Studia Ekonomiczne.

Zeszyty Naukowe
Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Katowicach
ISSN 2083-8611 Nr 356 · 2018

Współczesne Finanse 13

Beata Zyznarska-Dworczak
Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Poznaniu
Wydział Zarządzania
Katedra Rachunkowości
[email protected]

ACCOUNTING THEORIES TOWARDS

NON-FINANCIAL REPORTING
Summary: Corporate sustainability is currently called “a mainstream business practice”,
which influences almost all fields of business life, including corporate reporting. The aim
of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of the non-financial reporting deve-
lopment. The analysis is carried out in the light of positive and normative accounting the-
ories. The research methodology of the paper, in the part related to the practical issue, is
based on an analysis of legal regulations, as well as practical studies and corporate reports.
The theoretical studies, in turn, use the literature review relating the accounting theories.
The conclusions are drawn by deductive and inductive reasoning, with the application
of analysis and synthesis. The paper contributes to the literature on corporate sustainability
reporting and sustainability accounting. Practical implications and avenues for future rese-
arch are also developed.

Keywords: sustainability, responsibility, non-financial reporting, accounting, theories.

JEL Classification: C33, C83, K21, L2, L11, M14, M41.

Introduction

Accounting is a social science and – at the same time – a practice of meas-

uring and presenting of business reality. This duality means that the accounting
theory is used in two areas. The first aim of the accounting theories is to formu-
late new concepts, methods and models, while the other is to help explain the
solutions used in practice. Consequently, the accounting theories may have nor-
mative, as well as positive nature. Both approaches can be used to explain the
development of corporate reporting, in particular its non-financial part. Thus, the
development of corporate sustainability reporting is determined by scientific
solutions, as well as needs demanded by practice.
158 Beata Zyznarska-Dworczak

Sustainability is becoming increasingly integrated into the corporate mind-

set, while sustainability reporting “is becoming a mainstream business practice”
[EY, 2014, p. 4]. This trend is the object of numerous studies and scientific pa-
pers, and it is viewed from the different perspectives of different theories, prin-
ciples and paradigms. The researchers agree that sustainability reporting set
a popular trend of the new century and it is being increasingly recognized as an
important factor contributing to corporate sustainability. However, its meaning
differs according to the field it is used in [Özsözgün Çalişkan, 2014, p. 247]. In
the accounting research, sustainability reporting designing the development of
non-financial reporting is mainly analyzed and evaluated in the context of sys-
temically-oriented theories, including legitimacy theory, stakeholder theory,
institutional theory, signaling theory and decision usefulness theory. All these
theories are used by the positive accounting theory to explain accounting prac-
tice. Moreover non-financial reporting can also be evaluated within the frame-
work of the normative accounting theory, which say “how it should be” or “how
it could be”. A synergy of the positive and normative approach in the accounting
theories enables a multidimensional analysis of the development of corporate
non-financial reporting.
The aim of this study is to contribute to the understanding of non-financial
reporting in the light of positive and normative accounting theories. This paper is
both of a practical and theoretical nature. The research methodology of the pa-
per, in the part related to the practical issue, is based on an analysis of legal regu-
lations, as well as practical studies and corporate reports. The theoretical studies,
in turn, use the literature review relating the accounting theories. The conclu-
sions are drawn by deductive and inductive reasoning, with the application of
analysis and synthesis. The paper answers the following research questions:
What are the main global directions in the development of corporate non-
financial reporting in the 21st century? What factors determining the develop-
ment non-financial reporting are identified by positive accounting theories? How
can normative accounting theories contribute to the non-financial reporting de-
velopment? Can the contradictory approach of positive and normative account-
ing theories be complementary? The study is to illustrate the role of accounting
in corporate non-financial reporting. The paper contributes to the literature on
corporate sustainability reporting and function of sustainability accounting. Prac-
tical implications and avenues for future research are also developed.
 Accounting theories towards non-financial reporting 159

1. Global directions in the development of corporate non-financial

reporting

Sustainability is a concept that has gained increased attention among social

and economic actors in recent years. Sustainability is a preferred approach for
almost all fields and issues of social and business life [Özsözgün Çalişkan, 2014,
p. 247]. A sustainability report is a balanced and reasonable representation of the
sustainability performance of the reporting organization, including both positive
and negative contributions [GRI, 2011, p. 43]. There are a number of trends,
from improvements and harmonization in reporting standards to a rapid growth
in mandatory reporting legislation, that are supporting the growth in sustainabil-
ity reporting [EY, 2014, p. 5]. Nowadays, the shape of the reports are adapted to
different standards, the most popular are the GRI guidelines, AA 1000 standards,
SA 8000 (Social Accountability) standards, principles of CERE (Coalition for
Environmentally Responsible Economics), OECD guidelines, Global Compact
principles, as well as ISO and EMAS standards of environmental management.
Non-financial reporting presents socio-environmental performance not only
in separate sustainability (or social, environmental) reports, but these results very
often are published together with financial statement, in annual report. This prac-
tice is in particular visible in large undertakings in European Union, which shall
include in the management report a non-financial statement. This statement should
contain information to the extent necessary for an understanding of the undertak-
ing’s development, performance, position and impact of its activity, relating to, as
a minimum, environmental, social and employee matters, respect for human
rights, anti-corruption and bribery matters [Directive 2014/95/EU…, 2014].
An integrated report is the most advanced presenting form of sustainability report-
ing, it enables an entity the connection between its financial results, its sustainabil-
ity strategy and performance on environmental, social and governance issues.
Once sustainability reporting has become standardized and it is used
in a more practical way. EY predicts that performance indicators on sustainabil-
ity will become as important for business as financial performance [EY, 2014,
p. 4]. The KPMG Survey of Corporate Responsibility Reporting 2015 indicated
the growing interest of companies in sustainability reporting [KPMG, 2015].
This survey covered reporting from 4 500 companies across 45 countries in 2011
and 2015 and revealed that the changes of sustainability reporting varies in dif-
ferent parts of the world. The share of companies issuing sustainability reports in
the researched group is following [KPMG, 2015, p. 31]:
160 Beata Zyznarska-Dworczak

– in Americas: in 2011 – 69%, in 2015 – 77%,

– in Middle East Africa: in 2011 – 61%, in 2015 – 53%,
– in Asia Pacific: in 2011 – 49%, in 2015 – 79 %,
– in Europe: in 2011 – 71%, in 2015 – 74%.
These studies also revealed that it is now standard practice to include sus-
tainability information in annual reports, and integrated reporting is the excep-
tion rather than the rule. Most (63%) of the world’s largest companies have their
data independently assured, however, analyzing all of the surveyed entities, the
level of independent assurance is lower – 42% [KPMG, 2015, p. 28, 40].
It means that despite the growing popularity of corporate sustainability report-
ing, there is still a risk of presenting unreliable non-financial information in un-
verified statements. The very nature of non-financial information as dominant
way of presenting socio-environmental performance in sustainability reports
increases this risk. Non-financial information is forward-looking and, conse-
quently, characterized by uncertainty, subjectivism and incomparability. It also
may cause the difficulty in setting the boundaries of completeness and under-
standability. There is also the risk of boiler-plate templates use, regardless of the
company environment.
The globally visible growth of the importance of corporate sustainability-
related reporting justifies the need of scientific research on its change trends, its
causes and reasons, and also its further development.

2. Non-financial reporting development from the perspective

of positive and normative accounting theories

Since the end of the 1990s corporate sustainability resulted in strong devel-
opment of non-financial reporting. Although, it has been the subject of substan-
tial academic accounting research for almost three decades, the literature does
not possess an overall coherence [Gray, Kouhy, Lavers, 1995, p. 47], but rather
heterogeneity [Fijałkowska, Zyznarska-Dworczak, Garsztka, 2018, p. 14]. Sev-
eral attempts have been made to map literature in the field of sustainability re-
porting, in particular its non-financial part [Burritt, Schaltegger, 2010, p. 831].
Sustainability accounting studies represent a positive approach (“what is?”), as
well as normative approach (“what ought to be?”) [Watts, Zimmerman, 1990],
and their sub-categories can help to understand development of non-financial
reporting. Positive and normative approach in accounting studies is shown in
table 1.
 Accounting theories towards non-financial reporting 161

Table 1. Positive and normative approach in sustainability accounting studies

I. Positive accounting theories
In general van der Laan, van Ees and van Witteloostuijn [2008], Hahn and Kühnen [2013]
Individual positive theories
O’Dwyer [2001], Deegan, [2002], Magness [2006], Nicholls [2010],
1. Legitimacy theory
Zyznarska-Dworczak [2015], Łada [2016]
Donaldson and Preston [1995], van der Laan,
2. Stakeholder theory
van Ees and van Witteloostuijn [2008]
3. Institutional theory Carpenter and Feroz [2001], Collin et al. [2009]
4. Signaling theory Wang Hogartaigh and van Zijl [2010], Birjandi and Hakemi [2015]
4. Decision usefulness theory Staubus [2000], Hitz [2007]
II. Normative theories used in accounting
In general Owen [2004], Hahn and Kühnen [2013], Rogowska [2015]
Individual theories
1. Ethical-normative accounting
Gaffikin [2006], van den Hoven [2010], Rogowska [2015]
theories
2. Pragmatic-normative
Thomas [2005], Nicholls [2010]
accounting theories
3. Conditional-normative
Mattessich [2002], Ewelt-Knauer [2014]
accounting theories
Source: Own research.

As shown in Table 1, accounting studies relating sustainability reporting

with the positive approach, apply to research mainly within systemically ori-
ented theories, including in particular:
– legitimacy theory,
– stakeholder theory,
– institutional theory,
– signaling theory,
– decision usefulness theory.
Positive, “descriptive” and “empirical” theories are frequently promoted as
being more realistic, factual and relevant than normative approaches [Tinker,
Merino, Neimark, 1982, p. 167]. Their purpose is to describe accounting prac-
tice. The legitimacy theory is one of the most researched accounting theories
[e.g. Deegan, 2002, p. 282-311; Deephouse, Suchman, 2008, p. 49-78]. It as-
sumes that companies operate under a “social contract” focused on winning so-
cial acceptance, and retaining it. The approach helps understand the need to de-
velop sustainability reporting by entity, which aims to justify the legality of its
corporate activity. The legitimacy explains why sustainability reporting is now
becoming a “moral” reporting obligation.
162 Beata Zyznarska-Dworczak

The legitimacy theory is strictly related to the stakeholder theory [cf. van
der Laan, van Ees, van Witteloostuijn, 2008; Donaldson, Preston, 1995, p. 80],
which is especially helpful for justifying and interpreting the determinants for
the sustainability non-financial reporting development. The stakeholder theory
explains the relation between the company and its external and internal stake-
holders. It clarifies why stakeholders’ information expectations imply a multidi-
mensional presentation of the economic, social and environmental potential de-
livered through sustainability reporting. Such implications may be interpreted in
three aspects of the stakeholder theory, as follows:
– descriptive aspect – this aspect is to assess the reporting behaviour of a com-
pany paying attention to the combination of competing interests of the com-
pany and its stakeholders;
– instrumental aspect – this aspect focuses on the achievement of organiza-
tional goals and their presentation through reporting;
– normative aspect – this aspect helps to assess compliance with standards and
rules based on moral principles assuming that stakeholders have a mandate to
influence the organization, and present their expectations which are of sig-
nificant value to the company. It also provides hints and guidelines, bringing
the stakeholder theory closer to the normative theory of accounting.
The analysis of the relationship between business entity and its stakeholders
may be expanded by an analysis of institutionalization of social structures,
which is being studied by the institutional theory. The institutional theory sug-
gests that organizations are influenced by their institutional contexts, which con-
sist of socially constructed norms, myths or rationales. These rules guide organ-
izational behavior and action [Meyer, Rowan, 1977]. Consequently, the theory
builds the awareness of a new institutional space [Collin et al., 2009, p. 141],
which in socially responsible companies evokes the need to refer to the eco-
nomic, environmental and social dimensions. The development of non-financial
reporting represents a shift from non-regulated methods of communicating per-
formance in the social and environmental areas to the ever more formalized
presentation formats.
Moreover, non-financial reporting reflects the need to remove information
asymmetry between internal stakeholders (mainly managers) and external ones.
Building the “information bridge” between stakeholders is the key assumption of
the signaling theory [Morris, 1987, p. 47-56]. The theory helps to perceive the
development of non-financial reporting as a way to assuage concerns about
managers abusing their information advantage [Gray, Kouhy, Lavers, 1995,
 Accounting theories towards non-financial reporting 163

p. 47-77]. The “information signal” coming from managers should be useful for
all participants in the model of social responsible company [Staubus, 2000]. This
principal assumption explains the scope of sustainability reporting.
Positive accounting theories, which draw mainly on empirical inductive
methods, enable the researchers to perceive and interpret the key factors of the
non-financial reporting development. Sustainability non-financial reporting,
in the light of positive accounting theories, is regarded as:
– response to the commonly occurring involvement of stakeholders in the cor-
porate activities, especially their interest in social corporate responsibility;
– instrument to present corporate sustainability performance, expected by vari-
ous stakeholders of the company;
– method to justify the company’s mandate to impact on its environment;
– a certificate of the company’s “moral maturity” of the company, attesting its
contribution to sustainable development;
– evidence of recognizing a new institutional aspect of the company’s activi-
ties, related to its contribution to sustainable development together with the
need to present its economic, environmental and social performance;
– “information signal” sent from managers to the recipients of corporate state-
ments in order to remove information asymmetry between stakeholders.
Consequently, positive accounting theories treat sustainability reporting as
the key tool for communicating the outcomes of the company’s social responsi-
bility policy. However, the theory of social corporate responsibility is included in
the group of normative accounting theories [Szychta, 2003, p. 126], since by
answering the question “what is the desired situation?”, it contains evaluative
standards. According to Hahn and Kühnen [2013, p. 5], “the initial starting point
for any considerations on sustainability reporting lies in the normative concepts
of sustainability”. After all, the objective of normative accounting theories is to
analyze how accounting should change in order to remain a normative point of
reference reflecting social and economic phenomena, as well as contributing to
the economic, social, and environmental value of companies.
Analyzing the development of non-financial reporting from the perspective
of normative accounting theories, it is worthwhile to take account of their types
[Szychta, 1996, p. 73], put forward by R. Mattessich [1992, p. 937]:
– ethical-normative theories (including the already mentioned ethical school
in the stakeholder theory);
– pragmatic-normative theories, including the already mentioned normative
isomorphism of theories;
– conditional-normative theories.
164 Beata Zyznarska-Dworczak

Ethical-normative accounting theories take account the moral and social

factors of reporting of the socio-environmental performance. Together with the
need of its verification, they impose the evaluating criterion of a company from
the view of its impact on the environment and the creation of honest relation-
ships. Whereas, pragmatic-normative accounting theories provide a general ref-
erence framework to evaluate and develop relevant practical solutions. They are
interpreted on the basis of normative isomorphism, which uses professionaliza-
tion processes to explain corporate activity resulting from a conservative organ-
izational culture, conservative approach of accountants, and the creation and
application of standards. An example of activity described in the pragmatic-
normative accounting frameworks is the development of new conceptual as-
sumptions by IASB and FASB [Krasodomska, 2013, p. 60].
The aim of conditional-normative theories, on the other hand, is to analyze
and demonstrate the relation between the goal of reporting, and the possible
ways to achieve it. It includes in particular the dependencies between the stake-
holder demand for information and possibilities of meeting such demands. Thus,
the conditional-normative theory sets out a theoretical framework enabling
a choice of different theoretical hypotheses. These hypotheses depend on the
intended use of the information which the accounting system is to provide [Szy-
chta, 1996, p. 77]. The aim of this theory is “to provide a range of tools for prac-
titioners to choose from, depending on preconceived and actual needs” [Mattes-
sich, 1992, p. 190]. In the case of corporate sustainability reporting, these
theories suggest that the scope of presented information should depend on the
company’s information policy and the possibility of accounting system to gener-
ate specific data.
Based on such a normative grounding, the corporate performance on sus-
tainability is measured by means of sustainability accounting and its tool of non-
financial reporting. So by their nature, normative accounting theories should
provide guidelines on how to operate a system of corporate sustainability report-
ing, described by positive theories. From the methodological viewpoint of posi-
tive and normative accounting theories, sustainability reporting forces account-
ing system to be perceived in the wider context, its relationship with social
sciences, ethics, philosophy, sociology and even psychology.
 Accounting theories towards non-financial reporting 165

Conclusions

This paper provides research results on an intensive non-financial reporting

development, influenced by the increased interest in corporate sustainability. The
results are interpreted in the light of positive and normative accounting theories.
The analyzed trend indicates the need of scientific research that will evaluate the
scope, force, and direction of forecasted changes of corporate non-financial re-
porting. It, to a large extent, determines the role of an accounting system. The
application of positive and normative accounting theories in synergy will – in the
author’s opinion – help understand in a “positive way” the economic phenome-
non of the corporate non-financial reporting development and “in a normative
way” will allow its evaluation, recommending the change directions. Positive
accounting theories help understand the shape of current role accounting towards
corporate sustainability reporting, which is proven by vast scientific research
presented in this paper. They help understand what drives companies to issue
sustainability reporting as a certificate of being “morally mature”.
At the same time, positive accounting theories show the gap in the presenta-
tion of credible non-financial information in corporate non-financial reporting.
The growing interest of these reports raises the risk of unreliability of the pre-
sented information. Thus, there is a strong need of creating a general theoretical
framework integrating financial and non-financial information presented in cor-
porate sustainability reporting in order to ensure reliability and fair presentation
of accounting data, in such a way that it can be verified internally and externally.
The author of this paper is of the opinion that this need poses a particular chal-
lenge to the normative theory. From the positive theories’ conclusions, it is cru-
cial to drive the development of corporate non-financial reporting aimed at the
credibility of information. So it may be concluded that the positive and norma-
tive theories in a complementary way enable a multifaceted analysis of factors
impacting the corporate sustainability reporting development, and determining
its scope and shape in the future.

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 Accounting theories towards non-financial reporting 169

TEORIE RACHUNKOWOŚCI WOBEC SPRAWOZDAWCZOŚCI

NIEFINANSOWEJ

Streszczenie: Raportowanie dotyczące zrównoważonego rozwoju jest obecnie nazywane

„główną praktyką biznesową”, mającą wpływ na prawie wszystkie dziedziny działalności
gospodarczej, w tym w szczególności na niefinansowe raportowanie korporacyjne. Celem
tego artykułu jest przyczynienie się do zrozumienia niefinansowej sprawozdawczości
dotyczącej zrównoważonego rozwoju w świetle pozytywnych i normatywnych teorii ra-
chunkowości. Podstawę metodyki badawczej artykułu w części dotyczącej praktycznej
stanowi analiza aktów prawnych, empirycznych badań uwarunkowań sprawozdawczości
jednostek gospodarczych, a także analiza raportów zrównoważonego rozwoju. Teore-
tyczne badania wykorzystują z kolei przegląd literatury dotyczący teorii rachunkowości
i ich wykorzystania w objaśnianiu zmian w raportowaniu korporacyjnym. Do sformu-
łowania wniosków wykorzystano wnioskowanie dedukcyjne i indukcyjne, stosując metodę
analizy oraz syntezy. Artykuł stanowi wkład do literatury przedmiotu na temat korporacy-
jnego raportowania zrównoważonego rozwoju i funkcji rachunkowości zrównoważonego
rozwoju. Wskazuje również praktyczne implikacje i kierunki przyszłych badań.

Słowa kluczowe: zrównoważony rozwój, sprawozdawczość niefinansowa, teorie

rachunkowości.