Parameters That Affect Vehicle Handling and Ride Quality

International Research Journal in Engineering and Emerging Technology (IRJEET)
Volume – 01, Issue – 01, March – 2020
Parameters that affect vehicle handling and ride quality

Kishan Kumawat1, Kuldeep Sharma2
1
(Student / Department of Mechanical Engineering / Jaipur Engineering College and Research Centre, India)
2
(Training & Placement Officer / Jaipur Engineering College and Research Centre, India)
Abstract: The steering system and suspension system of a vehicle present the most sensitive components in
control - loop of driver and vehicle. This paper uncovers the effect of different conditions and various design
parameters of the steering and suspension system that affect the handling, cornering, and stability of an
automobile and how the wheel alignment and tire properties affect the lateral performance of the vehicle. These
two systems comprise of several parts which work together to give optimum performance. Good handling
behavior, stable ride, and proper cornering; these are the main functions of a well-designed steering and
suspension system. Further, the steering system must guarantee the safe steering of the vehicle, and the
suspension system must ensure a comfortable ride of the vehicle. Hence, an integrated a nd compatible design of
these systems is especially important to get better and optimized performance.
Keywords: Vehicle handling, Ride quality, Steering effort, Steering and Suspension Compatibility, wheel
alignment.
1. INTRODUCTION
To maneuver a vehicle, we need a steering mechanism to turn wheels and to maneuver a vehicle with
full control and stability; we need a suspension system. The good handling, cornering, stability and
ride quality of the vehicle is a primary objective of a steering and suspension system. The Handling
and cornering performance of an automobile is important to the all-around performance of the vehicle.
The handling performance determines how the car execute in turning corners and its lateral
performance. Many important parameters determine the lateral performance of a vehicle, and these
include but are not limited to the location of the center of mass, tire cornering stiffness, the steering
angle, the lateral velocity, the forward vehicle velocity, the rotational speed (yaw rate), the body slip
angle, and the tire slip angle. And ride quality and stability are depend on spring rate, wheel
alignments, roll center, roll stiffness, and tire properties.
2. STEERING GEOMETRIES
Fig 1. Steering geometries

2.1. ACKERMAN, PARALLEL & ANTI-ACKERMAN
The fundamental problem in the steering is to enable the vehicle to traverse an arc such that all four
wheels travel about the same center point. The Ackerman or kinematic steering is an exact condition
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when the turning speed of the vehicle is slow. There is no lateral force and no-slip angles. For the
wheels to roll without slip (especially at low speeds), there must be toe-out with the steer. Therefore the
toe angle must change with the steering angle. The Ackerman steering condition is also called the
kinematic steering condition because it is a static condition at zero velocity. There is no four-bar
linkage steering mechanism that can provide the Ackerman condition ideally. However, it is possible to
optimize various steering linkages for a working range, to work closely to the Ackerman condition, and
be exact at a few points.
When the vehicle turns fast, significant lateral acceleration is needed, and therefore, the wheels
operate at high slip angles. Furthermore, the loads on the inner wheels are much lower than the outer
wheels. Under these conditions, the inner front wheel of a kinematic steering vehicle would be at a
higher slip angle than required for maximum lateral force. Therefore, the inner wheel of a vehicle in a
high-speed turn must operate at a lower steer angle than kinematic steering. Reducing the steering
angle of the inner wheel reduces the difference between steer angles of the inner and outer wheels. For
race cars, it is common to use parallel or Anti-Ackerman steering. Ackerman, parallel, and Anti-
Ackerman steering are illustrated in fig 1. The correct steer angle is a function of the instant wheel
load, road condition, speed, and tire characteristics. Hence, there is no ideal steering mechanism unless
we control the steering angle of each steerable wheel independently using a smart system.
3. CAR TIRE RELATIVE ANGLES

Major wheel alignment parameters that affect vehicle dynamics: camber, caster, toe, and kingpin
inclination
3.1.CAMBER
Camber is the angle of the wheel relative to the vertical line to the road, as viewed from the front or
the rear of the car. From the top, if the wheel leans in toward the chassis, it is called negative camber,
and if it leans away from the car, it is called positive camber. For a tire that has a positive camber
angle, the effect is to decrease the effective cornering stiffness, and for a tire that has a negative camber
angle, the effect is to increase the effective cornering stiffness. Therefore, the peak lateral force is
increased by adding negative camber to the tires, which is a good thing; the lateral capabilities of the
tire are increased. As the body rolls in a turn, the suspension deflects vertically. Therefore, the wheel
can be subject to large camber changes as the suspension moves up and down. So, the more the wheel
deflect from its static position, the more difficult it is to maintain an ideal camber angle. Thus, the
relatively large wheel travel and soft roll stiffness needed to provide a smooth ride in passenger cars,
while the small wheel travel and high roll stiffness are required in racing cars. In general, it is best to
go with a static negative camber angle because it improves the effective cornering stiffness of the tire,
and it increases the maximum lateral force. Typically, the maximum amount of lateral force occurs at a
camber angle between -2 and -7 degrees. However, too much of a negative camber angle is undesirable
because eventually, it starts to decrease the cornering stiffness.
Fig 2. Camber angle


3.2.CASTER ANGLE AND CASTER TRAIL
The caster angle is defined as the angle between the steering axis and the vertical plane viewed from
the side of the tire. The caster trail is defined as the distance at the ground between the center of the
contact patch (also known as wheel contact point) the point at which the steering axis intersects the
ground. The caster angle is positive when the steering axis is inclined in such a way as it points to the
front of the vehicle. Positive caster trail occurs when the steering axis intersects the ground at a point
that is in front of the center of the contact patch. The caster angle and caster trail must be positive
because both of these quantities affect the self-aligning moment. Caster trail is important because it
defines how much of a moment be applied to the steering axis; as the caster trail increases, the moment
arm increases and thus the moment acting on the steering axis increases. However, a large caster angle
and caster trail are not recommended since it makes the steering much heavier and less responsive.
Caster angle causes the wheel to rise or fall during steering. Therefore, if the caster geometry is the
same on both sides the vehicle rolls as it is being steered; one side toes-out and one side toes-in, thus
one side lifts and one side falls causing the vehicle to roll. The caster angle also affects the camber
angle as the wheel is turned about the steering axis. With the same positive caster angle on both
wheels, the outside tire, in turn, generates camber in a negative direction and the inside tire generates
camber in a positive direction. This effect is a bit desirable because it allows the vehicle to lean into the
turn. Therefore, it is desirable to have a small positive caster angle and caster trail. The caster angle
should not be increased too much because it causes too much camber angle change with steer and
causes the tire to rise or fall too much with steer and also increase the steering effort.
Fig 3. Caster angle

3.3.TOE ANGLE
The toe angle is defined as the angle between the longitudinal axis of the vehicle and a line passing
through the center of the tire when viewed from the top. Toe-in occurs when the front of the tire points
in towards the vehicle, and toe-out occurs when the front of the tire points away from the vehicle. Toe
settings affect three major performances: tire wear, straight-line stability, and corner entry handling.
For minimum tire wear and power loss, the wheels on a given axle of a car should point directly ahead
when the car is running in a straight line. Excessive toe-in causes accelerated wear at the outboard
edges of the tires, while too much toe-out causes wear at the inboard edges. Toe-in increases the
directional stability of the vehicle, and toe-out increases the steering response. Hence, a toe-in setting
makes the steering function lazy, while a toe-out makes the vehicle unstable. With four-wheel
independent suspensions, the toe may also be set at the rear of the car. Toe settings at the rear have the
same effect on wear, directional stability, and turn-in as they do on the front. However, we must not set
up a rear-drive race car towed-out in the rear, because of extreme instability.

Fig 4. Toe angle

3.4.KINGPIN INCLINATION AND SCRUB RADIUS
The kingpin inclination is the angle between the steering axis and the vertical plane when viewing
the tire from the front and the scrub radius is the distance measured at the ground level between the
center of the contact patch and the point where the steering axis intercepts the ground. The scrub radius
is measured when looking at the wheel from the front plane. A positive kingpin inclination occurs
when the steering axis points outward. A positive scrub radius occurs when the steering axis intercepts
the ground at the inside of the tire. The kingpin inclination and scrub radius should be positive because
both of these quantities affect the self-aligning moment. The effect of a positive kingpin inclination is
to raise the wheel as the wheel is turned about the kingpin axis. The greater the kingpin inclination, the
more the wheel rise as it is being steered. Note, the wheel rises regardless of the direction it is being
turned. It is to be noted that the greater the distance between the ball joints for a given kingpin
inclination, the greater the amount of lift that will occur. With a positive kingpin inclination, the tire
leans-out as it is steered about the steering axis. Therefore, the greater the steering angle, the greater the
amount of positive camber generated.
Driving and braking forces introduce a torque about the steering axis, and this torque is proportional
to the moment arm, the scrub radius. If the driving and braking forces are different on either side of the
vehicle, then the driver feels a net steering torque acting to steer the vehicle. The amount the tire scrubs
against the ground as the wheel turns is dependent on the scrub radius. If the scrub radius is negative
than the kingpin inclination will have to be large in order to ensure, the aligning torque is positive.
Typically, a small positive scrub radius is used on vehicles with a small to moderate kingpin
inclination. If the distance between the ball joints is large, then a smaller kingpin inclination is used,
as small kingpin inclination minimizes the required steering torque.
Negative SR Zero SR
Positive SR Tir
e
Kingpin
axis
Fig. 5 Kingpin Inclination and scrub radius


4. STEERING GEOMETRY ERRORS
The action of the suspension system has a large effect on the handling qualities of the vehicle. The
two effects from the linkage relationship between the steering linkage and the control arms bear are:
4.1.BUMP STEER
It is important to recognize that the suspension and steering systems are coupled. As the suspension
goes through its travel, so does the tie rod and it is important that the tire does not toe with suspension
travel. The inside point of the tie rod is fixed (the point at the steering rack) so that if the length of the
tie rod is not at the correct length and the tie rod does not have the same instant center as the
suspension system then as the suspension travels and thus the tie rod travels (but not at the appropriate
path), it forces the tire to rotate about the steering axis. Bump steer by definition is toe angle change
with suspension travel. If one tire goes over a bump and experiences a toe angle change, the vehicle
will steer. In bump steer, if the tie rod is shortened the deflection of the suspension causes toe-out, and
if it is lengthened the deflection of the suspension causes toe-in. This condition is very troublesome for
the driver because the driver consistently has to correct the vehicle as the vehicle travels over changes
in road conditions.
Fig 6. Bump steer

4.2.ROLL STEER
Roll steer occurs when a vehicle rolls and there is weight transfer, and thus the suspension on the
inside compresses and the suspension on the outside goes into a rebound. The net effect is that one side
of the vehicle will toe-in, and one side of the vehicle will toe-out, thus forcing the vehicle to steer as it
rolls. If the steering rack is raised, the tire will toe-in when it is in compression and will toe-out when it
is in the rebound. The opposite is true if the steering rack is lowered. The steering geometry can be
chosen such that the more the vehicle rolls, the more it will steer or the less it will steer. Therefore,
oversteer/understeer characteristics can be controlled by the roll steer effect. However, most of the
time, the suspension geometry and tie rod position and length are chosen to minimize toe angle change
with suspension travel, and thus minimizing the effects of roll steer and bump steer.
Fig 7. Roll steer


4.2.1. POSITION AND LENGTH OF THE TIE ROD
To choose the position and the length of the tie rod in order to have no change in toe angle with
suspension travel. This parameter is crucial and needs to be considered when designing the suspension
and steering systems. The tie rod should lie on a line passing through the instant center of the
suspension system, and on this line, a proper length can be chosen. The following is a list of the proper
steps to take in order to choose the proper tie rod position and length.
 Draw a line that passes through the steering axis (this line passes through the ball joints of the
upper and lower control arms)
 Draw a line that passes through the joints of the A-arms at the inside section of the A-arms
 Extend the lines drawn in steps 1 and 2 until they intercept, denote the interception point as P2
 Locate the instant center of the suspension system, and denote it as P1 or IC
 Draw a line that goes from the outer tie rod point to the instant center, note the tie rod must lie
on this line
 Draw a line that passes through the outer tie rod point and the outer point of the upper control
arm (the ball joint)
 Calculate the angle between the line passing through the tie rod ends to the IC (the line from
step 5) and the line passing through the lower control arm points to the IC, and denote this
angle 
 Draw a line that connects the IC to P2
 Draw a line that is at an angle of  from the line drawn in step 8 and that starts from the IC;
draw this line until it intercepts the line drawn in step 6, denote the interception point as P3
 Draw a line that passes through P3 and the inner point of the upper control arm and extend it
until it intercepts the line from step 5
 The interception point from step 10 locates the point where the inner tie rod point must lie to
have no toe angle change with wheel travel
Fig 8. Ideal position and length of tie rod
4.2.2. LOCATION OF RACK

If Ackermann geometry is introduced into the suspension system, then there is an increase in the
slip angles at the outer tires when the vehicle is turning. Therefore, using higher slip angles at the outer
tire tends to generate more lateral forces with less steer angles and rolling losses. The location of the
rack position with respect to the longitudinal position affects the amount of Ackermann steering
generated. Therefore, the height of the rack and the size of the rack are chosen first in order to optimize


the bump steer and roll steer characteristics of the suspension system. The longitudinal position of the
rack will be chosen last to obtain the desired amount of Ackermann steering. This can be done with the
help of lotus shark software. Most of the time, a little bit deviation from Ackermann steering is
acceptable. However, severe deviations from Ackermann steering lead to tire wear because deviations
from Ackermann lead to tire scrub.
5. TIRE CONERING STIFFNESS
The lateral force denoted by Fy is called the cornering force when the camber angle is zero. At a
given tire load, the cornering force grows with slip angle. At low slip angles the relationship between
cornering force and slip angle is linear. Hence, the cornering force is described by:
Fy = Cαα equation: 1
Where, α = Slip angle, Cα = Cornering stiffness
The tire cornering stiffness is an important parameter in determining the handling performance of the
vehicle. Cornering stiffness is defined as the slope of the curve for Fy versus α at α = 0. A positive slip
angle produces a negative force on the tire, implying that Cα must be negative; however, SAE defines
cornering stiffness as the negative of the slope, such that Cα takes on a positive value. It is this
parameter that determines whether the vehicle is understeer or oversteer because the center of mass of
the vehicle is a fixed parameter.
The cornering stiffness is dependent on many variables. Tire size and type, number of plies, chord
angles. Wheel width, tire sidewall length and tread are significant variables.
Fig 9. Relationship between cornering stiffness vs inflation pressure and tire

From bicycle model approach, the relationship between steering angle and slip angles are:
 = 57.3 L/R + αf – αr equation: 2
where,
 = Steering angle at the front wheel
L = Wheelbase
R = Radius of turn
αf = Slip angle at the front wheel
αr = Slip angle at the rear wheel
With the required lateral forces, the slip angles at the front and rear wheels are:
αf = Wf*V2 / (Cαf*g*R) and, equation: 3

αr = Wr*V2 / (Cαr*g*R) equation: 4


where, V = Forward speed
R = Radius of turn
g = Gravitational acceleration constant
Wf = Load on front axle
Wr = Load on rear axle
From Eq.2,3, and 4 ; we get,
 = 57.3 L/R + {( Wf/Cαf ) – ( Wr/Cαr )} ( V2 / g*R ) equation: 5
 = 57.3 L/R + K*ay equation: 6
Where,
K = Understeer gradient
ay = Lateral acceleration
Equation 5 is very important to the turning response properties of a vehicle. It describes how the
steering angle of the vehicle must be changed with the radius of turn or the lateral acceleration. The
term K is called an understeer gradient. The term determines the magnitude and direction of the
steering input required. The three possibilities exist are:
 Neutral Steer: {(Wf/Cαf) = (Wr/Cαr)  K = 0  αf = αr}
On constant- radius turn, no change in steer angle will be required as the speed is varied.
Specifically, the steering angle required to make the turn will be equivalent to the Ackerman angle.
Physically the neutral steer case corresponds to a balance on the vehicle such that the force of the
lateral acceleration at the CG causes an identical increase in slip angle at both the front and rear wheels.
 Understeer: {(Wf/Cαf) > (Wr/Cαr)  K > 0  αf > αr}
On constant- radius turn, the steering angle will have to increase with speed in proportion to K
times the lateral acceleration in g’s. Thus it increases linearly with the lateral acceleration and with the
square of the speed, In the understeer case, the lateral acceleration at the CG causes the front wheels to
slip sideways to a greater extent than the rear wheels, Thus to develop the lateral force at the front
wheels necessary to maintain the radius of turn, the front wheels must steer to a greater angle.
 Oversteer: {(Wf/Cαf) < (Wr/Cαr)  K < 0  αf < αr}
On constant- radius turn, the steering angle will have to decrease as the speed, and lateral
acceleration increased, In this case, the lateral acceleration at CG causes the slip angle on the rear
wheels to increase more than at the front. The outward drift at the rear of the vehicle turns the front
wheels inward, this diminishing the radius of turn. The increase in lateral acceleration that follows
causes the rear to drift out even further, and the process continues unless the steering angle is reduced
to maintain the radius of turn.

Fig 10. Change of steering angle with speed

With the neutral steer vehicle, the steer angle to follow the curve at any speed is simply the Ackerman
angle. With understeer the angle increases with the square of the speed, reaching twice the initial angle
at the characteristic speed, In the oversteer case, the steer angle decreases with the square of the speed
and become zero at critical speed value.
5.1. CHARACTERISTIC SPEED
For an understeer vehicle, the understeer level may be quantified by a parameter known as the
characteristic speed. Characteristic speed simply the speed at which the steer angle required to
negotiate any turn is twice the Ackerman angle. The expression gives the characteristic speed:
Vchar = √𝟓𝟑. 𝟕𝑳𝒈 ∕ 𝑲
5.2. CRITICAL SPEED
In the oversteer case, a critical speed will exist above which the vehicle will be unstable. The
expression gives the critical speed:
Vcritical = √−𝟓𝟑. 𝟕𝑳𝒈 ∕ 𝑲
Where it must be remembered that K is negative in value. The critical speed is dependent on the
wheelbase of the vehicle; for a given level of oversteer, long-wheelbase vehicles have higher critical
speed than short-wheelbase vehicles. Oversteer vehicle can be driven at less than the critical, but
become directionally unstable at and above the critical speed.
5.3. TIRE
Tires affect a vehicle’s handling, traction, ride comfort, and fuel consumption. Wheel diameter, as well
as tire size, directly impact how your car behaves on the road. Using a tire with a shorter sidewall, we
get a quicker steering response and better lateral stability. However, we will have a stiffer ride. If the
driving tires are small, the vehicle becomes twitchy with low traction and low top speed. However,
when the driving tires are big, then the vehicle has slow steering response and high tire distortion in
turns, decreasing the stability. Softer front tires show more steerability, less stability, and more wear
while hard front tires show the opposite. Soft rear tires have high rear traction, but they make the


vehicle less steerable, more bouncy, and less stable. Hard rear tires have low rear traction, but they
make the vehicle more steerable, less bouncy, and more stable.
High inflation pressure of tire increases stiffness, which reduces ride comfort and generates vibration.
Tire-print and traction are reduced when tires are over-inflated. Over-inflation causes the tire to
transmit shock loads to the suspension and reduces the tire’s ability to support the required load for
cornering, braking, and acceleration. Under-inflation results in cracking and tire component separation.
It also increases sidewall flexing and rolling resistance that causes heat and mechanical failure. A tire’s
load capacity is determined mainly by its inflation pressure. Therefore, under-inflation results in an
overloaded tire that operates at high deflection with a low fuel economy and poor handling.
6. CALCULATION FOR STEERING EFFORT

Input Parameters
Wheel Base, L 1397mm Camber angle -2
Track Width, W 1346.2mm Caster angle,  3
Radius of Turn, R 2126mm KPI,  7
Tie rod angle (Top view),
Vehicle load Front= 96.6kg Rear= 133.4kg

Tie rod angle (Front
Velocity of vehicle 18km/h 35.14
view), 
Radius of wheel, Rw 266.7mm Steering arm angle,  22.561
CG height, h 546.1mm Steering wheel radius, r 127mm
Steps to calculate Steering effort
1. Cornering Force -
= (Turning Velocity)2 /(Turning Radius Centre of Gravity x g)
= 25 / (2.126 x 9.81)
= 1.1987 N
2. Weight transfer at cornering -
= (Cornering Force x Height C.G. x Front Axle Load) / Track width
= (1.1987 x 546.1 x 96.6) / 1346.2
= 46.98 kg
3. Lateral Force on Inner Wheel -
= (Weight on Inner Wheel x Turning Velocity2) /Turning Radius Inner Wheel
= ((48.3-46.98) x 25) / 2.1
= 15.71 N
4. Lateral Force on Outer Wheel -
= (Weight on Outer Wheel x Turning Velocity2) /Turning Radius Outer Wheel
= ((48.3+46.98) x 25) / 3.027
= 786.85 N
5. Moment due to Lateral Force –
a) Moment Inner Wheel
= (Lateral Force on Inner Wheel x Radius of Wheel x tan (caster angle))
= (15.71 x 266.7 x tan (3))
= 219.58 N-mm (if caster angle = 6 then, Minner= 440.37 N-mm)
b) Moment Outer Wheel
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= (Lateral Force on Outer Wheel x Radius of Wheel x tan (caster angle))
= (786.85 x 266.7 x tan (3))
= 10998 N-mm (if caster angle = 6 then, Mouter = 22056.42 N-mm)
6. Moment at Kingpin due to Lateral Force
= Moment Inner Wheel + Moment Outer Wheel
= 219.58 + 10998
= 11217.58 N-mm (if caster angle = 6 then, Mtotel = 22496.79 N-mm)
7. Self-Aligning Torque -
a) Moment due to Self-Aligning Torque
= (Total Lateral Force in Front x (moment arm due to kpi)
= ((786.58+15.71) x (10.96))
= 8793.10 N-mm
8. Net Moment at Kingpin -
= Moment due to Self-Aligning Torque + Moment due to Lateral Force
= 8793.10 + 11217.58
= 20010.68 N-mm
9. Perpendicular force at Steering Arm -
= Net Moment at Kingpin / Steering Arm Length
= 20010.68 / 101.6
= 196.95 N
10. Force along Tie-rod at arm end -
= Perpendicular force at Steering Arm / [cos(φ1+) x cos (φ2)]
= 196.95 / [cos (0.02+22.56) x cos (35.14)]
= 260.84 N
11. Force along Tie-rod at rack end -
= Force along Tie-rod at arm end / Tie-rod efficiency
= 260.84 / 0.95
= 274.56 N
12. Horizontal force at rack end -
= Force along Tie-rod at rack end / [cos (φ1) x cos(φ2)]
= 274.56 / [cos (0.02) x cos (35.14)]
= 335.75 N
13. Actual Horizontal force at rack end –
= Horizontal force at rack end / rack efficiency
= 335.75 / 0.9
= 373.05 N
14. Moment at Steering Column -
= Actual Horizontal force at rack end x Pinion Radius
= 373.05 x 20
= 7461.14 N-mm
15. Steering Effort -
= Moment at Steering Column / Radius of Steering
= 7461.14 / 127
= 58.74 N
CONCLUSION

Page

The crucially of parameters that affect the handling, cornering and stability seems to be accomplished.
The small change in steering system can not only make changes in handling and cornering but even can
produce drastic changes in stability, ride quality and other aims of suspension kinematics and vice
versa. Therefore, both the system must be compatible with each other so that steering work closely to
the Ackerman condition and the geometry errors like bump steer and roll steer do not occur.
Wheel(tire) alignment and properties are very sensitive for the performance of any vehicle. Small static
negative camber is desirable to get batter cornering stiffness. Tire cornering stiffness can be chosen
accordingly to get controllable understeer and oversteer vehicle. Toe-in is batter in passenger cars as it
provides directional stability as well as toe-out is better in race cars to get quicker steering response. As
by increase the caster from 3 to 6 the moment due to lateral forces become more than double, which
makes steering too heavy. So to get the optimum geometry and values of wheel alignments and tire
properties in order to get the best performance of the vehicle, iteration is the key.
REFERENCES
[1] R. P. Rajvardhan , S. R. Shankapal , S. M. Vijaykumar; Effect Of Wheel Geometry Parameters On
Vehicle Steering http://www.sastechjournal.com/pdf/Journals/Sept2010/2.pdf
[2] https://www.vikingmotors.ca/how-tires-affect-car-performance-and-handling/
[3] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327792176_Study_of_the_effects_of_caster_offset_and_kingp
in_offset_on_kinematics_and_lateral_dynamics_of_long_wheelbase_solid_axle_bus
[4] Automobile Ride, Handling, and Suspension Design, (2006). Retrieved January 2006, From
http://www.rqriley.com/suspensn.htm
[5] https://www.cars.com/articles/when-should-you-get-a-wheel-alignment-1420681259841/
[6] Dixon, John C., (1996); Tires, Suspension and Handling
[7] Milliken ,William F., Milliken, Douglas L., (1995); Race Car Vehicle Dynamics
[8] Gillespie, T. D. (Thomas D.) (1992); Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics
[9] Erjavec, Jack (2006); Automotive suspension and steering

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International Research Journal in Engineering and Emerging Technology (IRJEET)

Volume – 01, Issue – 01, March – 2020