Basic Physics Lab Manual PDF

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
PRACTICAL PHYSICS 2017-18
For the Higher Secondary Practical Examination, a minimum of
22 experiments must be done and recorded. These include 10
first year experiments and 12 second year experiments and are
scheduled in two cycles.
FIRST YEAR Experiments SECOND YEAR Experiments
1. Concurrent force 11. Potentiometer -1

2. Simple Pendulum 12. Potentiometer -2
3. Vernier Callipers 13. Convex Lens
4. Sonometer - 1 14. Concave Lens
5. Sonometer - 2 15. Diode characteristics
6. Screw Gauge 16. Zener Diode
7. Helical Spring 17. Ohms law -1
8. Resonance column 1 18. Ohms law – 2
9. Resonance column 2 19. Concave Mirror
10. Newton’s law of cooling 20. Covex Mirror
21. Sonometer 3
22. Meter bridge
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O A B
P Q
O
OBSERVATIONS &CALCULATIONS
Scale factor 1cm =25 g wt
Mean
Body
Si P Q OA OB OD Wt. of the body
Weight
No g wt g Wt cm cm cm OD x scale factor
g wt
In 1 150 150 6 6
𝑊𝐴 =
Air 2 200 200 8 8
In 1 150 150 6 6
𝑊𝑊 =
Water 2 200 200 8 8
Weight of the body 𝑊𝐴 =…………………. gm wt
Mass of the body = ……………. gm = ……………….. Kg
𝑊𝐴
Relative density of solid body = = ……………….
𝑊𝐴 −𝑊𝑊

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CONCURRENT FORCES
AIM
1. To find mass of a solid body
2. To find relative density of the solid body
APPARATUS
Parallelogram apparatus, slotted weights, drawing pin, mirror piece, given body.
THEORY
Parallelogram law of vectors: if two forces acting at a point are represented by the adjacent
sides of a parallelogram, then diagonal starting from the common point represents their
resultant.
If the forces P, Q and the unknown force W are in equilibrium then
Weight of the body W = OC X Scale factor
OC –Diagonal of the parallelogram with P and Q as adjacent sides
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑊𝐴
Relative density of the solid body = =
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑊𝐴 −𝑊𝑊
𝑊𝐴 = Weight of body in air

𝑊𝑊 =Weight of body in water
PROCEDURE
A sheet of paper is fixed on the board using drawing pins. Weights
P = 150gm and Q=150gm are tied at the ends of two strings each passing over a pulley. The
other end of the strings is connected together and from this common point, the unknown
mass is suspended.
The directions of the three forces and the common knot are marked on the sheet of paper
by putting dot marks. By taking suitable scale, OA and OB are marked on the paper and
parallelogram is completed. From the length of diagonal OC, weight of the body is found.
Now the experiment is repeated by taking P=200gm and Q=200gm. Mean weight 𝑊𝐴 is
calculated
The same procedure is repeated by immersing the body in water. Thus mean weight 𝑊𝑊 is
calculated. Now relative density can be found out by using equation
RESULT
1. Mass of the given body =
2. Relative density of the given body =

5
𝑇 2 in sec2
C
A B
ℓ in cm
2
ℓ - T graph
Simple pendulum
Radius of bob ( r ) = 0.9 cm
Length Time of 20
Length of Period 𝓵
to the oscillations T2
Sl top Pendulum observations T= 𝑡20 sec2 𝑻𝟐
Mean cm/sec2
No of bob ℓ 1 2 ( three
( four
ℓ-r (cm) (t) sec sec
deci.place)
deci.place)
(cm) (sec) (sec)
1 39.1 40
2 49.1 50
3 59.1 60
4 89.1 90
5 99.1 100
ℓ
Mean = ……… cm/s2
𝑇2
= ………. m/s2
Acceleration due to gravity
ℓ
By calculation g = 4𝜋 2 = 4x3.142x………… cm/s2 = …………… m/s2
𝑇2
AB
From graph g = 4𝜋 2 = 4x3.142x………… cm/s2 = …………… m/s2
𝐵𝐶
Time period of seconds pendulum = 2 s

Length of seconds pendulum =……………...cm
= ……………...m

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THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

AIM
1. To draw ℓ - T2 graph of a simple pendulum
2. To determine acceleration due to gravity at the place
3. To find length of seconds pendulum
APPARATUS
Simple pendulum, Meter Scale, stop clock
THEORY Equilibrium of three forces acing
Parallelogram Apparatus
For small amplitudes of oscillation the time period of a pendulum
at ais point
given by
ℓ
T =2𝜋
𝑔
ℓ ℓ
Acceleration due to gravity at the place g = 4𝜋 2 2 , ie 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
ℓ = Length of the pendulum (distance from point of suspension to the centre of the
bob)
T = time period (time for one oscillation)
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s2
ℓ
The ℓ - T2 graph is a straight line and its slope gives 2
𝑇
If time period of a pendulum is two, it is called as a second’s pendulum
PROCEDURE
The distance from point of suspension to the top of the bob is set as 39.1 cm so that length
of pendulum ( l ) is 40 cm. Now the pendulum is allowed to oscillate with small amplitude.
The time for 20 oscillations is measured using stop clock. It is repeated and mean time (t) is
found out. Hence time period T is determined. The experiment is repeated for increasing
length of pendulum such that,
ℓ
ℓ = 50, 60, 90, 100. In each case 2 is calculated. Then mean value of
𝑇
ℓ
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑇2
ℓ - T2 graph
A graph is plotted with ℓ along the X axis and T2 along the Y axis. From the graph
acceleration due to gravity and length of second’s pendulum are calculated.
RESULT
1. ℓ - T2 graph is found to be a straight line.
2. Acceleration due to gravity at the place
By calculation = …………… m/s2
From graph = ………………. m/s2
3. Length of seconds pendulum from graph =………………. m

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Magnitude of one main scale division MSD =0.1 cm

Number of divisions on vernier scale n = 10
1 𝑀𝑆𝐷 0.1
Least Count LC = = = 0.01 cm
𝑁 10
To find dimensions of sphere

Trail MSR VSR VSR X LC Total reading =
Dimension Mean
No. cm Divisions cm MSR + (VSR X LC)
1
2
Diameter of sphere
d = ………cm
4
d
5
6
7
8
Diameter of the Sphere = ………… cm = ………….. m

𝒅
Radius of the sphere r = = …………………………. m
𝟐
𝟒
Volume of the given sphere V = 𝝅r3 = …………………m3
𝟑
Mass of the sphere M = 50 gm = 50 x10-3 kg

𝑴
Density of the given sphere 𝝆 = = ………………. Kg/m3
𝑽

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THE VERNIER CALLIPERS

AIM
1. To determine dimensions of given sphere
2. To determine volume of the sphere
3. To determine density of the sphere
4. To determine dimensions of given cylinder
5. To determine volume of the cylinder
APPARATUS
Vernier callipers, cylinder, sphere
THEORY
The least measurement that can be taken by an instrument is called Least Count (LC)
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
Least Count = =
𝑁𝑜 .𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑁
The measured value in vernier callipers is given by
Total reading = MSR + (VSR X LC)

MSR = Main Scale Reading (The reading of the main scale just before the zero of
vernier scale is taken as MSR)
VSR = Vernier Scale Reading (The vernier scale division which coincides with any of
the main scale division is taken as VSR)
 Volume of cylinder 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℓ r = radius, ℓ=length of cylinder

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 Volume of sphere V = 𝜋r3
3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
 Density of sphere 𝜌 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
PROCEDURE
To find volume and density of the sphere: the given sphere is gripped between the jaws of
vernier callipers.MSR and VSR readings are taken. Then diameter of the sphere is found
using TR = MSR + (VSR X LC). The experiment is repeated by clamping vernier callipers at
various diametrically opposite points of sphere and average diameter is obtained. Then
radius and hence volume of the sphere is calculated. Density can be found out by using the
formulae
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉

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To find dimensions of cylinder

Trail MSR VSR VSR X LC Total reading
Dimension Mean
No. cm Divisions cm MSR + (VSR X LC)
1
2
Length of cylinder
cm
4
𝓵 = ………
𝓵
5
6
7
8
1
2
Diameter of cylinder
cm
4
d= ………
d
5
6
7
8
Length of the cylinder 𝓵 = ……… c m = ………….m

Diameter of the Cylinder d = ………. cm = …………. m
𝒅
Radius of the cylinder r = = ……………….. m
𝟐
Volume of the given cylinder 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝓵 = …………………m3

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To find volume of the cylinder: The given cylinder is gripped lengthwise between jaws and
length is found as before. Similarly the cylinder is gripped diameterwise between the jaws
and mean diameter is determined. Then radius and volume are calculated.
RESULT
1. Dimensions of sphere
a) Radius =…………….. m
2. Volume of sphere = ………………. m3

3. Density of the sphere = ……………… kg/m3
4. Dimensions of cylinder
a) Length = ……………. m
b) Radius = ……………. m
5. Volume of cylinder =………………………. m 3

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ℓ
Sonometer
Constant mass suspended in the string = 2.5Kg
Resonating length
Frequency of
of sonometer wire
Trial Tuning fork K=𝑛xℓ
Mean
No. (𝒏) 1 2
cm cm (ℓ)
Hz
cm
1 512
2 480
3 426
Mean value of K = …………Hz cm
To find unknown frequency of given tuning fork
Resonating length Unknown

Frequency of of sonometer wire frequency
Tuning fork Mean K
1 2 𝑛=
Hz
cm cm (L) 𝐿
cm Hz
unknown

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THE SONOMETER-1
AIM
1. To verify n x ℓ = Const.
2. To determine frequency of the given tuning fork
APPARATUS
Sonometer, slotted weights, tuning fork of frequency -512 Hz, 480Hz, 426Hz & unknown
frequency, rubber hammer, paper rider
THEORY
The frequency ( 𝑛 ) of transverse vibrations produced in a stretched string is given by
1 𝑇
𝑛=
2ℓ 𝜇
ℓ = resonating length of sonometer wire

𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 ( T=F=mg= weight hang on wire)
mass of sonometer wire
𝜇 = linear density of wire ( mass per unit length = )
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔 𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
𝐼𝑓 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 are made as constants, then 𝑛 x ℓ = constant (K)

K
If L is length of wire in resonance with tuning fork of frequency 𝑛, then 𝑛= 𝐿
PROCEDURE
The sonometer wire is stretched by suspending a constant mass = 2.5 Kg. The bridges are
kept close and paper rider is placed at the middle. Tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz is exited
and its stem is placed on the sonometer box. The bridges are moved slowly till the paper
rider is thrown off. Distance between the bridges gives the resonating length ℓ. The
experiment is repeated again and mean ℓ is determined
The same procedure is repeated by using the tuning forks of frequency 480Hz and 426Hz. 𝑛
x ℓ is found to be constant. Similarly resonating length L for the unknown frequency is
determined and hence 𝑛 is calculated.
RESULT
1. 𝑛 x ℓ is found to be constant
2. Frequency of the given tuning fork ( ) = ……………. Hz

13 Scale
ℓ
Origin (0,100)
Along X axis, 1cm = 0.5 Kg
2
Along Y axis, 1cm = 10cm
L2
Sonometer
ℓ2 in cm2
m in kg M
Frequency of tuning fork used = 426 Hz

Resonating length m
Trial
Mass
of sonometer wire ℓ2 K= ℓ2
suspended
No. 1 2 Mean cm2
(m) Kg Kg/cm2
cm cm (ℓ) cm
1 1.5
2 2
3 2.5
Mean value of K = ………… Kg/cm2
To find unknown mass of given body
Resonating length Unknown

Mass
of sonometer wire
L2 mass
Trial
suspended
No.
(M) Kg 1 2 Mean M = K x L2
cm2 Kg
cm cm (L) cm
1 unknown

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THE SONOMETER-2
AIM
𝑚
1. To show that 2 =Const.
ℓ
2. To Plot m - ℓ2 graph
3. To determine unknown mass of given body
APPARATUS
Sonometer, slotted weights, tuning fork of frequency -426Hz, unknown mass, rubber
hammer, paper rider
THEORY
1 𝑇
The frequency of transverse vibrations produced in a stretched string is given by 𝑛 =
2ℓ 𝜇
ℓ = resonating length of sonometer wire

𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝜇 = linear density of wire (mass per unit length)
𝐼𝑓 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 are made as constants, then 𝑇 α ℓ OR T α ℓ2
m
Since T = mg, Substituting = Constant (K)
ℓ2
2
If L is resonating length of wire for the unknown mass M, then M = K x L
PROCEDURE
The sonometer wire is stretched by suspending a suitable mass 1.5Kg. The bridges are kept
close and paper rider is placed at the middle. Tuning fork of frequency 426 Hz is exited and
its stem is placed on the sonometer box. The bridges are moved slowly till the paper rider is
thrown off. Distance between the bridges gives the resonating length ℓ. The experiment is
repeated again and mean ℓ is determined
The same procedure is repeated by using the same tuning fork but changing mass
m
suspended. is found to be constant. Similarly resonating length L for the unknown mass
ℓ2
is determined and hence M is calculated
A graph is plotted by taking m along X-Axis and ℓ2along Y axis.
RESULT
𝑚
1. 2 is found to be constant
ℓ
2. The m- ℓ2 graph is found to be a straight line
3. Mass of the given body 1. By calculation = ……………… Kg
2. From Graph = ………………….Kg

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Extension in cm
Scale
C Origin (0, 0)
Along X axis, 1cm = 0.05 Kg
Along Y axis, 1cm = 1 cm
A B
Mass in Kg
Reading of the pointer with dead load r0 =
Loaded mass Reading of the pointer 𝑚𝑔

Extension K=
Producing On On Mean 𝓍
Extension loading unloading r 𝓍 = r - r0
cm N/cm
(m) in Kg cm cm cm
m 0 +0.05
m 0 +0.1.
m 0 +0.15
m 0 +0.2.
Mean K = ………… N/cm

To find unknown mass
Reading of the pointer unknown mass
Extension 𝐾𝐿
Loaded mass Mean L = R-r0 M= 𝑔
1 2
R
cm cm cm Kg
cm
m 0 +unknown mass
Spring constant by calculation K =………… N/cm = …………..N/m
To find spring constant from graph

𝐴𝐵
Spring constant K = ( ) g =………………… N/m
𝐵𝐶

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THE HELICAL SPRING

AIM
1. To find spring constant of the spring by load – extension method
2. To plot load - extension graph
3. To determine unknown mass of the given body
APPARATUS
Helical spring, weight hanger with slotted weights, unknown mass
THEORY
According to Hook’s law F =k 𝓍 where k is spring constant and 𝓍 is extension of the spring
when the force is applied
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ( 𝐹) 𝑚𝑔
Spring constant K = =
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝓍) 𝓍
g = acceleration due to gravity
If a graph is drawn with load along X axis and extension along Y axis, the graph will be a
straight line. Spring constant can be determined from the graph by
𝐴𝐵
K=( )g
𝐵𝐶
𝐾𝐿
Unknown mass M = 𝑔
where L is the extension produced by the unknown mass.
PROCEDURE
A suitable dead load m0 is suspended from the spring and the spring is brought into elastic
mode. Now reading of the pointer r0 is taken.
Slotted weights 50gm are added one by one to the weight hanger and each time scale
reading is taken. The slotted weights are unloaded one by one and each time reading of the
pointer is noted. The mean of the readings (r) corresponding to loading and unloading is
calculated. The corresponding extension 𝓍 = r - r0 for m = 50g, 100g, 150g, 200g is
determined and spring constant is tabulated in each case
A graph is drawn with load along X axis and extension along Y axis, the graph will be a
𝐴𝐵
straight line and spring constant is determined from the graph by the equation K = ( )g
𝐵𝐶
The unknown mass is suspended from the weight hanger along with the dead load. The
extension produced is found out and unknown mass is calculated
RESULT
1. Spring constant of the helical spring
1. By calculation = ………… N/m
2. From load-extension graph = ………. N/m
2. The load-extension graph is found to be a straight line
3. Mass of the given body (by calculation) = ……………… Kg
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Magnitude of one pitch scale division = 1 mm
Distance moved for 4 rotations S = 4 mm

𝑠 4 𝑚𝑚
Pitch = = = 1 mm
4 4
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐 𝑕 1𝑚𝑚
Least Count = = = 0.01mm
𝑁𝑜 .𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 100
Zero coincidence =
Zero correction Z =
To find volume of the wire
Diameter of the wire

Sl Corrected Total Reading =
PSR Observed Corrected HSR
No HSR X LC PSR + (Corrected HSR x LC)
mm HSR (HSR+Z ) mm
mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Mean diameter d = ……………………. mm
𝒅
Radius of the wire r = = ……………… mm = ……………. m
𝟐
Length of the wire 𝓵 = …………….. …..cm = …………….. m

Volume of the wire V = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝓵 = ………………. m3

18
THE SCREW GAUGE

AIM
1. To find volume of given wire
2. To determine volume of given glass plate
APPARATUS
Screw gauge, glass plate, wire, reading lens
THEORY
The least count of screw gauge is the minimum distance that can be measured by using it. It
is equal to the distance through which tip of the screw advances for one division of rotation
of the head scale
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐 𝑕
Least count L.C =
𝑁𝑜 .𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
L C of screw gauge is 0.01 mm
Pitch of the screw gauge is the distance through which tip of the screw advances for one
complete rotation of the head scale
The measured value using screw gauge is given by
Total reading = PSR + (Corrected HSR x LC)
PSR =Pitch scale reading (observed reading on the pitch scale)
HSR =Head scale reading (the division on head scale where reference line coincides)
Zero Error -If zero of head scale coincides with reference line, then there is no zero error. If
zero on head scale is above the reference line, zero correction is positive, and if zero is
below the reference line, zero correction is negative
 Volume of the wire V = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℓ
r = radius of the wire
ℓ=length of the wire
 Volume of the glass plate V =A x t

A = area of glass plate
t = thickness of glass plate
PROCEDURE
Pitch and LC of screw gauge is determined. To find zero correction, the head scale is
completely rotated till the tips of the studs are gently touching each other. If zero of head
scale coincides with reference line, then there is no zero error. If zero on head scale is above
the reference line, zero correction is positive, and if zero is below the reference line, zero
correction is negative.

19
To find volume of glass plate
Thickness of glass plate

Si Corrected Total Reading =
mm HSR (HSR+Z ) mm
mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Mean thickness t = ……………………. mm
Thickness of glass plate t = …………………… mm = ………………….. m
Area of the glass plate (from graph paper) A = …………… mm2 =………….. m2
Volume of the glass plate V = A x t = ………………. m3

20
To find volume of wire: The given wire is gripped between the studs of the screw gauge and
PSR, HSR readings are taken
Corrected HSR = observed HSR + zero correction
Diameter of wire = PSR + (Corrected HSR x LC)
The experiment is repeated for different positions of the wire. The mean diameter and
radius is found out. The length of wire is determined by using a scale. Volume of the wire is
calculated by using the formulae V = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℓ
To find volume of glass plate: the thickness of glass plate is determined by using screw
gauge by the above method. Now the glass plate is placed on a graph paper and its outline is
drawn. By counting number of mm squares, its area is determined. The volume is calculated
by using the equation
V =Area x thickness
RESULT
1. Volume of the given wire = …………… m3
2. Volume of the glass plate = ……………. m3

21
First resonance Second resonance Velocity of

Frequency of Length length Sound
Trial tuning fork 𝑉𝑡 = 2𝑛 ℓ2 − ℓ1
Hz Mean Mean
No 1 2 1 2
ℓ1 ℓ2
(𝒏) cm cm
cm
cm cm
cm
cm/s
1 512
2 480
3 426
Mean 𝑽𝒕 = ………………. cm/s
Velocity of sound at room temperature 𝑽𝒕 = ………………. cm/s = ………… m/s

Room temperature t = 270c
Velocity of sound in air at zero degree Celsius 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟔 𝒕 = ………… m/s
To find unknown frequency
First resonance Second resonance

Unknown
Frequency of Length length
Frequency
tuning fork Mean Mean 𝑉𝑡
1 2 1 2
Hz 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑁=
cm cm cm cm 2 𝐿2 − 𝐿1
cm cm
Unknown
frequency

22
THE RESONANCE COLUMN-1

AIM
To find velocity of sound in air at room temperature
1.
0
2. To find velocity of sound in air at 0 C
3. To find the unknown frequency of the given tuning fork
APPARATUS
Resonance column apparatus, tuning forks, rubber hammer
THEORY
If ℓ1 and ℓ2 are the first and second resonating lengths for a tuning fork of frequency n, then
velocity of sound in air at room temperature is given by
𝑉𝑡 = 2𝑛 ℓ2 − ℓ1
Resonance occurs when frequency of the tuning fork becomes equal to the frequency of the
stationary waves produced inside the resonance column. At resonance a booming sound is
heard.
Velocity of sound at 00 C is given by 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑡 − 0.6 𝑡
Where t =room temperature in 00 C
If L1 and L2 are the first and second resonating lengths for the tuning fork of unknown
𝑉𝑡
frequency N, then 𝑁 =
2 𝐿2 −𝐿1
PROCEDURE
The inner tube of resonance column apparatus is kept at lowest position and an excited
tuning fork of frequency 512Hz is held at the mouth of inner tube. The tube is raised till a
booming sound is heard. The resonating length
is measured. This is repeated and mean value gives the first resonating length ℓ1.
The tube is further raised keeping the excited tuning fork above it, till another booming
sound is heard. This length is measured. This is repeated and average gives the second
resonating length ℓ2. Then velocity of sound is calculated by using the equation 𝑉𝑡 =
2𝑛 ℓ2 − ℓ1
The experiment is repeated by using tuning fork of different frequencies and average is
found out
RESULT
1. Velocity of sound at room temperature = ……………….. m/s
0
2. Velocity of sound in air at 0 C = …………….. m/s
3. The frequency of given tuning fork = ………….Hz

23
To find end correction
1st resonating length 2nd resonating length End correction

Frequency of
tuning fork
1 2 Mean 1 2 Mean 𝓵𝟐 − 𝟑𝓵𝟏
in Hz 𝑒=
cm cm cm cm cm cm 𝟐
ℓ1 ℓ2
512
426
Mean end correction =
To find the ratio of frequency of two given tuning forks
Frequency
1st resonating length 2nd resonating length
of 𝑛1 𝓵′𝟐 − 𝓵′𝟏
=
tuning fork 𝑛2 (𝓵𝟐 − 𝓵𝟏 )
in Hz 1 2 Mean 1 2 Mean
cm cm cm cm cm cm
512 ℓ1 = ℓ2 =
426 ℓ′1 = ℓ′2 =

24
THE RESONANCE COLUMN-2

AIM
1. To find the end correction
2. To find the ratio of frequency of two given tuning forks
APPARATUS
Resonance column apparatus, tuning forks, rubber hammer
THEORY
If ℓ1 and ℓ2 are the first and second resonating lengths for a tuning fork then end correction
is given by
ℓ2 − 3ℓ1
𝑒=
2
If ℓ1 and ℓ2 are the first and second resonation lengths of a tuning fork of frequency 𝑛1 and
ℓ1′ and ℓ′2 are that values for tuning fork of frequency 𝑛2 then ratio of frequency is given by
𝑛1 ℓ′2 − ℓ′1
=
𝑛2 (ℓ2 − ℓ1 )
PROCEDURE
The inner tube of resonance column apparatus is kept at lowest position and an excited
tuning fork of frequency 512Hz is held at the mouth of inner tube. The tube is raised till a
booming sound is heard. The resonating length
is measured. This is repeated and mean value gives the first resonating length ℓ1.
The tube is further raised keeping the excited tuning fork above it, till another booming
sound is heard. This length is measured. This is repeated and average gives the second
resonating length ℓ2.
The experiment is repeated by using another tuning fork of frequency 480Hz.its first and
second resonating lengths ℓ′1 and ℓ’2 are measured.
Ratio of frequency and end corrections are determined by using the above values.
RESULT
1. End correction of the resonance column apparatus =
2. Ratio of frequency of given tuning forks =

25
ln(𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 )
.
t
Observations and Calculation
Surrounding’s temperature 𝜽𝒔 = ................ oC
Temperature of water Difference of

Time for cooling,
Sl. in beaker temperature, ln(𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 )
No. t (minute.)
𝜽 in °𝒄 (𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 ) C
o
1 0
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4
6 5
7 6
8 7
9 8
10 9
11 10
12 12
13 14
14 16
15 18

26
NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING

AIM
1. To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time
2. To plot graph between ln(𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 ) and t
3. To plot a cooling curve
APPARATUS
Newton’s law of cooling apparatus- a copper calorimeter, two celsius thermometers, a stop
clock, a heater, liquid (water), a clamp stand.
THEORY
Newton’s law of cooling states that “ the rate at which a hot body loses heat is directly
proportional to the difference between the temperature of the hot body and that of its
surroundings and depends on the nature of material and the surface area of the body “.
−𝒅𝑸
∝ (𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 )
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑸
= −𝒌(𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 ) ..... (1)
𝒅𝒕
Where k is the constant of proportionality
For a body of mass m and specific heat s, at its initial temperature θ higher than its
surrounding’s temperature 𝜽𝒔 , the rate of loss of heat
𝒅𝑸 𝒅𝜽
= 𝒎𝒔 .......... (2)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Using Eqs. (1) and (2), the rate of fall of temperature is given by
𝑑𝜃 −𝑘
= (𝜃 − 𝜃𝑠 ) or 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑘 ′ (𝜃 − 𝜃𝑠 ) dt ......(3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑠
𝑘
where k ′ = is another constant, and negative sign
𝑚𝑠
indicate loss of heat , On integrating eqn. 3, we get

27
Temperature of water Difference of

Time for cooling,
Sl. in beaker temperature, ln(𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 )
No. t (minute.)
𝜽 in °𝒄 (𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 ) oC
16 20
17 22
18 24
19 26
20 28
21 30
22 34
23 38
24 42
25 46
26 50

28
𝑑𝜃
= −𝑘′ 𝑑𝑡
𝜃 − 𝜃𝑠
ln(𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 ) = −𝒌′ 𝒕 + 𝒄 ....... (4)
where c is the constant of integration, taking exponential on both sides

′
(𝜃 − 𝜃𝑠 ) = 𝑒 (−𝑘 𝑡+𝑐)
𝜽 = 𝜽𝒔 + 𝑪′𝒆−𝒌′ 𝒕 ................. (5)
where C’=𝑒 𝑐 , Eq (4) shows that the shape of a plot between ln(𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 ) and t will be a
straight line and (5) shows that a plot of 𝜽 is exponentially decreasing with t.
PROCEDURE
Take some liquid (water) and heat it until it boils. Using a thermometer, note down the
room temperature. Then using a stand, insert the bulb into that hot water and record the
temperature and time in regular intervals. Record these values in the corresponding
columns in the table. Plot a graph between time t, taken along x-axis and ln(𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 ) taken
along y-axis. Then plot an another graph between time t, taken along x-axis and 𝜽 taken
along y-axis
RESULT
1. The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly as the difference of
temperature goes on decreasing.
2. The graph between ln(𝜽 − 𝜽𝒔 ) and t is a straight line
3. The cooling curve is an exponential decay curve

29
K2
R G
E1
A
Rh
K1
Balancing length for Internal resistance

External
Leclanche cell ℓ1−ℓ2
Trial Resistance 𝑟=𝑅
Open circuit Closed circuit ℓ2
No R
Ohm
ℓ1 ℓ2 ohm
cm cm
1
2
3
4
5
6

30
THE POTENTIOMETER - 1
AIM
To determine the internal resistance of a Leclanche cell
APPARATUS
Potentiometer, Accumulator, Leclanche cell, resistance box, rheostat, key, galvanometer
THEORY
By the principle of potentiometer, if ℓ1 is the balancing length for leclanche cell of emf E in
open circuit,then
E α ℓ1 ……………………….. (1)
When the cell E is connected to an external resistance R,
𝐸𝑅
α ℓ …………………(2)
2
𝑅+𝑟
Where ℓ2balancing length in closed circuit
Dividing (1) and (2)

ℓ1−ℓ2
The internal resistance of the cell 𝑟 = 𝑅
ℓ2
ℓ1 = Balancing length in open circuit
ℓ2 = balancing length in closed circuit
PROCEDURE
The connections are done. The primary key K1 is closed and secondary key K2 is kept open.
Now the jockey is pressed at the ends A and B of the potentiometer and rheostat is adjusted
so that deflections at the ends A and b are opposite. Keeping the key K2 open balancing
length ℓ1 is determined. Now 5 ohm resistance is introduced in the resistance box and the
key K2 is pressed. Hence the balancing length ℓ2 of closed circuit is determined. Using the
values internal resistance is determined
The experiment is repeated by increasing the value of R and in each case internal resistance
is determined
RESULT
The internal resistance of Leclanche cell varies with external resistance.

31
Mass Resonating length ℓ 𝟐

𝒎
𝒍
𝓵𝟐 2
suspended
l no. Mean
m in kg 1 2 in cm2 in kg/cm
ℓ
1 0.5
2 0.6
3 0.7
4 0.8
5 0.9
6 1
𝑚
mean = …………….. kg/cm2
ℓ2
= …………….. kg/m2
𝑴
µ= linear density of wire(mass per length) =1.27 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝑳
kg/m
𝒈 𝒎
frequency of ac is given by 𝒏= = ……………. Hz
𝟒µ 𝓵𝟐

32
THE SONOMETER – 3
AIM
To determine frequency of ac using a sonometer
APPARATUS
Sonometer, slotted weights, step down transformer (6V) ,crocodile clips ,horse shoe magnet
THEORY
At resonance the natural frequency of vibration n of the sonometer wire becomes equal to
the applied frequency of ac and then the wire vibrates with maximum amplitude
The frequency of transverse vibration produced in a stretched string is given by
𝟏 𝑻
𝒏=
𝟐𝓵 𝝁
ℓ=resonating length of sonometer wire
T= mg Tension in the string
𝑴
µ= linear density of wire (mass per unit length)
𝑳
at resonance the frequency of ac is given by
𝒈 𝒎
𝒏=
𝟒µ 𝓵𝟐
PROCEDURE
The sonometer wire is stretched by suspending a constant mass 500 gm. The experiment is
set as shown in the fig. the bridges are kept close and ac supply is switched on. The position
of magnet is adjusted at the midway between the bridges. Distance between bridges A and
B is adjusted till paper rider vibrates vigorously and is thrown off. Distance between the
bridges gives the resonating length. The experiment is repeated once again and mean
length for that corresponding mass is
𝒎
calculated. Then find 𝟐. Experiment is repeated by changing m as 600,700,800,900,1000
𝓵
𝒎
gm and mean is calculated.
𝓵𝟐
Total mass ( M ) and length of the sonometer wire ( L ) is measured and linear density can
𝑴
be calculated by using the equation µ=
𝑳
RESULT
Frequency of ac mains, n = …….. Hz

33
Trial Distance from

Distant object method
No. Lens to screen
Focus object f in cm
far away
from ground 1
2
Mean f =……..……cm
…………..m
u - v method
𝟏 𝟏
u -v graph – graph
𝒖 𝒗
… ..

34
CONVEX LENS
AIM
1. To find the focal length of a convex lens by
a) Distant object method
b) u - v method
c) from u - v graph
𝟏 𝟏
d) from – graph
𝒖 𝒗
2. To determine the Power of lens
APPARATUS
Convex lens, Illuminated wire gauze, meter scale , lens stand,
white screen.
THEORY
Distant object method: When object is placed at infinity,
image is formed at focus. The distance between lens and the
screen gives focal length.
u - v method: If u is the object distance and v is the image
distance then focal length of the convex lens is given by
𝒖𝒗
From u - v method , f=
(𝒖+𝒗)
Where u = object distance between wire gauge and mirror
v = the image distance
𝟏 𝟏
While drawing u - v graph and – graph, same scale and
𝒖 𝒗
origin chosen from both the axis. The focal length can be find
out by using the equation.

35

Round off to 3
Object Image Mean decimal places
Trail 𝒖𝒗
Distance distance f =(𝒖+𝒗) f in
No 𝟏 𝟏
u in cm v in cm cm
𝒖 𝒗
1 14 0.071
2 16 0.062
f = …………..cm
3 18 .
4 20 .
5 22 .
6 24 .
7 26 .
8 28 .
focal length of the convex lens is given by , f = ……… cm

= ………. m
𝟏
Power of lens P = = ……….. D
𝒇
From u - v graph,
(𝑶𝑨+𝑶𝑩)
𝒇= = …… cm = …………. m
𝟒
𝟏 𝟏
From – graph,
𝒖 𝒗
𝟐
𝒇= = …….. cm = ………… m
(𝑶𝑸+𝑶𝑹)

36
𝟏 𝟏
From u - v graph, From 𝒖 – 𝒗 graph,
(𝑶𝑨 + 𝑶𝑩) 𝟐
𝒇= 𝒇=
𝟒 ( 𝑶𝑸+𝑶𝑹 )
𝟏
Power of lens, P =
𝒇
PROCRDURE
Distant object method: Lens is placed on a stand and focus an
object at large distance (a tree far away from window) to form
an image on screen. By varying distance between lens and
screen, clear image is formed at focus. The distance between
lens and the screen gives focal length.
u-v method: Lens is placed at a distance (u ) from the wire
gauze, as given in table and by adjusting screen clear image is
formed on the screen. Now image distance (v) is measured.
Using this focal length is calculated. This method is repeated for
each values of (u) given in the table mean focal length is
𝟏 𝟏
calculated. Then u - v graph and – graph is plotted. Focal
𝒖 𝒗
length from the graph is can be calculated.
RESULT
1. Focal length of convex lens
a) Distance object method = …………. m
b) u - v method =…………. m
c) From u - v graph =…………. m
𝟏 𝟏
d) From – graph =…………. m
𝒖 𝒗
2. Power of lens =…………. D

37

Focal
Object Image Mean focal
Lens Trail length
Distance distance 𝒖𝒗 length
used No
u in cm v in cm f= f in cm
(𝒖+𝒗)
1 14
2 16
Convex lens
…………..cm
3 18
4 20
5 22
6 24
f’=
7 26
8 28
1 28 f = …………… cm
Convex lens and
2 30
Concave lens
3 32
4 34
5 36
6 38
7 40
8 42
𝒇𝒇′
Focal length of the given concave lens F = = ………. cm
( 𝒇′ −𝒇 )
F = …………m

38
CONCAVE LENS
AIM
To find focal length of concave lens by contact method
APPARATUS
Concave lens, convex lens, screen, illuminated wire gauge.
THEORY
If f is the focal length of combination of lens and f ’ is the focal
length of convex lens , then the focal length of concave lens is
given by
𝒇𝒇′
F=
( 𝒇′ −𝒇 )
PROCRDURE
First find the focal length of convex lens ( f ’) using u-v method.
Lens is placed at a distance (u ) from the wire gauze, as given in
table and by adjusting screen clear image is formed. Now image
distance (v) is measured. This method is repeated for each
values given in the table. Now the convex and concave lens are
placed in contact and stick together using insulation tap ( since
concave lens can’t form real images). Now find the focal length
of the combination ( f ) using u-v method as explained later.
Form f and f ’ calculate f of concave lens.
RESULT
Focal length of the given concave lens, F = ……… m

39

Voltmeter Ammeter
Trial no
reading V reading I
1 0 0
2 1 0
3 2 0
4 2.5 10
5 3 25
6 3.2 50
7 3.2 60
8 3.2 75
9 3.2 100
10 3.2 120

40
ZENER DIODE
AIM
To draw V-I graph
APPARATUS
Zener diode, voltmeter, milli ammeter, rheostat, key, battery,
connecting wire.
THEORY
A junction diode specially designed to work only in one reverse
breakdown voltage is called zener diode. In reverse bias, the
potential barrier is large. Due to that reverse current through
the diode is almost zero. On increasing the reverse voltage to a
certain value, current increases suddenly. This voltage is called
zener voltage.
PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in the figure. Using rheostat
the voltage across diode is made at 0.1V and corresponding
current is noted. The voltage is increased as 0.2 , 0.3 , 0.4 ,
0.5...... and in each time milliammeter reading is taken. A graph
is plotted with voltage along X axis and current along –ve Y axis
RESULT
The V-I graph is plotted.

41

42
THE DIODE CHARECTERISTICS

AIM
1. To draw the V-I characteristics of a pn junction diode in
forward bias.
2. To determine static resistance.
3. To determine dynamic resistance.
4. Knee voltage.
APPARATUS
Diode IN 4007 , milliammeter , voltmeter , battery , rheostat ,
key
THEORY
Forward bias: in forward bias, P side of diode is connected to
positive terminal of battery and N side is connected to negative
terminal.
Forward characteristic is obtained by plotting voltage along X
axis and current along Y axis.
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐦𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐛𝐢𝐚𝐬 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞

Dynamic resistance (ac resistance) =
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐛𝐢𝐚𝐬 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞

Static resistance (dc resistance) =
𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭
Knee voltage: The forward voltage at which forward current

raises sharply is called knee voltage.

43

Voltmeter Ammeter Static
Trial Resistance
reading reading I in A
No. 𝑽
V in volt I in mA R= in ohm
𝑰
1 0.1
2 0.2
3 0.3
4 0.4
5 0.5
6 0.6
7 0.7
8 0.8
9 0.9
10 1.0
From graph
𝑶𝑷
Static resistance = = …………. ohm
𝑶𝑸
∆𝑽 𝑨𝑩
Dynamic resistance = = =…………. ohm
∆𝑰 𝑩𝑪
Knee voltage =..................... volt

44
PROCEDURE
The connections are made as shown in figure. Using rheostat
the voltage across diode is made at 0.1V and corresponding
current is noted. The voltage is increased as 0.2 , 0.3 , 0.4 ,
0.5...... and in each time milliammeter reading is taken. A graph
is plotted with voltage along X axis and current along Y axis.
From the graph static resistance and dynamic resistance is
calculated.
RESULT
1. The V-I characteristics of the diode is drawn
2. The static resistance = ................... ohm
3. The Dynamic resistance = ............... ohm
4. Knee voltage =..................... volt

45
Observations and Calculation (resistor -length of wire-25 cm)

Resonating length
Resistance when X is in Mean 𝐑𝓵
𝑿=
Trial In the box Left gap Right gap 𝒍 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝓵)
(𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝓵)
no (𝒍𝟏 + 𝒍𝟐 )
R in ohm 𝓵1 𝓵2 = in ohm
𝟐
in cm in cm
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6

46
THE METER BRIDGE

AIM
1. To determine resistance of the given wire
2. To determine resistivity of the material of given wire
APPARATUS
Meter bridge, given wire, resistance box, single key, connecting
wire, and galvanometer
THEORY
The working principle of Meter Bridge is Wheatstone bridge. If l
is the balancing length the bridge wire from the side of
unknown resistance X and R is the known resistance, then
𝑋 ℓ
=
𝑅 (100 − ℓ)
𝑹𝒍
Unknown resistance 𝑿 =
(𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍 )
𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑿
Resistivity of the given wire, ρ =
𝑳
Where r = radius of the wire

L = length of the wire

47
To find the radius of wire using screw gauge

𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 100
Zero coincidence =
Zero correction, Z =

Si Corrected Total Reading =
mm HSR = (HSR+Z )
mm mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
𝒅
𝟐
Length of the wire 𝑳= ……………..…..cm = …………….. m

𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑿
Resistivity of material of wire, ρ = = …………… ohmmeter
𝑳

48
PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in figure. The unknown
resistance is connected in the left gap and resistance box is
introduced in the right gap. The key is closed and a suitable
resistance R = 1 ohm is introduced in the box. The jockey is
moved over the meter bridge wire till null deflection is obtained.
The balancing length AJ = 𝑙1 is measured from the side of
unknown resistance.
Now X and R are interchanged and balancing length BJ = 𝑙2 is
measured. The mean balancing length is obtained. Thus
unknown resistance is calculated.
The experiments are repeated for different values of R and
mean X is calculated.
Radius is determined by using a screw gauge and length by a
scale. Then resistivity is calculated.
RESULT
1. The resistance of the given wire, X = ............... ohm
2. The resistivity of the material wire, ρ = ........ ohm meter

49
(resistor – length of wire -50 cm)

Trial Ammeter Voltmeter 𝑽
Resistance R=
No Reading reading 𝑰
I in ampere V in volt in ohm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Mean R = ………….. ohm

𝑽
Resistance of the conductor R= = …………… ohm.
𝑰
𝟏
Conductance C= = ………….. mho
𝑹
From V-I Graph
𝑩𝑪
Resistance R = = …………. ohm
𝑨𝑩

50
OHM'S LAW 1
AIM
1. To plot V-I graph of the given wire
2. To determine resistance of the given wire
3. To determine conductance of the given wire
4. To determine resistivity of the given wire
APPARATUS
cell, key, the given wire, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat,
connecting wire
THEORY
Ohm's law states that at constant temperature, the potential
difference across the ends of a conductor is directly
proportional to current flowing through the conductor.
𝑽
Resistance of the conductor R=
𝑰
𝑩𝑪
from V-I Graph resistance R =
𝑨𝑩
𝟏
Conductance C=
𝑹
𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑹
Resistivity of material of wire ρ =
𝑳
where
R=resistance of wire
r=radius of wire
L=length of wire

51
To find the radius of wire using screw gauge

𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 100
Zero coincidence =
Zero correction, Z =

Si Corrected Total Reading
mm HSR (HSR+Z ) mm
mm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
𝒅
𝟐
Length of the wire 𝑳= …………….….. cm = …………….. m

𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝑹
Resistivity of material of wire ρ = = …………… ohmmeter
𝑳

52
PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in fig.
The key is pressed & rheostat is adjusted to get a current 0.8A in
the ammeter. The corresponding volt meter reading is noted.
The current is increased as 1A,1.2A,1.4A,1.6A...........& in each
𝑽
time voltmeter reading is recorded. Now R= is calculated &
𝑰
mean value is taken.
A Voltage-current graph is plotted & slope of V-I graph gives

resistance of the conductor.
Measure the radius of wire using a screw gauge and length using
a meter scale. Hence calculate resistivity of the conductor.
RESULT
1. V-I graph of the given wire is plotted
2. Resistance of the given wire
1. By calculation=..............ohm
2. From graph=...............ohm
3. Conductance of the wire=...........mho
4. Resistivity of the wire=.............ohmmeter

53

To find the resistance of 1𝑠𝑡 wire R1 (of length 50 cm )
Trial Ammeter Reading Voltmeter reading 𝑽 Mean R
Resistance R=
No 𝑰 In ohm
I in ampere V in volt in ohm
1
R1= ………………ohm
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
To find the resistance of 2𝑛𝑑 wire R2 (of length 25 cm )

Resistance R=
No I in ampere V in volt 𝑰 In ohm
in ohm
1
R2= ………………ohm
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

54
0HM'S LAW 2
AIM
1. Compare resistance of given two wires by ohm’s law.
2. Compare resistance of given two wires by drawing V-I graph.
3. Verify law of combination of resistance in series.
4. Verify law of combination of resistance in parallel.
APPARATUS
Cell, key, the given wire, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat,
connecting wire
THEORY
Ohm's law states that at constant temperature, the
potential difference across the ends of a conductor is directly r
to current flowing through the conductor.
𝑽
Resistance of the conductor R=
𝑰
𝑩𝑪
from V-I Graph resistance R =
𝑨𝑩
𝐑𝟏
Ratio of resistance of two wire =
𝑹𝟐
When to resistance R1&R2 are connected in series the effective
resistance in given by Rs= R1+R2.
When to resistance R1&R2 are connected in Parallel the effective
resistance in given by 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝒑 =
(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 )
PROCEDURE
Connections are made as shown in fig.
The key is pressed & rheostat is adjusted to get a current 0.8A in
the ammeter. The corresponding volt meter reading is noted.

55
To find the effective resistance when R1 & R2 are connected in series

Resistance R=
in ohm
1
Rs = ………………ohm
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Experimental value Rs= ………….ohm
To find the effective resistance when R1&R2 are connected in parallel

Resistance R=
in ohm
1
Rp = ………………ohm
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Experimental value Rp= ………….ohm
𝐑𝟏
Ratio of resistance of two wires by ohm’s law, = ………….
𝑹𝟐
𝐑𝟏
Ratio of resistance of two wires from graph, = ……………
𝑹𝟐
Effective resistance in series connections (Theoretical value) ,
Rs=R1+R2 = ……….. ohm
Effective resistance in parallel connections (Theoretical value),

𝑹 𝑹
𝑹𝒑 = (𝑹 𝟏+ 𝑹𝟐 ) = ………….ohm
𝟏 𝟐

56
The current is increased as ,1.2 A, 1.4 A, 1.6 A...........& in each

𝑽
time voltmeter reading is recorded. Now R= is calculated &
𝑰
mean value is taken.
A V-I graph is plotted & slope of V-I graph gives resistance R1 of
the conductor.
Now first wire is replaced by second wire & the experiment is
repeated as in the previous case.
The mean value of R2 is determined.
Now, R1, R2 are connected in series & parallel. The whole
procedure is repeated in both cases & the effective resistance R1
& R2 are calculated.
RESULT
𝐑𝟏
1. Ratio of resistance of two wires by ohm’s law, =
𝑹𝟐
𝐑𝟏
2. Ratio of resistance of two wires from graph, =
𝑹𝟐
3. Effective resistance in series connections
a. Theoretical value Rs= …………..ohm
b. Experimental value Rs=…………..ohm
The Theoretical value & Experimental value agrees & hence law
of combination of resistance in series is verified.
4. Effective resistance in parallel connections

a. Theoretical value Rp= ……………… ohm
b. Experimental value Rp= ………………ohm
The Theoretical value & Experimental value agrees & hence law
of combination of resistance in parallel verified.

57

Normal incidence method
Trial Distance between Mean

No. Mirror and gauze R
when image form near gauze in
u = v = R cm
in cm
1
2
𝑹
focal length of a concave mirror f = = ………. cm
𝟐
= ………. m

58
CONCAVE MIRROR
AIM
To find the focal length of a concave mirror by
a) Normal incidence method
b) u - v method
c) from u - v graph
APPARATUS
Concave mirror, illuminated wire gauge, meter scale, mirror
stand, white screen.
THEORY
In a concave mirror reflection takes place from inner curved
surface. The distance between pole and the principle focus of
the mirror is called focal length.
Normal incidence method:
The mirror is mounted in front of the wire gauze and adjusted
till a clear image is formed by the side of the wire gauze itself.
The distance between mirror and image is radius of curvature.
𝑹
focal length of a concave mirror, f =
𝟐
u - v method
Focal length of the convex mirror is given by
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
𝒖𝒗
f=
(𝒖+𝒗)
Where u = object distance

(distance between wire gauge and mirror)
v = image distance
(distance between wire image and mirror)

59
u - v method
Trial Object Image Mean

No. Distance Distance 𝒖𝒗 f
f=
(𝒖+𝒗) in cm
u v
in cm in cm in cm
1 36
2 38
3 40
4 42
5 44
6 46
7 48
8 50
u - v graph mean f = ……………….. m
(𝑶𝑨 + 𝑶𝑩)
𝒇=
𝟒
= ………….. cm
= ………….. m

60
From u - v graph:
While drawing u - v graph same scale and same origin chosen
from both the axes. The focal length can be found out by using
the equation
(𝑶𝑨+𝑶𝑩)
𝒇=
𝟒
PROCEDURE
Normal incidence method: The mirror is mounted in front of
the wire gauze and adjusted till a clear image is formed by the
side of the wire gauze itself. The distance between mirror and
image is radius of curvature. The experiment is repeated and
the mean value is calculated.
u-v method: the mirror is placed 36 cm from illuminated wire
gauze and adjust the screen until a clear image is formed on the
screen placed near the side of wire gauze. The distance between
mirror and screen is measured. The experiment is repeated for
different values of u and in each case v is measured. Focal
length is calculated in each case and mean value is determined.
u-v graph : A graph is plotted with u along x - axis and v along y-
axis as shown in figure. A bisecter to XOY is drawn ( at
45°)which meats the graph at P. the distance OA and OB is
found and focal length is calculated by using the equation
(𝑶𝑨+𝑶𝑩)
𝒇=
𝟒
RESULT
Focal length of the given concave lens
a) Normal incidence method, f =……….m
b) u - v method, f =……….m
c) from u - v graph, f =……….m

61
Step 1
Step 2

Trial Distance between Distance between Focal Mean
Convex lens and screen and mirror 𝑹
no. wire gauze R length f= 𝟐 f
u in cm in cm in cm in cm
1 36
2 38
3 40
4 42
5 44
6 46
7 48
8 50
Focal length of the convex mirror, f = ………….. cm
=………….. m

62
CONVEX MIRROR
AIM
To find the focal length of a convex mirror
APPARATUS
Convex Mirror, convex lens , Illuminated wire gauze, meter scale
, lens stand, white screen.
THEORY
In a convex mirror, reflection take place from outer curved
surface. The distance between its principle focus and pole is
called focal length. IF f is the focal length and R is the radius of
𝑹
curvature then f= .
𝟐
PROCEDURE
Convex lens is placed at a distance u as given in the table. Then
adjust the screen. A magnified image of the illuminated wire
gauze is obtained on the screen by using a convex lens. Then the
convex mirror is placed in between the screen and the lens with
its reflecting surface towards the object. The position of the
convex mirror is adjusted so as to get the clear image side by
side of the wire gauze. The distance between the convex mirror
and the screen is measured and this distance is equal to the
radius of curvature. The experiment is repeated by changing
distance between object and convex lens. From the value of R ,
focal length is calculated. And mean focal length is calculated
RESULT
Focal length of the convex mirror, f = ……………. m

63
Balancing length for

Trial Ratio of e.m.f
Leclanche cell Daniel cell 𝑬𝟏 𝓵𝟏
No =
𝓵1 𝓵2 𝑬𝟐 𝓵𝟐
in cm in cm
1
2
3
4
5
6

64
THE POTENTIOMETER - 2
AIM
To compare e.m.f of Leclanche cell and Daniel cell
APPARATUS
Potentiometer, Accumulator, Leclanche cell, Daniel cell, resistance box,
rheostat, key, three terminal key, galvanometer
THEORY
By the principle of potentiometer, if ℓ1 is the balancing length for
leclanche cell of emf 𝑬1 then
𝑬1 α ℓ1 …………………(1)
if ℓ2 is the balancing length for Daniel cell of emf 𝑬2 then
𝑬2 α ℓ2 …………………(2)
Dividing (1) and (2)
𝑬 𝓵
Ratio of e.m.f of the two cells 𝑬𝟏 = 𝓵𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
PROCEDURE
The connections are made as shown in the figure. The primary key K1 is
closed and insert key in the three terminal keys such that 𝑬1 is
connected. Now the rheostat is adjusted such that galvanometer
deflects to both sides when jockey touches both ends (A and B) of
potentiometer wire. Make sure that when 𝑬2 is connected ,
galvanometer deflect towards both sides as later.
Now by connecting 𝑬1 balancing length ℓ1 is determined using the
jockey. Now 𝑬2 is connected and balancing length ℓ2 is determined
without any changes in rheostat. After finding one set of reading (𝓵1 &
𝓵2) , the experiment is repeated by varying the current from primary
circuit by adjusting rheostat. Make sure that each time ℓ1 & ℓ2 is
measured in the same setting of rheostat. Now ratio of e.m.f of the two
𝑬 𝓵
cells 𝟏 is determined from the mean of 𝟏
𝑬𝟐 𝓵𝟐
RESULT
𝑬
Ratio of e.m.f of the two cells 𝑬𝟏 =
𝟐

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1

FIRST YEAR Experiments SECOND YEAR Experiments

1. Concurrent force 11. Potentiometer -1

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

Scale factor 1cm =25 g wt

Weight of the body 𝑊𝐴 =…………………. gm wt

Mass of the body = ……………. gm = ……………….. Kg

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

𝑊𝐴 = Weight of body in air

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

Time period of seconds pendulum = 2 s

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

Magnitude of one main scale division MSD =0.1 cm

To find dimensions of sphere

Diameter of the Sphere = ………… cm = ………….. m

Mass of the sphere M = 50 gm = 50 x10-3 kg

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

THE VERNIER CALLIPERS

The measured value in vernier callipers is given by

Total reading = MSR + (VSR X LC)

 Volume of cylinder 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℓ r = radius, ℓ=length of cylinder

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

To find dimensions of cylinder

Length of the cylinder 𝓵 = ……… c m = ………….m

Volume of the given cylinder 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝓵 = …………………m3

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

2. Volume of sphere = ………………. m3

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

Constant mass suspended in the string = 2.5Kg

Mean value of K = …………Hz cm

To find unknown frequency of given tuning fork

Resonating length Unknown

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

ℓ = resonating length of sonometer wire

𝐼𝑓 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 are made as constants, then 𝑛 x ℓ = constant (K)

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

Frequency of tuning fork used = 426 Hz

Mean value of K = ………… Kg/cm2

To find unknown mass of given body

Resonating length Unknown

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

ℓ = resonating length of sonometer wire

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

Reading of the pointer with dead load r0 =

Loaded mass Reading of the pointer 𝑚𝑔

Mean K = ………… N/cm

Spring constant by calculation K =………… N/cm = …………..N/m

To find spring constant from graph

CVM HSS VANDAZHY PHYSICS LAB MANUAL www.cvmhssvandazhy.com

THE HELICAL SPRING

Magnitude of one pitch scale division = 1 mm

Distance moved for 4 rotations S = 4 mm

To find volume of the wire

Diameter of the wire

Mean diameter d = ……………………. mm

Length of the wire 𝓵 = …………….. …..cm = …………….. m