PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE DATA

CONTENTS
• INTRODUCTION
• WHAT IS QUALITATIVE DATA
• QUALITATIVE DATA vs QUANTITATIVE DATA
• DATA COLLECTION
• METHODS FOR PRESENTATION OF QUALITATIVE DATA
• CONCLUSION
• REFERENCES
STEPS IN RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Question

Hypothesis

Research Design

Collection of Data

Presentation of data

Analysis of Data

Interpretation of Data

INTRODUCTION
• Data consists of discrete observations of attributes or events that carry little meaning
when considered alone.
• DATA - A measured or counted fact or piece of information stated as figure.
• Any information which is presented in numerical form are called data.
• Data collected may be for profile or prospective studies at local, state, national or
international level.
• They are analyzed to assess changes in health or disease situations in the community or
population by Standard parameters.
• Two kinds of numbers are obtained – MEASURE / COUNTED

Measurement: Count:
(Numbers that result (numbers that result from
from taking) the process of counting)

QUALITATIVE DATA
 • In qualitative data there is no notion of magnitude or size of the characteristic or attribute
as the same cannot be measured. eg- Ethnic group , Sex, Religion
• They are classified by counting the individuals having the same characteristic of attribute
and not by measurement.
• When the data is collected on the basis of attributes or qualities like sex, malocclusion
etc., it is called Qualitative data
• When the data is collected through measurements using calipers, like arch length, arch
width, fluoride concentration in water supply etc., it is called as Quantitative data
(Discrete ,Continuous)
• Persons with the same characteristic are counted to form specific groups or classes such
as attacked, collapsed, died, cured, and relieved.
• Qualitative data are discrete in nature such as numbers of deaths in different years,
population of different towns, persons with different blood groups in a population, and so
on.
QUALITATIVE DATA vs QUANTITATIVE DATA
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Not capable of measurement , can be

Measured in the usual sense
counted

Convey Information by magnitude or amount Convey attributes or characteristic

Both the characteristic and frequency obtained Discrete

Measure Interval and ratio scale Measured Nominal and Ordinal scale

Eg – Height, weight, Arch length, Arch width, Eg – Severity of disease , Sex, Religion,
Fluoride concentration in water supply Skin color, malocclusion.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Objective – To gain a detailed understanding of underlying reasons, belief, motivations.
• Purpose – To understand Why? , How ?
• Data – Data are words (Called textual data)
• Study population – Small number of participants or interviewees, selected purposively
(Non randomly)
• Data collection – In depth Interviews , Observation and Group discussions
• Analysis – Analysis is Interpretive
• Outcome - To develop an initial understanding ,to identify and explain behavior and
beliefs and actions
SOURCES OF DATA
• ROUTINE RECORDS
Hospital records
Registers
Administrative offices
• SURVEYS
Information from people
Used when data not available from records
Field survey by trained team
Administration of Survey
• Health interview survey (Face to face)
• Health examination survey
• Health records survey
• Mailed questionnaire survey
• EXPERIMENTS
Certain data obtained by results of experiment
Its performed in Laboratories or Experimental trial in a community
• EXTERNAL SOURCES
Published Reports
Data Banks
Research of Literature
 For Qualitative Studies
• In qualitative data collection Strategies it include,

Focus Groups

Case Studies

Observations

In-depth Interviews

• In- depth Interviews

It is a One to One method of data collection that involves an interviewer and an
interviewee discussing specific topics in depth.
Using Semi-structured interview guide to prompt data collection
Asking question in an open and Empathic way
Motivating the Interviewee to tell their story by probing

Strengths Limitations

Information on people’s experiences, Life

No feedback from others
story, feelings

Need skills to improve Rapport, use

Useful for sensitive topics
motivational probes

Get Contextual information Lot of Transcription is needed

CASE STUDIES
• Complete and careful observation of a community, social unit or life event.
• Better understanding of behavior pattern, cause and effect and to formulate hypothesis
• In depth analysis of limited number of variables and their relationship are carried out.

FOCUS GROUP
 • A group interview of approx 6 to 8 preselected participants led by a trained moderator
people who share common interest.
• Last about 60 -90min
• Facilitator guides the group based on a predetermined set of topics
• Key characteristic - Focus on a specific issues, with a predetermined Group of people ,
conducting an interactive Discussion.
Some advantages of Focus group of data collection,
• Replicate social interaction ,Naturalistic setting.
• The group dynamic can provide useful information that individual data collection might
not.
• Is useful in gaining insight into a topic
• Suitable for group activities and mixed method of research.
OBSERVATION
Observation is a research method that enables researchers to systematically observe and record
people’s behaviour ,action and interactions.
• Participant observation
• Non participant observation
• Observation with visual aids
• Walk through the spaces
• Subjective bias is eliminated
• Relates to what is currently happening
• Independent of respondents’ willingness to respond
TYPES OF DATA

Based on Source Based on Characteristics Based on Content

Primary Data Qualitative data Nominal
Secondary Data Quantitative data Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

MEASUREMENTS SCALES
It introduced by Stevens,
• NOMINAL
Naming or classifying or Identification of observations in various categories
Data that falls into two groups is called dichotomous data
 Eg - Sex (F, M) and blood type (type A, type B, type AB, type O) are examples of
nominal measurement scale ,Type of filling material in root canal (guttapercha, calcium
hydroxide, eugenol, silver, . . . )
• ORDINAL
Observations are ranked according to some criterion. Ascending or Descending order.
But the Interval between is not defined and not necessarily to be equal and not quantified.
Eg - Loe-Silness gingival index, Tooth mobility, Disease state of a cancer (stage 1, stage
2
EXAMPLES
Ordinal: if the groups / categories have an natural order
 Pain (mild/moderate/severe)
 Socio-economic status ( Low / Middle / High)
 Likert scale / visual analogue scale
Nominal: if the groups / categories have no such order
 Blood group (O, A, B, AB)
 Religious affiliation (Muslim/Hindu/Christian/Sikhs)
 Gender (Male/ Female)

METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION

• TEXTUAL PRESENTATION
• TABULAR – Simple Table
Complex Table
Frequency distribution table
• CHARTS / DIAGRAMS– Bar Chart
Pictogram
Pie chart
Map diagram
TEXTUAL PRESENTATION
• All the data are presented in the form of texts, phrases or paragraphs.
• It involves enumerating important characteristics, emphasizing significant figures and
identifying important features of data.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
• In qualitative data , there is no notion of magnitude or size of attribute , hence the
presentation of frequency distribution is very simple because the characteristic is not
variable but discrete
• Frequency distribution is a process of organizing data in table form by class and
frequency.
• Number of groups is known as class intervals.
• Number of observation in each group is frequency.
• Class intervals should not be too many or too less. It may be preferably between 5 to 20.
• The class intervals should be at equal width.
• The class limits should be clearly defined to avoid ambiguity.
For e.g. 0-4 ,5-9 , 10-14.
Range
Width of Intervals =
No . of class intervals
Range : Difference between the largest and smallest value in a set of observations.

CHARTS AND DIAGRAM

• Charts and diagrams are one of the most convincing and appealing ways of depicting
statistical results.
• Diagrams and Graphs very useful because ,they are attractive, Lasting Impression on the
mind of the Layman , it used to compare the data relating to different periods and regions.
• Every diagram must be given a title that is self explanatory
• It should be simple and consistent with the data
 • Usually , the values of the variables are presented on the horizontal or X axis and the
Frequency on the vertical line or Y axis.
BAR CHART
• A bar chart shows the relationship between two or more variables.
• The bars which represent the different groups are shaded, hatched or colored and are
always the same width.
• It is a way of presenting a set of numbers by length of bar. The width of the bars remains
the same and only length varies according to the frequency in each category.
• The bars can be either vertical and horizontal, the bars are separated by spaces and a
suitable scale must be chosen to present the length of the bars.
• Length of the bars, drawn vertical or Horizontal ,indicates the frequency of a character.
• Bar chart is a popular and easy method adopted for visual comparison of the magnitude
of different frequencies in discrete data, such as of morbidity , mortality , immunization
status of population in different ages, sexes , professions or places.
• Bars may be drawn in ascending or descending order of magnitude or in the serial order
of events.
• Spacing between two bars should be nearly equal to half of the bar width
• Bar chart can be distinguished from the histogram by the presence of scale breaks or
gaps between its columns or bars (a frequency histogram has no scale breaks or gaps
along its horizontal axis).
Bar chart
• Simple bar chart
• Multiple bar chart
• Component bar chart / Proportional bar chart
SIMPLE BAR
• It represents only one variable.
• Length corresponds to frequency.
• Width same for qualitative data
• Width as width of class interval for quantitative data.
MULTIPLE BAR
• Its is similar to simple bar, except that for each category of the variable there are a set of
bars of the same width corresponding to the different sections without any gap in
between.
• Compare qualitative data with respect to single variable.
• Separate bars for sub classification of data.
• Same width without any gaps.
OPD AT CENTRES

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2 male
1.5 female
1
0.5
0
PHC sub tertiary
centre centre
Dental fluorosis survey

PROPORTIONAL BAR
• The individual bars are divided into two or more parts. This diagram is used to compare
the subgroups between different major groups of observations.
• Compare proportions of sub groups between major groups of observations.
• Equal height and divided in subgroups proportions
• Each bar represents 100% as their height
Area wise prevalence of caries
100%
80%
60% Series 3
40% Series 2
Series 1
20%
0%
1994 1995 1996 1997
COMPONENT BAR
• Represent both the number of cases in major groups and subgroups simultaneously.
14
12
10
8 Series 3
6 Series 2
Series 1
4
2
0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

Prevalence of Caries based on age / Gender

CENSUS DATA

PIE DIAGRAM
• These or so called because the entire graph looks like a pie and its components represents
slices cut from a pie.
• Area of segment of a circle are compared.
• Circle divided into different sectors corresponding to frequencies of variable
distribution.
• Total angle 360 degrees and represent total frequency.
• It gives comparative difference at a glance. Size of each angle is calculated by
multiplying the class percentage with 3.6.
• A pie chart is used to display the frequency distribution of a qualitative variable
(whereas the histogram displays the frequency distribution of a quantitative variable).
• The relative frequency of each group or category is proportional to the number of degrees
or angle of the pie.
• Each sector therefore represents the proportion of the total number of observations that
belong to that particular category.
• Pie charts work best when a relatively small number of categories are used.
Class Frequency
• 360/100 or × 360
Total observation
GATS -2 data 2016-2017
Disadvantage of Pie chart
• No exact numerical data
• Other category can be a problem
• Only used with discrete data

PICTOGRAM
• Method used to represent to lay man.
• Small pictures or symbols are used for presenting data
• Its popular method to impress the frequency of the occurrence events to common man
such as attacks, deaths, number, operated, admitted, discharged, accidents in a
population.
PICTOGRAM OF HIV
CARTOGRAM / SPOT MAP/ SHADED MAP DIAGRAM
• These maps are prepared to show geographical distribution of frequencies of a
characteristic.
• Refers to geographic or administrative areas.
• Shaded or dot maps.
MAP DIAGRAM

SHADED MAP
Spot map vs Shaded map

CONCLUSION
• In health sciences data may be collected either for research or for defining health status of
a population or for monitoring health activities. Data is obtained from various sources by
actual experiments or surveys or analysis of records. This helps for further research and
analysis.
REFERENCES
• Preventive and community dentistry, Soben Peter, 4 th edition, Arya medi publishing
house.
• Methods in biostatistics for medical students and reseach workers, B.K.Mahajan, 7
edition, Jaypee brothers medical publishers (P) Ltd.
• Textbook of preventive and social medicine, K.Park, 20 edition, M/s Banarsidas bhanot
publisher.
 • World health organization oral health surveys-Basic methods 5th edition,Geneva, World
Health Organisation 2013
• Research methodology methods and techniques, C.R.Kothari, second edition, New age
international publishers.
• Qualitative Research methods , Monique Hennink Inge Hutter, SAGE publishers.
• Global Adult Tobacco Survey – 2 2016-2017 Case sheet record.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH CYCLE
DESIGN CYCLE
It is the first component of overall qualitative research cycle
It consist of four interlinked tasks,

Formulation of Research Question

Reviewing Research Literature

Incorporating theory

Developing Conceptual Framework for Study

ETHNOGRAPHIC CYCLE
• It closely linked to the design cycle.
Research Instrument

Recruiting Participants

Collecting Data / Inductive Inferences

ANALYTIC CYCLE

Developing Codes

Description and Comparison

Categorizing and Conceptualizing data

Theory Development