; s2 = 1e-11; sigma2 = (1e-11)/2; z0 =

sqrt(1e-11); ss = z0/1e7; z = [0:ss:z0]; pdf =
(z/sigma2).*exp(-(z.^2+s2)/(2*sigma2)).*besseli(0,z.*(sqrt(s2)/sigma2));
int_pr = sum(pdf)*ss;
 9. CDF of Ricean distribution is Z z
FZRicean (z) = pRicean
Z (z)
0
where · ¸ Ã r !
2z(K + 1) (K + 1)z 2 K(K + 1)
pRicean
Z (z) = exp −K − I0 2z , z≥0
Pr Pr Pr

For the Nakagami-m approximation to Ricean distribution, we set the Nakagami m parameter to be
(K + 1)2 /(2K + 1). CDF of Nakagami-m distribution is
Z z
Nakagami-m
FZ (z) = pNakagami-m
Z (z)
0

where · ¸
2mm z 2m−1 −mz 2
pNakagami-m
Z (z) = exp , z ≥ 0, m ≥ 0.5
Γ(m)P rm Pr
We need to plot the two CDF curves for K = 1,5,10 and P r =1 (we can choose any value for Pr as it
is the same for both the distributions and our aim is to compare them). Sample code is given:

z = [0:0.01:3]; K = 10; m = (K+1)^2/(2*K+1); Pr = 1; pdfR =

((2*z*(K+1))/Pr).*exp(-K-((K+1).*(z.^2))/Pr).*besseli(0,(2*sqrt((K*(K+1))/Pr))*z);
pdfN = ((2*m^m*z.^(2*m-1))/(gamma(m)*Pr^m)).*exp(-(m/Pr)*z.^2);
for i = 1:length(z)
cdfR(i) = 0.01*sum(pdfR(1:i));
cdfN(i) = 0.01*sum(pdfN(1:i));
end plot(z,cdfR); hold on plot(z,cdfN,’b--’); figure;
plot(z,pdfR); hold on plot(z,pdfN,’b--’);

As seen from the curves, the Nakagami-m approximation becomes better as K increases. Also, for a
fixed value of K and x, prob(γ<x) for x large is always greater for the Ricean distribution. This is seen
from the tail behavior of the two distributions in their pdf, where the tail of Nakagami-distribution is
always above the Ricean distribution.
10. (a) W = average received power
Zi = Shadowing over link i
Pr i = Received power in dBW, which is Gaussian with mean W, variance σ 2
(b)

Poutage = P [Pr,1 < T ∩ Pr,2 < T ] = P [Pr,1 < T ] P [Pr,2 < T ] since Z1 , Z2 independent
· µ ¶¸2 · µ ¶¸2
W −T 4
= Q = Q
σ σ
(c)
Z∞
Pout = P [Pr,1 ≤ T , Pr,2 < T |Y = y] fy (y) dy
−∞
¡ ¢
Pr,1 |Y = y ~ N W + by,a2 σ 2 , and [Pr,1 |Y = y] ⊥ [Pr,2 |Y = y]

Z∞ · µ ¶¸2
W + by − T 1 y2
Poutage= Q √ e− 2σ2 dy
aσ 2πσ
−∞
 K=5 K = 10
1 1 1
Ricean Ricean
Nakagami−m Nakagami−m
0.9 0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7 0.7

Ricean
0.6 Nakagami −m 0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1 0.1

0 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

K=1 K=5 K = 10
1 1.5 2
Ricean
Nakagami−m
0.9 1.8

Ricean
0.8 Nakagami−m 1.6

Ricean
0.7 1.4
Nakagami − m
1

0.6 1.2

0.5 1

0.4 0.8

0.5
0.3 0.6

0.2 0.4

0.1 0.2

0 0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

−31 K = 10
x 10
2

1.8

1.6

1.4

Ricean
1.2 Nakagami−m

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Tail Behavior

Figure 1: The CDF and PDF for K = 1, 5, 10 and the Tail Behavior
 y
let σ= u

Z∞ · µ ¶¸ Z∞ · µ ¶¸
1 W − T + buσ 2 −u2 1 4 + byσ 2 −y 2
= √ Q e 2 du = √ Q e dy
2π aσ 2π aσ 2
−∞ −∞

(d) Let a = b = √1 , σ = 8, 4 = 5. With independent fading we get

2
· µ ¶¸2
5
Pout = Q = 0.0708.
8

With correlated fading we get Pout = 0.1316.

Conclusion : Independent shadowing is prefarable for diversity.

11. There are many acceptable techniques for this problem. Sample code for both the stochastic tech-
nique(preferred) and the Jake’s technique are included.
Jakes: Summing of appropriate sine waves

%Jake’s Method
close all; clear all;
%choose N=30
N=30; M=0.5*(N/2-1); Wn(M)=0; beta(M)=0;
%We choose 1000 samples/sec
ritemp(M,2001)=0; rqtemp(M,2001)=0; rialpha(1,2001)=0; fm=[1 10
100]; Wm=2*pi*fm; for i=1:3
for n=1:1:M
for t=0:0.001:2
%Wn(i)=Wm*cos(2*pi*i/N)
Wn(n)=Wm(i)*cos(2*pi*n/N);
%beta(i)=pi*i/M
beta(n)=pi*n/M;
%ritemp(i,20001)=2*cos(beta(i))*cos(Wn(i)*t)
%rqtemp(i,20001)=2*sin(beta(i))*cos(Wn(i)*t)
ritemp(n,1000*t+1)=2*cos(beta(n))*cos(Wn(n)*t);
rqtemp(n,1000*t+1)=2*sin(beta(n))*cos(Wn(n)*t);
%Because we choose alpha=0,we get sin(alpha)=0 and cos(alpha)=1
%rialpha=(cos(Wm*t)/sqrt(2))*2*cos(alpha)=2*cos(Wm*t)/sqrt(2)
%rqalpha=(cos(Wm*t)/sqrt(2))*2*sin(alpha)=0
rialpha(1,1000*t+1)=2*cos(Wm(i)*t)/sqrt(2);
end
end
%summarize ritemp(i) and rialpha
ri=sum(ritemp)+rialpha;
%summarize rqtemp(i)
rq=sum(rqtemp);
%r=sqrt(ri^2+rq^2)
r=sqrt(ri.^2+rq.^2);
%find the envelope average
mean=sum(r)/2001;
subplot(3,1,i);
 time=0:0.001:2;
%plot the figure and shift the envelope average to 0dB
plot(time,(10*log10(r)-10*log10(mean)));
titlename=[’fd = ’ int2str(fm(i)) ’ Hz’];
title(titlename);
xlabel(’time(second)’);
ylabel(’Envelope(dB)’);
end
 fd = 1 Hz
5
Envelope(dB)

−5

−10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
fd = 10 Hz
10
Envelope(dB)

−10

−20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
fd = 100 Hz
10
Envelope(dB)

−10

−20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Figure 2: Problem 11

Stochastic: Usually two guassian R.V.’s are filtered by the Doppler Spectrum and summed. Can also
just do a Rayleigh distribution with an adequate LPF, although the above technique is prefered.

function [Ts, z_dB] = rayleigh_fading(f_D, t, f_s)

%
% function [Ts, z_dB] = rayleigh_fading(f_D, t, f_s)
% generates a Rayleigh fading signal for given Doppler frequency f_D,
% during the time perios [0, t], with sampling frequency f_s >= 1000Hz.
%
% Input(s)
% -- f_D : [Hz] [1x1 double] Doppler frequency
% -- t : simulation time interval length, time interval [0,t]
% -- f_s : [Hz] sampling frequency, set to 1000 if smaller.
% Output(s)
% -- Ts : [Sec][1xN double] time instances for the Rayleigh signal
% -- z_dB : [dB] [1xN double] Rayleigh fading signal
%

% Required parameters
if f_s < 1000;
f_s = 1000; % [Hz] Minumum required sampling rate
end;
N = ceil( t*f_s ); % Number of samples

% Ts contains the time instances at which z_dB is specified

Ts = linspace(0,t,N);

if mod( N, 2) == 1
N = N+1; % Use even number of samples in calculation
end;
f = linspace(-f_s,f_s,N); % [Hz] Frequency samples used in calculation

% Generate complex Gaussian samples with line spectra in frequency domain

% Inphase :
Gfi_p = randn(2,N/2); CGfi_p = Gfi_p(1,:)+i*Gfi_p(2,:); CGfi = [
conj(fliplr(CGfi_p)) CGfi_p ];

% Quadrature :
Gfq_p = randn(2,N/2); CGfq_p = Gfq_p(1,:)+i*Gfq_p(2,:); CGfq = [
conj(fliplr(CGfq_p)) CGfq_p ];

% Generate fading spectrum, this is used to shape the Gaussian line spectra
omega_p = 1; % this makes sure that the average received envelop can be 0dB
S_r = omega_p/4/pi./(f_D*sqrt(1-(f/f_D).^2));

% Take care of samples outside the Doppler frequency range, let them be 0
idx1 = find(f>=f_D); idx2 = find(f<=-f_D); S_r(idx1) = 0;
S_r(idx2) = 0; S_r(idx1(1)) = S_r(idx1(1)-1);
S_r(idx2(length(idx2))) = S_r(idx2(length(idx2))+1);

% Generate r_I(t) and r_Q(t) using inverse FFT:

r_I = N*ifft(CGfi.*sqrt(S_r)); r_Q = -i*N*ifft(CGfq.*sqrt(S_r));

% Finally, generate the Rayleigh distributed signal envelope

z = sqrt(abs(r_I).^2+abs(r_Q).^2); z_dB = 20*log10(z);

% Return correct number of points

z_dB = z_dB(1:length(Ts));
 1 Hz
0

−10

−20

−30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
10Hz
10

−10

−20

−30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
l00 Hz
20

−20

−40

−60
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Figure 3: Problem 11

12. Pr = 30dBm
fD = 10Hz
2
eρ − 1
P0 = 0dBm, tz = √ = 0.0013s
ρfD 2π
P0 = 15dBm, tz = 0.0072s
P0 = 25dBm, tz = 0.0264s

13. In the reader, we found the level crossing rate below a level by taking an average of the number of
times the level was crossed over a large period of time. It is easy to convince that the level crossing
rate above a level will have the same expression as eq. 3.44 in reader because to go below a level again,
we first need to go above it. There will be some discrepancy at the end points, but for a large enough
T it will not effect the result. So we have
√ 2
LZ (above) = LZ (below) = 2πfD ρe−ρ

And,
p(z > Z)
tZ (above) =
LZ (above)
2 2
p(z > Z) = 1 − p(z ≤ Z) = 1 − (1 − e−ρ ) = e−ρ
1
tZ (above) = √
2πfD ρ
 The values of tZ (above) for fD = 10,50,80 Hz are 0.0224s, 0.0045s, 0.0028s respectively. Notice that as
fD increases, tZ (above) reduces.

14. Note: The problem has been solved for Ts = 10µs

Pr = 10dB
fD = 80Hz

R1 : −∞ ≤ γ ≤ −10dB, π1 = 9.95 × 10−3

R2 : −10dB ≤ γ ≤ 0dB, π2 = 0.085
R3 : 0dB ≤ γ ≤ 5dB, π3 = 0.176
R4 : 5dB ≤ γ ≤ 10dB, π4 = 0.361
R5 : 10dB ≤ γ ≤ 15dB, π5 = 0.325
R6 : 15dB ≤ γ ≤ 20dB, π6 = 0.042
R7 : 20dB ≤ γ ≤ 30dB, π7 = 4.54 × 10−5
R8 : 30dB ≤ γ ≤ ∞, π8 = 3.72 × 10−44

Nj → level crossing rate at level Aj

q
0
N1 = 0, ρ=
q 10
0.1
N2 = 19.85, ρ =
q 10
1
N3 = 57.38, ρ =
q 10
100.5
N4 = 82.19, ρ =
q 10
10
N5 = 73.77, ρ =
q 10
101.5
N6 = 15.09, ρ =
q 10
102
N7 = 0.03, ρ=
q 10
103
N8 = 0, ρ= 10

MATLAB CODE:
N = [0 19.85 57.38 82.19 73.77 15.09 .03 0];

Pi = [9.95e-3 .085 .176 .361 .325 .042 4.54e-5 3.72e-44];

T = 10e-3;
for i = 1:8
if i == 1
p(i,1) = 0;
p(i,2) = (N(i+1)*T)/Pi(i);
p(i,3) = 1-(p(i,1)+p(i,2));
elseif i == 8
p(i,1) = (N(i)*T)/Pi(i);
p(i,2) = 0;
p(i,3) = 1-(p(i,1)+p(i,2));
else
p(i,1) = (N(i)*T)/Pi(i);
p(i,2) = (N(i+1)*T)/Pi(i);
p(i,3) = 1-(p(i,1)+p(i,2));
 end
end

% p =
%
% 0 0.0199 0.9801
% 0.0023 0.0068 0.9909
% 0.0033 0.0047 0.9921
% 0.0023 0.0020 0.9957
% 0.0023 0.0005 0.9973
% 0.0036 0.0000 0.9964
% 0.0066 0 0.9934
% 0 0 1.0000

15. (a) 
 α1 δ(τ ) ρ = 70Hz
S(τ, ρ) = α2 δ(τ − 0.022µsec) ρ = 49.5Hz

0 else
The antenna setup is shown in Fig. 15
From the figure, the distance travelled by the LOS ray is d and the distance travelled by the first
multipath component is sµ ¶
d 2
2 + 64
2
Given this setup, we can plot the arrival of the LOS ray and the multipath ray that bounces off
the ground on a time axis as shown in Fig. 15
So we have sµ ¶
d 2
2 + 82 − d = 0.022 × 10−6 3 × 108
2
µ 2 ¶
d
⇒4 + 82 = 6.62 + d2 + 2d(6.6)
4
⇒ d = 16.1m
fD = v cos(θ)/λ. v = fD λ/ cos(θ). For the LOS ray, θ = 0 and for the multipath component,
θ = 45o . We can use either of these rays and the corresponding fD value to get v = 23.33m/s.
(b)
4ht hr
dc =
λ
dc = 768 m. Since d ¿ dc , power fall-off is proportional to d−2 .
(c) Tm = 0.022µs, B −1 = 0.33µs. Since Tm ¿ B −1 , we have flat fading.

16. (a) Outdoor, since delay spread ≈ 10 µsec.

Consider that 10 µsec ⇒ d = ct = 3km difference between length of first and last path
(b) Scattering function
S(τ, ρ) = F∆t [Ac (τ, ∆t)]
1
¡
1
¢
= W rect W ρ for 0 ≤ τ ≤ 10µsec

The Scattering function is plotted in Fig. 16

8m 8m

d meters

Figure 4: Antenna Setting

0.022 us

0 t0 t1 t

t0 = (d/3e8)
t1 = 2 sqrt[(d/2)^2+8^2]/3e8

Figure 5: Time Axis for Ray Arrival

R
∞
τ Ac (τ )dτ
0
(c) Avg Delay Spread = R
∞ = 5µsec
Ac (τ )dτ
v 0
u∞
u R (τ −µT m )2 Ac (τ )dτ
u
RMS Delay Spread = t 0 ∞ R = 2.89µsec
Ac (τ )dτ
0
W
Doppler Spread = 2 = 50 Hz
1
(d) βu > Coherence BW ⇒ Freq. Selective Fading ≈ Tm = 105 ⇒ βu > = 105 kHz
Can also use µT m or σT m instead of Tm
(e) Rayleigh fading, since receiver power is evenly distributed relative to delay; no dominant LOS
path
2
eρ √
−1 W
(f) tR = ρFD 2π
with ρ = 1, fD = 2 → tr = .0137 sec
(g) Notice that the fade duration never becomes more than twice the average. So, if we choose our
data rate such that a single symbol spans the average fade duration, in the worst case two symbols
will span the fade duration. So our code can correct for the lost symbols and we will have error-free
transmission. So t1R = 72.94 symbols/sec

17. (a) Tm ≈ .1msec = 100µsec

Bd ≈ .1Hz
Answers based on µTm or σTm are fine too. Notice, that based on the choice of either Tm , µTm or
σTm , the remaining answers will be different too.
(b) Bc ≈ T1m = 10kHz
∆f > 10kHz for u1 ⊥ u2
(c) (∆t)c = 10s
(d) 3kHz < Bc ⇒ Flat
30kHz > Bc ⇒ Freq. Selective
 S(tau,rho)

-W/2 W/2 rho

10 us

tau

Figure 6: Scattering Function