Architecture of the Mughal Period

Mughal architecture is an Indo-Islamic architectural style that developed in India under the
patronage of the Mughal Empire.
Mughal architecture is the distinctive Indo-Islamic architectural style that developed in northern
and central India under the patronage of Mughal emperors from the 16th to the 18th century. It is
a remarkably symmetrical and decorative amalgam of Persian, Turkish, and Indian architecture.
The Mughals were also renowned for creating exquisite gardens in the Persian charbagh layout,
in which the quadrilateral gardens were divided by walkways or flowing water into four smaller
parts.
Architecture Under Akbar
Early Mughal architecture first developed during the reign of Akbar the Great (1556–1605), who
commissioned palaces, mosques , gardens, and mausoleums. The architecture was a synthesis of
Persian, Turkic, Timurid Iranian, Central Asian, and Indian Hindu and Muslim styles. Akbari
architecture is also remarkable for its large scale use of sandstone, evident both in the
construction of Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar’s royal city, and Akbar’s own tomb in Sikandra. The
mosque at Fatehpur Sikri boasts the Buland Darwaza, the largest gateway of its kind in India.
Early Mughal mosques had massive enclosed courtyards and domed shallow prayer halls.
Tomb of Humayun
One of the most stellar accomplishments of Mughal architecture under Akbar is the tomb of his
father Humayun, situated in Delhi. Commissioned in 1562 by Humayun’s wife, Hamida Banu
Begum, and designed by a Persian architect, Humayun’s Tomb was the first garden tomb on the
Indian subcontinent and the first structure to use red sandstone on such a large scale. It is also the
first Indian building to use the Persian double dome , with an outer layer supporting a white
marble exterior—a material not seen in earlier Mughal architecture—and the inner layer giving
shape to the cavernous interior volume . The use of indigenous Rajasthani decorative elements is
particularly striking, including the small canopies or chhatris (elevated, dome shaped pavilions)
surrounding the central dome. It boasts the use of the pietra dura technique, with marble and
even stone inlay ornamentation in geometrical and arabesque patterns on the facade of the
mausoleum, and jali or latticed stone carving decoration. This style of decorative facade was an
important addition to Mughal architecture and flourished in later Mughal mausolea, including the
Taj Mahal.
Architecture Under Jahangir
Under the rule of Jahangir (1605—1627), Mughal architecture became more Persian than Indian.
Jahangir’s great mosque at Lahore is a good example of the Persian style and is covered with
enameled tiles. At Agra, the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, completed in 1628, was built entirely of
white marble and decorated in elaborate pietra dura mosaic , an inlay technique of using cut and
fitted, highly polished colored stones to create images.
Architecture Under Shah Jahan
The vision of Shah Jahan (1628—1658) introduced a delicate elegance and detail to Mughal
architecture, illustrated in the Jama Masjid in Delhi, the Moti Masjid situated within the Agra
Fort, and the Sheesh Mahal in the Lahore Fort, which makes spectacular use of pietra dura and
complex mirror work. Shah Jahan’s most famous achievement, however, is indisputably the Taj
Mahal.
The Taj Mahal
Located in Agra, the Taj Mahal is a white marble mausoleum built between 1632 and 1648 by
Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Constructed by 20,000 men, it
represents the Islamic garden of paradise and is widely regarded as the greatest achievement in
Mughal architecture.
The mausoleum rests in the middle of a large square plinth and has four almost identical facades,
each with a large arch-shaped doorway. It is topped by a large double dome and a finial ,
combining both the traditional Islamic motif of the crescent moon and the Hindu symbol of the
trident, associated with the god Shiva. The central dome is adorned with a lotus design and is
surrounded by four smaller chhatris, each of which also has the same lotus motif. Four tall
minarets extend from the corners of the plinth.
The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal include calligraphy , abstract forms , verses from the
Koran, and vegetable motifs, executed in paint, stucco , carvings, and pietra dura work. The
interior decorations also feature inlay work of precious and semi-precious gemstones. Muslim
tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves, and the bodies of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz
Mahal are interred in a plain crypt underneath the mausoleum. However, the inner tomb features
two cenotaphs, or false tombs, that are richly decorated with inlays of semi-precious stones
forming vines and flowers and surrounded by jali screens, or latticed screens with ornamental
patterns constructed through the use of calligraphy and geometry.
Aurangzeb and Later Mughal Architecture
During Aurangzeb’s reign (1658–1707), brick and rubble with stucco ornamentation replaced
squared stone and marble as the building materials of choice. Aurangzeb was responsible for
additions to the Lahore Fort: building one of the 13 gates, which was named for him, and
building the Badshahi mosque, a structure constructed from brick with red sandstone facades. In
general, however, Mughal architecture had begun to decline during Aurangzeb’s reign, a process
that would accelerate after his death.
Painting of the Mughal Period
Mughal miniature painting was a blend of Persian and Indian styles that developed in Mughal
courts between the 16th and 19th centuries.
Mughal painting is a style of South Asian miniature painting that developed in the courts of the
Mughal Emperors between the 16th and 19th centuries. It emerged from the Persian miniature
painting tradition with additional Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain influences. Mughal painting usually
took the form of book illustrations or single sheets preserved in albums. There are four periods
commonly associate with Mughal art, each named for the emperor under whom the art form
developed: the Akbar Period, the Jahangir Period, the Shah Jahan Period, and the Aurangzeb
Period.
Origins
Mughal painting was an amalgam of Ilkhanate Persian and Indian techniques and ideas. Under
the Delhi Sultanate, the early 16th century had been a period of artistic inventiveness during
which a previously formal and abstract style had begun to make way for a more vigorous and
human mode of expression. After Mughal victory over the Delhi Sultanate in 1526, the tradition
of miniature painting in India further abandoned the high abstraction of the Persian style and
began to adopt a more realistic style of portraiture and of drawing plants and animals.
The Akbar Period (1556–1605)
It was under the reign of Akbar the Great (1556–1605) that Mughal painting came into its own.
Trained in painting in his youth by the Persian master ‘Abd al-Samad, Akbar was responsible for
setting up the first atelier of court painters, which he staffed with artists from all parts of India
whose work he took a keen interest in. This atelier was chiefly responsible for illustrating books
on a variety of subjects: histories, romances, poetry, legends, and fables of both Persian and
Indian origin.
One of the greatest achievements of Mughal painting under Akbar may be found in the
stupendously illustrated Hamzanama or Dastan-e-Amir Hamza, a narration of the legendary
exploits of Amir Hamza, the uncle of Muhammad . The size of this manuscript was
unprecedented: spanning 14 volumes , it originally contained 1400 illustrations of an unusually
large size (approx. 25″ x 16″). Only about 200 of these original illustrations survive today. It
took 14 years (1562–1577) and over a hundred men to complete. The paintings mark a
significant departure from the Persian style in their bent towards naturalism , vigorous portrayal
of movement and emotion, and bold color. Each form is individually modeled, and the figures
are interrelated in closely unified compositions . Depth is indicated by a preference for diagonals.
Methods and Techniques Under Akbar
The methods most commonly used by Mughal painters were first developed in Akbar’s great
atelier. Illustrations were usually executed by groups of painters, including a colorist (who was
responsible for the actual painting) and specialists in portraiture and the mixing of colors.
Leading this group was the designer, an artist of the highest caliber, who formulated the
composition and sketched the outline into the spaces in the manuscripts designated by the
calligraphers for illustration. A thin wash of white was then applied, through which the outline
remained visible. The colors were then applied in several thin layers and rubbed down with an
agate burnisher to produce a glowing, enamel-like finish. The colors used were mostly mineral
and sometimes vegetable dyes, and the fine brushes were made from squirrel’s tail or camel hair.
The Jahangir Period (1605–1627)
Like his father Akbar, the emperor Jahangir showed a keen interest in painting and maintained
his own atelier. The tradition of illustrating books assumed secondary importance to portraiture
during Jahangir’s reign because of the emperor’s own preference for portraits. Among the finest
works of his reign are elaborate court scenes depicting him surrounded by his courtiers. These
are large scale exercises in portraiture, and the likeness of each figure is produced faithfully. The
composition lacks the vigor, movement, and vivid color characterized by the works of Akbar’s
reign; the figures are more formally ordered, the colors soft and harmonious, and the brushwork
particularly fine. Mughal paintings during Jahangir’s reign also boast magnificent floral and
geometric borders.
European Influence
Jahangir was also deeply influenced by European painting, having come into contact with the
English crown and received gifts of oil paintings from England. He encouraged his atelier to
emulate the single point perspective favored by European painters, unlike the flattened, multi-
layered style traditionally used in miniature painting. These influences are evident in the
illustrations of the Jahangirnama, a biographical account of Jahangir’s own life. In addition to
portraits, many works included plant and animal studies and became part of lavishly finished
albums. Most illuminated manuscripts were created by a single painter.
The Shah Jahan Period (1628–1658)
While the artistic focus of the Mughal court shifted primarily to architecture under Shah Jahan,
painting continued to flourish. The style became notably more rigid, and portraits resembled
abstract effigies . Paintings of this period were particularly opulent, as the colors used became
jewel-like in their brilliance. Popular themes included musical parties, lovers in terraces and
gardens—sometimes locked in intimate embraces—and ascetics and holy men.
The Aurangzeb and Late Mughal Period (1658–1809)
The emperor Aurangzeb (1658–1707) did not encourage Mughal painting, and only a few
portraits survive from his court. Most of these were accomplished in the cold, abstract style of
Shah Jahan. While the art form had gathered sufficient momentum to invite patronage in other
courts—Muslim, Hindu, and Sikh alike—the absence of strong imperial backing ushered in a
decline of the art form. A brief revival occurred during the reign of Muhammad Shah (1719–
1748), who was passionately devoted to the arts, but this was only temporary. Mughal painting
essentially came to an end during the reign of Shah Alam II (1759–1806), and the artists of his
disintegrated court contented themselves with copying masterpieces of the past.
Rajput Painting of the Mughal Period
Rajput miniature painting developed in the courts of the Hindu Rajputs between the 16th and
19th centuries.
The Rajputs are members of patrilineal clans in western, central, and northern India who rose to
prominence between the 6th and 12th centuries. From the beginning of the 9th century, these
Rajput dynasties dominated many parts of northern India, and they established the overwhelming
majority of Hindu princely states in Rajasthan and Surashtra in northwestern India, which they
ruled until the 20th century. Some important dynasties include the Chauhan Dynasty of Ajmer
and Delhi (956–1192); the Solanki Dynasty of present day Gujarat (945–1297); and the
Chandela Dynasty of the Bundelkhand Region of central India (10th to 13th centuries). During
the period of Islamic invasions (11th through 16th centuries), the Rajput kingdoms proved to be
the primary obstacle to the complete Muslim conquest of Hindu India.
Rajput and Mughal Relations
Under the Mughal emperor Akbar’s reign (1556–1605 CE), the Rajputs accepted Mughal
authority in exchange for religious accommodation and were admitted into the emperor’s court.
Many Rajputs assumed positions in Akbar’s government and army or formed marital alliances
with him. Mughal-Rajput relations suffered, however, under the reign of the Mughal emperor
Aurangzeb (1658–1707), who did not pursue the policy of religious accommodation of his
predecessors.
Through their many centuries of rule in northern India, the Rajputs built spectacular temples,
forts, and palaces and were eager patrons of painting. Rajput and Mughal art and architecture
were also important influences on one another once the two powers came into contact.
Rajput Painting
Rajput painting is the style of Indian miniature painting associated with the royal courts of the
Rajputs between the 16th and the 19th centuries. It flowed primarily from the indigenous
Western Indian style of manuscript illustration that had flourished in the 14th and 15th centuries,
but it was also greatly influenced by Mughal painting. Rajput painting usually took the form of
miniatures in manuscripts or on single sheets kept in albums, although examples of this style can
also be found on the walls of Rajput palaces, forts, or havelis (mansions). Early Rajput painting
was almost exclusively devoted to the life and deeds of Krishna, the Hindu cowherd god. Other
popular themes included scenes from Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata;
pictorial representations of the ragamala (musical modes); women, lovers, and romance;
portraits; and court and hunting scenes.
The colors used in Rajput painting were extracted from minerals, plant sources, conch shells,
beetle wings, and sometimes even precious stones. Gold and silver were also used. The
preparation of these colors was a lengthy process that could take weeks to accomplish. The
brushes used were very fine, in keeping with the requirements of fine miniature painting.
Styles of Painting
Rajput painting can be divided into two styles: the Rajasthani style, associated with the Rajput
courts in Rajasthan, and the Pahari style, associated with the Rajput courts of the Himalayan
foothills.
The Rajasthani Style
Emerging in the last decades of the 16th century, Rajasthani art is usually divided into four major
schools, each centered on different courts and based on differences in artistic style. These four
schools are the Mewar school, the Marwar school, the Hadoti school, and the Dhundar school.
 The Mewar school is associated with the courts of Chavand, Nathwara, Devgarh,
Udaipur, and Sawar and is characterized by simplicity and vivid colors. It produced a
large number of devotional paintings for the pilgrim trade.
 The Marwar school is associated with the courts of Kishangarh, Bikaner, Jodhpur,
Nagaur, Pali, and Ghanerao courts. It is best known for its fine miniature portraits from
the second half of the 17th century and a large body of highly stylized and colorful
painting from the 19th century.
 The Hadoti school is associated with the courts of Kota, Bundi, and Jhalawar and is
remarkable for its vivid portrayal of movement, strength, and vitality , best seen in
depictions of hunting and sports scenes.
 The Dhundar school is associated with the courts of Amber, Jaipur, Shekhawati, and
Uniara and is characterized by formal yet rich portraits, very large paintings of the deeds
of Krishna, and Western influences in the 19th century.
The Pahari Style
The Pahari style of miniature painting and book illustration developed in the independent states
of the Himalayan foothills between the 17th and 18th centuries and began to decline after 1800.
This style consists of two schools: the Basohli school and the Kangra school.
 The Basohli school flourished toward the end of the 17th century; it is best known for its
bold use of color, intense emotionality, stylized facial types shown in profile with
prominent eyes, and distinctive depictions of jewelry.
 The Kangra school emerged in the mid-18th century as the Basohli style began to fade
and is characterized by curving lines , calmer colors, and delicate lyricism.