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o
POLICY BRIEF N 4

The Multiple Functions and

Benefits of Small Farm Agriculture

In the Context of Global Trade Negotiations

By Peter M. Rosset, Ph.D.

September 1999

Peter M. Rosset, Ph.D.

Executive Director
Food First/The Institute for Food and Development Policy
Oakland, CA USA

This Policy Brief was prepared for "Cultivating Our Futures," the FAO/Netherlands Conference on the
Multifunctional Character of Agriculture and Land, 12-17 September 1999, Maastricht, The Netherlands.

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 Small Farm Agriculture ........................................... p. 1

Summary

In this Policy Brief I challenge the conventional wisdom that small farms are backward
and unproductive. Using evidence from Southern and Northern countries I demonstrate
that small farms are "multi-functional"—more productive, more efficient, and contribute
more to economic development than large farms. Small farmers can also make better
stewards of natural resources, conserving biodiversity and safe-guarding the future
sustainability of agricultural production.

The on-going process of trade liberalization—now being taken a step further in the
World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations for the Agreement on Agriculture
(AoA)—has already had dramatically negative effects on small farmers everywhere. The
AoA has the potential to severely undercut the remaining viability of small farm
production, with potentially devastating consequences for rural economies and
environments worldwide. I conclude with a call to recognize the true multi-functional
role and value of small farmers, and to unite in opposition to an AoA that might make
their continued existence impossible.

Introduction

For more than a century mainstream economists in both capitalist and socialist countries
have confidently and enthusiastically predicted the demise of the small, family farm.
Small farms have time and again been labeled as backward, unproductive and
inefficient—an obstacle to be overcome in the process of economic development. The
American model of large scale, mechanized, corporate agriculture is held out as the best,
if not the only way to efficiently feed the world's population. Small farmers—or
"peasants"—have been expected to go the way of the dinosaurs, and rightly so, according
to conventional wisdom.

In this Policy Brief I challenge the conventional wisdom about small farms and assert
that they are "multi-functional"—more productive, more efficient, and contribute more to
economic development than large farms. I argue that small farmers make better stewards
of natural resources, conserving biodiversity and better safe-guarding the sustainability of
production. The evidence I present evidence comes from both the Third World and from
industrialized countries like the United States.

Today's on-going process of liberalization in international agricultural trade—now being

taken a step further in the Millennium Round of World Trade Organization (WTO)
negotiations—is widely recognized to have dramatically negative effects on small
farmers in both Northern and Southern countries. This puts the small farm issue—called
The Agrarian Question by renowned social scientist Karl Kautsky at the beginning of
1
this century —squarely on the agenda for debate at the end of the millennium.

1
Kautsky, 1906

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If small farms are worth preserving—if indeed a small farm model of rural development
makes more sense than does the large-scale, mechanized, chemical intensive, corporate
dominated and socially excluding model toward which business-as-usual is carrying us—
then now is the time to act.

The first point worth noting is that while small farmers have been driven out of rural
America by the millions, and we have seen a similar, though lessor rural-urban migration
in the Third World, the fact is that family farmers do still persist in the U.S. and continue
to be numerically dominant. In the Third World they are central to the production of
staple foods. The prediction of their demise continues to be premature, though their
numbers have dropped substantially and they face new threats to their livelihoods on an
unprecedented scale.

The second point is that small farms are far from being as unproductive or inefficient as
so many would have us believe. Peasants have stubbornly clung to the land despite
more than a century of harsh policies which have undercut their economic viability.

The third point is that small farms have multiple functions which benefit both society and
the biosphere, and which contribute far more than just a particular commodity—though
there is ample evidence that a small farm model for agricultural development could
produce far more food than a large farm pattern ever could. These multiple and
beneficial functions should be seriously valued and considered before we blithely accept
yet another round of anti-small farm policy measures—this time at the level of the global
economy. It is toward the second and third points—the benefits of small farms, that I
direct the bulk of this paper.

In the conclusion to this Policy Brief I outline the grave threat to small farms presented
by the WTO negotiations for an Agreement on Agriculture (AoA). Several countries, led
by the United States, seek to push further free trade in agricultural products. I show how
this could lead to the destruction of small farms and severely damage rural environments
worldwide.

I close by issuing a call to rally around the concept of the multiple functionality of small
farms, for both human societies and for the biosphere. By recognizing the important role
played by small farms we have an opportunity to stop and even reverse trade policies
which erode the viability of small farms.

Small Farm Virtues in the U.S.

I am not alone in speaking to the value of small farms and calling for policy change to
take advantage of their potential dynamism. The United States Department of
Agriculture's (USDA) National Commission on Small Farms released a landmark report
in 1998 titled A Time to Act. What the USDA calls the public value of small farms
includes:

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a. Diversity: Small farms embody a diversity of ownership, of

cropping systems, of landscapes, of biological organization, culture and
traditions. A varied farm structure contributes to biodiversity, a diverse
and esthetically pleasing rural landscape, and open space.

b. Environmental benefits: Responsible management of the natural

resources of soil, water, and wildlife on the 60 percent of all U.S. farms
less than 180 acres in size, produces significant environmental benefits
for society. Investment in the viability of these operations will yield
dividends in the stewardship of the nation's natural resources.

c. Empowerment and community responsibility: Decentralized

land ownership produces more equitable economic opportunity for
people in rural areas, as well as greater social capital. This can provide
a greater sense of personal responsibility and feeling of control over
one's life, characteristics that are not as readily available to factory line
workers. Land owners who rely on local businesses and services for
their needs are more likely to have a stake in the well-being of the
community and the well-being of its citizens. In turn, local land owners
are more likely to be held accountable for any negative actions that harm
the community.
d. Places for families: Family farms can be nurturing places for
children to grow up and acquire values. The skills of farming are passed
from one generation to another under family ownership structures.
When farm children do not continue to farm, farming knowledge, skills
and experience are lost.

e. Personal connection to food: Most consumers have little

connection to agriculture and food production. As a consequence, they
have little connection with nature, and lack an appreciation for farming
as cultivation of the earth for the production of food that sustains us.
Through farmers' markets, community supported agriculture, and the
direct marketing strategies of small farmers, consumers are beginning to
connect with the people growing their food, and with food itself as a
product of a farmer's cooperation with nature.

f. Economic foundations: In various states and regions of the U.S.,

small farms are vital to the economy.

The USDA Commission on Small Farms concludes with a powerful call to change the
policies that have favored large, corporate-style farms for so very long, with hideous
costs to rural communities and the environment.

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Small Farm Virtues in the Third World

A similar pattern holds in the Third World, where policies promoting large farm, export
agriculture have increasingly eroded the viability of small farms, despite the many
benefits small scale production of food offers.

In traditional farming communities the family farm is central to maintaining community

and to the sustainability of agricultural production. On the small farm, productive
activities, labor mobilization, consumption patterns, ecological knowledge and common
interests in long-term maintenance of the farm as a resource, contribute to a stable and
lasting economic and family-based enterprise. Work quality, management, knowledge
and relationships are intertwined and mutually reinforcing. Short-term gain at the risk of
degrading essential resources not only invites community sanction, but also places the
family and the farm at risk of collapse. Family farmers regularly achieve higher and
more dependable production from their land than do larger farms operating in similar
environments. Labor intensive practices such as manuring, limited tillage, ridging,
terracing, composting organic matter, and recycling plant products into the productive
process, enhance soil conservation and fertility (Netting, 1993).

The durability of small farm production is clear in its historical and spatial ubiquity:
small farms exist in all environments, in all political and economic contexts, in all
historical periods over the last 5,000 years, and in every known cultural area where crops
can be grown. Small farmers have developed and use a variety of technologies, crops,
and farming systems. Perhaps most important in an era of diminishing non-renewable
resources, small farmers frequently produce with minimal recourse to expensive external
inputs (Netting, 1993).

We must value the multiple functions of farms in the Third World if we are to achieve a
sustainable agriculture, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
United Nations (1999):

To face the current challenges of agriculture, we need to address

agriculture and land in a broader context by integrating multiple roles
(economic, food production, nature and land management, employment
etc.). Sustainable agriculture and land use is not just a means to obtain
more food and income, in socially acceptable ways which do not degrade
the environment. Rather, it has an all-encompassing impact on
communities, environments, and consumers. We must reach a consensus
and common understanding of sustainable land use as an opportunity to
improve the quality of the environment, including its physical (increased
soil fertility, better quality air and water), biological (healthier and more
diverse animal, plant, and human populations), and social, economic and
institutional (greater social equity, cohesion, peace/stability, well-being)
components…. Land is not just a resource to be exploited, but a crucial
vehicle for the achievement of improved socioeconomic, biological and

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physical environments. Concretely, by paying attention to the multiple

functions of agriculture and land use, all economic, social and
environmental functions of agriculture, at multiple levels, are recognized
and included in decision making in order to promote synergies between
these functions and to reconcile different stakeholder objectives.

Small farms play multiple key functions in rural economies, cultures and ecosystems
worldwide. In the following sections I summarize some of the evidence for these
claims.

Small Farm Productivity

How many times have we heard that large farms are more productive than small farms?
Or that they are more efficient? And that we need to consolidate land holdings to take
advantage of that greater productivity and efficiency? The actual data shows exactly the
reverse for productivity: that smaller farms produce far more per unit area than larger
farms. Part of the problem lies in the confusing language used to compare the
performance of different farm sizes. As long as we use crop yield as the measure of
productivity, we will be giving an unfair advantage to larger farms.

Total Output versus Yield

If we are to fairly evaluate the relative productivity of small and large farms, we must
discard "yield" as our measurement tool. Yield means the production per unit area of a
single crop, like "metric tons of corn per hectare." One can often obtain the highest yield
of a single crop by planting it alone on a field -- in a monoculture. But while a
monoculture may allow for a high yield of one crop, it produces nothing else of use to
the farmer. The bare ground between the crop rows -- empty "niche space" in ecological
terms -- invites weed infestation. The presence of weeds makes the farmer invest labor
in weeding or capital in herbicide.

Large farmers tend to plant monocultures because they are the simplest to manage with
heavy machinery. Small farmers on the other hand, especially in the Third World, are
much more likely to plant crop mixtures -- intercropping -- where the empty niche space
that would otherwise produce weeds instead is occupied by other crops. They also tend
to combine or rotate crops and livestock, with manure serving to replenish soil fertility.

Such integrated farming systems produce far more per unit area than do monocultures.
Though the yield per unit area of one crop—corn, for example—may be lower on a small
farm than on a large monoculture, the total output per unit area, often composed of more
than a dozen crops and various animal products, can be far, far higher. Therefore, if we
are to compare small and large farms we should use total output, rather than yield. Total
output is the sum of everything a small farmer produces: various grains, fruits,
vegetables, fodder, animal products, etc. While yield almost always biases the results

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toward larger farms, total output allows us to see the true productivity advantage of small
farms.

Surveying the data we indeed find that small farms almost always produce far more
agricultural output per unit area than larger farms. This holds true whether we are
talking about an industrial country like the United States, or any country in the Third
World. This is now widely recognized by agricultural economists across the political
spectrum, as the "inverse relationship between farm size and output" (Barret, 1993; Ellis,
1993; Tomich et al., 1995; Berry and Cline, 1979; Feder, 1985; Prosterman and
Riedinger, 1987; Cornia, 1985; to name a few). Even leading development economists at
the World Bank have come around to this view, to the point that they now accept that re-
distribution of land to small farmers would lead to greater overall productivity
(Deininger, 1999; Binswanger et al., 1995), a view long since arrived at by others (see
Sobhan, 1993; Lappé et al., 1998). Table 1 shows the relationship between farm size and
ouput per acre in the United States. The smallest farms, those of 27 acres or less, have

Table 1: Farm Size versus Output in the United States, 1992

Median Farm
Size Category Average Gross Output Average Net Output
(Acres) ($/Acre) ($/Acre)

4 7424 1400
27 1050 139
58 552 82
82 396 60
116 322 53
158 299 55
198 269 53
238 274 56
359 270 54
694 249 51
1364 191 39
6709 63 12

Source: U.S. Agricultural Census, vol. 1, part 51, pp. 89-96, 1992.

more than ten times greater dollar output per acre than larger farms. While this is in
large part due to the fact that smaller farms tend to specialize in high value crops like
vegetables and flowers, it also reflects relatively more labor and inputs applied per unit
area, and the use of more diverse farming systems (Strange, 1988).

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Figure 1 graphically shows the relationship between farm size and total output for fifteen
countries in the Third World. In all cases relatively smaller farm sizes are much more
productive per unit area—2 to 10 time more productive—than are larger ones. We
observe two general forms of the relationship, as shown in Figure 2. Curve I is found in
countries where the smallest reported farm size category is the most productive per unit
area. Curve II is found where the most productive size category, while not the smallest,
is still relatively small. All countries for which data is available fit one of these two
types. The data presented in Table 1, from the U.S., clearly matches type I.

There are a variety of explanations for the greater productivity of small farms in the
Third World (Netting, 1993; Lappé et al., 1998). Some of these are:

a. multiple cropping: as explained above, while large farmers almost always use
monocultures, and one or at the most two cropping cycles per year, small
farmers are more likely to intercrop various crops on the same field, plant
multiple times during the year, and integrate crops, livestock and even
aquaculture, making much more intensive use of space and time.

b. land use intensity: larger farmers and land owners tend to leave much of their
land idle, while small farmers tend to use their entire parcel.2

c. output composition: large farms are oriented toward land extensive enter-
prises, like cattle grazing or extensive grain monocultures, while small
farmers emphasize labor and resource intensive use of land. As in the U.S.
case, large farms may produce crops with lower value than do smaller farms.

d. irrigation: small farmers may make more efficient use of irrigation.

e. labor quality: while small farms generally use family labor -- which is
personally committed to the success of the farm -- large farms use relatively
alienated hired labor.

f. labor intensity: small farms apply far more labor per unit area than do larger
farms.

g. input use: small farms often use far more inputs per unit area than larger
farms, though the mix on small farms favors non-purchased inputs like
manure and compost while large farms tend to use relatively more purchased
inputs like agrochemicals.

2
In the U.S. the relationship is reversed. Small farms tend to have a lower intensity of land use, leaving
greater proportions of their land in woodland, cover crops, etc. (S'Souza and Ikerd, 1996).

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h. resource use: large farms are generally less committed to management of

other resources -- such as forests and aquatic resources -- which combine with
the land to produce a greater quantity and better quality of production.

Figure 1. The relationship between farm size and total output in different countries (after
Cornia, 1985).

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It is the commitment that family members have to their farm, and the complexity and
integrated nature of small farms, that guarantee their advantage in terms of output.
Pretty (1997) has documented the productivity of such systems in a wide variety of
environments.

Figure 2. Typical forms of the relationship between farm size and total output. In
Type I the smallest farm sizes produce the most total output per unit area. In Type II
the most productive size class is not the smallest, but is still relatively small. These
idealized types have been abstracted from the data presented graphically in Figure 1.

Small Farm Efficiency

While small farms are clearly more productive than large farms in terms of output per
unit area, claims are often made that large farms are still more efficient. To start with,
this depends on the definition of efficiency that one chooses. Small farms make more
efficient use of land. Large farms generally have higher labor productivity due to
mechanization, so they might be considered to be more efficient in labor usage. The
definition of efficiency most widely accepted by economists is that of "total factor
productivity," a sort of averaging of the efficiency of use of all the different factors that
go into production, including land, labor, inputs, capital, etc. Tomich et al. (1993, p.
126) provide data from the 1960s, 70s and early 80s, which show small farms have
greater total factor productivity than large farms in Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Mexico
and Columbia. The curves follow the same patterns, Types I or II, shown in Figure 2 for
farm size vs. output. More recently, the same pattern has been found in Honduras
(Gilligan, 1998).

In industrial countries like the U.S. the pattern is less clear. The consensus position is
probably that very small farms are inefficient because they can't make full use of
expensive equipment, while very large farms are also inefficient because of management
and labor problems inherent in large operations. Thus peak efficiency is likely achieved
on mid-sized farms that have one or two hired laborers, giving the U.S. an efficiency
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curve like the Type II productivity curve, but with the peak more toward mid-size than
small (Strange, 1988, pp. 80-81; see also Madden, 1967). In a recent, detailed analysis
of true total factor productivity, corrected for a number of biases in the data, the author
concludes that advantages to larger farm sizes found by some analysts "disappear, while
there is evidence of diseconomies as farm size increases" (Peterson, 1997). In other
words, even in the United States, there is no reason to believe that large farms are more
efficient, and very large farms may in fact be quite inefficient. But there is far more to
the economic importance of small farms once we move outside the farm gate and ask
questions about economic development.

Small Farms in Economic Development

Surely more bushels of grain is not the only goal of farm production; farm resources
must also generate wealth for the overall improvement of rural life—including better
housing, education, health services, transportation, local business diversification, and
more recreational and cultural opportunities.

Here in the United States, the question was asked more than a half-century ago: what
does the growth of large-scale, industrial agriculture mean for rural towns and
communities? Walter Goldschmidt's classic 1940's study of California's San Joaquin
Valley compared areas dominated by large corporate farms with those still characterized
by smaller, family farms (see Goldschmidt, 1978).

In farming communities dominated by large corporate farms, nearby towns died off.
Mechanization meant that fewer local people were employed, and absentee ownership
meant that farm families themselves were no longer to be found. In these corporate-farm
towns, the income earned in agriculture was drained off into larger cities to support
distant enterprises, while in towns surrounded by family farms, the income circulated
among local business establishments, generating jobs and community prosperity. Where
family farms predominated, there were more local businesses, paved streets and
sidewalks, schools, parks, churches, clubs, and newspapers, better services, higher
employment, and more civic participation. Studies conducted since Goldschmidt's
original work confirm that his findings remain true today (see Fujimoto, 1977;
MacCannell, 1988; Durrenberger and Thu, 1996).

The Amish and Mennonite farm communities found in the eastern United States provide
a strong contrast to the virtual devastation described by Goldschmidt in corporate farm
communities. Lancaster County in Pennsylvania, which is dominated by these small
farmers who eschew much modern technology and often even bank credit, is the most
productive farm county east of the Mississippi River. It has annual gross sales of
agricultural products of $700 million, and receives an additional $250 million from
tourists who appreciate the beauty of traditional small farm landscapes (D'Souza and
Ikerd, 1996). Ludwig and Anderson (1992) argue that Amish farm communities provide
a North American model for what they call "indigenous development," essentially an

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emphasis on building a strong local economy as the basis for participating in the larger
world:

The vision of indigenous development is one of global inter-dependence

through the intra-dependence of semiautonomous regions. Instead of
placing emphasis on the highest or global level of competitive interaction,
it starts at the bottom and places emphasis on the development of strong,
independent, semiautonomous regions with unique identities… Many of
the Amish communities, separated by self-defined boundaries, are… self-
reliant. These [are] interesting examples because their economies are
market oriented and highly successful; they do substantial trade with the
outside; they are great husbands of the natural environment; and their
members find a great deal of meaning and centeredness in their work.
While their economies are market based, they are highly diverse and
integrated rather than fragmented, cooperative rather than competitive,
based on value added rather than on commodity products, and dedicated
to reciprocity more than dominance (p.35).

If we turn toward the Third World we find similar local benefits to be derived from a
small farm economy. The Landless Workers Movement (MST) is a grassroots
organization in Brazil that helps landless laborers to organize occupations of idle land
belonging to wealthy landlords (Langevin and Rosset, 1999). When the movement
began in the mid-1980s, the mostly conservative mayors of rural towns were violently
opposed to MST land occupations in surrounding areas. In recent times, however, their
attitude has changed. Most of their towns are very depressed economically, and
occupations can give local economies a much needed boost. Typical occupations consist
of 1,000 to 3,000 families, who turn idle land into productive farms. They sell their
produce in the marketplaces of the local towns and buy their supplies from local
merchants. Not surprisingly those towns with nearby MST settlements are now better
off economically than other similar towns, and many mayors now actually petition the
MST to carry out occupations near their towns (Candido Gryzbowski, IBASE, personal
communication).

It is clear that local and regional economic development benefits from a small farm
economy, as do the life and prosperity of rural towns. Can we re-create a small farm
economy in places where it has been lost, to improve the wellbeing of the poor?

Improving Social Welfare Through Land Reform

Recent history shows that the re-distribution of land to landless and land-poor rural
families can be a very effective way to improve rural welfare. Sobhan (1993) examined
the outcome of virtually every land reform program carried out in the Third World since
World War II. He is careful to distinguish between what he calls 'radical' re-distribution
(called 'genuine land reform' by Lappé et al., 1998), and 'non-egalitarian' reforms (or
'fake land reform' in the Lappé et al.'s terminology). When quality land was really
distributed to the poor, and the power of the rural oligarchy to distort and 'capture'

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policies broken, real, measurable poverty reduction and improvement in human welfare
has invariably been the result. Japan, South Korean, Taiwan and China are all good
examples. In contrast, countries with reforms that gave only poor quality land to
beneficiaries, and/or failed to alter the rural power structures that work against the poor,
have failed to make a major dent in rural poverty. Mexico and the Philippines are typical
cases of the latter (Sobhan, 1993; Lappé et al., 1998).

While Sobhan looked at national-level statistics to derive his conclusions, Besley and
Burgess (1998) recently looked at the history of land reform in 16 individual Indian
states from 1958 to 1992. While these were by and large not radical reforms in Sobhan's
sense, many did abolish tenancy and reduce the importance of intermediaries. The
authors found a strong relationship between land reform and the reduction of poverty.
Similarly in Brazil, land reform beneficiaries and members of MST-settlements have a
higher standard of living than those families who remain landless (Candido Gryzbowski,
IBASE, personal communication). In fact land reform holds promise as a means to stem
the rural-urban migration that is causing Third World cities to grow beyond the capacity
of urban economies to provide enough jobs.

In Brazil IBASE, a social and economic research center, studied the impact on
government coffers of legalizing MST-style land occupations-cum-settlements versus the
services used by equal numbers of people migrating to urban areas. When the landless
poor occupy land and force the government to legalize their holdings, it implies costs:
compensation of the former landowner, legal expenses, credit for the new farmers, etc.
Nevertheless the total cost to the state to maintain the same number of people in an urban
shanty town -- including the services and infrastructure they use -- exceeds in just one
month, the yearly cost of legalizing land occupations (Candido Gryzbowski, IBASE,
personal communication).

Another way of looking at it is in terms of the cost of creating a new job. Estimates of
the cost of creating a job in the commercial sector of Brazil range from 2 to 20 times
more than the cost of establishing an unemployed head of household on farm land,
through agrarian reform. Land reform beneficiaries in Brazil have an annual income
equivalent to 3.7 minimum wages, while still landless laborers average only 0.7 of the
minimum. Infant mortality among families of beneficiaries has dropped to only half of
the national average (Stédile, 1998).

This provides a powerful argument that land reform to create a small farm economy is
not only good for local economic development, but is also more effective social policy
than allowing business-as-usual to keep driving the poor out of rural areas and into
burgeoning cities.

Sobhan (1993) argues that only land reform holds the potential to address chronic
underemployment in most Third World countries. Because small farms use more labor --
and often less capital -- to farm a given unit of area, a small farm model can absorb far
more people into gainful activity and reverse the stream of out-migration from rural

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areas. What of national economic development? How do countries characterized by

small farms fare compared to those dominated by large farms?

National Economic Development and 'Bubble-Up' Economics

In turns out that a relatively equitable, small farmer-based rural economy does provide
the basis for strong national economic development. This "farmer road to development"
is part of the reason why, early on in its history, the United States developed more
rapidly and evenly than Latin America, with its inequitable land distribution
characterized by huge haciendas and plantations interspersed with poverty-stricken
subsistence farmers (de Janvry, 1981). In the United States, independent "yeoman"
farmers formed a vibrant domestic market for manufactured products from urban areas,
including farm implements, clothing and other necessities. This domestic demand fueled
economic growth in the urban areas, and the combination gave rise to broad-based
growth (Sachs, 1987).

More recently the post-war experiences of Japan, South Korea and Taiwan demonstrate
how equitable land distribution fuels economic development. At the end of the war
circumstances, including devastation and foreign occupation, conspired to create the
conditions for 'radical' land reforms in each country, breaking the economic stranglehold
of the landholding class over rural economic. Combined with trade protection to keep
farm prices high, and targeted investment in rural areas, small farmers rapidly achieved a
high level of purchasing power, which guaranteed domestic markets for fledging
industries (Sachs, 1987).

The post-war economic 'miracles' of these three countries were each fueled at the start by
these internal markets centered in rural areas, long before the much heralded 'export
orientation' policies which much later on pushed those industries to compete in the global
economy. This was real triumph for 'bubble-up' economics, in which re-distribution of
productive assets to the poorest strata of society created the economic basis for rapid
development. It stands in stark contrast to the failure of 'trickle down' economics to
achieve much of anything in the same time period in areas of U.S. dominance, such as
much of Latin America (Sachs, 1987).

A further benefit of small farm development through land reform in East Asia was the
dispersal of political power. Economically enfranchised small farmers became an
important political base that politicians had to respond to, avoiding the kind of urban
biases in policy-making that have sabotaged economic development in much of the Third
World (Sachs, 1987).

More generally, there is now a growing consensus among mainstream development

economists, long called for by those on the left, that inequality in asset distribution
impedes economic growth (Solimano, 1999). This is leading even such institutions as
the World Bank to call for land reform, albeit of a 'non-radical,' 'market-led' variety I do
not necessarily endorse (see for example, Banerjee, 1998; Stiglitz, 1998; Deininger and
Binswanger, 1998; for the alternative view, see complaints in Inspection Panel, 1999).

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Ecosystem Services & Sustainability

The benefits of small farms extend beyond the economic sphere. Whereas large,
industrial-style farms impose a scorched-earth mentality on resource management -- no
trees, no wildlife, endless monocultures -- small farmers can be very effective stewards
of natural resources and the soil. To begin with, small farmers utilize a broad array of
resources and have a vested interest in their sustainability. At the same time, their
farming systems are diverse, incorporating and preserving significant functional
biodiversity within the farm. By preserving biodiversity, open space and trees, and by
reducing land degradation, small farms provide valuable ecosystem services to the larger
society.

In the United States, small farmers devote 17% of their area to woodlands, compared to
only 5% on large farms. Small farms maintain nearly twice as much of their land in "soil
improving uses," including cover crops and green manures (D'Souza and Ikerd, 1996).
In the Third World, peasant farmers show a tremendous ability to prevent and even
reverse land degradation, including soil erosion (Templeton and Scherr, 1999).

Many small farm agroecosystems in the Third World are are located on a wide variety of
slopes, aspects, microclimates, elevational zones, and soil types. They are surrounded by
many different vegetation associations. There are numerous combinations of diverse
biophysical factors which have led to the diverse cropping patterns developed by farmers
to exploit site-specific characteristics. Descriptions of the species and structural diversity
and management of these traditional systems are found throughout the literature on
agroecology (see for example, Altieri, 1995; Pretty, 1995; Netting, 1993; The Ecologist,
1998).

In many areas traditional farmers have developed and/or inherited complex farming
systems which are highly adapted to local conditions, allowing them to sustainably
manage production in harsh environments while meeting their subsistence needs, without
depending on mechanization, chemical fertilizers, pesticides or other technologies of
modern agricultural science (Altieri 1995).

Compared to the ecological wasteland of a modern export plantation, the small farm
landscape contains a myriad of biodiversity. The forested areas from which wild foods,
and leaf litter are extracted, the wood lot, the farm itself with intercropping, agroforestry,
and large and small livestock, the fish pond, the backyard garden, allow for the
preservation of hundreds if not thousands of wild and cultivated species.
Simultaneously, the commitment of family members to maintaining soil fertility on the
family farm means an active interest in long-term sustainability not found on large farms
owned by absentee investors.

If we are truly concerned about rural ecosystems, then the preservation and promotion of
small, family farm agriculture is a crucial step we must take.

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Conclusions:
Free Trade Threatens Small Farm Agriculture

Throughout this paper I have examined the multiple functions played by small farms, and
the myriad benefits they provide for society and for the biosphere. If we are concerned
about food production, small farms are more productive. If our concern is efficiency,
they are more efficient. If our concern is poverty, land reform to create a small farm
economy offers a clear solution. The small farm model is also the surest route to broad-
based economic development. If the loss of biodiversity or the sustainability of
agriculture concern us, small farms offer a crucial part of the solution.

Despite decades of anti-small farm policies taken by nation states (Lappé et al., 1998),
small farmers have clung to the soil in amazing numbers. But today we stand at a cross-
roads. As a world we are poised to take steps toward global economic integration that
pose far greater threats to small farmers than they have ever faced before.

Trade liberalization—the move toward global free trade policies—poses a grave threat to
the continued existence of small farms throughout the world. Over the past couple of
decades Third World countries have been encouraged, cajoled, threatened, and generally
pressured into unilaterally reducing the level of protection offered to their domestic food
producers in the face of well-financed foreign competitors. Through participation in
GATT, NAFTA, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade
Organization, they have reduced or some cases eliminated tariffs, quotas and other
barriers to unlimited imports of food products (Bello et al., 1999). On the face of it, this
might sound like a good thing. After all, more food imports might make food cheaper in
poor, hungry countries, and thus make it easier for the poor to obtain enough to eat.
However, the experiences of many countries suggest that there are downsides to these
policies which may outweigh the potential benefits.

Typically Third World economies have been inundated with cheap food coming from the
major grain exporting countries. For a variety of reasons (subsidies, both hidden and
open, industrialized production, etc.) this food is more often than not put on the
international market at prices below the local cost of production. That drives down the
prices that local farmers receive for what they produce, with two related effects, both of
which are negative (Lappé et al., 1998).

First, a sudden drop in farm prices can drive already poor, indebted farmers off the land
over the short term. Second, a more subtle effect kicks in. As crop prices stay low over
the medium term, profits per unit area—per acre or hectare—stay low as well. That
means the minimum number of hectares needed to support a family rises, contributing to
abandonment of farm land by smaller, poorer farmers—land which then winds up in the
hands of the larger, better off farmers who can compete in a low price environment by
virtue of having very many hectares. They overcome the low profit per hectare trap
precisely by owning vast areas which add up to good profits in total, even if they
represent very little on a per hectare basis. The end result of both mechanisms is the

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further concentration of farm land in the ever fewer hands of the largest farmers (Lappé
et al., 1998).

A penalty is paid for this land concentration in terms of productivity, as large farmers
turn to monocultures and machines to farm such vast tracts, and in terms of the
environment, as these large mechanized monocultures come to depend on agrochemicals.
Jobs are lost as machines replace human labor and draft animals. Rural communities die
out as farmers and farm workers migrate to cities. Natural resources deteriorate as
nobody is left who cares about them. Finally, food security is placed in jeopardy:
domestic food production falls in the face of cheap imports; land that was once used to
grow food is placed into production of export crops for distant markets; people now
depend on money—rather than land—to feed themselves; and fluctuations in
employment, wages and world food prices can drive millions into hunger.

This process should be a more or less familiar one to North Americans, who have seen
low crop prices and the "get big or get out" mentality of government policy drive four
million farmers off the land since World War II (Lappé et al., 1998; Heffernan, 1999).
We have paid, and continued to pay, a heavy price of runaway soil erosion from
excessive mechanization and "fence row to fence row" planting, of urban problems
because our inner cities never did absorb the excess labor expelled from rural America,
and of the collapse of rural life.

The major drive to export grain from America's heartland, which began in the 1970s,
contributed to a 40 percent increase in soil erosion in the corn and soybean belts. Today
about 90 percent of U.S. crop land is losing topsoil faster than it can be replaced (Lappé
et al., 1998.) The export boom also contributed to a 25 percent increase in average farm
size, which was accompanied by the loss of one third of all American farmers between
1970 and 1992 (U.S. Census of Agriculture, 1992). In Figure 3 we see that the average
American farmer has not benefited from the export boom at all. Rather, the profits have
accrued to the giant grain cartels (Krebs, 1991).

In a very real sense, then, the U.S. drive to dominate global grain markets has hurt family
farmers and damaged rural ecosystems both at home and abroad.

What is euphemistically known as a "fair and market-oriented agricultural trading

system"—almost totally free trade in farm products—is unfortunately the agenda of
American government negotiators in the Millennium Round of trade negotiations under
the World Trade Organization, beginning in the fall of 1999 in Seattle (Permanent
Mission of the United States, 1999).

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Figure 3. On-Farm Income of the Average U.S. Farmer vs. Total U.S. Farm Exports, 1963-1994.
Sources: Farmer income--Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Current and
Historic Operator Household Income Tables. Exports--Food and Agriculture Organization, FAOSTAT
Agriculture Data.

This represents the single gravest threat faced today by the world's rural peoples and
ecologies. The further "liberalization" of trade in agricultural products would mean
greater freedom for the big to drive out the small, for forcing people everywhere to
depend on distant global markets—with unpredictable price swings—for the daily meals,
another mass exodus from rural areas and the further growth of cities, and could lead to
the final triumph of inefficient and ecologically destructive monocultures over
ecologically rational and sustainable farming practices.

There is less than unanimous support among the world's nations for the U.S position. A
number of countries have taken up the call made in Chapter 14 of Agenda 21, the
declaration drawn up at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio, that "agricultural policy review,
planning and integrated programming [be carried out] in the light of the multifunctional
aspects of agriculture, particularly with regard to food security and sustainable
development."

According to this viewpoint, agriculture produces not only commodities, but also
livelihoods, cultures, ecological services, etc., and as such, the products of farming
cannot be treated in the same way as other goods. While a shoe, for example, is a
relatively simple good whose world price can be set by supply and demand, and the trade
in which can be regulated through tariffs or de-regulated by removing them, not so for
farming, whose roles are far more complex.

The Japanese government, in a preparatory document for the Seattle negotiations, put it
this way (Permanent Mission of Japan, 1999):

Agriculture not only produces/supplies agricultural products, but also

contributes to food security, by reducing the risks caused by unexpected
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events or a possible food shortage in the future, to the preservation of land

and environment, to the creation of a good landscape and to the
maintenance of the local community, through production activities in
harmony with the natural environment. All of these roles are known as the
"multifunctionality" of agriculture.

The multifunctionality of agriculture has the following characteristics: (a)

Most aspects of multifunctionality are regarded as economic externalities
and it is difficult to reflect their values properly in market prices. Though it
is closely related to production, it cannot be subject to trade; (b) Market
mechanisms alone cannot lead to the realization of an agricultural
production method that will embody the multifunctionality of agriculture.

Norway has also endorsed the concept of multifunctionality as the basis for special
treatment of farming for reasons of environmental protection, food security and the
viability of rural areas (Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture, 1998), as has the European
Union to some extent (European Commission, 1999), and as have some other countries.

As an expert in small farm production, I completely endorse this view. Ignoring the
multiple functions of agriculture has caused untold suffering and ecological destruction
in the past. The time is long overdue to recognize the full range of contributions that
agriculture—and small farms in particular—make to human societies and to the
biosphere. Farms are not factories that churn out sneakers or tennis racquets, and we
cannot let narrow arguments of simple economic expediency destroy this legacy of all
human kind.

I call on the world's civil society to demand that our governments respect the multi-
functionality of agriculture and grant each country true sovereignty over food and
farming, by stepping back from free trade in agricultural products. Instead of deepening
policies that damage small farms, we should implement policies to develop small farm
economies. These might include genuine land reforms, tariff protection for staple
foods—so that farmers receive fair prices, and the reversal of biases in policies for credit,
technology, research , education, subsidies, taxes and infrastructure which unfairly
advance large farms at the expense of smaller ones. By doing so we will strike at the
root causes of poverty, hunger, underdevelopment and degradation of rural ecosystems.

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