Jones2002 PDF
Jones2002 PDF
Jones2002 PDF
To cite this article: S. Jones, C. Yuan & K. Lewis (2002) Organic fibre modified ceramic shell
moulding for investment casting, Materials Science and Technology, 18:12, 1565-1573, DOI:
10.1179/026708302225007772
Article views: 10
Investment casting research is being carried out by the University of Birmingham sponsored by the EPSRC and a
consortium of industrial companies. The programme is aimed at developing a fundamental understanding of the
process, with a view to routinely producing sound, net shape castings. The casting of liquid metals to produce solid
objects is a manufacturing process, which has been practised for over ® ve thousand years, with investment casting
being one of the oldest known metal shaping methods. The technique itself has tremendous advantages in the
production of quality components and key bene® ts of accuracy, versatility and integrity. As a result the process is
one of the most economic methods of forming a wide range of metal components. Environmental and economic
pressures have, however, resulted in a need for the industry to improve current casting quality, reduce manufacturing
costs and explore new markets for the process. Optimisation of the mechanical and physical properties of the
ceramic shell will be fundamental to achieving these aims. This paper reports on the work carried out to determine
the applicability of the use of ® bres as reinforcement media for investment shells and to explore methods by which
the use of organic ® bres can improve ceramic shell performance. MST/5425
The authors are in the IRC in Materials Processing, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
([email protected]). Manuscript received 11 February 2002; accepted 19 March 2002.
# 2002 IoM Communications Ltd. Published by Maney for the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016
DOI 10.1179/026708302225007772 Materials Science and Technology December 2002 Vol. 18 1565
1566 Jones et al. Organic ® bre modi® ed ceramic shell moulding for investment casting
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to view the
a b structure of ceramic mould sections and ® bre morphology.
The instruments used were a Jeol 840A SEM and an
2 Example of standard injected wax pattern and assem- ISI ± 100A SEM. Samples were mounted and gold coated
bly for investment casting before analysis.
the ceramic green strength and have a tendency to reduce ROOM TEMPERATURE FLAT BAR STRENGTH
the level of `wet-back’ of moisture into previously dried MEASUREMENT
coats when new layers are added.7 Strength measurements were carried out in accordance
Thus, a ceramic mould consists of individual layers of with BS 1902. Injected wax bars were used as formers for
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016
® ne refractory material and granular refractory material the ceramic shells according to speci® cations given in the
held together by a binder that has been set to a rigid gel. `organic ® bre speci® cation’ and `ceramic shell speci® cations’
Investment casting is a time consuming, labour intensive subsections above. After dipping the shells were steam
process producing complex, high value added components boilerclave dewaxed at 8 bar pressure for 4 min, followed
for a variety of specialised industries in a range of alloys. by a controlled depressurisation cycle at 1 bar min 1 . Test-
Currently the moulds take between 24 and 72 h to produce pieces, of approximately 20 680 mm, were cut using a
due to the need to use controlled moisture removal for grinding wheel and either tested green or ® red at 1000 °C for
water based colloidal gellation on every coat. Drying and 60 min prior to testing. For hot strength measurements,
strength development is the most signi® cant rate limiting ® red samples were tested at 800 °C, at a load application
factor in reduction of lead times and production costs for rate of 5 kg min 1 , in three point bend mode with an outer
the industry. Therefore, scienti® c development within the span of 80 mm.
industry is fuelled by the need towards reduction in pro-
duction times, improvement of shell performance for the
reduction of casting scrap rates and the reduction of metal ± ROOM TEMPERATURE EDGE STRENGTH
mould reaction to improve as cast component surfaces. MEASUREMENT
One recently patented method for reducing shell produc- The edge, or wedge test,9 was developed at The University
tion times and enhancement of ceramic mould properties of Birmingham in conjunction with Rolls Royce plc. The
in the autoclave during wax removal is the use of organic test is speci® cally designed as a quality control procedure to
® bre additions into ceramic slurries,8 thus negating the need determine the actual strength of the ceramic shell at the
for expensive liquid polymer additions. The ® bres, known most vulnerable edges where strength and shell build are
as WexPerm*, are organic and water insoluble. They are vital to prevent cracking. Edge testing was carried out in
therefore dispersed in the binder, as opposed to being accordance with procedures set out in Ref. 9 (see Fig. 3).
dissolved as in the case of water soluble polymers. The ® bres The wedge angle used was 29°. The load was applied at a
are available in a range of sizes and aspect ratios but are rate of 0.25 mm min 1 .
typically less than 3 mm in length. Fibre length and dia-
meter determines both the slurry behaviour and the ceramic PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENT
coating characteristics. Unlike the polymer additions, ® bres
do not create foam and the presence of bubbles in the slurry Impervious mullite rods of dia. 10 mm, to one end of which
is very low, normally zero. a 40 mm diameter table tennis ball has been attached, were
The ® bres have a range of unique properties, leading to used as formers for the ceramic shells according to speci® -
enhanced shell build and the possibility of using fewer coats cations given in the subsection above on `organic ® bre
for equivalent ceramic thickness and mechanical perfor- speci® cation’ (Fig. 4). After drying, the plastic balls were
mance. The following experimentation was designed to burnt out at 700 °C for 5 min at a heating rate of no more
determine the properties of ® bre modi® ed shell systems and than 3 K min 1 . Shell samples were then ® red at 1000 °C for
to compare them to equivalent polymer modi® ed shells, 60 min at a heating rate of 10 K min 1 . Testing was carried
thus allowing the advantages and disadvantages of the use out in accordance with BS 1902:Section 10. 2:1994, at a test
of such a system to be speci® ed for the investment industry. temperature of 800 °C and with a slight adjustment of the
It is important that any potential new material be capable of equation for dynamic viscosity of air.
performing as well as, if not better than current systems.
6 Higher magni® cation secondary electron SEM images of nylon ® bre additions
ture in the three point bend mode for the shell samples is
given in Table 5. The high green strength of Shell 1 is a
direct result of the polymer content, which is re¯ ected by
the reduction in strength as the sample is ® red at 1000 °C
and the polymer burns out. Surprisingly, ® bre reinforced
ceramic has a lower green strength than the polymer
modi® ed system (62% of the polymer strength) and an
equivalent ® red strength suggesting that the ® bre is not
in¯ uencing green strength in the manner of a standard
composite material.
In practice, however, moulds produced with ® bre addi-
tions are less susceptible to autoclave cracking8 suggesting a
higher green strength. Further detailed comparison of load
bearing capacity can be achieved using the adjusted fracture
load (AFL). 1 0 The AFL is de® ned as the load necessary
to break a normalised 10 mm wide testpiece across a 70 mm
span, thus allowing the actual thickness of the shell to 7 Image highlighting the shell thickness increase pro-
become a factor. Results are given in Table 6. It can be seen duced with organic ® bre modi® ed slurries
that the load bearing capacity of the polymer system is still
slightly higher when the moulds are un® red. When ® red, the
® bre modi® ed system has a higher load bearing capacity This suggests, as does the AFL that the ® bre modi® cation
even though both polymer and organic ® bre will have burnt should have adequate mechanical properties in the green
off at these temperatures. The AFL suggests that the ® bre state to withstand the mechanical demands of wax removal.
system will produce a ceramic shell with very little difference Figure 10 shows the stress ± strain results for the ® red
in three point bend strength from the polymer modi® ed polymer modi® ed Shell 1 specimens, tested at room tem-
system making it a viable alternative. perature. The average stress to failure is approximately
4 MPa and the average strain at failure is approximately
2 .25 610 3 . Figure 11 shows the equivalent test results for
FLAT BAR ROOM TEMPERATURE
STRESS ± STRAIN Table 5 Strength results for shell samples
Figure 8 shows the stress ± strain results for the un® red
Shell Modulus of St.
polymer modi® ed Shell 1 specimens tested at room sample Status rupture, MPa dev. r
temperature. The average stress to failure is approximately
8 MPa and the average strain at failure is approximately Shell 1 Green 7.8 0. 7
2 610 3 . Figure 9 shows the equivalent test results for the Shell 1 Fired* 4.8 0. 3
® bre modi® ed system (Shell 2), giving an average stress to Shell 2 Green 4.7 0. 4
Shell 2 Fired* 4.7 0. 5
failure of approximately 5 MPa and an average strain to
failure of 1 .5 610 3 . Though the maximum green strength
* Fired at 1000°C for 60 min.
of the ® bre system in ¯ at bar testing is lower, the actual
strain accommodated by the system is only slightly less.
Table 6 Adjusted fracture load strength for shell samples
Table 8 Comparison of AFL edge strength results for using linear regression. The results are tabulated in Table 9.
shell system In the un® red state, the ® bre shell has a lower modulus
Shell Adjusted Standard
and therefore will be softer and more likely to deform. This
sample Status fracture load, N deviation, N reduced stiffness may be preventing elastic cracking during
dewax and allowing the ® bre shell to deform slightly with-
Shell 1 Green 1. 7 0.3 out failure. Unlike the polymer shell, the ® bre shell does
Shell 1 Fired* 1. 4 0.2 not reduce its modulus during the ® ring cycle. Again,
Shell 2 Green 2. 8 0.6
Shell 2 Fired* 2. 6 0.6
this may be advantageous in the casting cycle where high
metal weights require a strong shell, which should undergo
* Fired at 1000°C for 60 min. minimum deformation while the metal is still liquid. The
higher modulus may also result in a stiffer shell, which is
easier to remove after casting.
generated by friction in the slurry. Reduced drain times
lead to increased slurry coat thickness, which in turn allows
the pick up and retention of extra stucco grains.
The normalised AFL results for the edge strength are FLAT BAR HIGH TEMPERATURE (800°C)
given in Table 8. These results show clearly that the load STRENGTH
bearing capacity of the ® bre-modi® ed shells is much higher The strength at 800 °C for the polymer modi® ed shell is
on the vulnerable edges where the majority of autoclave tabulated in Table 10. The average strength at 800 °C is
cracking takes place. In the green state the shells have a 65% 2 .8 MPa, which is 58% of the ® red strength at room tem-
higher load bearing capacity. In the ® red state, the strength perature. As before, the AFL normalises the data, giving
increase is equivalent to 86% higher than the polymer a load bearing capacity for this shell system of 5 .4 N at
system. Thus, due to the increased shell build on the edges 800 °C. The strength at 800 °C for the ® bre modi® ed shell is
of components, the ® bre systems have a much higher load tabulated in Table 11. The average at 800 °C is 2 .0 MPa,
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016
bearing capacity in both the green and ® red states. The which is 43% of the ® red strength at room temperature. As
increase is suf® cient for the shells to be produced with fewer before, the AFL normalises the data, giving a load bearing
coats and still maintain an equivalent, if not superior, capacity for this shell system of 6 .2 N at 800 °C.
strength and performance in both the green and ® red states. The hot strengths for both shell systems are approxi-
mately equivalent when measured using standard ¯ at bar test
methods, suggesting no difference in mechanical properties
APPARENT YOUNGS MODULUS E during the casting cycle. The AFL for the ® bre modi® ed
As the stress ± strain results exhibit elastic behaviour for the shell is slightly higher, giving a slightly higher load bearing
shell systems, taking only the straight line elastic portion of capacity for the ® red shell. Therefore, it will be possible to
the plots into account, it is possible to calculate an apparent reduce the number of coats applied to ® bre-modi® ed shells
Young’s modulus (measure of the stiffness of a material) and still maintain an equivalent hot strength.
Table 10 Flat bar strength at 800°C for the polymer modi® ed Shell 1
Sample Status, °C Thickness, m Width, m Max. load, N MOR, MPa psi AFL, N
Table 11 Flat bar strength at 800°C for the ® bre modi® ed Shell 2
Sample Status, °C Thickness, m Width, m Max. load, N MOR, MPa psi AFL, f~0.1
FLAT BAR HIGH TEMPERATURE (800°C) casting cycle. The slightly higher standard deviation does,
STRESS ± STRAIN however, suggest that the use of ® bres produces a slightly
more inconsistent shell structure. These results suggest that
Figure 12 shows the stress ± strain results for the polymer the ® bre system will produce a ceramic shell with greatly
modi® ed Shell 1 specimens (® red) tested at 800 °C. The increased ® red permeability from the polymer modi® ed
average stress to failure is approximately 2 .8 MPa and the system making it a enhanced alternative.
average strain at failure is approximately 0. 18%. Figure 13
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016
Table 12 Permeability results at 800°C for shell samples (® red at 1000°C for 60 min prior to testing)
Shell Number Temperature, Test duration, Permeability, Standard deviation,
sample of samples °C min m2 610 1 3 m2 610 1 3
14 Secondary electron SEM image of green fracture sur- higher, ® bres giving an increase of 50% of that of the
face of ® bre modi® ed ceramic Shell 2 showing ® bre polymer edge thickness. This is much higher than the 15%
pull-out from opposing surface thickness increase exhibited on ¯ at specimens. The slurry
and stucco retention due to the presence of ® bres is easily
aims. Production of the mould is time consuming, currently noted during the dipping process. Fibre modi® ed slurries
taking between 24 and 72 h depending upon the compo- have a much reduced drain time, possibly due to ® bre align-
nent, due to the need to use controlled moisture removal. ment or electrostatic forces generated by friction in the
Drying and strength development are the most signi® cant slurry. Reduced drain times lead to increased slurry coat
rate limiting factors in the reduction of lead times and thickness, which in turn allows the pick up and retention of
production costs for the industry. extra stucco grains.
The recently patented method of incorporating organic The normalised AFL results show clearly that the load
® bres into the binder to improve performance and reduce bearing capacity of the ® bre modi® ed shells is much higher
shell production times is proving successful in foundry trials. on the vulnerable edges where the majority of autoclave
The most common ® bre additions are nylon with a diameter cracking takes place. In the green state the shells have a 65%
of 20 mm and a length of 1 mm, giving an aspect ratio of higher load bearing capacity. In the ® red state, the strength
50 6. These ® bres are designed to act as a composite rein- increase is equivalent to 86% higher than the polymer
forcing agent, increasing green strength to prevent cracking system. Thus, due to the increased shell build on the edges
during autoclave wax removal and burning out during ® ring of components, the ® bre systems have a much higher load
to leave increased porosity within the ceramic structure. bearing capacity in both the green and ® red states. The
The use of ® bres increases the shell thickness by a factor increase is suf® cient for the shells to be produced with fewer
of 15% over that of a comparable system using a latex coats and still maintain an equivalent, if not superior,
modi® ed binder. This equates to the ability to reduce the strength and performance both green and ® red.
number of coats applied to the wax, which has signi® cant The hot strength for both shell systems is approxi-
production time and material cost implications for foun- mately equivalent when measured using standard ¯ at bar
dries. A comparison of strengths at room temperature, test methods, suggesting no difference in mechanical proper-
measured in three point bend mode, suggests that the ® bre ties during the casting cycle. The AFL for the ® bre modi® ed
addition produces a shell system with a slightly lower load shell is slightly higher, giving a slightly higher load bearing
bearing capacity in the green state but still high enough to capacity for the ® red shell. Therefore, it will be possible to
make the shell a viable alternative. reduce the number of coats applied to shells and still maintain
The apparent loss of green strength, a factor which is not an equivalent hot strength. The strengths of the two systems
seen in industrial practice, may be a result of the test system are approximately equivalent at casting temperatures. How-
chosen as most autoclave cracking occurs on the edges ever, the strain accommodated by the ® bre modi® ed shell is
of components where shell build is an important factor. 0 .1% higher at casting temperatures suggesting that the shell
Another factor responsible for this may be the smooth nature would be less likely to fail during the casting process.
of the nylon ® bre surface, appearing to result in very easy Another signi® cant advantage of the ® bre additions
® bre pull-out from the ceramic matrix. With little resistance appears to be the increased porosity and ultimately per-
there will be little extra energy expended for fracture and the meability of the ceramic shell after ® ring. The addition of
shell will remain weak. Though the maximum green strength ® bre increases the permeability at casting temperatures by a
of the ® bre system in ¯ at bar testing is lower, the actual strain factor of 3, which will be an enormous bene® t when reducing
accommodated by the system is only slightly less. This defects associated with air entrapment. The permeability is
suggests, as does the AFL, that the ® bre modi® cation will unaffected by time at temperature and remains consistent
have adequate mechanical properties in the green state. throughout the test. This is of great bene® t to the casting
The edge, or wedge test,9 was developed at The Univer- process, allowing increased transport of air displaced from
sity of Birmingham in conjunction with Rolls-Royce plc. the mould cavity and providing a consistent data input
The test is speci® cally designed as a quality control proce- for computer simulations of the casting cycle. These results
dure to determine the actual strength of the ceramic shell suggest that the ® bre system will produce a ceramic shell
at the most vulnerable edges where strength and shell build with greatly increased ® red permeability from the polymer
are vital to prevent cracking. In terms of edge strength, modi® ed system making it a enhanced alternative.
Further work willbe needed to quantify the completebene® ts 2. p. r. taylor: Proc. 17th Annual BICTA Conf., September
of this development in shell technology but all the initial results 1983; 1983, Birmingham, BICTA.
are suggesting that the use of organic ® bre reinforcement will 3. e. l. kotzin: `Metalcasting and molding processes’ ; 1981, Des
Plaines, IL, American Foundrymen s Society.
have enormous time, cost, and weight saving implications for
4. s. o. barnett: Foundry Trade J. Int., 1988, 11, (3), 33 ± 37.
the standard investment casting foundry. 5. s. jones and p.m. marquis: Br. Ceram. Trans., 1995, 94, 68 ± 73.
6. s. jones: `Improved sol based ceramic moulds for use in invest-
ment casting’ , PhD thesis, The University of Birmingham, UK,
Acknowledgements May 1993.
7. s. jones and s. p. leyland: Proc. 22nd BICTA Tech. Conf.
on `Investment casting’ , Bath, UK, September 1995; 1995,
The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge the ® nancial Birmingham, BICTA.
support of the EPSRC through the grant GR/M60101 8. d. duffey: Proc. 25th BICTA Conference, Cheltenham, UK,
(FOCAST) and the industrial partners of this project June 2001; 2001, Birmingham, BICTA.
(irc.bham.ac.uk/epsrc/focast/Who_we_are.html). 9. r. hyde, p. withey, and s. p. leyland: in Proc. 9th World
Conference on `Investment casting’ , San Francisco, USA, Sept
1996; 1996, Dallas, TX, Investment Casting Institute.
10. j. vandermeer: Proc. 10th World Conf. on `Investment
References casting’ , Monte Carlo, Monaco, May 2000, Paper 3.
11. s. p. leyland, r. hyde, and p. a. withey: Precast 95, Proc. 8th
1. p. r. beeley and r. f. smart: `Investment casting’ , 1st edn; 1995, Int. Symp. on `Investment casting’ , Brno, Czech Republic, May
London, The Institute of Materials. 1995.
Downloaded by [McMaster University] at 13:24 06 April 2016