THEORETICAL BASIS OF UNSTEADY

AND STEADY FLOW SIMULATIONS

IN OPEN CHANNELS
Tomasz Dysarz
Poznań, 2014

Abstract:
Table of contents

1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................3

2. Unsteady flow equations........................................................................................................................3

3. Interpretation of the St. Venant equations..............................................................................................5

4. Initial and boundary conditions..............................................................................................................8

5. Steady flow equations..........................................................................................................................10

6. Summary..............................................................................................................................................11

Bibliography.............................................................................................................................................11
1. Introduction
The purpose of this document is very short discussion on equations, which are basis of flow simulation
models such as HEC-RAS, MIEK11, etc.. The motivation for preparation of such description is the
author's academic activity in Poznan University of Life Sciences as well as discussions with some
LinkedIn users in groups like "HEC-RAS Users" and "Hydraulic/Hydrologic Modelers".

The text presented is not complete description of the problem. It should be considered original
summary based on previous descriptions namely books and other scientific literature. It is assumed that
the description have to be as simple as it is possible and not overloaded with difficult theoretical
information. The main focus is the most complex element of theoretical basis, namely the flow
movement equations in fundamental form. The other elements are clearly explained in "HEC-RAS
Hydraulic Reference" (Brunner, 2010).

The method for the presentation of equations differs from other similar documents. The detailed
derivation of equations is not presented here. Instead, the proper literature sources are provided and the
interpretation of equations is discussed. Such attitude seems to be proper, if we take into account the
educations profile of students in civil and environmental engineering courses. This document is
prepared for such students. If it is possible, the interpretation of equations is linked to simpler concepts
known from physics or fluid mechanics courses, eg. the second Newton's law, the Bernoulli equation.

The presented document consist of six parts. After the introduction the description of the St.
Venant equations is presented. The third part is the interpretation of the equations. The problem of
initial and boundary conditions is presented in the fourth part. In the last part the brief summary is
shown. The bibliography is also attached to the document.

2. Unsteady flow equations

One of the fundamental mathematical models describing flow phenomena in river channels is a set of
St. Venant equations. This model is used in analyses of longitudinal fluid movement, it means such
cases which may be treated as one-dimensional. The additional limitation is imposed on flow regime.
The St. Venant equations may be used only in cases of gradually-varying flow. In such cases the
approximation of vertical pressure profile by hydrostatic profile is valid. This fundamental assumption
does not constrain the practical application of the St. Venant equations. The area of application includes
classical problems of water surface profile determination, flood wave propagation, assessment of water
quality and thermal balance as well as simplified sediment routing cases.

The set of the St. Venant equations is a set of two partial differential equations. They are
mathematical description of two fundamental principles describing features of river flow. These are
principle of mass balance and principle of momentum balance. The first version of the set was derived
by French scientist Barre de Saint-Venant in 1871 (Szymkiewicz, 2010). It is so called non-
conservative form. This form is successfully applied for the modeling of flow in channels with regular
cross-sections, e.g. rectangular, trapezoidal, etc.. The development of computer methods in the second
half of the XX century enabled solution of more and more complex problems. Other versions of the St.
Venant equations gain bigger popularity, so called conservative forms. They may be also used in cases
of flow modeling in channels with irregular cross-sections. Hence, the conservative version is
presented below.

Assuming that independent variables are time t and distance x counted along the stream in the
direction of flow, the mass balance equation may be written as follows:

∂ A ∂Q
+ =0 (1)
∂t ∂ x

In the above equation A is cross-section area (flow area) and Q is discharge. The momentum balance
equation may be written in following form:

( )
2
∂Q ∂ Q ∂h
+ +g A −g A s 0+g A S f =0 (2)
∂t ∂ x A ∂x

where h is maximum depth in the channel, g is gravitational acceleration, s0 is bottom slope and Sf is so
called hydraulic slope. The last element describes effects of mechanical energy dissipation and losses
during water flow. According to one of the main assumptions applied in the model construction, the
hydraulic slope may be determined like it is done in cases of steady flow. This assumption allows
calculation of the hydraulic slope on the basis of simplified empirical formulas, which general form is
as follows:

∣Q∣Q
S f= 2
(3)
K

where K is so called conveyance. Its value depends on local characteristics of cross-section such as
cross-section area A, wetted perimeter P and bottom roughness n. According to popular Manning's
equation, the conveyance is determined as follows:
 A5 /3
K= (1)
n P 2/ 3

3. Interpretation of the St. Venant equations

The derivations of the presented equations may be found in many books (e.g. Cunge et al., 1980;
Sawicki, 1998; Szymkiewicz, 2010). However, the simplified interpretation shown below should be
enough for the understanding of the main ideas. Let’s assume the river reach is considered (fig. 1) with
inlet cross-section at xj-1 and outlet cross-section at xj+1. Inside the cross-section xj is located. Let’s
define the control volume assigned to cross-section xj, which is constrained by intermediate cross-
sections xj-1/2 and xj+1/2 as it is shown in fig. 1. Let’s assume that two St. Venant equations are integrated
in such control volume.

x j+1/ 2

∫
x j−1/2
( ∂ A ∂Q
+
∂t ∂ x
dx=0 ) (5)

[ ]
x j+1/ 2

∫
x j−1/2
+ ( )
∂Q ∂ Q 2
∂t ∂ x A
+g A
∂h
∂x
−g A s 0+ g A S f dx=0 (6)

The first equation is easily simplified introducing so called average cross-section area for the length of
the reach ∆x.

x j+1/2
1
A j=
Δx ∫ A dx (7)
x j−1 /2

It is worth to notice, that the product ∆x and Aj is equal to the water volume Vj stored in the length of
the control volume. Hence, the equation (5) may be written as follows:

dV j
+Q j+1/ 2−Q j−1 /2 =0 (8)
dt

Assuming, that Qj-1/2 is inflow Ij to the control volume and Qj+1/2 is outflow Oj, one obtains simple
equation describing mass balance in single reservoir with time-dependent volume Vj.

dV j
= I j−O j (9)
dt
 xj-1 xj-1/2 xj xj+1/2 xj+1
x

Δx Δx

Fig. 1 Scheme of the river reach

For the next integration, it is required to introduce certain simplification to the equation (6). It may be
proved, that in channels with relatively low irregularity of cross-section shape the following
approximation is correct

A
∂h ∂ 1
≈
∂x ∂x 2
Ah ( ) (10)

If (10) is satisfied, the equation (6) may be written as follows

x j+1/2

Δx
dt
+
A( ) ( )
dQ j Q 2
j+1 /2
−
Q2
A j−1 / 2
1
+ g [ ( Ah ) j +1/ 2−( A h ) j−1 / 2 ]− ∫ [ g A ( s 0−S f ) ] dx=0
2 x j−1/2
(11)

where Qj is average discharge in the control volume. The subscripts j-1/2 and j+1/2 denote the values
defined in inlet and outlet cross-sections, respectively. The interpretation of the momentum balance
equation is possible, if (11) is multiplied by water density ρ. Next the relationship between discharge Q
and average flow velocity U in the cross-section has to be introduced in the following form

Q=U A (12)

Then the equation (11) may be transformed into new form as follows

d
( ρ Δ x A j U j )+( ρU 2 A ) j+1 /2−( ρ U 2 A) j−1 /2=
dt
x j+1/2 x j+1 /2 (13)
1
2(
= ρ g Ah ) (
j−1/ 2
1
− ρ g Ah
2 ) j+1 /2
+ ∫ ρ g A s 0 dx− ∫
x j−1/2 x j−1 /2
ρ g A S f dx

Because ρΔxAj is mass of water stored in the control volume, the elements included in the first bracket
represents local momentum. The whole first term with ordinary derivative is local change of
momentum. According to the definition of discharge (12), the second and the third term of left side are
outflow and inflow of momentum from and to control volume, respectively. The whole left side
represent so called substantial derivative of momentum (Puzyrewski & Sawicki, 1998). Hence, the
equation (13) may be written as follows:
 x j+1/2 x j+1/2
D P̃ j
Dt (
1
=¿ ρ g A h
2 ) (
j−1/ 2
1
− ρ g Ah
2 ) j+1 /2
+ ∫ ρ g A s 0 dx− ∫
x j−1/2 x j−1 /2
ρ g A S f dx (14)

In equation (14), the symbol P̃ j denotes momentum.

The term 1/2ρgh is the area of triangle, which illustrates distribution of hydrostatic pressures
along the depth in certain cross-section. Because of that fact, two first terms of the right side represent
hydrostatic pressure forces in cross-sections xj-1/2 and xj+1/2. The third term is easily identified as
accumulated impact of gravity force. This is consistent with assumption of small bottom slope. The
mentioned assumption is typical for all analyses of gradually-varying flow in open channels. It enabled
following relationship:

sin Θ≈tan Θ=s 0 (15)

where Θ is an angle between bottom and horizontal plane. Then the product of gravity acceleration g
and bottom slope s0 is the projection of gravity force into the direction parallel to bottom. The last term
may be transformed using previously mentioned assumption of hydraulic slope determination on the
basis of empirical formulae for steady flow. According to this assumption, the shear stresses in the
bottom τ caused by friction are determined as follows:

A
τ=ρ g S (16)
P f

Hence, the elements under the integral in the last term may be written as τPΔx. The product PΔx is area
impacted by shear stresses τ and the whole product is fundamental friction force. Last integral describes
accumulated impact of friction force along the total length of control volume.

The equation (14) may be written as follows:

D P̃ j
Dt ∑
= F (17)

where right side is a sum of forces taken into account in the description of water movement in open
channels. The sum consists of hydrostatic pressure force, gravity force and friction force. This is the
mathematical description of the second Newton’s law for moving fluid. This law is equivalent to the
momentum balance principle.
4. Initial and boundary conditions
The solution of the St. Venant equations in form (1) – (2) are two functions: discharge Q and maximum
depth h. The functions are vary in time t and distance along a channel described as coordinate x. Hence,
the domain of the solution is plane region Oxt. In the most simple case of single river reach, the region
is defined as follows:

0⩽x⩽L t⩾0 (18)

where L is channel length.

(dx/dt)2
(dx/dt)1
(dx/dt)2
(dx/dt)1

(dx/dt)2
(dx/dt)1

x
t=0
x=0 x=L

Fig. 2 The set of characteristic lines for the system of the St. Venant equations in subcritical flow conditions

The equations (1) and (2) do not determine solution uniquely in such defined domain. Because
the problem is unsteady, the equations have to completed with proper initial and boundary conditions.
The method of additional condition specification depends on type of equation or system of equations.
The St. Venant equations is hyperbolic (e.g. Sawicki, 1998; Szymkiewicz, 2010). Each hyperbolic
system has real characteristics. The number of characteristics is equal to the number of equations in the
system. In this case the characteristics are

( dxdt ) =U −√ g h
1
( dxdt ) =U +√ g h
2
(19)

The characteristics define specific directions of “signals” movement in the domain. The “signals” may
be imagined as small disturbances in solution variables and their influence on nearby area. The
characteristics point the direction of influence and spread of changes. The shape and relative position of
two characteristics depend on the flow regime. The regime is determined by the Froud number Fr.

U
Fr= (20)
√gh
In the river channels the flow usually is subcritical. It means the Froud number is less than one. It
results from the fact, that the average flow velocity U is smaller than celerity (gh)1/2. The celerity is
speed of wave movement in the channel understood here as velocity of “signals”, disturbance
movement, etc.. In case of subcritical flow the systems of characteristics in the domain defined by (18)
is presented in fig. 2.

The number of additional conditions imposed on the boundaries of domain have to be equal to
the number of characteristics “coming” from this boundary to the domain. Hence, the initial and
boundary conditions have to be imposed in the way presented in tab. 1.

Tab. 1 Type and number of initial and boundary conditions in subcritical flow regime

no. type region # conditions casual names

1 initial t = 0; 0 ≤ x ≤ L 2 -

2 boundary x = 0; t ≥ 0 1 inlet
upstream
3 boundary x = L; t ≥ 0 1 outlet
downstream

Usually, the known discharges Q(x,t=0) and water depth h(x,t=0) along a channel are imposed
as initial condition. In practice, it is often assumed, that these values are the solution of steady flow
equation.

The basic form of boundary conditions are flow and depth hydrographs. In the inflow cross-
section (x=0), the known discharge Q(x=0,t) or depth h(x=0,t) may be such condition.

The problem of outlet boundary condition is more complex. Theoretically, it may be imposed in
similar way as the inlet condition is imposed. It means the introduction of known function Q(x=L,t) or
h(x=L,t). However, in practical cases, these functions are the information we would to obtain from our
computations. Hence, it is very often that some relationship between Q and h is imposed in the outlet
boundary. This may be typical rating curve or some special case of rating curve, such as Manning’s
equation or critical flow conditions.
5. Steady flow equations
In may hydrological and hydromechanical cases there is need for determination of water surface profile
in steady flow conditions. In such problems, the simplified version of presented system (1) - (2) is
useful.

The steady flow conditions are defined uniquely by time independence of flow parameters such
as velocity U, depth h, etc.. It means the possibility for neglecting time derivatives in equations (1) -
(2). Then, the first of them is transformed into following form:

Q=const , (21)

what is the basic steady flow condition, in practice. The second equation is as follows:

d Q2
dx A ( ) dh
+ g A −g A s0 +g A S f =0
dx
(22)

Taking into account (2) and the dependence between depth h and cross-section area A, the equation (22)
may be transformed to the following form:

dh s 0−S f
= (23)
dx 1−Fr 2

It is also assumed, that possible changes of cross-section shape are so small enough to be neglected.

The equation (23) is basic relationship describing changes of maximum depth h in the channel
along the channel length x in steady flow conditions. Derivations as well as analyses of its form and
results may be found in broad literature (e.g. Sawicki, 1998). This equation is equivalent to classical
Bernoulli's equation for flow in open channels. It is seen clearly, if the equation (23) is approximated
numerically in a reach located between two cross-sections, e.g. xj and xj+1 (compare fig. 1).

1
Δx [( ) ( ) ]
Q2
A j+1
−
Q2
A j
+ g As
h j +1−h j
Δx
−g As s0 +g A s S fs =0 (24)

The parameters with subscript "s" denote average values along the reach between xj and xj+1. Taking
into account, that the bottom slope is opposite to the gradient of the bottom elevations, the equation
(24) may be transformed to the following form:

2 2
U U
z j +h j+ j =z j +1+h j+1+ j +1 +S fs Δ x (25)
2g 2g
The above equation is simple Bernoulli's equation written for cross-sections xj and xj+1.

The equation (23) is ordinary differential equation (ODE). Its solution is function h(x) defined
for 0 ≤ x ≤ L. It may be approximated according to (24) - (25) or by means of other numerical methods
designed for ODE. It is usually used in so called initial value problems. It means determination of
water depth in the channel according to marching procedure from one cross-section to another. It is
necessary to impose depth or water elevation in one initial cross-section, before the procedure starts.
Such apporach is consistent with classical Cauchy problem for ODEs.

6. Summary
Presented report is very brief description of the St. Venant equations. The report may be used as an
introduction for studying of theory, which is basis for simulation of flow phenomena in open channels.
The author's will is preparation of the very simple description, such that reading of these few pages
enables understanding of the main concepts and ideas. It is important to remember, that the report is not
complete description of the problem and should be analyzed with other handbooks, e.g. these , which
are quoted in the text.

Bibliography
Brunner G.W. (2010): HEC-RAS River Analysis System Hydraulic Reference Manual, US Army Corps
of Engineers, Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC), Report No. CPD-69,
(http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/hec-ras/hecras-document.html)

Cunge J.A., Holly F.M.jr, Vervej A. (1980): Practical aspects of computational river hydraulics,
Pitman Advanced Publishing Program.

Puzyrewski R., Sawicki J. (1998): Fundamentals of fluid mechanics and hydraulics, Warsaw,
Scientific Publishing PWN (in polish)

Sawicki J. (1998): Flows with free surface, Warsaw, Scientific Publishing PWN (in polish)

Szymkiewicz R. (2010): Numerical Modeling in Open Channel Hydraulics, Springer, Water Science
and Technology Library, Volume 83