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TELUGU GRAMMAR.
SECOND EDITION.
WORKS PUBLISHED BY MR BROWN.
A Grammar of the Telugu Language. First Edition, 1840. Second edition, 1857.
English-Telugu Dictionary.
Telugu-English Dictionary.
Dictionary of Mixed Telugu, and the language used in business.
Telugu Reader : being a first book in the language : with English Translation,
Grammatical Analysis, and Little Lexicon.
English Irregular Verbs explained in Telugu.
Telugu and English Dialogues, with Grammatical Analysis. These hare also
been printed in Tamil : and in Kannadi.
The Vakyavali, or Exercises in Idioms : English and Telugu. This has also
been translated into Hindustani.
Telugu Disputations on village business.
NOTE—The above boohs are all that the learner requires. The volume of
Histories must be added, when complete.
The Verses of Vemana : with an English Version. Printed in 1829.
Essay on Telugu Literature.
Zillah Dictionary ; a Glossary in the English Character.
The Proverbs of Solomon and the Book of Psalms : in Sanscrit metre :
reprinted in the Telegu character from the Calcutta edition.
Three Treatises on Mirasi Right, by Ellis, Blackburne and Munro.
The Tale of Nala : and the Adventures of Harischandra ; in Telugu metre.
The Tales of Nala and of Savitri in Sanscrit : from the Mahabharat.
Cyclic Tables of Hindu and Musulman Chronology.
An Ephemeris, shewing the corresponding dates according to the English,
Hindu (Telugu, Tamil, and Malayalam) and Mahomedan Calendars from
A.D. 1751 until 1850, with Table of events : and explanatory Preface, 600
pages royal octavo. .
Memoirs of Hyder Ali Bahadar, and his son Tippoo Sultan, translated from
Marata into English.
LEFT READY FOR PUBLICATION.

Telugu Histories and Tales, with "a Translation : being a continuation of the
Reader.
A Telugu Translation of the Holy Bible.
The Book of Common Prayer, in Telugu.
Shasan' A'nus'asan Icam ; Chronological Tables, of Indian History : in Telugu.
The Hitopadesa, in Sanscrit, with explanatory notes in Telugu.
Various volumes for the School Book Society.
Editions of Telugu Poems, with commentaries and Indexes.
A GRAMMAR
OF THE
TELUGU LANGUAGE
BT
CHARLES PHILIP BROWN,
Late of the Madras Civil Service, Teluou Translator, to Government

Member of the late College Board,
Author of the Teluqu Dictionary, and other works.
SECOND EDITION
Much Enlarged and Improved. VjojiSr. * ■'" /
. MADRAS:
PRINTED AT THE CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY'S PRESS,

AND SOLD IN LONDON BY
WM. H. ALLEN AND CO., 7, LEADENHALL STREET.
1857.
PREFACE.
The English Government of Madras extends over various Hindu

nations, each of which has its peculiar language. At the date of
the Musulman invasion, eight centuries ago, while Canute ruled
Britain, the Telugu, Karnataca (Carnatic), and Tamil countries
were ruled by "Karnataca Razulu," Kings of the Carnatic, who
took the title Tribhuvana Chacravarti (or Trailokya Malla), as
" Lords of the Three Realms," in which these three languages
were spoken. The last of these princes, named Betteda Raya,
quitted the Jaina sect, and becoming a worshipper of Vishnu
(in A.D. MCXI., about the time of Henry the First of England),
took the title Betteda Vishnu Vardhana. He patronized the
Bramhans, and in his days the first part of the Mahabharat
(their sacred book) was translated from Sanscrit into Kannadi,
Telugu, and Tamil metre. That work is to this day read in every
village throughout the country. The earliest poems and philo
logical treatises (now somewhat antiquated) are believed to have
been written in the days of this raja. Actuated by a zeal for their
hierarchy, the Bramhans of former ages translated this "Iliad
of India," and also the Ramayan and Bhagavat, into every
language.
About the time when, in England, Queen Elizabeth's reign
began, the Telugus were ruled by Krishna Rayalu, who patro
nized literature ; and the most eminent of the poets have sung his
praises. But the Musulman power had gradually increased until
about A.D. 1580, when the Telugus were finally conquered. From
that time the languages of the three countries became more and
more infested with foreign words ; . the literature was, as far as
possible, crushed ; and yet to this day every work of merit sur
vives : these may be seen in a library which I collected, and pre
sented to the Literary Society of Madras. It will, I hope, long
remain in the College Library, although, while I write, the College
has been dissolved.
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar ; Second Edition.
ii PREFACE.
The Musulman rulers strove to make their subjects learn Per
sian and Hindustani, but with little success: and the few
Hindus who managed to learn Hindustani (which they never could
pronounce aright) altered its syntax, and hence arose the lan
guage called Dakhini, which gives the words a peculiar arrange
ment.
Each language of Southern India has (like English) a poetical
dialect, which uses the entire vocabulary ; and a colloquial style,
which requires only about one-fourth of the phrases. Some have
fancied that the poets use a separate vocabulary ; but this is not
the case. To exemplify this in English: the words "Horse,
courser, steed, nag, palfrey, hunter, pony, barb, jade, hack, bay,
roan, grey"—"To think, reflect, consider, ponder, muse, weigh"
— are all one; but the Hindu, understanding the "first word alone,
may fancy the rest obsolete, merely because they are not used in
ordinary life.
While the language used in the poets is uniform, local dialects of
Telugu vary ; and we may be able to speak that of Kadapa, while
unable to understand that of Raja-mahendra-varam, or Condapilli,
or Visakha-patnam. But, for the purposes of mere tuition, now
that the " Reader" is printed, a native of any part of the Telugu
country will suffice for a tutor : indeed at Chittoor, and even at
Tanjaur and Trichinapali, in the heart of the Tamil country, I met
with Telugu bramhans who were excellent assistants. But, while
young in the study, we should, as soon as possible, get rid of a
tutor who can speak English : such a munshi is apt to neglect
teaching, while he eagerly learns English from his pupil. In
hiring servants, also, though such as talk English abound, we
should early obtain such as will speak to us in Telugu. After we
speak the language correctly, it is an indulgence to those around
us to converse with them in English, for this benefits them.
Hindu grammarians, like those of China, neglect the colloquial
dialect, which they suppose is already known to the student, and
teach only the poetical peculiarities. They are willing to aid our
studies, either in Telugu poetry or in Sanscrit ; they are reluctant
to teach us the language of common business : but unless we first
surmount this, the lowest step (which natives attain untaught)
how can we climb to the highest? A shrewd critic has observed,
PREFACE. iii
that " those who explain the poets have in all ages fallen into one
common error : they have illustrated and magnified themselves
first, and have given less thought to the work in hand."* The
same want ofjudgment is evident in the course which native tutors
recommend. Instead ofordinary dialogues, tales, trials, letters, and
histories, Telugu assistants counsel us to read the venerated Srj
Bhagavat(as a pious act),and the prose Telugu Ramayan, oneortwo
books of the Mahabharat, the Sanscrit vocabulary by Amara, the
versified set of Telugu synonymes called Andhra-Bhasha-Bhu-
shanam, or the treatises on grammar written by Nannaiia Bhatta
and Appa Cavi.f Happily for me I never read one of these books
until I had already (about the age of twenty-seven) acquired a
command of the spoken Telugu.
I will mention some of the poems which seem profitable to the
proficient. He may begin with a perusal of the verses of Vemana.
These are useful as teaching a variety of common expressions.
Such a series of verses is called a Satacam, or Anthology. A few
of these little volumes are the works of accurate poets: others are
merely juvenile essays. Next he should read the Lila, written in
(dwipada,) couplets, and the Chenna Basava Puranam, which is
written in " padya-cavyam," or stanzas. These two are disagreeable
to Bramhans, as being heretical. He may then proceed to the four
different poems on Harischandra's adventures, quoted in the
dictionary as HK, HN, UH, and HD, He may then read the
Abhimanya Dwipada and the adventures of Kalapuma, finishing
with the Dasavatara Charitra and the Pancha Tantram. These
poems have all been carefully edited, and fitted with elaborate
commentaries framed in Telugu under my directions. Silly prose
abridgements of the Pancha Tantram, and of the Vkramarca
Tales have long been read by students, but are unprofitable.
Some who have not studied Hindu books speak of them as
licentious ; but there is more vice in Ovid's Metamorphoses, in
Congreve's plays, and in Lesage's romances, than will easily be
found in all Hindu literature.
* Huet, Preface to his Delphin edition of Virgil.

t These unprofitable books are still, in 1856, taught to native pupils in the
Madras University.
iv PREFACE.
Our learned assistants will disapprove the course of reading I
have marked out: they zealously recommend books (especially
the Bhagavat) which would soon discourage the student. A perusal
of the volumes they venerate is considered an act of homage to the
gods, conferring merit on the teacher and on the learner. But the
Bramhans are excellent instructors, patient, humble, and admi
rably skilful. Until I had studied the poems with them for seven
years, I did not perceive how perfect they are in learning.
Students were formerly examined, at the Madras College, in a
manner not quite fair. The papers laid before them were new,
never before seenr This was done, I believe, by the native
examiners, who are fond of tormenting the aspirant. In the Tel ugu
Dialogues, Reader, Wars of the Rajas, Tales, and Village Dispu
tations, 1 have endeavoured to furnish a series of exercises and
examination papers for every grade. The student ought, I think
to be examined in these books alone, until he has completely
mastered them; and afterwards he should read Vemana.
Native tutors urge us first to learn the very subjects which I
have placed at the end of the work. The native method is
followed by Mr. A. D. Campbell, in his " Teloogoo Grammar,"
an accurate, though very imperfect work, too intricate to aid the
beginner. Mr. Campbell died in London, on the 23rd April,
1857.
Some absurdities, very dear to native tutors, call for notice,
because they obstruct the progress of the learner. The alphabet,
if counted in one way, contains so many letters, and if counted in
another way, so many; certain letters are Sanscrit, and others are
Telugu; some being common. These idle refinements furnish
themes for wrangling. The verbs, also, are put through useless
forms, thus ; ' pamputa ' To send, and ' cheyuta To do, make
the passives pampa baduta, and cheya-baduta ; the causals being
'pampinpi', 'cheyinpi' and the middle * pampu-co' ' chesu-co.'
Thus far is useful, but the tutors next propose fanciful forms
which never occur, such as 1 pampinû-co-baduta. When we
object that such phrases are never heard, the absurd answer is that
they are possible. In the alphabet, too, every native tutor is apt
to teach combinations of letters, such as lkha, sba, vpha, yra, khpa;
and when we have acquired them, we find we have taken fruitless
PREFACE. v
trouble, for these never occur. But the art of tormenting is
carried to its highest pitch in teaching prosody ; for tliey would
gladly keep us at work for two years in learning as much as an
English tutor would teach in a fortnight. We ask for grain :
they give it us on the condition that we will, with it, submit to eat
the straw. Their memory is well exercised, their judgment is
fettered; and they counsel us to learn, as they do, long vocabularies
by rote, whereas by reading the poets we can easily acquire an
ample stock of all the words that are in use. Such unwise counsels
have disheartened many a student; while others, more submissive,
have stored their memories with all the tutor prescribed, and yet
remained unable to use the language.
Telugu has been called the Italian of India. In the poems, and
as spoken in retired villages, it may merit this name ; but, like
Italian, it has some rough and rude dialects, more or less mixed
with foreign languages. In another point there is a resemblance.
Learned men of Rome or Naples, who know English, prefer
writing in English, because, according to the refined Della
Chusca. rules, they cannot write Indian faultlessly. In like
manner the learned Telugus of our days find a difficulty in writing
correct ordinary prose, because, however well it may be composed,
critics cavil at many expressions or modes of spelling. After some
study, I found it best to neglect their refinements, but to imitate
their example closely in speaking and writing. The models I have
given in the Reader of a simple natural style will enable the learner
to judge for himself.
Many years have passed since the first edition of this Grammar
was printed. In that period I have re-composed nearly every page;
particularly attending to the remarks made by students
Let not the beginner be alarmed at the size of this Grammar.
There is very little to be learnt by heart. The grammar terminates
with the tenth book,* page 291. He should read it so as to be able
to find such rules as are required whenever they are wanted, and
few of these seem hard to remember.
Some have urged me to simplify the grammar, by rectifying
* The first book has' been already reprinted in large octavo, with improve
ments, and prefixed to the Dictionary.
vi PREFACE.
irregularities. But innovations can only be made by poets ; and
even such as they make do not always become current. My
province was merely to observe, record, arrange, and explain facts,
and to produce quotations in proof of my statements. A few years
ago I was shown a manuscript Grammar, which was professedly
an improvement of that I first published ; but in reading it I found
that the author had merely inserted all that I had rejected, and
excluded such rules as were new, restoring the arrangement which
I disapproved.
Failing health having obliged me to return to England while
this work was in the press, the latter pages contain some errors;
but there are none which will impede the progress of the student.*
If, in the arrangement of the rules, I have taken a new course,
it is because my great object has been to facilitate self-instruction,
making the learner independent of oral aid. " Every man (says
Parkhurst, in the Preface to his Greek Dictionary), who has
thought much upon so curious and extensive a subject as grammar,
may justly claim some indulgence to his own notions, and be allowed
his own peculiar method of communicating them to others." This
discretion may be profitably exercised when we have to examine
principles which are well understood by the commonalty, but
are obscured by refinements invented by the learned.
Our earliest English Grammars were arranged on the Latin
system; and the oldest grammatical treatises on Telugu were con
structed on the Sanscrit plan, though the two languages are radi
cally different. The native grammarians of the present day are
fond of the expression that " Sanscrit is the mother ;" but this does
not allude to its origin ; it merely denotes dependance, because we
cannot speak Telugu without using Sanscrit words.
Some learned or half-learned natives find fault with the arrange
ment I introduced. Hitherto every path was overgrown with gay
weeds of pedantry, which I have cleared away. While preparing
a second edition, I have been exhorted to replace some of the
riddles which they venerate, and which, in their eyes, render the
science mysterious. But it is to be observed that the learned
* In London I prepared the preface and sent it printed to Madras ; but the
packet was not received, and I therefore re-printed it, with some improvements.
PREFACE. vii
have passed over in silence many points which called for clear
elucidation.
Some have wished me to exclude all notices of errors and
blemishes in style ; but how is the sailor to shun shoals and sands
unless they are pointed out in the chart? The poet (in 2 Henry IV.,
act 4, scene 4) observes that —
" The prince but studies his companions

Like a strange tongue ; wherein to gain the language,
"Tis needful that the most immodest word
Be look'd upon, and learn 'd: which once attain'd,
Tour highness knows, comes to no further use
But to be known and hated."
Unless we read their books, and have daily communications with

the Hindus, what insight can we obtain into the minds of the people ?
We have no intercourse with them in society : we live among
them, as oil upon water, without mingling.* Many an English
man has been acquainted with the natives for years, while remaining
entirely ignorant of the peculiarities of the Hindu character.
Missionaries seek and enjoy greater facilities ; and such as have
studied the poems acknowledge that books are the best guides to an
acquaintance with the mind of the people. Some have severely
judged the Hindus from the stories contained in Sanscrit poems ;
but these are obsolete, and widely different from modern traits of
character. In like manner the prejudices of Hindus regarding .
ourselves, can only be removed by a course of English reading.
We are well aware that an Englishman residing in France,
Spain or Germany, must become acquainted with the favourite
volumes of Rousseau, Calderon, or Goethe, before he can converse
idiomatically, or enter into the feelings of those around him. And
experience proves that the true key to those modes of thought, and
peculiarities of expression, which in India occur daily, can be
found only in the classics of India.
* This was written before the Sepoy mutiny broke out in 1857.
1
CONTENTS OF GRAMMAR.
BOOK FIRST.
On Orthography p. 1. Alphabet 6. Vowels 8. Forms of initial
vowels in Dictionary and in use 18. Consonants 19. On Sunna
and Half Sunna 28. Caution to native tutors 32. Dialects 33.
Accent 34. Mode of enunciation 35. Contractions used in writing
36. On Coromandel 36. Majors and Minors 39. Numerals 40.
On Softening Initials 41. On lengthening final vowels 43. Elision
44. Changes in the last syllable, tfb£|£» 45. On Terminations
in NI and NU 46. On uncertainty in spelling 47. On Termi
nations in Si 3), 47.
BOOK SECOND.
On the Noun 49. First Declension 51. &aS»,So, sS>oa«r»ifc)
Second Declension 53. Jfo^sfe.

tiOTg>:Sx> 54. jfr*s5£s£o 54. tStfUe 55.
Third Declension 56. First class 57. Other nouns
58. «fr?>2>» 59.
Second class TJ'sSii &c. 60.
Third class &c. 62.
Fourth class -&*kx> &c. 62. Neuter Numerals 63.
Fifth class *r"«» &c. 64.
Sixth class 64.
Seventh JTL* 65.
Eighth tt°uo 65.
Same plural used for two nouns' 66. Foreign words 66.
BOOK THIRD.
Pronouns 68. Of First person 68. Second 69. Third person
69. Adjective Pronouns 74. Defective nouns 76. Adjectives 79.
CONTENTS.
BOOK FOUETH.
On the Verb 81. Principal parts 83. Radical forms 84. Silent
Boots 84. Infinitive forms 85. Participles 86. Tenses 87. "Bules
of Formation." Formation of the Negative verb 93.
First Conjugation 94. *>otyt>.
tf«b$*J 97. 100. S-rfcti 103. Middle Voice SSo4)r>i>
105. s5SS*j 108. Passive voice 111. &ot£>b> 114. Cfc,
«$t> 117. StcKiii 120. 0*0)4) "Can." 123. Can. 123.
iSo^t) Can. 123. Second Conjugation 124. £cs&>4j, sirÂj,
r'cJSoij &c. 127. Boots 127. ^<sk>*i 128. [^d&>i3 131.
<s&>*j 133. :5e>cJ&>t> must, should, ought 135.
Tliird Conjugation 136. 'o&b forming the root in CA t>of5
136. II Verbs which form it in VA as r*e«xkfc>, r*o;:S, "X
*M'tS)> "'"S &c- 13?- HI Verbs which use CA or VA, at plea
sure.: as -Siitf^ or 137. IV Verbs which use ca
or pa at pleasure : as sft^pfj or dbpôtS 138. V. Irregulars, as
a)^, &c. which have a monosyllabic Boot 139.
Specimen of regular verbs. Conjugation of "*>o<S>*j to rear 139.
sfcjoô-tfbtj to pardon 141. a&6&o-E5bij to try 144. to
come 147. S^*J to give 149_ sS-ESo^, i-J-e&j 151. -is™*^,
■^j-eSj^, ^St»t£>4j 152. General Bule for all the Conjugations on
formation of Participles 152. Passive verb 153. Alton, *5o*w
iSb*J to be sent.
On change of Conjugation 154. Middle voice 154. in
as a&o^r'p&Aj.
Causal voice in Incu as a&o&o-ifct) to have it sent 155. "5"»
Hoti makes ~s-°t£*j 156. 8ccXo*j makes escoiÂi 156. Irregular
verbs causal 157. Conjugation of Causals «6ot>oiS)*j to have it
sent 159. Compound Tenses 160.
BOOK FIFTH.
On Syntax 165. Arrangement of words 166. Words understood
not expressed 166. On Brief expressions, 166. On Softening
CONTENTS.
Initial Consonants 169. Conjunctions 169. On the Emphatic affixes

A' E' O' 172. Changes in the first syllable 177. Elision of M.
178. Druta words 179. Cala words 180.
BOOK SIXTH.
Adjectives 181. Feminine affixes 184. Comparative and Super
lative 184. On Plurals 187. On Pritchett's Telugu New Testa
ment 188. Syntax of the Cases of the Noun. Nominative 192.
Combination of Nouns and Pronouns 193. Genitive 198. Dative
199. Accusative 200. Vocative 202. Ablative 203. Instrumental
206. Locative 206. Compound Nouns 207. Bulesregarding Proper
names 209. On Pronouns 213.
BOOK SEVENTH.
Syntax of the verb 219. Table • of principal parts of Verbs
220. Syntax of the Verb 224. On Yes and No 225. On Kadu
and Ledu 226. On the Infinitive 228. in TA, DAMU, DI.
Monosyllabic verbs 230. The Boot in A. 231. and GA. On Sunna
optionally inserted as Banga, Kaluganga 232. On the Infinitive
in TJ 234. On Irregular Verbal Nouns 235. On the Negative
Verbal in MI 239. On Verbs 239. in INCUTA, IMPUTA and
ILLUTA. Syntax of Causal Verbs 240. On the Middle Voice
242.
BOOK EIGHTH.
On Participles 247. On the Present Participle 250. Od the
Past Participle 250. On the Compound Negative Tenses 251.
On the Past Belative Participle 252. On the Relative Aorist
Participle 253. On the Negative Participle "AKA" 255. On the
Negative Belative Participle in NI 256. On the Conditional Aorist
257. On the Imperative 259.
BOOK NINTH.
Syntax of the Tenses. ■ The Aorist!?261. The'present Tense 267.
Future Tense 268. The Past Tense 269. On the Poetical Dia
lect 271. On Orthography 272. On Impersonal Verbs 273. De
fectives 275. On the form used in prayer '275.
CONTENTS.
BOOK TENTH.
On certain Verbs used as Auxiliaries 276. On the formation
of Verbs from Nouns 278. On Reiteration 278. On Participles
284. On (Anucaranamu) Adverbial Particles 286. On some words
used Idiomatically 289. On Rules for finding words in the Dic
tionary 291.
BOOK ELEVENTH.
On Prosody 293. On the drawling style of reading 295. On
Peet 295. Feet having two syllables in each 297. On the Uni
form Metres 297. The Canda Padyam 301. On the Telugu chang
ing Metres 305. On the Dwipada 310. On some unusual Metres
311. On Musical Metres 315. On the Ragada Metre 316. On
the Dandacam 319. On the Taruvaja, Utsaha, and Accara 320.
On Rhyme 323.
CHAPTER TWELFTH.
On Etymology 325. On Dmta words 326. On Cala words 328.
On Softening Initial Consonants in Poetry 330. On Contraction
in Poetry 332. On Elision and change of Vowels 333. On some
Contractions 338. On Sanscrit Elision and Permutation 339.
Permutation of Vowels 340. Exceptions and Anomalies 341. Coa
lition of Consonants 342. Mutations of Sibilants 342. Mutation
of g Visargah 342. On Compound Words 343.
APPENDIX.
On Arithmetical Marks 346. On Divisions of Measures 350.
Measures of Length 353. Points of the Compass 354. On Ety
mology. Tatsamamu 355. Tadbhavamu 356. On Desyamu, Gra
inyamu 357. On some abbreviations 358. Examination Questions
359.
FIRST INDEX.
OF TELUGU WORDS NOTICED.
tJoiJ page 284. ;^s£<koco 305.

wo"i>, 284. sxcn>) as in 43 341.
woS 284. «io*8 182.
t5oggpd*sS>sS» 324. JS" £ 280.
wos£> there 73, 218. ciiSa 285.
«r 5 s^#sS» 320—322. CO 285.
etS^Hooxb 25,182, 357. £>jb 285.
«>iS©JSb 271. £>rfbo-|) 172.
«P 284. S)S» 73, 285.
«p&rt$ratf» 286—288. 285.
ej&^tfsSw 8, 232, 323. SDgp, eoooQp 118.
t»li3i**«fg 266. 2)1$, Bom^ 258.
w^^&L 284. &rjfe, 52, 53.
womH 258.
effSoSb® 232, 272, 320, 358. L4)b> 277.
W-es-SS- Aye aye, 285. s"oei6a§!S» 301.
£ That, this, which 73. XwsSm 296.
ffcjSjL 29, 272, 296, 331. tf-ra* 285.
Wtfg 304. tfe> 255, 269.
«5-«r»^ 285. rT^KufcooolSO, 334, 256, 325
B(o&> 285. —329.
stotSS 285. SwXbii 120, 275.
sô^BjXrejfcew 306. T» 230—233.
285. TP 86.
6j*«Sb ^ySotf. 83. -A-oiftJS 319.
&2jy»sSj*«> 298. "5"»«> 226.
(Srg^tf* 320. TP? 172.
FIRST INDEX.
"3-»s»63 233. p the conjunction 170
â^«ss» 307. jDSgsS_t$£Scr»iS«SM 267.
I_0i6 319. P$ 63, 190.
Ko5o;6 296. r&, the conjunction 169.
Xi\B&3 254. -jSefix&tj, 123, 277.
SnsSbti, i£r°£«& 277. aSo-SxJ'satJ 314.
§"?6*j 84, 103, 105, 277. sSjfcfc> 83, 153, 224, 247, 276.
r*oo 285. ssp 289.
(Tresis 357. iSSo&oo 331.
«o(MX,rasfe3ex) 306, 321. ^PKêSsioew 319.
tfossf^© 299. ■5r»&3 -^&Dew 338.
290.
76, 190.
^3ooog 289.
T Tr- 8?tf£s&> 203.
s3iBog\§cSS 240.
Oojfi 8, 30, 31.
8o£rsS»319
&-o*£litSx> 337.
HOJfsSgsio 7.
^•Jîj 112. note
Ss$ss>sS» 51, 335, 355. ■SoWiSn 54, 56.
55S^sS5&> 51,356.
t>«
o 290.
gjSsSoo 286.
t^ssbtfjto 209, 341.
SSsâSb 52. Jâssbi3s*j 111. note
tftftf 312. sfr6^ 234, 276.
SrSsSa 320. £;Tr*#sS» 288.
«?T1&r»So 336.
, TpSbêxi 83. 1^1$ 298, 324.
«r-fS> 72. ^<£>dS3S 307, 315.
a*«» s&ok8 311.
XT" 213.
■^tfgsSw 357. sfe^râo 312.
labtf^r^sr 174, 175, 179, s&^^f 300.
234, 256, 325, 329. s&8, d&SPjL 172, 286.
310. j&êT and «j&sj»«S-' 39, 190.
?5 See English Index, in N. 191, 332.
jSfSjdfig $r4§<SfisS» 266. sfr**J 289.
jSs&^KsSm 288. S$T.PP 313.
Tr-
£t«6Bo, Têwib 289. So (as 239, 283.
PIEST INDEX.
ss» final, dropped 322, 323. ■sr-SS 52, 68, 73, 214.
Xafri&) 248. aap-j 50.
cSfiO 297, 298, 315. a£g 342.
«SS3J&.TVjS sS» 319. êr«s»€o 358.
<s&> as a conjunction 171, 172. t", tf, 26, 27, 126.
53»jf. 50, 198, 210. •4oX& 249, 289.
tf, 24. ôSUS^^sia 319.
fSjaS 305, 316. "&>$ 3B, 44, 339.
«Sr»© 350. *r4/3£ 358.
■0*2 259.
iSsSt^sSb 343, 207—209,
-^yao»Hoeo 171. ■jets^""^^ 330, 331.
■v°p 135.
-Srgn.e&ljaa 300.
-n-sS»r°8o 332.
«sS««S 286.
e£»S 296.
|>l()3s£s&3 308.
e)d*U^§r> 315, 316.
~§t&> 226. &i& 8, 232, 323.
sST5fS«Saa 296, 320.

«r»l«£r°5$ 358.
^ScJCraûw} 306.
s5«^fc> 276.
35SS-* 347, 348. l^£tf 311.
Sôt&dBJr-jS 297, 321.
tftfjfoa 6.
o
sSedSuk, sSe>&i>, s5o«iSe 127, st"85S*8 286.
135, 277. ^>^«S» 295.
END OF TELUGU INDEX.

SECOND INDEX,
OF ENGLISH WORDS USED IN THE GRAMMAR.
A (the article) how expressed,7, 8. Belly, Body, 216, 290.

A, "Hoot in A" 230,233. Bible Translation, 188.
A, elided, 334. Books that merit publication ;
A, final, broad. 43. (see Preface).
A, E, O, accents affixed, 172, Cak words, 334, 180, 256, 325
173. —329.
A', I', E', (prefixed), that, this, Campbell, 326
which, 75. Can, cannot, 120, 121, 269, 277.
A, I, U, affixed, 334, 337. Cases of Nouns, 49, 50.
Ablative, 203, 207. Causal voice, 155, 1 58, 240, 241 .
Able, (can, cannot), 120, 121, Cerebrals, 7.
269, 277. Change of consonants, 41, 330,
Accent, 34, 35. 331.
Accusative, 200. Change of vowels, 333.
Action, gestures, 167. Circle, 28, 29, 232, 272, 320.
Adjective, 79, 181. Comparative and Superlative
Adjective pronouns, 74. 79, 181,340.
Adverb, 76, 77, 79, 86, 131, Compass, 213.
132, 167, 233, 280. Compound nouns and pronouns,
Adverbial particles, 286. 193, 207, 210, 343.
Affected refinements, 100, 162, Compound tenses, 160, 162, 163.
164. Conditional Aorist, 257.
Alliteration, 314, 344. Conjugations, 81 ; verbs can
Anomalous forms, 271. change from one conjuga
Antiquated forms, 268. tion into another, 82, 154.
Aorist, 82, 152, 261. Conjunctions, 169, 187.
Aphorisms of grammar, 266. Consonants softened, 169, 41
Arabian nights, 29. 331.
Arabic, 6% 67, 84. Contraction in spelling, 338, 79,
Arithmetic, 246. note; in writing, 36, 39;
Article 75, 279. in verbs, 267, 269, 270, 273,
Assuredly, 282, 283. in verse, 176.
Auxiliary Verbs, 273, 274, 276. Conversational forms, 218.
Ballad metre, 318. Courtesy, 97.
SECOND INDEX.
Declensions, 49, 51, First, 51, Have, 224.

52; Second, 52; Third, 56; He (translated by Man), 214.
of Sanscrit nouns, 76; of Hebrew, 84, 168, 278.
adverbs, 76, 77, 78, 79. Hindustani, 244.
Defective nouns, 76. Honorific forms, 218.
Defective verbs, 274, 275. Hymns, 319, 323.
Defilement, 5. I and I' (vowel finals), 47, 48.
Dentals, 33. Idiom, 278, 289.
Dialects, 33. If, or when, 257.
Doubt, 283. Imitatives, 286—288.
Druta, 174, 175, 179, 234, 256, Imperative, 259.
325—329. Impersonals, 200, 273.
E' final, 43, 172, 173, 174, 175. Imprecation, 234.
Elision, 44, 333, 339. Inchoative forms, 276.
Emphasis, 43, 170, 172, 173, Inelegancies, 267, 268.
176, 177. Infinitives, 54, 85, 86, 94, 105.
English spoken, 63. 228, 234.
Enunciation, 5, 35. Inflection, 50.
Etymology, 325, 354. Initials changeable, 7, 41 , 43, 44,
Exclamations, 286. 169, 344.
Father, 290. Instrumental case, 49, 56.
Fictitious phrases used by pe Intercourse with the people, 294
dants, 162, 164. Interjections, 286, 275.
Final vowels, 43. Interrogation, 43.
Fit, possible, 277. Intransitives, 224.
Flattery, 212. Irregular (an objectionabl
Foreign words,66, 67, 68, 81,82. phrase), nouns, 235 ; verbs,
Future, 268. 113.
Gender, 334. Kala words, 174, 256.
Genitive, 50, 198. Kannadi, 82, note, 322
Gentleman, 215. Labials, 7.
Gentoo, a wrong name, 13. Laconic phraseology, 167, 168.
Gerunds, 218. Learned men, 42.
Gestures, 167. Letters, (epistles), 212.
Go, 268. Literature, (see the Preface).
Greek, 95. Locative case, 49, 281, 282.
H (visargah), 342. Lord's Prayer, 260.
Hard sounds, 6. M; elision of this letter, 178,340.
SECOND INDEX. XI
M, MU, final, 45, 178, 322, 323, Nominative case, 50, 192, used
334. adverbially, 280, 281.
Mahat andAmahat.39,190,191. Numerals, 40.
Man, how translated, 214, 217. O, (short), 17.
Manners, 5, 69. O, (the sign of doubt), 172,
Measures, 350,351,353. 173
Melodies, 305, 316,321. Omission of words, 168.
Metrical feet, 295, 296, 306. "One" is omitted, 168.
MI. Negative Verbal noun, 239, Optative or Precatory forms,
283. 266.
Middle Voice, 154, 242—246. Paddy, (rice), 190.
Mind, 216. Pagoda, (a coin), 347, 348.
Monosyllabic Imperatives, 231. Palatals, 7.
Multiplication table 191. Particles, 284, 286, 288.
Musical metres, 315, 318, 319. Participles, 86, 94, 247-257, the
Must, ought, should, 277. present p.l|250,negative251,
N : shapes of this letter, 239. past relative p. || 252, 353,
N : final in nouns, 201. reiterated, 283.
N : final in verbs, 85, 95, 163, Passive verb, 83, 153, 224, 247.
268 269. Past tense, 269, used for the
N, optional (adesa). 96, foot, 194. present, 270.
N, inserted to prevent elision, Pedantry, 295. See in Preface,
333. People, 214, 217.
N, inserted in the verb, 232, 267, Permutation of vowels 333, of
270. initials, 18.
N, inserted for the sake of metre, Persons of the verb, how named,
272. 83.
N, dropped, even in the middle Plurals, 97, 187—192.
of verbs, 112. Poetical dialect, 325, 327,
Names, proper, 209, 213. spelling, 30, 271 , in the verb ,
Neuter verbs, 224. 113,114.
Nasals, 8, 30 ; (see circle.) Points of the compass, 213, 254.
Negative, 93, 95, 162, 163, 239, Politeness 69, 97, 182, 218.
251, 283. Positively, 282, 283.
NI. or NU. conjunctions, 169, Postpositions, 51.
170. Potential f. ms, 261.
No. 225-228, 275. Never, &c, Prayer, 234, 259, 260, 275.
216. Precatory forms, 234.
xii SECOND INDEX.
Prepositions, 51. Sounds hard and soft, 6.
Present, habitual or occasional, Spelling 47, 126, 217, 330, note.
267, used for future, 268. Spittle, 5, 182, 218.
Pretence, 282. Subjunctive, 261.
Pronunciation 22, 212. Sumati, 254.
Pronouns, 68, 193, 213. Sunna, (see circle).
Proper names, 209, 213. Superlatives, 280, 281.
Prosody, 295-320. Syntax, 165.
Pure Telugu, 25, 182. Tadbhava and Tatsama, 335,
Quantity, 295. 355, 356.
Question, 43. Take, 246.
R, shapes of this letter, 3; dis Telugu, Tenugu, 13.
putes regarding it, 24; ob Tenses, 82, 87, 152, 160.
solete, 24, 25. 258 ; inserted , Therein, thereby, thereto, 72.
345. Thou, 215
Beading, 295, 306. Though, although, 252.
Reciprocal or reflective verb, 243 Tone in reading, 5. 295.
—245. Transitive, 224.
Reiteration, 278. Tutor, advice to a, 32.
Relations, 290. U, final, 333, 336.
Relative pronouns, 218. Uncertainty, 283.
Rhyme, 298, 314, 315, 323, 344. V is changed into W, or even is
Roots, 83, 84. Root in A, 230, slurred, 95.
233. Verb, 81 ; voices, 83, verbs are
Rules, antiquated 266. quoted in the preterite form,
Rupee, 346—350. 83, 84 ; some are formed
Rustic forms of the verb, 159. from nouns, 278, in inûta,
S. On this letter, 26, 27, 126. 239.
Sanscrit, 5, 239, 339. Verbals, 54, 86, 235 ; negative
Scriptures, translated, 188, 189. in ML, 239, 283.
Self, 246. Vocative, 202.
Semicircle, 28,29,232, 272,320. Vowels, 333.
Senior and j unior, 21 1 , 215, 290. Vulgar forms, 56, 115,357.
Shall and will, 269. Welsh initials changeable, 344.
Silent consonants, 296. Woman, in pronouns, 215, 217.
Soft sounds, 6. Y, inserted, 333.
Softening initials, 41, 169, 330, Yes and No, 225-228.
344. Z, or J, 21.
ERBATA AND ADDENDA.
Page 57. The nouns ô^jSss a wife, S"tfra5S» a clerk, srvfsSw

an actor, and OotfeiojCo (not eoXtfco which would be wrong)
are declined in the same manner : the genitive being the same
as the nominative.
73. w#b is used for 'man' or 'person' as here shewn. But
JiJfc is never used in such compounds. Thus: «£>ofisr»ifc 'a good
man-.' but 'this good man' is •w«&o-Qsr»i6. So in the feminine
6>-"aj that woman, this woman: but 'this old woman' is
p 82. 1. 18 read "Thus from ^dS»" 'to do' 'to make' comes
the past. p|| 'having done or made.'
p. 85. 1. 15 read "Bought wood."
102. foot : read ' Palnati. p. 331.'
111. foot. The initials here used are explained in page 358.
116. line 3. 'q. v.' denotes a reference to this word in the
Dictionary.
120. line 11. The mark § denotes that these shapes are pe
culiar to poetry.
p. 178. 1. 16 erase S1,Wo!>ou>g£e».
182. 1. 1 read, "may drop MU"—"fine cloth." line 12 read
" foul" 1. 18 read " cloth ; and so on."
183. 1. 23 erase "(lime)." line 24 read "Telaga" line 27 read
184. 1. 15 read "W-ew forms the." line 27 read, "Sot or

S"jS^, than, added."
185. 1. 3 read, "meaning, she is."
186. foot note "EegardiDg Sanscrit comparatives and superlatives,
see page 340."
ERRATA.
192, 1. 13 read "let him go," not 'let I go.'
203. 1. 29 read,
207. 1. 29 read "uniting several" "the signs of case."
215. 1. 28 read « oisSe§ to whom?"
216. 1. 2 read "(incorrectly rendered tfs&oS)."
247. 1. 2. 3 and in page 255 line 14 and page 260, erase the
marks ( ).
254. 1. 26 read "meddling with quarrels."
260. 1. 3 read " a series of imperatives."
261. note; read 'arxalta' 'thou would'st still.' 'And in Ovid's
Metam' fulva colre.
265, 1. 13 for "W. I" read 'Vishnu Puran.'
271. The quotation from Plutarch should be placed at the head
of the page, as a motto-
p. 273. 1- 9 read " and yet is used in Spenser."—line 30 read
"by the present; equivalent."
274. 1. 1 read, " il ne."
278. lines 6 and 9 erase "(2. W. 580" and < (2 W)."
282. line 15 erase "(ADC 484)."
283. 1. 27 read "(in MI, see page 239)."
290. line 2. Instead of '121—122,' read '216.'
291. 1. 7 read "words are easily found."
296. lines 28 and 29_'read Maecenas," " Ymetto."
297. 1. 16 read "denotes the yati or pause."
298. 1. 20 read ^whatever :'A should.'
302. 1. 27 read jtacitaque.'
310. 1. 14 read 'pedantry.'
314. After line 12 place 'a new Title : " On RHYME." line
33 read "Alliteration:—and."
317. line 6Afor^234 read 'page"[306.'
318. line 22 erase "TT where arc."
319. read "On the K02SfsS» DANDACAMU."
EREATA.
320. line 2 Instead of 80os5a read ste*^.
322. line 20 read 'an additional short syllable.'
323. note. For 'Assonants' read 'Asonantes.'
324. 1. 24 read 'dictionary are.'
325. 1. 2 and 3 read ' formula?.'
326. 1. 14 ' Here, &c.' must be erased.
327. 1. 7 read (A, see page 343). 1. 23 read **0 + f>, is*
oB3-f-r&, Sr-okges+ffc, + 4r*£+ih. And in line 30, £"3
Note: The Table of Verbs (p. 220, 221, 222, 223) should, in
a future edition, be placed before the rule for the first Conju»
gation: which at present is in page 94.
THE GRAMMAR
OF THE
TELUGU LANGUAGE.
BOOK FIEST—On Obthogbaphy.
The Telttgu language written from left to right, like English :

and the best writing is upright : or sloping a little, (unlike Eng
lish) towards the left. The words are in general pronounced, (as
in Greek) precisely as they are spelt : thus the ear is a sufficient
guide in orthography. In the round hand used in books every
letter stands separate as in printing. In running hand the letters
are shaped differently, and are combined, as in English ; the words
not being divided from each other. To render the alphabet easy it
will be requisite first to explain the principles on which it proceeds.
Many letters have two forms : one appears in the alphabet as a
capital or primary, and the other is secondary. Thus C9, 9>
are the alphabetical or capital forms of the vowels A, I, TJ, which
are respectively called fT'So, ^fio, tes^So, Acaram, Icaram,
and Ucaram : because caram is equivalent to letter.
Thus the consonants 5f, K, x$, are Ka, Ga, Cha ; the mark
above each being the Talacattu or sign of A. §, ^, £>, are Ki, Gi,
and Chi : and §b, fo, are Ku, Gu, Chu. With this last
vowel \3, the talacattu is retained, though it is not pronounced.
The letters g", X, i5, have as secondary shapes, q—, and
which are written under the line. Thus akka, **£ agga, and
«*fS\ acca : which last is pronounced atsa, or as azza would be
sounded in Italian.
2 TELUGU GEAMMAK.
The talacattu, or A, is thus attached to most letters. Thus
?> Ha, 25 da, «S ta ; but some letters write talacattu and
Q gudi, separately. Thus ^ sa, ?J si, pa, So pi.
Ten consonants never use the sign talacattu : for it is sounded
though not written. These are Sp kha, 3S gna, 88 ja, 28 za, %f jna,
 ta, C3 na, a) ba, © la, e*9 ra. Excepting these, it is not the
custom to write any letter, even in the alphabet, without the
talacattu. In modern printing, the Kannadi (or " Cannarese")
types ^6 are used ; which remove all doubt.
The mark I called jada, or ottu, or vottu, is a
breathing, and being placed under some letters, makes them aspi
rates. Thus £) Bi, © Di, ai) Bu, CSd Du, are not aspirated. But
fr) Bhi, Dhi, Jpo Bhu, £5b Dhu, have the aspirate sound.
A circle, o, is in some places used for N or M. Thus fog is
anta, f om ia amba, <6o^)Aj is pamputa ' to send.' The circle
(called &>(S)_sunna) is usually formed like the English letter o.
Thus f oX'o is angam ; but, for the sake of clearness, the form O
is frequently used in this grammar.
As certain consonants have the vowel A " inherent" so the .
consonant cj£) ya (of which ^ is the second form) has the vowel
I, inherent. For if written without •/ the letter ceo is i or yi.
Thus is po-yi (pronounced po-i) ' having gone.' "S^wg veyyi
(ve-i) ' a thousand.' êag cheyyi (che-i) ' the hand.'
The mark -_" is called &&£~o dirgham ; and is the common
name for broad a. Thus Zs'°tS&&e-o kakara-dTrgham signifies
( S " ka) the consonant k with a added.
As I is inherent in y, aXJ~° is yi ; sounded as I in machine, or
ee in seen.
The letter a. £9 is called <s~r"tf o acaram or ' letter A' as in
Amelia ; but the sign *S a is called talacattu or crest.
The letter S) I is called =i"VtJo i-caram : but the sign Q I, is
called gudi ' a whirl.' The letter 6s U is called &T"Bo Uca-
ram : but the sign \) is called S"1 «^ commu ' a horn.'
ORTHOGRAPHY. 3
Instead of "B^S o caram, the word f$£o twain (a word likeness
as dkaSSp stoutness, XoOoS£o heaviness) is sometimes used. Thus
these three vowels are at pleasure called ^ô, Si^0, ^tfjjo,
atwam, itwam, and utwam.
If two consonants meet, one is written without a vowel, under
aa a
the other. Thus n c, nacca 'a fox.' cue, kukka 'a dog.'
c c
e a
•rtj&o b J mu> ballemu ' a spear.' «*» gu r mu gurramu ' a
1 r
horse.' Here we see that B a is written without the vowel a; and
GU Xo has the vowel a written above it, but not pronounced.
In «bL?sS» the mark L_ is It and comes between gu and ram. This
mark shaped l__ or ^ j is called ITÛ'sSft crara vadi.
The letter v J is use(i in writing : but in printing it is more
convenient to use the ancient forms [_ or J thus ijf or §T^) kra.
This form is used in inscriptions on some aucient temples ; and is
retained in many manuscripts, both Telugu and Cannadi.
The letter that stands on the line is pronounced first ; then the
one, or two, under it. Then the vowel above. Thus ^ is pra :
c i
and i rOj,! s, strl, a woman, also written sjo~° ; that is, §j sT with
^-S t ^<±J
r
ai
_o t and \, J r beneath. Thus also s s that is, Sastri,
t
' a learned man. ' r
Sometimes a consonant is marked as " silent ;" no vowel being
attached to it. The silent mark called pollu is ôr5-
added to the top of the letter instead of a vowel. Thus s^^r-
pridhac (i. e. separately^ part.) Here the mark written above k
shows that it is silent. Thus also O is the letter La ; but by ad
ding this sign it becomes as in the word 5^ 6~ hal ; meaning a
consonant. So f-tS- ach (t. e. a vowel). Thus ?S ta becomes
tf~ as in the word fsS^J- avasat ' unexpectedly.' The letter
4 TELUGU GRAMMAR.
sa becomes F as in the word "«je?> tejas ' lustre.' Thus or
pa becomes fo as « E~ ap i. e. water. These are Sanscrit words,
and rarely occur in the free dialect.
The letter ^ Na assumes the form i- as in the word oMOi>F"
intan ' in the house ;' <r*£vr~ lopalan ' within.'
This mark is called j5 vsifeo nacara-pollu.
The letter Z> R when followed by another consonant adds it
a
beneath, as in the word area ar or sometimes changes places
c
with it and assumes the form E~ thus w5"e- acr. So tfjô Dh r m,
m
a a aa
dharmam, may also be written $sfe£~o? dh m r m. So 5j£ c r
t
aa a
carta ' a lord' may be written 5*Sf" c t r. Thus ^P8^0 prm
fl v
a
purvam ' formerly' may be written sg^^ £"0, p v r m. Either way
u
the pronunciation is the same.
This mark is called gilaca (literally a rattle,) from a fancied
resemblance in shape) or more usually sSejêAeiS- valapala gilaka,
which means, " the gilaca on tbe right hand," i. e. placed beyond
the letter.
The letters of the alphabet appear very numerous, but the rea
son is that a separate character is used for each sound, instead of
using the same letter with two or three different sounds, as hap
pens in English.
The consonant^ also are multiplied and have such a variety of
forms, because they use a separate shape for each variety of sound.
T has one form and Th another ; K has one form and Kh another.
And this happens also in the Greek alphabet.
This spelling is easy ; as the letters when correctly pronounced,
never deviate from the sound given in the alphabet.
But a difficulty (felt by those who have advanced far) arises
from the liberty of spelling the same word in various ways.
OETHOGEAPHY. 5
The student should provide himself with the edition, lately
printed in the Telugu character, of the Sanscrit Bhagavad Gita.
This will furnish a good key to the character if he already knows
the Sanscrit alphabet.
When we have occasion to write Hindu or Mahometan names
in English letters, too great precision would be pedantic. It is
usual to write Bramin for Brahman, or Bramhan : and Kajahmun-
dry for Bajamahendra-varam.
When a letter is written under the line it is usually larger than
if written on the line.
It is not the custom to separate the words. Thus a paragraph
looks as if it was all one word. But in printing it will be found
easy to separate words, as is done in English.
The mark | is used as a comma ; and || as a period. The com
ma is used at the end of each line in poetry except the last which
is marked with the period.
In some Telugu printing, the English comma, semicolon, pe
riod and other stops have been introduced with good effect.
A letter is called &&*8sSxi axaram. An aspirated letter is called
z-<$&.ti£x> or 23g.Si.SJSx> likewise means a syllable. Thus
strl ' a woman' is considered to be §c axaram, a mo
nosyllable : lit. one letter.
Unless thoroughly acquainted with the principles of spelling
and the variations therein allowed, we shall not be able to find
words in the dictionary. The reader must therefore pardon what
he may consider a tedious degree of preciseness regarding ortho
graphy.
The vowels cannot be correctly pronounced without opening the
mouth wide, looking up, and using a loud tone. Natives complain that
the English mumble their words.*
The learner should write the letters on a slate, in a large flou
rishing style : this is the easiest method of attaining fluency in writ
ing- .
* The native tutors also complain that English pupils touch their mouths with
their hands : and then defile books with hands thus dirtied. Hindus hold spittle
in abomination. We should respect their prejudices, and treat them kindly.
6 TELUGU GEAMMAE.
THE ALPHABET.
Vowels.
C5» a g) j î a (or em n) £i a
S3ai a,o £o c au.

Consonants ; (in five classes.)
Class 1st. t ca 3) kha X ga SpD gha gna.
2nd. SS cha ^ chha 88 ja Cop jha gp- jna.
3rd. <i5 5f tha & da dha £3 na (hard.)
4th. $ ta $ tha £$ da dha ^ na (soft.)
5th. pa ^3 pha 3D ba bha & ma.
CS5S ya J? ra O la $ la ;5 va.
<if sa 5S. sha ^ sa oS-0 ha iS\ xa.
The dots placed under the letters t th d dh n 1 and s denote that
these letters are sounded hard. They are sometimes marked with
accents, as i' t'h d' d'h n' Y and s'.
Numerals.
o-o3tfaf£-8cr-, torr oo, oo-<$eo.
123456 7 89 9 10 1850.
The numerals three and seven are perpetually confounded in ma
nuscript.
The first 25 consonants are arranged in sets (called sStf;S» varga-
mu) having five letters in each : and on arranging these in five lines,
we shall observe that the first and third letter in each line, are sim
ple : but the second and fourth are aspirated. For the sake of dis
tinction the consonants that stand in the first column, being 5T,-£kT,
e>, "^5, &c, are called ^tSosS- hard : and Kf 2S, C5, 33, &c., in
the third column are called ■po'5 soft. Thus G is the soft sound of
k ; and P is the hard sound of B.
ALPHABET. 7
In some places a bard initial is softened : that is, T changes into
D ; or P into B, &c. Thus Ssk^^ Tammudu ' a younger brother'
changes into eSsSv^^fc dammudu, d*i£)k> povuta ' to go' becomes
jSîgjAJ bovuta, îfoiJ ' to fall' becomes £>«So4j baduta, and 5"ex)Xo4j
caluguta ' to be' becomes X"e«!<b*J galuguta. But a soft letter is
never changed into a hard one.
The expressions dentals, palatals, labials, &c, which are used in
Sanscrit Grammar are needless here : or belong only to the rules
(at the close of the volume) regarding Sanscrit words.
In expressing the sounds in English letters, the spelling used in
the works of Colebrooke, Jones, Wilson, and Wilkins is the most
convenient.
The rules for spelling, which Native grammarians inculcate, are te
diously minute, and widely different from those used in ordinary
writing; which they consider beneath their notice; giving rules for
the poetical dialect alone. Accordingly their rules are of little use to
a foreigner ; and my object being to assist the foreigner, the present
grammar is so constructed as to meet his wants : the rules for the
poetical dialect are therefore removed from the beginning to the end
of the grammar. Indeed, we need notice no rules of permutation but
those requisite for finding words in the dictionary.
The alphabet exhibits the capitals or first forms. The secondary
form of £j) a being this is added to the consonants. In some
grammars all the consonants are exhibited without vowels attached :
but it seems useless to give forms that are not in use.
Six consonants cpO? ^ 5S.? )6? So-^ gha, pa, pha, sha, sa,
ha, use this sign, as here shewn, above the letter; but written with
out touching it. If they were joined, the letter itself would change ;
thus, •£} 16 are pa, sa ; but S5 ^ are va, na.
The sound of A is that used in about, around. Thus the name
wuôs is pronounced Alacananda. Nala, the name of a cer
tain prince, is sounded like the Latin Nulla. 55^9 Hari, a name
of Vishnu, is pronounced like the English word hurry. s&SS^f
Amara cosha (the title of a Dictionary) is written Ummuru Kosliu
by those who prefer that mode of spelling.
In common writing, the letters often take other shapes. Thus
8 TELTJGrU GRAMMAR.
over the letters g, ?$, §, Q, ka, ta, ki, ti, we often 6ee the vowel
written without touching the consonant.
The nasals are placed at the ends of those classes in the alphabet
to which they belong.
All the nasal letters may be changed into O sunna (the sign or
contraction for N or M) either when they are followed by a conso
nant or when they are final. Thus lôtfo grandham ' a book'
would according to Sanscrit rule be written l**^ ; and woXo
angam ' the body' would be written tsaS.
Regarding Tehigu words also, instead of §3 kinda, the spelling
in use is §oaS. The sound remains unaltered.
In the Devanagari alphabet, as exhibited in Wilson's Sanscrit
Dictionary, the appropriate nasal is retained ; but in Telugu, as in
common Devanagari or Bangali writing, the dot or circlet is substi
tuted. Thus fc5e>zp-°o'S' alancaram (ornament) is written t»e)OT»ffo
which form alone is intelligible. This occasionally alters the place
of a word in the dictionary.
ON SPELLING.—THE VOWELS.
If a word borrowed from Sanscrit ends in a long vowel, this is
generally shortened. cala becomes 3"$ cala ; and "^S Devi be
comes "eta Devi. Monosyllables, as ®- sri and stri retain the long
vowel.*
The long (or broad) a y is sounded as in the English words half,
hard, laugh. WiS tata, ' grandfather' is sounded as the English pro
nounce Tartar. sfcêj mata ' a word' like the English ' Martyr.'
In &5-o($o A'ndhra (the learned name for Telugu) the first vowel
is long, as though written am. The second shape of a is —0 as in
>*S tata ' grandfather.' This —° is called &>$>s~o (long) and is,
added to the letters thus.
* The short vowel A is written in eight wayB in English : with five vowels
and three dipthongs : thus (A) Ashore, Amelia, Victoria, Woman, (E) writer,
flower, other, (I) stir, Cheshire, (0} London, son, mother, Hertford, (TJ) gun,
cup, until, (IE) soldier, (OU) neighbour, (10) fiction, occasion. The Sanscrit
asti and santl, become in Latin est and sunt ; the a changing into e, and into
u. Many Sanscrit words are identical with Latin. "ôQ santi sunt, y^j:S;r»o8
pravahanti provehunt. But as these iustances shew, the Sanscrit vowel A is
convertible into E, I, 0, and U.
ALPHABET. 9
T* ka ^T"3 kha
cha 0 chha ar° js C£\X^> jha
&T° ta $ha aT° da dha or r§ na
W° ta Tp"* tha S5~° da T^3 dha, 7"° na
pa 2P> ba ^ bha Sir0 nia
T5"° »"» eSP ra er° la V la va
sa sha •gro or -j^-o sa "^T6 ha (jL\.° xa.
The vowel Sj is short I as in ' India.' Thus 3(18 irri ' a fawn'
B(to iUu ' a house' icci ' having given.' The word English is
written Sjoft^ Inglishu and England is ss>o£oi5>S Inglandu. The
Sj is called sâô itwam as «*£o twam is the name given to the
vowels only; while caram as WT'tfo Aearam, s'^So cacaram is
common to both vowels and consonants : the long sound is
Itwam. The secondary shape G) is called gudi (like goody)
and the long sound is §) !fo&6i£)S-o gudi-dlrgham. It is sounded
i or ee like i in machine, ravine, Louisa. Thus (a woman) is
stri; or stree. t>® LTla (a comedy) is sounded Leeler. The sign
for dlrgham or the longer sound is often omitted in writing.
Added to various consonants this somewhat changes their shapes.
Thus
§ ki § ki ip khi jp khl % gi ^ gi 5£> ghi \x ghi
or %XT° ghi.
Herein we see that instead of adding the accent above, they add
the sign —0 dlrgham at the end.
© chi h chi § ji t! ji &p jhi kty jhi or &)T-d jhl
Ax) ti (43 ti &>5 ti or II a thi |» thi ft di & di
Q dhi ^ dhi c3 ni nl or £S£) ni dI © ti
5 ti or Is ti w ti §| thi if) tin a di fi di $ dhi £ dhi
P ni j§ ni ?o pt la pi ^) phi ^ phi a) bi a) bl
ej) bhi cf) bhl [in common writing £) chi z£> chhi and &) bi
£) bhi are shaped alike] g» mi gXT" mi oi £o ml Ceo }»
B
10 TELUGU geammae.
Qyh> yl (This consonant having the vowel inherent) Q ri 6 rt
S li I) II £> li b II S vi vl § si <§ si shi
1^ shi or %STO shT si §j or o si &P> hi It0 or
gj"6 hi £r° hi gr6 hi tJU xi JL xl.
It will be observed that some of these letters have two or three
forms just as happens in English. In common writing £) li and
Si vi are shaped alike.
Instead of the initial (or capital forms) Q I I they use QCO yl
and Qjj-= yl which however are pronounced simply 1 and I. Thus
o3>£_(£ iccada (here) cxr°&> Idu (age) are written instead of
and -&JSb. The initial forms oj, are seldom used unless in
poems and dictionaries.
It will be observed that the six consonants gha, pa, S) pha,
53. sha, -ft sa, o5~° ha, which have the vowel ' a' written separate from
them, likewise have the vowel O) (i) written in the same manner
separately.
^ or e© tne short vowel U as in Superb, or oo in book. Thus
uppu ' salt' ^8 puli ' a tiger.' And or &S-i is the same
vowel long, as u in Lucy, chuse, choose or oo in root, shoot. Thus
uguta ' to swing.'
In common business this is best represented by oo ; thus Ramoo-
doo for Ramudu : for in the affairs of ordinary life more precision
in spelling would be pedantic*
The form &3 is constantly used for this vowel, thus uttar-
avu ' an answer,' is written es J3t£>;£) ; but grammarians assert that
this form belongs to R, as will be stated in a future page.
The second forms are *Q and \J° with which (the sign of a) is
used : excepting as regards the ten letters that never use These
are Sf> 3S gp- fb C3 & O e*9 which are written «£X5, gJo, aj>
qO, d>5, rao. £0, OO, «&)• . The rest use it as follows :
• See on this subject Prinsep's remarks iu Journal of Asiatic Society, June, 1834,
ALPHABET. 11
& ku <$X) khu gu ^yxi ghu £>3 chu tpb chhu ■ a»ju
S0il3 jbu d>D tu J5h thu du dhu fSo nu $0 tu

thu £b du <£>b dhu fij nu ^) pu ^) phu 800 bu
epo bhu S&> mu cSSjO yu & ru e>0 lu lu ^) vu $3 su
^j>0 shu su ^r°0 hu tS3iO xu. 5o~°, t5£t° are ku, chii,
formed by adding the • to \).
Here it will be observed that the letters pa ^> pha and S$ va
add the vowel \} in a peculiar manner. This is done to distinguish
them from c^X) gha and SSb ma. But in common hasty writing thase
distinctions are sometimes confounded.
In like manner ^ ' N' is often written for ^ S ; and SS V is often
written for P. But over S and P, when thus written, a little up
right dash is often placed to shew the difference, and to denote that
the vowel ought to be separated from the consonant.
Instead of the initial forms 63 and the consonants J^) vu and
jg-o vu are generally used. Thus the words uppu ' salt'
uduta 'a squirrel' are in the dictionary spelt and
but in common life vuppu, and €>!&C$ vuduta. But the V or W
is not sounded and accordingly the sounds are uppu, uduta, or oop-
poo, oodoota.
The short u when it is final is written indeed, but is very often
(like the silent e in hare, ride) dropped in pronunciation. Thus
^ £0 chenu 'afield' is always called chen ; batu • a duck'
is pronounced £F><§~ bat ; "3T*&> e5"*lfc stop ! stop ! is pronounced
-&*f Tarl ! Tarl ! or Tal Tal ! aS^^So < a he buffalo' in like
manner is called^ dunnapijt. Words that end in oSa mu as
l!o'j£>3, beramu ' merchandize' TT'o's&s caramu 'acrid' are always
pronounced "^tfo beram T»tfo caram. In such words the final U
is necessary only in poetry : for in Telugu as in French verse each
syllable is enunciated. In the words borrowed from Hindustani,
English or other languages (and which have a final silent consonant)
as fir-3 ad (a complaint) vakil (a pleader) book, major, line, number,
(the English words)the Telugus do indeed add a final u, thus ^tt^jS),
12 TELUGU GRAMMAR.
at e*>, , ^^>,ôwc3 ; they write the vowel U, but do not
pronounce it.
At the end of a verse in poetry, the syllables 00, p, *«5j, often
drop their vowels and are contracted into i- . Thus ^>ffcex> be
comes *rS>5~, wtfpSp and jcoS 5oiS> become WrfpSr", sfotfsog-.
But vulgar copyists instead of dropping the vowel, lengthen it;
thus a&ifcexr>; fcSJSjSS^ ?r»oa£8c>;&*.
Many Telugu words use the vowels A and U in the second sylla
ble at pleasure; thus valaga, or sr"X>K valuga, *x>£3»eu or
mdSosSsaew, ~^>tSXo or 'Ai&fa, 8t5£x> or SOosSm, WioS" ataca, or W&oS-
atuca. The same happens in verbs, thus Jô'tSjAj para<;uta, tS*X«oi>,
^feSSo'ESiij rnay at pleasure be spelt ^SoiSieo paruQuta, s^Prtiexiij,
abtwS'Oo-iSieo, or dropping both vowels S8&^*J par<juta, <6e>_Soiftej
palkaringuta. Accordingly if we do not find one form in the dic
tionary we must look for the other.
The short vowel is ri or ro8 as in the words rig, rich, trick,
rook, brook. Thus woo^x rishi ' a prophet' wxiKbig) rutuvu ' a season'
sjjorssSx) debt. The second form is ^) as in &\ t> tripti 'satisfaction*
cripa ' favor' ■ô^_^^sSio Sanscrit.
In common writing, the letters 2? zti and a"-0 zij are often shaped
exactly like the vowels ri and rfi. And instead of the
capital they use t£>. Thus is written CSbra«&». But this is
wrong.
The vowel is also written (but not pronounced) along with
SOCO- Thus 5\ erf >() grit prl 1^) sri, &c. But tripti is
generally, though not correctly spelt trupti and Xj&-«0 griham
(a house) is wrongly written X^sS-,sS» ; while krushna or
krishna, (a certain name) is vulgarly written and 2^)® vai"
criti is written ]3s6^S.*
* The vowel Lu as in will run, shall read, is rarely used, and the learner may
safely neglect it. Indeed 00 (that is, the consonant L) is generally substituted.
Thus clripta g" j£ (short) is written So i6 and pronounced clupta. The word
jfiJ pluta ' extension' is written Plava the name of a year is pro-
uounced like the English word Plover. In fact "2 is peculiar to a few Sanscrit
words, and ought to be pronounced lri as in bell-ringer.
ALPHABET. 13
The short vowel a) is £ short, as in Bella, Betty, periphery.
Thus <^fS>sS» enumu ' a she buffalo' "3e*>Xo Telugu or Ur&Ko Tenugu*
(the name of this language) 'îS^kjJ,0 Chenna-Patnam, the original
name (still in use) of Madras. (j^"^ vrase ' he wrote' pallke
he spoke.' If such words are written in English characters the
addition of h (vraseh, palikeh) will conveniently shew that the e is
to be sounded as a syllable : not being silent. Thus in Latin bone,
tale, male.
The long vowel <Jj is e long as in the French words meme, bleme
and the Persian words shekh, sher, der; different from the sound given
in English to the vowel a in name, or same. Thus <^Sx> emi ' what'
enuga ' an elephant' tene ' honey' ledi ' an antelope'
"3$ lellu * antelopes.'
The short vowel a is vulgaTly changed into e in a few words.
Thus X"S gaddi ' grass' is pronounced geddi, X"o$5"o( T?oif 5"o.
The word "S? vela ' time' is written and pronounced ^sft vyala.
These are mere vulgarisms and should be avoided. So ~^«8 nedari
'lout' IS? lgka 'without' leta ' soft' become F°£SSQ n-yadari,
*r^S*' l-ySo«» «r»^8 1-yata; while veta 'venison' (the common
word also for a sheep) becomes and cSCr-ej v-yata and yata.
By a similar error, which is universal, the words beginning with
"i5 or &c, are perpetually written t3~° and & "C ; thus xS c«S» «o to
do is almost invariably written x^cs&io; and *3Sb*j (to arrive)
oyfiaej ; *3tJ cheta (by) chepa (a fish) are usually written "wS,
chata, chapa : because the illiterate spell by the ear alone.
Ww batta-meka ' a bustard' is pronounced vulgarly butter-maker.
a suburb becomes "^"£*-> p-yata, ~&&> teta 'clear' becomes
■y£^> t-yata. So "■§>& a name (instead of peru) becomes
p-yaru. And (as vulgarism is capricious) the contrary happens:
thus 9"Stfo sariram 'the body' is always written "?6tfo serlram.
This must be remedied in searching for a word in the dictionary.
The correct spelling is uniform : the vulgar forms are devoid of rule;
* It is high time to abolish the absurd name Gentoo which was introduced by
the Portugueze, and is ignorantly used by some persons for the name 1 Telugu.'
14 TELUGU GEAMMAB.
and various people use various spellings. They often know and ac
knowledge these deviations to be wrong, and entirely approve the
more correct mode of spelling. Among ourselves orthography has
only in late years become fixed : our ancestors cared little for the
spelling even of proper names.
The final short a is sometimes written is. Thus ^f^, ~S043^(
allica, pentica are written fc5£-^, ^043"? allike, pentike.
The second forms are -= e and —£> e. Thus ~§ ke g ke ~ip khe
1=§ khe ~R ge ~~X ge ghe ~^x> ghe, &c.
The long vowel differs from the short only by adding the C mark
above called pollu ; which in ordinary writing is omitted.
Thus the long and short vowels are written alike. Sanscrit writing
never uses the pollu: but the sound is invariably long.
In the copies of the Telugu Poems which have been transcrib
ed for me (now amounting to some hundred volumes) the spelling
has been left as it was in the original. To rectify the vulgar errors
would have been an endless task: the spelling has been rectified
only in those volumes which have been prepared for printing.
The shapes -=> —S are drawn from right to left, (backwards) and
—0 the sign of a is drawn (forwards) the opposite way. Thus IT0
is ia, but ~§ is ke, and S is ke. Accordingly we have these forms
lp khe, ~X ge, ~=^M ghe, "jg gne, "3 che, chhe, gj? jno»
83 je, ~3cp jhe, ?b \S, the, ~3 dS, "qs dhe, cS ?8, ~H te,
the, 13 de, ~c£> dhe, no, pe, phe, 13 be,
~Q bhe, ~3o me, "c&5 3'?, ~8 r8, 69 re, 13 le, 1? 15,
"3 ve, ~% se, "^x she, se, "^T0 he, xe. And if
the accent is added, thus "f ke, ^ khe, ~~X ge, ~^>0 ghe> &o. the
vowel becomes long.
Instead of the initial form of o) e (which is confined to poems and
dictionaries,) "c&3 ye '8 >n use. Thus for Ati&> evadu 1 who'
eccada 'where' <^p&>8> enimidi 'eight' JosfcSS enduku 'why' we
write and pronounce yevadu, yeccada, Sa^SaS, yeni-
midi, cSoce&So yenduku. And the long vowels as &Wot S"7r*ei
are always changed into Gfrwo or ^ô, &c.
ALPHABET. 15
The letter Y though thus written (the learned say) ought not af
fect the pronunciation.
The vowels A and E are in vulgar writing used for one another :
chiefly in initial syllables. Thus ^>p&>S enimidi ' eight' is written
csfcpSwS yanimidi ; &z£_l£ is spelt <SS S" IS • SoS^SS evvaru becomes
eS6*5£J» yavvaru.
It will be observed that the six letters over which the vowel G) i
is written without touching them, likewise have e and e written in
the same manner.
33 ai; S>#5 8§o ais-war-yam, (prosperity) S3S£o aik-yam ' united-
ness.' This is sounded as the English sounds of sky. like, heights.
Words beginning with this vowel use the shape S3 in the diction
ary, (See rules for finding words in the dictionary) but in common
use this is laid aside, and tsooo ayi is substituted. Thus S)fr°i4> I
became ia written tsowp^jai ayinanu. Under the vowel Q it has
been shewn that CCU yi is used for i, and in fact does not retain the
sound y (which is reckoned as a consonant) thus a-yi-na-nu is pro
nounced ai-nanu. The second form is T~° ; thus ~§ Kai, 4$ Khai,
' O Q
A gai, &c.
Q
The forms therefore are as follows :
1 !p ~R "%x> IS 1 ~3cp ~?J ~g "3 "B &c.
d— Q— a— a_ °— ala_ o_ o_ q— a_ q2_ a
This vowel must always be expressed by AI in English—never
by Y. Thus is nairruti, not nyruti ; liS'sia is paicam, not
py-cum ; is sain-yam, not synyam. If it is written Y, this
leads to uncertainty, as will be seen in the remarks on the conso
nant Y. For the letter Y is, in Sanscrit and in Telugu, always a
consonant ; and cannot be used without a vowel following it.
The vowel 2j is 6 as in Sophia, Police, produced, Moravia, poten
tial, Located. Or the French words folle, monnoie, montagne. The
longer sound el> is that which occurs in the Persian words slior, top,
mor, or in the French words lorgner, monde, fosse.
These initial forms are found in the dictionary, but are laid aside
in common use. vo and "c^J~° v° being substituted.*
• The alphabet is called L;4:*y»i)0 6namahi from the words Lo £ «Ss § sr° csfl
^>SSC;6iS>S which is to Hindus what the Bismillah is to Musulmans
16 TELUGU GRAMMAR.
But the consonant V if followed by U or O is not pronounced.
Thus "d^) is simple 6 and "t^J-0 is long o.
2-&s} oppu ' right' is usually written ~§>&£.
Z,ii3 ocati ' one' is written "5)5" *3 or even
E-ifc«-> ottuta ' to press' is written "%>**j.
ogu ' wicked' is written "%r^>.
Ll>£ opica ' patience' is written "^rii^.
i,sS>si>5 omamu 'bishop's weed,' is written ~^r«S>«k>.
Elsewhere the long vowel is changed into oi u ; thus the word for
a boat or ship is always written and pronounced vl& viida; unless in
poems, where it is written oda.
The short o has two forms, viz. £T"° co, K~* go, ^S*-0 kho,
&c., and the second form is "IpoO gh.5, ~3cpj jho, "Soo mo, 55oo yo,
P°> v°> &c- The second form is compounded of -=> e and
"Q the sign of u.
This compound form is used by all consonants : but all do not
use the simple form. The simple forms are these;
^ $™ fT* 3"° tVT* tho do (jT dho«S^
tf° S~* tf* bo e£r° bho 5"° ro lo. Four letters have
a peculiar shape po pho sho fd"° so.
All these may be made long by adding the accent, thus co,
K~* go, &c.
Some are elongated by adding —0 (dirgham) to the second form,
as ~"§b~° co, kho, &c. po, 1$7~T> vo, no.
Thus e and 5 compounded (like eau in French) become 6. But
four letters omit the sign 'Q when the vowel is long. ~=|pjT> gho,
"S.p-0 jho, m5, o3t° yo. Thus one commu is omitted : but
uneducated persons often use two.
It is a very common error to write the long 6, instead of the short
6. Thus r°o#, §"oesco are written rôtf, rôaoo. This does"
not affect the pronunciation : which remains short.
The vowel 2? au or ow, as in cow, out, mount; but it is com
pounded of A and U ; and accordingly in common writing the initial
ALPHABET. 17
shape 33° is never used; avu or aira, being substituted; and
the V or W being silent as already shewn, this is pronounced aw or
au. Thus **©4j awta or avuta (to become) which in the dictionary
is 33°eo auta pronounced like the English word outer. Thus 33°7T°o'£o
audaryam ' generosity' 33°;S^f5go aunnatyam ' loftiness' are commonly
written ts^Sj-n'Bgo, tJ^jSjCko, but the pronunciation remains unal
tered. In these Sanscrit words this change is not approved.1
The sign is (very needlessly) retained in combination with au
as regards some letters. Thus sSi3-0 mau, gSj" ° yau, oCT^3 hau.
The following are the shapes used,
T* *T "5T ?S 3^ C ST* K^* (ST"
-T" ^ ?^ 5" "r^P W
ir tr» ^ sir9 ^° ^
C* 3? *^
Throughout the grammar I have used the common forme of the
initial vowels. For the sake of uniformity in tlie dictionary, how
ever, monosyllabic forms of ai and au are used. Thus for the words
i6a»Ao payita (a woman's veil) and f^yz? cavuzu (a partridge) we
must use the spelling a»d °r°s\ Sanscrit words invariably use
the monosyllabic forms. Telugu words use these or the dissyllabic
forms at pleasure. Poets adopt whichever form suits the metre ;
thus S~°?vO cau-gi-li (an embrace) is a dactyl formed of a long sylla
ble and two shorts. But this may be written 5^*8 ciivugill (four
shorts) or by inserting O (that is N,) poets write s"£;o*S) cavungtll
whereby the second syllable becomes long.
Thus, besides the forms exhibited in the alphabet the vowels take
the following forms; both in poems and in every day business.
* Few of the Telugus are able to pronounce the short vowel o in the English
words lost, hot, horse, top, God, law, lord, order, which they make «r"û tr^&j,
s5-*(3o, &r°>6). Tvao, «r», er»JSo, W G~ & &. thus born becomes barn, God,
guard, and former, farmer. In the Telugu newspapers Hong Kong is spelt
Sr'OJto T*0 Xo Hangu-Kangu. In English neither sound is used unless in some
districts as Derbyshire where honey and more are pronounced in the ancient
manner : the sounds are quite different from those of rod and rode.
C
18 TELUGU GBAMMAE.
C5 a becomes C*£) ya
&~ a <SS3-» ya
9 » CCO yi
I r. C0J~° yi
^3 u 5$) vu (but sounded u or 55)
5 . Jgr"° vu (sounded u or 55)
n & rii or 8 ri
eJ e 75$) ye (or wrongly, cS£) ya)
i) e ^1 ye (or wrongly, SSr^vii)
SO ai C5CCO a-yi
& o vo, wo, or 55oo yo
Gi o vo, wo, or yo
au C3q£) a-vu, awu.
?O0CP rii and "2T]u are not in use.
A short vowel is called {^"fi^&n hraswamu, Ij^-j^^JELtfo hras-
waxaram, or e)£»?§ laghuvu : each of which words literally means
(levis) light; as opposed to guruvu ' lieavy' which is the same
as &$de~o dirgham 'long :' a vowel which is long by nature as 69-,
a, i, Sec, is called &$oe~o dirgham : but it is called guru if long
either by nature or position ; that is by being followed by two con
sonants. Thus in the words tsotf anta 'all' anna ' elder bro
ther' eJ^sSb tammudu 'younger brother' &c. &c, the first vowel is
short; but is guru being followed by two consonants. The word gu
ru is chiefly used in prosody.*
• In the Rambler, No. 90, Johnson uses the preferable expressions strong and
weak syllables. These words are referred to in various parts of Tclugu Grammar
and therefore are here noticed. They are also used regarding the 7Cr3\j6^P>50
or Table of (XT35&OOJ) Prosodial feet : wherein the sign | (a short upright line)
is used for short, and \j (our mark for short) denotes long. As the quantity of
every syllable is evident to the eye, scanning is perfectly easy, and the marks |
and \j are rarely used. We may therefore without any inconvenience use the
ALPHABET. 19
On the Consonants.
The first 25 consonants, as shewn in the alphabet, 6tand in five
lines, each of which contains four letters besides a nasal.
The four letters which thus form one line are often looked upon
as equivalent. This particularly happens as regards initials changed
by grammatical rule; which will be explained elsewhere. The
" Primary" letters «f e5 ka, cha, ta, ta, pa, are changed in-:
to " Secondaries" and respectively become X £ & £5 £> ga. ja, da,
da, ba, or X f> 5 55 ga, sa, da, da, va.
The sounds of many consonants require no explanation. Thus :
ka X ga xS cha 25 ja ^ na pa S3 ba ma cSS ya
# ra O la S5 va ^ sa tr° ha are usually pronounced like the cor
responding English letters as sounded in Kate, Gate, chase, jackal,
no, put, be, me, you, row, low, vale, sale, hale. The letter G ia
always hard, thus %~?jLginneh 'a cup' and "SwEb gelucu ' to con
quer but it is never pronounced soft as in George.
The aspirates are the following.
kha as in ' park-house ;' ' buck-horn ;' cjj) gha as in ' log-
house,' ' stag-horn ;' tJ) chha as in ' coach-horse ;' CJbp as in ' hedge
hog ;' 5f tha as in ' cart-horse ;' t£ Dh, as -in ' bid-him ;' (£ tha
as in ' but-him ;' ' nothere ;' (fi lha as in ' ad-here ;' pha as in
' up-here ;' bha as in 1 club house.'
The learned affirm that aspirates are peculiar to Sanscrit, aad
never should be used in native Telugu words. Thus they wish us
to write those words without the aspirates : "S^tf dora ' a master'
marks found in Latin and Greek. In reading verse, the natives use particular
• chanting tones which to our ear are far from agreeablo. It is such as the Romans
used, according to Ovid, Arte 3,345 Vel tibi composite cantetur epistolavoce. This
passagfi should have been noticed in Monk's Life of Bentley, Vol. II., p. 324. See
Smollet's remarks (Humphrey Clinker, letter of 13th July,) " Every language has
it's peculiar recitative" iic. Natives are accustomed to read in a very loud voice :
whenever we tind this disagreeable, we merely need remark oSoOi'oSSb Wd^S ?
l&o TT* i58S:S05. The 6tudent will find it useful to read the first two section*
of the chapter on Prosody.
20 TELUGU GEAMMAE.
~x*€ gali ' wind' gatti * strong' S""*"^8 kobbera ' cocoanut ker
nel' e£JS»&4o dumukutS ' to leap,' ffiogoto zancuta ' to fear,' 8*3
datti 'a girdle:' but in this they are not countenanced by general
use, which gives the aspirate to these words ; viz., <P""tf dhora,
ghali, £g ghatti, ^"^8 khobbera, <£>sS»&ej dhumukuta, &poSo
•&>*j jhankincuta (HD. 2. 901) also 6$>o&>±> jhancuta, and 5>*3
dhatti.
The capital 6hapes of the consonants ve given in the alphabet.
But some of them lake another form, without Talacaltu, when writ
ten beneath the line. Thus is the capital form, and q— or ~rj—
is the second form of ka ; in the words lecca (an account)
palcu (a word.) Thus £b is ma; but the second shape is —& as in
the name JfcjS^SS Manmathudu (Cupid) or sfctfô marmam
' a secret.'
The following are the letters with their second shapes. Some of
which (as 33 Ba) are nearly the same as the capital shapes.
«f kka X gga £S dgha xS\ chcha or cca $S chchha
CT" O cpj -u) V
23 ija or zza 3S jjha d) tta & ttha & dda ddha
K cop eo " © "' o
£3 una tta e$ ttha £5 dda £5 ddha 3\ nna
?5 ' —« cp Q Cf> °J
^ ppa ppha 83^ bba dbha S£>j mma CS$^ yj'a
or Itf rra (also e*9 rra) O 11a # 11a sS<y vva

Sj\ ssa cCx shsha 76^ ssa.
In some of these combinations the upper letter is different from
the lower as ( because the other combinations (as are
wrong; though they sometimes occur in writing. Native tutors
would teach us about a hundred more combinations, though well *
aware that they are never used.
The pronunciation of some consonants is peculiar. Thus £< cha
and 25 ja are sometimes softened into 9a (or tsa, as in hot-sun, Bet
sy) and z or ds (as in swordsman.) The softer sounds 9a and za
are peculiar to Telugu, and the harder sounds cha, ja, originate in
Sanscrit : no Sanscrit, word can use the soft sounds.
ALPHABET. 21
The letters # and & take the hard sound with (I, E, E' AI,) Q -^4
cO oD- Thus chippa 'a plate' ©sfc chlma ' an ant'
chepputa 'to say' "31^ jerri ' a centipede' "2[6e^& jeni-potu 'a
cobra de capello' x3|S> chenu ' a field' jena ' a span' ^L?8^
chaitramu ' the name of a month' and Jaimini ' a certain name.'
All these take the hard sound. But t5o\&!£! chandrudu ' the
moon' CT's'-SS'^sSm chacachakyamu ' brilliancy' iS^S-iiSa chorudu 'a
thief being words of Sanscrit origin give the hard sound of ch.
And zsasSw jalamu 'water' S^sSm jalamu 'a net' ^3sSa> jTvamu,
' life' give the hard sound of J.
The following words being Telugu, give the soft sounds ; iJesSa
falamu 'anger' ^•Efc'j cafuta 'to extend' -iSêx cotu ' a place'
S5^*J vacctita ' to come' TSîSi^-tSsfrâo coccucunnaru ' they enter'
which might be spelt in English letters tsalam, tsatsuta, tsotu, vat-
suta, sossusunnaru.*
And the soft sound (dz) of gs is perceived in the Telugu words
£2»o^ zabbu ' slow' "^s sk> bezzamu ' a hole or bore' eT^ô zodu ' a
pair' which might be written dzabbu, bedzamu, dzodu. In common
writing the letter 23 is wrongly shaped like gJO bu.
Instances wherein the consonant is doubled. pifcl or pichchi
(foolish) is pronounced like the English word pitchy ; and * \ac9eh
(he came) is pronounced like vat-cheh. «&|j>C mazziga ' butter-milk'
is pronounced madjiga; and ?C^«w gazzelu (anclets) would accord
ing to English ear be written gud-jelloo.
In some grammars and in some recent editions of poems, the nu
merals n and s> (1 and 2) have been placed over these letters : one
denoting the soft, the other the hard sound. But the principle is so
easily understood that marks (which indeed few understand) are su
perfluous,t
* This is the German sound of C ; for in the names of the letters in the Ger
man Alphabet the letter C is called Tsay, and Z is called Tsett.
+ The mutation of 9a, into sta is obvious in the Terb : where the participle
x5dt£uTS> che-yu-tsu is at pleasure spelt chestu : thus the sounds of S and
T change places.
22 TELUGU GEAMMAE.
In the rustic or ancient pronunciation, the Telugus use the soft
sounds alone. Thus we frequently hear the words OjS^chinna,
cheppu, £eu*b jilugu, "2si»£& jemudu pronounced cinna, ceppu, zi-
lugu, zemudu.
They in like manner mispronounce Sanscrit words.
The soft sounds are common in Irish, where true, dry &c, are
pronounced thrue, dhry, &c.
The nasal sound & gna or ng of the first varga or class is like n
in the word mignionelle or in opinion. It occurs in the common words
•sj-»a^s)5$x> vang-mu-lamu 'a recorded deposition or statement.' Like
all other nasals, it is usually changed into O as in the word fc»o>fo
angnm 1 the hody.'
The nasal of the second varga or class is £f- and never appears
alone : being alwa3-s written under the letter £ j, as in the word
aâ&S'jto jnapacamu 'recollection' and î6^33 jnanamu 'know
ledge' san-jna, ' a sign.' These words are usually though
not correctly pronounced T"gii£&a gyapa-camu, t*j;Ss£>3 gya-namu,
T^xg saugya.
In teaching Sanscrit or Telugn the teacher is obliged continually
to make his pupils pronounce harder than they fancy requisite.
The letters (b Ta, & £>a, and £3 Na, are harder, and the letters
$ Ta, £5 Da, and ^ Na are softer, than the sound they have in
English*
The hard D is often pronounced nearly like R, thus "2£^r»£ Be-
zavada becomes Bezoara.
The distinction between the hard and soft T is perceived in these
words.
a stab sir« Si a beast
r**j a fort r<& cutting
a song old
■Bfej the bark of a tree <>r>S a grandfather
So*j on a bow strange
CO evil 'J? rubbish
* The soft D and the soft T are used in modern Greek : as is shewn in Calla
way's Constantinople.
ALPHABET. 23
limit intoxication, pride
a bundle a cover
ten millions eâ a monkey
^ ibotu 7 en evils hands
husk o friendship
short, not tall £r° 0 a rag
u
mere, only j5 a a wick
ai
e*s reviling a bag
rf)*3 holding, a list at a silk
binding a sword
The distinction between the hard and soft D is important.
ir& a speck a bush
powder a pouch
waste bed of a tree
(adv.) fully joos blame, reproach
a boil «% vulture
&
a door eoCO correcting
Cr
o an egg, the eye-ball a a blow with the fist
a bottle sense
o
length the udder
a bough a flock
he battle, quarrel
to slip out to blow
having fallen ten
fallen »«o a bit
Ca
having fruited <6o» a pig
In the negative verbs some masculines end in the hard sound,
some feminines or neuters in the soft sound. Thus,
he becomes not she becomes not
he lives not she lives not
he comes not she comes not
he will not stay she will not stay
24 TELUGTT GRAMMAR.
&vSt£a he speaks not a&uS'jS) she speaks not
0£i£> he hears not 3jS«fc she hears not.
This aorist form is used in all verbs. The following call for par
ticular attention ;
sr>«S|_sr»ciXS'e4£> he cannot write |^r»csfil5j5i he did not write
«r»dSoiJjSs5"îSo he cannot read TJesS^ffo he did not read
The difference between the following words is equally important,
•S^nsix> crimson fîS a waterfall.
And between soft and hard L.
iSto lice names
"woo to flow stones
Tr*tu a leg legs.
The hard sound of £3 is exemplified in the words kaniti 1 an
elk' and S"cwaj canuzu 'a partridge.'
The letters P Ph B Bh M call for no remarks in addition to what
is stated already regarding aspirates.
The letter Y is always a consonant, and requires the addition of a
vowel. Thus 'iScSSm&j che-yu-ta ' to do' ^^".g che-yyi ' the hand'
§"°c&£ co-yya'wood' £>36£sS» bi-yya-mu 'rice' a-yy-S 'sir.'
Likewise in Sanscrit words as ^tf^s&o pad-ya-mu ' stanza' pJ^gcSSsio
nya-ya-mu 'justice' 5";Sg can-ya 'a virgin' &r»So£«o sur-yudu 'the
sun.' When yy occurs in a name we may conveniently express it
by ii. Thus "Sos'c&g Vcnk-ayya and r^Sosfig Su-rayya (certain
names) may be written Venkiia and Suriia.
The letter R is a fruitful source of idle disputation among the

learned: some of whom assert that in certain words, as s&QoSSo,
&c, we ought to use the obsolete form s&c^cSm, AesSi>
It is sufficient to point out that the shape 6© is obsolete, and
we may safely neglect it. In ancient times the two letters varied so
far in sound that they were not allowed to rhyme together : and the
excellent poet who wrote the Telugu version of the Sri Bhagav.at is
ALPHABET. 25
blamed by pedants for neglecting this refinement. The letter is
called sSboa"^ and the letter &Q is called «o&"^tf.*
When R is connected with a consonant, with no vowel between, it
may be written thus; carta ' Lord' S^sSa carmamu ' act' s&S^&j
marmamu a 'secret.' Or the mark £~ called £*>&t>*v£ is placed
beyond: thus ZtSe~, S"sSbe-jS», 5S>sfc6-sS».
The letter R in such places must always be clearly pronounced as
is the practice of the Scotch and of the Germans.
In some printed books the silent & R is shaped Thus %6~ i$
carta. This is chiefly used in foreign words ; as )Cs5i5~ ji<5~ Governor,
^>(S£<5~ senior, a™jS§<5~ junior.
Many puref Telugu words have a liberty of adding R lo the ini
tial consonant: thus tova, trova, dova, drova,
all mean 'a road.' Jf cotta (new) may be spelt crotta: and
§oa kinda (under) may be spelt [ices krinda : thus in English there
are words that resemble others in the initial, as cave, crave, gave,
grave ; tie, try, die, dry ; cape, crape, gape, grape ; pay, bay, pray,
bray ; couch, or crouch, babble, or brabble, petty or pretty. Chaucer
writes droil for toil, prin for pin, grit for girt, and brids for birds.
Spenser writes thrust for thirst (F. Q. 3. 7. 50.) A similar liberty is
found in all languages of the Celtic family. In English these are se
parate words, but in Telugu they are often only various spellings of
the same word. For this reason, in the dictionary I have mingled
these four classes ; as I and J, or U and V were long mingled in the
* The obsolete Qfc9 K and C the semi circle have crept even into some of the
books printed under my directions. These letters ought to be set aside and not
allowed a place at the compositor's table. The letter li is written under the letter,
and shaped thus \j (crara-vadi) in the Burmese language. The letter G is also
shaped like the form o. The letter H is also similar. Some other characters also
are evidently cognate.
t By the "pure Telugu words" (*»1J^ 75ex»fo) or "Radical Telugu" gram
marians intend such as are not derived from Sanscrit. This will be explained at
the end of the Grammar in remarks on Etymology. The principles of Telugu
and Sanscrit spelling are widely different: but as it is requisite to explain both,
tlic reader will observe that such rules as mention one of these languages apply to
it alone.
D
26 TELUGU GKAMMAR.
English dictionaries. While the consonants were classed separately,
in the Telugu dictionary, this uncertainty regarding the initial often
rendered it requisite to search for a word in three or four places be
fore it came to light. By mingling the initials, and excluding the
optional K, all the various modes of spelling usually appear in the
same page. This arrangement diminishes the size of the dictionary ;
as formerly two or more forms were inserted ; and were explained
separately or referred to another page.
The expediency of the present arrangement of the dictionary will
be hourly felt in reading: a native assistant or instructor, when ask
ed whether we are to look for the word in question, under the pri
mary initial K or the secondary G; under Ch or J (^Jj, and
"7^ are all the same word, meaning mischief, harm) under T or D ;
under P or B; under $ s or <£ s, is very apt to reply that either spell
ing is equally good.
The letter O is L as in "3w«b Telugu. The letter # is the same
pronounced harshly, turning the tongue upwards : thus pellu
« names' c5}lu ' birds.' Certain Sanscrit words always use O
and others always use
The letter 55 V or W; this is generally sounded V ; thus,
, ' -sr-So vadu 'that man' vldu 'this man' evadu 'who.' In
Sanscrit words it ought to be pronounced V as s><s6$j vayasu 'age'
viiia ' a lute ;' but in many Telugu words the sound is more
like W, thus vatti 'mere' is usually sounded watti. The learn
ed generally use the sound V, the illiterate often use the sound "VV.
In English words the Telugus find V hard to pronounce; usually
changing it into W. When it is doubled, as in puvvu 'a
flower' covvu 'fat' davvuna 4 afar' it is usually pro
nounced as W, thus pu-wu, co-wu, da-wuna. In common talking
the V is often dropt: thus ~£&> veta (hunting, the chase, venison, a
goat) is generally changed into c6o*-> yeta and dfr»&> yata. Else
where V changes into O. Thus vac/je (vut-cheh) 'he came,' is
pronounced oc,ce.
The three letters ^ sa Sx sha and ^ sa are as different in sound
as the English words sharp, action, soul. They are exemplified in
ALPHABET. 27
the names 5"psr»tfjS», exfv^ô'iiB, ^-*«S>«r>tfsS» Sanivaramu 'Satur
day' Laxmivaramu ' Thursday' Somavaramu 'Monday.' As distinct
names are convenient, some call these VoSS'-ytfribo santi-sacaramu,
* j&AflfAo cashta-shacaramu, ôotf^T'tS <£» sulabha-sacaramu :
others use the words £», "jtfâo. Any three words in a simi
lar order are more easily remembered than the grammatical phrases
'labial, dental, and palatal.'
The learned state that $ Santi-Sacaramu, belongs solely to words
of Sanscrit origin : and wish us to exclude it from all Telugu words.
Thus they think sseiS^S 'must' ought to be written 5Se>îS»: and
"39, (j>r>9 should be 4$, \^,%. But the voice of the
nation is against them : and common usage is the best guide in this
matter.
The word or (aj^. " blest, happy, auspicious" is superstitious-
ly placed at the beginning of papers and books; but in government
business at Calcutta this is forbidden : and books printed at Madras
omit it at pleasure.
The consonant tj~° H takes peculiar forms with the various vow
els ; thus ha "^T6 ha Sr6 or hi £r* or %3~° hi o3"°o
hu tT0^ hri ôT0 he aJ~> he ""^r» hai "~ir°0 ho
~ôJ"S ho or ~%T°<y° ho oCTô0 hau.
The interjection 65- si* aha denotes yes.
The letter Xr« H is sometimes pronounced as F. Thus «?sS-»j$
Jihva, pronounced jifva, (ignorantly written £o&»£ Jimha) is th«
Sanscrit name for the tongue. ftS-gStto ahladam (afiadam) delight.
It sometimes changes places, in pronunciation, with the letter written
under it. Thus the name \ ®&* Bramha (a name of God) is written
Brahma. And the name for a bramin is written \^&f?x>& brah.
manudu but pronounced bramhanudu.*
When the letter H is silent (that is, is without a vowel) it is ex
pressed by two dots or circles, viz. g which is called Sl^tf visargalu.
• Thus in Danish Hval is the name for a whale. In Swedish Hvad is what and
Hvar is whtre. See Rae Wilson's Norway and Sweden 1826, page [60] Appendii.
28 TELUGU GRAMMAR
And it is the custom to repeat after this the vowel that precedes it ;
thus swatah is voluntarily, pronounced ^J^^-* swataha, -u*&%
Ramah (a proper name) is pronounced Ramaha ; as if it was writ
ten tt»5&)^-«. The word «Sb84>iS» duhkhamu, pain is pronounced
Dukhamu.
The letter t^x csha, more conveniently expressed by Xj is a com
pound of Jf ka and sha ; and is sounded like ct in action, di
rection, section. Thus axi 'the eye' <6£&. parixa ' examina
tion' fc9tS>-tSiSx) axaramu ' a letter of the alphabet.'*
The letter X is placed by the native authors at the end of the
alphabet. In Wilson's Sanscrit Lexicon it is placed with the letter k.
The Telugus are as negligent in spelling as the English were be
fore the days of Johnson. The words borrowed from Sanscrit are
often misspelt. Thus (Jj; atri ' a woman' is often written L§ Sri
' fortune' and vice versa. The word fi^jp annam ' food' is constantly
written and pronounced tfra^p. The word l5r»<Sê»:SSb Bramhanudu
is frequently mispronounced s^^ffcifc Biamanudu.
On the Surma and Half Sunna.
It has already been stated that the circle or cipher o called sunna
is used as a substitute for a nasal letter. But it is wrong, though
customary, to place it in conjunction with ^ N or 5$) M. When N
or M occurs double as the vulgar write tsosfc 0r
even and
When sunna is followed by a consonant of the first four classes
(varga) it is N; but the remaining letters (pa, pha, ba, bha, ma, ya,
ra, la, va, sa, sha, sa, ha, xa,) sound it as M; and it likewise is M
whenever it stands at the end of a word. Thus the word Sanscrit
iio^^tio is pronounced sams-cru-tara. The Sanscrit words "tfcrzr*
80 conversation, $o^<3fio doubt, are pronounced sam-vadam, sam-
Sayam. When followed by Y, the sunna is pronounced, nasally :
thus i>odS>Sx> say-ya-mi, 'a hermit,' $o'a>j-»X'sS» say-yogamu, 'junc
ture :' here the nasal sound of n is used, as in some French words,
• The letter X is in Spanish pronounced like ah. Thus Texiera and Xeres are
sounded Teeshira and Sheres, or Sherry.
ALPHABET. 29
bien, sien, ehien, requin. Thus sunna is written full but only half
pronounced. >
These words are Sanscrit; but in some Telugu words the letter C
called the half sunna or semi-circle is used by some grammarians*
but in common use the circle alone is used : though it sometimes is
pronounced full N, as in the English words song, long.
The spelling used in ordinary writing deviates from that approved
by the learned. Thus tsgodSb atandu is pronounced *»t$SS atadu.
The learned assert that the semi-circle is peculiar to verse, and that to
use it in prose is absurd.f
The following observations regarding the circle and semi-circle
need not be read by beginners. They can only be understood by
those who have made some progress in the language.
In some particular words the sunna is inserted after a short sylla
ble. Thus tfsfr^Jfc tammudu may become Sô«6 tammundu ;
fcseu&o becomes t»«»o2So a son-in-law; &*£^>)te>&, S^ôsufaa?).
M. 17. 1. 55. &j3>Xo or fcffcoxb an elephant. "SooKo or "Suooxb.
The sunna thus inserted is called 63"T§9" &>;Sôr optional N. Thus
Wtfe3 becomes WtJo*3."3£fi> or "3So« ; Tbfc, *°oofc> or dWoej; (ST"
8t3 or ^©0*3; ra?( r<5or. -3w»o Telugu or "Seuorts Telungu,
also spelt "3fi>Xo Tenugu or "3fS>oxb Tenungu, and even |J3fS>Xb Tre-
nugu or l^3fS>o^> Trenungu. M. Virat. 1.6.
It is inserted before ~J\° when that adverbial affix is added to a
Root in A. Thus TT°7r« or Tr»o"7r* ; oicoX"7r* or ^coJCotv.
And after words of colour. Thus a>l«"** or Sa^fc-TV redly.
ê>Tr» or fSaoTr* blackly.
It is sometimes inserted in the verb, in the third person singular
masculine of the negative voice. Thus a&£4& or oj£> ; 6o£aS or
* It is analogous to the sign used in old Latin printing for m or n. Thus ge-
mitu, indignata sub umbras became 'geitu, idignata sub ubras.' In some ancient
Latin words the letter N was optional ; thus toties or totiens ; quoties or quotiens.
In his life of Numa, Plutarch mentions Pontifex as written Potifex.
t The printers of many recent publications seem to be unaware of this rule. In
a Telugu rersion of the Arabian Nights we even find (p. 582) such odd forms as
7d 06) C £) ; and similar refinements may be seen in most pages of that book.
30 TELUGU GEAMMATt.
<3o£oa&. Tims, (Llla XI. 83.) ^>«ô& for "S^So ' he disap
proves :' $c£oJSo for ©ofissb. This spelling is rustic ; and is used
in verse merely to lengthen the preceding short vowel.* Also in
other parts of the verb, as tfe>&ej, 8<yo&ej ; oKS) ooKZ ; So
!<ot> ' to grieve' may became £vo)&&. It seems to be prefixed to
the letters K G D and B alone.
It is even inserted in pronouns, <^££& becomes ^sSôSb (M. XII.
6. 615 here evadu becomes evvandu.) And «^ô*3 the ge
nitive of ^^s&.f
In such places the N is used or dropt at pleasure: like U in
honour or favour. Practice alone can determine where we must
use it.
In the ancient pronunciation of Telugu, (which the rustic classes
still retain) the nasal sound was very prevalent : but the educated
classes have laid aside this disagreeable accent. In England the rus
tic pronunciation, particularly in Derbyshire, is more antique and
nasal than that of the higher ranks.
The nasal (following a long syllable) is preserved among the illi
terate in many Telugu words: as ■ss-°*o vadu 'he' veta 'hunt
ing, the chase' h£ vika 'strength' » £ t5ka 'a tail' "S""^ kaka
' heat' sr'iS zada ' trace,' ~t&>, "Sâfe he is not : which the rustic
classes write -sr-oifc, "ô*j, SoS", oS", T»o5", 2T*o£, l§o«c>,
Vo&. The verb T'ifcii is written -S"*oiS)ej which properly is
another verb. is the spelling in the dictionary, but 6*-oCok>
in ordinary writing, though condemned. ftJ-fi© is written S*-o£S;
• It is sometimes omitted to suit the metro. Ho8o© becomes )(o8£), r£o'oeT»
t» becomes "£tfex°eJO. In M. 4. 2. 169. we find d8ft, 63o8oft erigi, cringi,
here the same word is nsed twice ; with and without sunna, to suit the metre.
See quotations in the dictionary.
t The poets (like Homer) sometimes alter the spelling of words to suit the mette.
Thus cia&^jSo eppudu "when" is—\j \j a dactyl: but may change into oii^dSa
epudu £a tribrach \j \j y^J or even JteQpSZb epudu \j \j 'an amphibrach' or
epdu, w » trochee.
ALPHABET. 31
&*OW&; -rj»0Sa for Tffi6. The learned have attempted to
reconcile this discrepancy by using C the semi-circle ; they wish
such words to be written thus ^n-»«So, ScS", (Sf'cs', -vet. In like
manner the forms t3<SS>~k* cheyaga, ^STf povaga, U" *" raga (do
ing, going, coming) are commonly written and pronounced '^5cSoo^^•
cheyanga; s^sSott* pooanga ; ttotv ranga. This is the older
spelling, now disused by the learned. The Slightly nasal sound an
swers to the indistinct N used in French or in the Hindustani
language.
This semi-circle is occasionally used in poetry (when written on
palm leaves) as a hyphen at the end of a line.*
The semi-circle has never come into general use among the peo
ple, and it will be hard to prove the expedience of a refinement like
this : which is discountenanced by most manuscripts of the poets and
it is entirely unprofitable.
Experience and the advice of sound scholars among the natives
has shown me it's futility ; but some bramins of ordinary learning up
hold this character. They acknowledge that in practice it is laid
aside, and that there is no rule in any grammar to vindicate the va
rious ways in which the ardha bindu is inserted.
They insist upon an English pupil acquiring the practice of using
the semi-circle: as well as the obsolete R; and leave him to find out,
* The vulgar often write tho long vowel short and substitute the circle for ardha
tunna. Thus f)? vica ' force' is written 3o5" vinca, S^&te is written Bôas'i)
and afôX is written for 25"*6)C. ptica ' a nut' is written iPoS" ponca,
JT6^ becomes ICofo, tfotf-TT' for ^tSI^. SOU for tugeh. «>o*J for
5> t> Rasica. 1. 52. Though written wrong these words are pronounced right.
This error often occurs both in poems and in ordinary letters : and must be observ
ed by the student who otherwise may bo misled in the dictionary. On the other
hand, sunnais omitted with equal carelessness, thus S5(o;<j^ is written, aMJfosS
B,osieJ!i»,cx3oAe)sS»)SSo§o^),S5*55ci,l6ox'») 'tf'gS, &*oa (go ye) jiPS,
Tfoi) Kanchifa certain town) is written TT" fi, sSofiT^tM the town of Ongole is
written sS JT^tW and yet no one pronounces the words in the wrong way. Thus
o
in hasty English writing, letter, teller, litter, tiller, tetter, titter, may easily
be understood, though written wrongly.
32 TELUGU GBAMMAE.
by experience, that both these are unknown to all but pedants. Yet
as few students continue the study after acquiring a smattering of
Telugu, the emptiness of these instructions generally remains unde
tected.*
Some modern pedants among the Telugus have attempted (in imi
tation of some Devanagari printing to abolish the O : thus instead of
wotfs&i, and W-c^jSm they affect to write »|s5», and <&$JsSx>.
This idle whim appears in some recent publications both Sanscrit
and Telugu. It is an empty innovation and is not likely to become
popular.
From what has been stated the reader will observe that there are
(as in some other languages) two or even three modes of spelling :
one in daily use and indispensable ; this alone is used in the present
grammar ; the second mode is poetical, and uses particular forms of
certain initial and final letters, as &2^«Ss£o for (in common spelling)
"5)S>êssS», and ^r°pl^" for 'n-«?>!p ; and a third, which is pedantic,
using the obsolete R and the obsolete semi-nasal.
* The ordinary teachers are apt to speak to students on some learned subjects
which are ill suited to beginners- The tutor should oivsuch occasions be desired
to read the following caution. 8(0 a|)S*>ct»3o €9-0(J?iSx> SJjsS "JT>tfo
Saaeu car- sr-rXSmSxitr* &-&T?*X£)a<3'* (jp-odSSS" WoS^'^X'sSwer'
cSjSjftjijKSS j6?CC?g5S»"^5So. In reading any manuscript with a learned Bra-

min, we shall find him object to the spelling in almost every line : asserting
th;it the ignorance of the transcribers has vitiated the book. But our business
is to study the language as it is ; to take it as we find it : and errors that do not
injure the sense or the metre may safely be left unaltered. Much that is pressed
upon our notice as highly momentous, is in truth mere learned trifling.
DIALECTS. 33
In poetry a word may sometimes stand part in one line, and part
in the next: thus Nala Dwip. 2. 831, t*fi>j& + ;&& and in 2, 166, the
WOrd WcxuS -f 3 ' thou becamesb' is thus divided.
It will be seen in the chapter on Elision that the final M is often
dropped in Sanscrit words. Thus ôô + es-tfc^ro grandham—
arambham becomes ôt}t>o'o$'o grandh'a-rambham : the Elision be
ing the same as occurs in Latin. But with Telugu words the rule is
different; thus ti^XtSn an actress, play, may form JT*X'sSr»iJ
bogam-ata 'the actress's play' never sS^TT»*o, And £"tfresS» »^
caranamu-anna ' the clerk's brother' may become & tin&^caranam-
anna but cannot become S 5fra^ caratfanna. In Sanscrit in such
places a long vowel would be used. But in Telugu this never is
allowed.
On Dialects.
Just as happens in English and French, certain forms of expres
sion and of spelling are in common use; others are found only in
poems. Most words belong to the common stock ; and those pecu
liar to the higher and lower dialect are altogether but few in num
ber. Such occur even in the verb ; thus " shalt not, wilt not," would
be the poetical form ; " shall not, will not," is the common form, and
shan't, won't is the colloquial. Native grammarians condemn and
neglect the colloquial forms, which they consider vulgar; though it
is easy to prove their occurrence, (as in English) even in the writings
of the best authors.
We are aware how totally the rules for Elision used in French,
differ from those of Latin : and the difference between Sanscrit and
Telugu in this respect is yet wider. What is right in one language
is, sometimes, wrong in the other.
The rules for elision, permutation and softening initials are re
quired in poetry ; but not in the common Telugu we talk 6r write :
and these poetical refinements are not admissible in books written
to teach either a language or a creed. Our native teachers would
willingly reject common Telugu altogether, and teach us the poeti
cal dialect alone : which they themselves however cannot use in daily
talking and writing.
34 TELUGU GRAMMAR.
In ordinary sentences, as ^X"o?j?«S»SfSj8 grandhamu unnadi 'there
is a book' ^r°?>§aM?>p vdniki istini ' to him I gave it' iJ>OH6»(Sj6Tr*
chhandamu anaga yemi ' what is Prosody ?' they would di
rect us to spell these words thus; ^Co$sS»^_a grandham 'unnadi,
-zr>p%%p vdnik'istini, t? ojsomôx"^S» chhandamb' anangan emi.
This mode of spelling would be correct in poetry ; but in com
mon life no one uses it ; and if we wish to be* intelligible, we must
use the common dialect. The two dialects differ almost as much as
ancient and modern Greek : and were a resident in Athens, to attempt
to transact business in ancient Greek (using likewise poetical elision! )
lie would not easily be understood : nor will the Telugus understand
us, unless we speak and write as they do. These remarks are made
in consequence of the publication, by natives at Madras, of some
small works on Grammar and on religion, which by using poetical
rules are rendered hard to understand.*
On Accent.
The accent accords with the spelling ; and is Easily understood.
In words that consist of short syllables the accent falls on the first,
thus puli 'a tiger' ^8 padi ' ten' ^pSx>S> enimidi ' eight' * f> pa
nt ' work' would in English spelling be pulley, puddy, etinimiddi,
punny.
When along and short syllable come together, the accent falls on
the long : thus oxt°~Sj Tteh • a spear' "^sSm pamu ' a snake.'
When long syllables come together the accent falls on the last.
Thus Sr'ts* kuda ' together.' The following instances of the ac
cent may suffice : and to each is appended an English or Latin word
of similar sound. 1^6 sari (Surrey) ' right.' ~P&> sama(summa) ' even.'
We-> ata (utter) ' they say.' maiii (money) ' a jewel.' ^""8 hari
(hurry) ' a certain name.' 5"? cala (colour) ' a ray.' pusi (pus-
sey) 'rheum.' -33 cheri (cherry) 'each, apiece,' madi (mud
dy) ' a field.' ~38 tera (terror) ' a curtain.' puli (pulley) ' a ti
ger.' 3'QS'sSx) satacam (shuttercome) ' a set of one hundred stanzas.'
* Writers regarding China hare noticed that a similar pedantry prevails there ;
grammarians considering the language of common life wholly beneath their no
tice.
ACCENTS. 35
In all these we perceive that the vowels are short in both syllables
and the accent falls on the first. These words also shew that in
English we express the first vowel (short a) sometimes by u and else
where by other vowels. But a double consonant as e> or rôr ^
has a different accent; as is perceived in English when the two con
sonants are in separate words thus ; royaHady, begin-now, unnamed,
unnumbered.
No student I ever saw, though well educated in grammar could
pronounce Telugu. Sanscrit, or Hindustani intelligibly on arrival in
India. But I acknowledge that the grammatical knowledge conveyed
by a tutor in England is of greater importance than pronunciation.
In reading aloud, it is the custom to open the mouth wide and to
raise the voice to a high pitch. In fact they inculcate the rules used
by music masters in England.*
* " Those who wish to make themselves understood by a foreigner in his own
,l language should speak with much noise and vociferation, opening their mouths
" wide. The English are in general, the worst linguists in the world; they pur-
" sue a system diametrically opposite. For example, &c." See Borrow's Bible
in Spain, Chapter 1.
The spelling of some Sanscrit words is retained, as jS-»8 Hari (forsS"»8S Harih)
a name of Vishnu. s"S) Kavi (for 5"SIS Kavih) a poet, &c. wherein the termina
tion is but slightly altered : these are denominated t£8i^;SosS» Tatsamamu,aword
more fully explained in the appendix : as well as Scf\ssS» Tadbhavamu or Per
mutations.
After making some progress in Telugu or Canarcse, the student should rend over
those chapters of Sanscrit Grammar which treat of (Sandhi, Vriddhi and Samnsa)
Elision, augment, and compound words. Doubtless many read Telugu without
this : but if we ever make any real progress in the language the student will re
quire the aid of the Sanscrit Dictionary, and cannot even talk or write Telugu
with any ease or precision, unless he masters the fijst principles of Sanscrit or
thography.
Hindus and Musulmans usually mispronounce English names : and both tha
English and French, particularly in names of places, have equally corrupted the
pronunciation used in India. The accent is misplaced in almost every proper
name.
We call Muh'ammad, Mahomet, and Goo-da-loor, Cuddalore. We change
Tee-pu e§^) into Tippoo, and Tiruvalikedi (a suburb in Madias) into Triplicaae.
CanchTpuram g'ofyi^Jo'o or s"o© is changed into Conjeveram ; and Tirupati be
comes Tripetty; Eranaoor {Satf jy^ptSo becomes Ennore. Pudicheri becomes
Pondicherry. Bengi-lu-ru becomes Bangalore: and the name JffljSbra^- Cari-
xnanal, (a small insignificant village north of Pulicat near Madras) has been
DG TELUGU GRAMMAE.
When reading verse the Telugus like all other Hindus use a sort
of vociferous chant; (the papists call it "intonation,") and at the
end of every stanza they are taught to drawl out the last syllable in
a kind of quaver which to our ears is absurd. It is needless for us to
imitate this method which a native tutor will lay aside when he finds
that it does not please the English ear.
Though the learner must enunciate loudly, he need not do so
after he has obtained some familiarity with the sounds.
Contractions.
The common contractions of words, (whether Sanscrit, Telugu,
Hindustani or English) used in letter writing and accounts are as
follows : —The Hindustani words are marked (H.)
«-|| >. e. Sunday.
69- So«o Acting.
Anno Domini.
£|| Answer.
rÊf (H.) Cusbah ' a town.'
n
n Si Candy or Indian ton.
*u A Garise, or measure.
A pagoda or gold0'coin.
**o
*n Thursday.
*] Respecting.
XOS&>^> (H.) Gumashta, ' a writer'or agenti'
*n
?6ar'B&(H.) In charge of.
*|l
ffo|| Cosb (H.) (Persian, on date) as tfo[|_»_9<5-*
K™£~~ on the 22d of June.
According to, at (the rate of.)
#1
By.
ail Tuesday.
changed into Coromandel ; and is applied to the entire coast. It has been furnish
ed (by English ingenuity) with a Sanscrit root " Cholamandal or Land of the
Chola grain !" a name unknown to natives ; who assert that the Curu race
(which name some Europeans imagine to be the root of Coromandel) ^was in the
north of India, not in the Peninsula.
CONTRACTIONS. 37
g>^|| SjS or 2(SsSx> (H.) People.
&|| Saôo Pence.
^|| {Jxr^tJ Afterwards.
35~°|| Wof'Sb (fl.) Appertaining or belonging to.
epexr>-s^' (H.) A division of a district.
eT^H or e5^[| 5"|| ■3'sT'S'oo (H ) Postscript.
J5 || (H.) (The Persian word dastkhat) 1 sig
nature.'
© || as A day.
p2oj£s£o On account of.
~|3 O || " Number"—i. e. Case, letter, field, trial, &c.
Agx"^ (H.) Pergunnah*' a division^ or district.'
^4>|| Question.
|^,|| ^)$j5o First.
^|| ^T»o'jS» According to.
22 1| The dark fortnight, or wane.
gj-D|| EPMSi (H.) An Item, or belonging to.
33~»|| XS*\\ sr»$<s£>&i> SJôaSb (H.) Be it known (to you.)
gj-)|| ko£ sr-o'sio Wednesday.
gjQjj sSbo)C# sr»JSsSx> Tuesday.
SSbO|| or (H.) A village.
o$T"°|| s^SîS- (H.) By the hand of; in charge of.
g-jQQ jj So08'jja"S;(H.) Out of.
■^X>|| ~&»'<r,o (H.) A station ; also, • Dated at.'
qx) || W&o (H.) An Individual.
OOj|| 53-|| 63-fTW3o (H.) Izzat-i-asar, 'Keverence to the
Traditions'. This is a Sectarial exclamation among Musul-
mans of the Sheea creed. But it is used by Hindus without
any idea of the meaning.
38 TELTJGU GEAMMAE.
■5"°|j T7*||Tr»|| Signifies ^®^$grr'ei%ra&-V$-u*ts[j " His Ho
nour" the common salutation at

the beginning of a letter.
' Wa> (P.) And.
55 II »2Tr' (H-) Etcaetera.
Oo|| Letter, statements.
*D Saturday. *
*>ll Friday.
or"$ 1is53o"5;6
a 1 Your humble servant.
9 The light fortnight.

■âstr. (H.) Abovementioned.
n
^g-or^|| "San" (P.) Year.
^°ll I
?SO||tfO I A year.
t5o||^ Of a year.
is 1^05St^TT»ex3 Years.
T^Se" (H.) Sakin ' Inhabitant of
■fnîx, (H.) Sahib (a gentleman.)
pH|| Monday.
^"•o~A""s&» (H.) Temporary.
&\\
"ir*>r% (H.) Hunn ' a pagoda.'
+ caret ; denoting omission of a word.
* In poetry it is customary to designate metres in the same manner. Thus
?|| k\\ eS-|| 1i|| &|| -t5|| V*|| s&H denote the metres called SoSsfco, ^
s&~S>tytSx> and sS j| stands for jStJ^sSm i. e. prose ; which (as in Lalla Rookh) is
mingled with verse. The letter ^§ vu and even ^ will often be found written
by mistake for s!r|| t. e. Utpalamala. Further details regarding metres are con
sidered in the chapter on Prosody.
CONTEACTIONS. 39
On other Contractions used in Writing.

Where two short vowels occur in a word, the second is not always
written. Thus 89* tirigi ' again' X^S" ganaka ' therefore'
taruvata 'afterwards' "3(65" venaca 'behind' §"°3&> colitni ' a fur
nace' 55^^(5 valasina ' must, ought' feu?6 alugu ' a spear head,' &c.
are pronounced as here written : though they are often written
thus ®S tirgi, ganka, &~o*£8 tarwata, "3£_ venka, SÎ^ col-
mi, 3«9^valasna, and algu.
In poetry such contraction is used for the sake of the metre : thus
«69SSf> may become (6S_8p. S8A may become Oft. "&>e»§"> me-
luconi becomes "&e£7?> melconi, the u being dropt.
The colloquial contractions, 15 for ~Si£>, &c, are explained in the
chapter regarding those words.
The following and similar words (particularly such as have three
syllables and the middle syllable eX) or £So or £56) frequently are^con-
tracted by dropping the U of the middle syllable. Thus SeuS"
chiluca becomes So. chilka ' a parrot.' ~S""e»;S caluva becomes "5^°^
calva ' a kennel.' This even takes place (as elsewhere stated) when
two words are combined. Thus e^Jfc + aS^& becomes &° <S^^
tod-bot, T°& + &>& becomes T^^gi. r'uo + -£)D becomes ^
col-puli.
On Majors and Minors.

Nouns are distinguished as Majors and Minors. The majors (vo
ces majores) called s&>£~°S~ mahat or sfcw - to-£tJS'sS»ex> mahad-vaca-
camulu include words relating to rational beings. The minors (vo
ces minores) called &s&>&°§~ amahat or t>ab^-»-55'^T5S'sS»tu ama-
had-vacacamulu relate to neuters and all irrational beings, including
the words for child, infant, &c. Feminine words (whether of women
or goddesses) are defined as (amahat) minors in the singular, but
majors (mahat) in the plural number.
10 TELUGU GEAMMAB.
Thus all masculines are major, all neuters are minor; while femi
nine words are minor in the singular, but are reckoned as masculines
in the plural. In Ordinals as first, second, &c, there are no major
forms. Thus ~5o&* second, third are used with all gen
ders.
The sun and moon (Surya and Chandra) are always spoken of
as (mahat) majors; being the gods Apollo and Adonis. Likewise
the names of Dhruva, Sucra and some other stars. Thus in English
we still say he for the planet Mars and she for Venus though the
word ' star' is neuter.*
This principle pervades every part of Telugu Grammar and will
be exemplified in the numerals : of which the original names are
neuter. These remarks are necessary to the following rules.
On Numerals.
1 is o called The vowel not being used except in poetry
this is spelt sSS" or even ; Hence come the nouns "5)^63
(neuter) one; "îSo one man, 1>S"3 one woman. In Sanscrit &5*
&x> is the neuter word for one ; and is commonly used in Telugu.
2 is -3 for which the neuter name is ~3o«s» ; (vulgarly "5o«o be
comes Bôsfc just as Besin is pronounced Bosin.) It is a noun sub
stantive ; of which the genitive form is ~3oe3. The major form
(that is the masculine or feminine form) is QlS&i, always written
omSco; Infl. o»g8 and accusative ox>s>dp. The word ~s»2S43 (in
Sanscrit) [î^s&sSxi is first ; and second is HoG!* which (in Sanscrit)
is fiîc&sSo. The affix 5 changes the sense ; thus &>£"e3 one,
iT* the first. "Bosfo two, ~QoSr* second. sSar»«b three, sfos-S-6
third, &c. See chapter on the affixes A'E'O'. The sign o is usually,
with numerals, written thus; 3<S^ third. ViT6 fourth.
3 is 3 sSor°«o (neut.) sS»*>3o (m. f.) sSxr-S* is third: which (in
Sanscrit) is e^&cssjs&o. The ordinal names, (first, second, third, &c.)
are of the common gender.
* In German the moon is masculine, Dermond: and the sun feminine, Die Sonne.
In Arabic too the moon is masculine, and the sun feminine.
NUMEKALS. 41
4 is X ; fr>BO!$E~&x>. By adding S the ordinals become minor
nouns: viz. jy*x>?Ce8> the fourth thing: feSowcS^d the fifth woman.
The names of the remaining numbers are as follows: —
Minors. Majors. Ordinals.

5, >t «3ax>j£> WoMi&HoSo or 5th WooodT6
6, s- 65-JS> 63-co«ot5o or 6th e3-<5"*
7, a 6&j«6 ^>«6«i5oor 7th oixg*
Seven is often called e9-c6"^gL5'43 arunnokati or ^>&> yellu, to

distinguish it from fc9cxu££> five. The two words aidu five and edu
seven are so nearly alike in sound that they are daily mistaken from
one another.
8, cr- ^1030© SJ^sSbo«bXo8o or 8th c&j&^tS'*
9, F~ ^TôaSo«ico or 9th (T^^
10, no a6a a&s&rtiCo or 10th &<s*

s&as&oa
The remaining numerals will be stated in a future page.
On Softening Initials.
The rules regarding softening Initials are to be passed over for
the present. The student will afterwards study them.
The letters xS, e5, are called s6c6sS.cu « Hard :" when
they stand at the beginning of words they are liable to being soften
ed respectively into X 8S (or ^6) CS 80 or j$ : which are call
ed ^8^00 "soft" the K becoming G, &c.
Thus, sr« + r» fcofc) becomes &*frkx>&>. T becomes D ; SsSvi «S
tammudu is a ' younger brother,' but when combined with ^ânna
" elder brother" the compound is w^S^w anna-dammulu ' bro
thers.' In like manner &o[& tandri is ' father' but combined with
42 TELUGU GEAMMAE.
tal-li 'mother' it makes the word SOesoâsw talli-dandrulu, i. e.
parents. Thus chellelu is ' a younger sister,' and t*f acca
is 4 an elder sister,' but €9^ "313oi£> acca-jellendlu is ' sisters.'
Elsewhere (only in poetry) a similar change affects other nouns
or verbs following a nominative case. Thus wSsfe-fs^cas atadu-
poe 'he went' may become (never but in verse) fc9S2fc"3r^> atadu-
voe. Thus HD. 2. 2442. a^tfOKoejO^ sfe , i. e. fi^j, and HD. 1.
2199 meaning ^°s5 to die.*
This change is denominated $S"Sn'"E§3'o sarala-desam. It fre
quently occurs in Telugu poetry and (but rarely) is used in common
prose. The few instances given above are in frequent use, and these
are all we need at present consider.
In Welsh poetry as also in Irish, Gaelic and other languages of the
Celtic family, as will be shewn in a future page, this principle oc
curs. It is wholly unknown to Sanscrit Etymology. This change
is evident in the verb : where the auxiliaf rf>(5oej paduta ' to fall' is
continually spelt wJfc^j baduta ; which we hourly use in speaking
and writing.
The same principle appears in other languages. In Spanish a
cat is gato. Littleton in his Latin dictionary says Thrill and Drill
are the same words.
In a few instances an initial consonant is dropped. Thus ~§cl&>&>
veyuta ' to cast' "^fS> nenu ' the pronoun I' $>® mvu 'Thou' ~5os£o
memu ' we' are spelt £>cs£oej, £isS>d; eyuta, enu, Ivu, emu.
The pronoun nenu ' F can even become & e.f
The letter X G is sometimes changed at pleasure into S$ V. Thus
s^Xo or ' an earring' &X(S£x> or s&sSSsto ' coral' "VX infinitive
of '3"°Kot> (to drink) may become (js^sS. On the same principle "5~"
£o becomes -sr°So he, as fr>Xfc-r°i& a handsome fellow, eêjsj-esb
a gardener. In some places T»fiS also becomes 7r°t&> as fSTT'fiSb
that man.
* Learned natives arc fond of altering the spelling in some poems without any
authority : indeed their propensity to tamper with the text is greater than their
respect for any author.
+ Occasionally rude contractions occur; thus in Pal. 198. ^ftU'Si}|j0oS-<>j6>^S&-.
tf«$X'sSp§^fi^-3ir'£;S^!,j& gavanik'occi for ;$p§ -f. 55ft^ gavaniki vaccj.
LENGTHENING PINAL VOWELS. 43
After we become familiar with Telugu spelling we are often
apt, in transcribing a passage of poetry to change a soft into
a] hard, or a hard into a soft initial : elsewhere we unintentionally
use or omit an aspirate, writing >(63 or « strong' or
' a master.'
These^changes are not of any consequence, and the natives them
selves are equally careless. Thus in English we write connection
or connexion, honor or honour, and either spelling is admissible.
Some learned men inculcate more exactitude than they themselves
use : for by observing their conduct we shall perceive that in writ
ing down from dictation, and in preparing a common letter, they de
viate from the principles which they teach. A century ago the
English and the French disregarded errors in spelling; and the Hin
dus are at present equally careless. But unless we know the
proper mode we cannot trace a word in the Telugu dictionary :
and this consideration has led me to give rules so numerous and so
minute.
Further rules on this subject will be placed at the end of the
grammar.
On Lengthening Final Vowels.

The three vowels *S O) ]^} when they are final are often length
ened. Thus wjf. ' sister' becomes in the vocative acca.
' brother' becomes fF"^. So|4 ' father,' 3D mother become 3o^S, <
O father! and 3& ! O mother! "3(9 'fool' in the vocative case be
comes "3^6 ; and ' a proper name,' makes tjo£xiJ&-° O
Ramudu ! Of this the proper form TfiSaTS" is a vocative, but is
used ouly in poetry. This is a license peculiar to a few words which
colloquially retain \J° the long vowel U.
Again the final \) or is changed into &~ to denote question.
Thus •ar'JSb ' he' becomes •sr»~rao He ? Sometimes this is used to
denote conjunction ; thus *r>aSro"^fSn> ' He and I.'
And emphasis is marked by adding E.' Thus ■sr»J£> vadu, ' he ;'
■sr»"el vade ' that very man : he himself.' At present it is only re
quisite to point out that the final vowel is often lengthened without
affecting 'the meaning. This particularly happens in compound
44 TELUGU GEAMMAE.
words. Thus &£_!gl3ct£> acca-jellendlu 'sisters,' is generally-
spelt t5'S2'3ê» acca-chellelu. This is the conjunction.
In like manner &n"5 ' together' is generally spelt Scr°TS° and the
final U in el** (3* becomes er*fSj* 'inside.' These shapes are con
sidered vulgar but are in daily use.
Thus in the writing of illiterate persons we frequently see the
final short vowel lengthened; but this should be carefully avoided.
No vowel ought to be lengthened unless the sense requires it ; for
every lengthened vowel is an accent.
On Elision.
When the short vowels Q ]J stand at the end of a word, they
are liable to Elision if the next word begins with a vowel. Thus
^toL + ^C-^ anna + eccada may become S9"^?>_# ann'eccada, al
so SSf^SaS^ H auna + yeccada 'where is his brother?' <tZ>8> + Jl£_{£
adi+eccada becomes W3S" & ad-eccada, alsofesSSoS" g 'where (is)
it.' This is called c&3^0 yasruti which sometimes happens to the
vowels £). But »r»j£> + oJSf_si vadu-eccada has but one shape
•jr»'3?f_tf vad-eccada 'where (is) he?' the vowel \) or U being al
ways subject to Elision.
It is already shewn that atadu ' he '£"*Sj poe ' went' may (in
poetry)become 4:5tf«£>"?Ta3 ataduvoye. And while Telugu thus alters
the initial consonant of the second word, Sanscrit often alters the last
consonant of the preceding word; thus î- or J& vac or vilccu
'speech' and wso 'dispute' becomes w»TP§BO vag-vadam.
Such linking is continually used in verse ; but in speaking and
writing Telugu (as in French) we continually neglect this elision
and change; which is denominated i>o§ sandhi. Thus ,sr>F>§-|-ax>
<bf> 'I gave (it) to him' would in poetry become ?>P, but in
common life such elision is never used, either in speaking or writing,
unless as regards certain words. Thus we say eseSaSos^ôpi, ata
du poyenu, he went ; neglecting the elision.
The Sanscrit rules for elision and permutation are entirely differ
ent from those we use in Telugu : and as they are much used in
CHANGES IN THE LAST SYLLABLE. 45
Telugu, as regards Sanscrit words alone, they will be placed at the

end of this grammar for the use of those who have not learnt that
part of Sanscrit Grammar.
And as the principal Telugu rules are used in poetry, but much
neglected in common life, I have placed them at the end of this
Grammar to be referred to when questions arise in Telugu poetry.
Among the natives these rules are known to few hut poets ; who use
them (and often break them) in writing verse.
On Changes in the last Syllable.

Many nouns end in Mu. Thus ^sS», t*o$!*o, pg<sS«S», if ^
•to which are Sanscrit ; and *ogsS», *£*», ^«^, fcôsto
which are Telugu. All these are in poetry occasionally changed
into MMU or MBU as ^sfca or "ifoix,, *oSsS» or ôSoaw,
■Sbfc>5&> or -abtooaj. But the original form in MU, as ^cSsfco is
obvious and requires no rule.
Sanscrit words are classed without reference to this final MU.
Thus'sStf'IsSw, IXo^lsSw, pCdsfilsSx), tfcy^ wherein the final MU is
optional: being changeable into^lo, ^s^, T&fottj, 0r " "Of"
that is, in composition. Thus T^îs, [Xo$-p*&&a. Accordingly
in searching for a Sanscrit noun of this class the final mu is to be
disregarded.
In the dictionary a doubt may arise. Thus s&^sS», if it is the
Telugu word for ' we' retains the sS» : whereas if it is the Sanscrit
word for (manas) « mind' it is printed s*>;S|sS»* and the Mu not being
reckoned, the word is sought for as sfcfS. Accordingly these two
words c£>iS|sS» * and ;££s£o are far removed from each other, in the
dictionary : the Sanscrit word is placed next after s&>lfg&lSo; whereas
the Telugu word is next after &$&-&°<n with the interval of a page.
The mark I is used when the added «S» is not reckoned. But
when this sS» does not interfere with the alphabetical arrangement I
generally omit that mark ; which is used only with Sanscrit words.
In printing it has sometimes been inserted erroneously; thus
Xo\6|sko which ought to be K>ltf!*».
40 TELUGU GBAMMAK.
On Terminations in NT, and NU.

The letter N (either NI or NU ) is added to a variety of words as
a sign of the accusative (singular and plural:) as an affix to the
first and third persons of verbs, &c. And as this is monotonous
there is a liberty of dropping such a termination. Thus the full
shapes are I went, d^Ssffc he went : but in poetry these often
drop the final vowel, becoming sÔe-, s^So!"* an(j jn common life
the syllable is altogether dropped, and we may at pleasure say
sb-ess i& or else ^*0, &*^>. And the principle applies equally to
the accusative, the locative and instrumental cases: to the tenses
and to the infinitive or root. In the following instances the sign -f-
denotes that the N is used or dropped at pleasure.
Accu... Xo^jJsSc-ffk ahorse.
T»3 + F> .*. .. a crow.
Loc. ., Sjoij + pk in a house.
Inst fc93j5^t$+ j& by him, by his hand.
Accu. plu cx»oi£ -f houses.
Past Tense «&o*3+p I was.
^jo"3 -|- fit he was.
Aor + Jfc he may fall.
it may be.
The same principle applies to the words er' + ffi or &* inside and
to the infinitive Aorist, as ôStv» + ;S> or Qo&Xw or So5^ while
there.
The principle of the mutable N, like eiaiv for ewi. (ptXotan for Qikois ;
and eihsv for eiffe in Greek : or " an" for " A" in English, is a mere
matter of spelling and will easily be understood. But the ancient
grammarians have treated it in a manner so obscure that it is hardly
possible to comprehend their meaning. They seem to have inten
tionally surrounded grammar with all that mystery which might pro
duce veneration: and never have attempted to remove those difficul
ties which the reader, after every explanation, will feel to be great.
* This frequently occurs at the close of those stanzas which require a long final
syllable; for cycry silent consonant as £~ or g~ makes the preceding short sylla
ble long.
TERMINATIONS IN 3 aj. 47
In the older Telugu the letter N was inserted in many places
which in the modern dialect (which may be dated from about A. D.
1600) exclude that letter.
On Uncertainty in Spelling.
Numerous Telugu words (chiefly those which have three short sylla
bles) admit of two modes of spelling : as in English we write favor,
honor, or favour, honour. If the second syllable is A or U we are
at liberty to write either. Examples ;
A,U S'oSbSo, or Sfcr^^^îrxuo or «o, KjS
S'.KffcS', aSboSoSoij, SSbtf»5o&>, "j3S&, "^SOfî, 69- j&X", S&tJsSsto,
"^Hoeu, "^sSoSo, "^sSjoi*, aSpS*, ifiojfcx-, XjiS", X" f£>5\

Likewise some words are at pleasure spelt with A or I ; thus,
rtudSx) Kalayu or XQd&o kaliyu, 8*tS mS, S^SaS, <S"o*OoESb6j,
Other words use I or U at pleasure ; thus; jr>QS3 pêuS", ~^63$£>,

or ~i$>3&, SjO^S", t«5\8', tsSX^, esaSbiT*.
Elsewhere the choice is between I and E as Of e>o iJ^g esSo. A
and E are wrongly used for one another with ch, and J ; thus
^cs£o4j is written xT°c!Sm&>. 1?(8 ' a centipede' is written
A few words vary in the first syllable : as jS&SS nasuku or
nusuku.
Elsewhere the word is written three or four ways as 55 o^'
«"t?o\ ^HtS 'near,' SjuS", ôS5\ or Saws', 6fc>S~3 « a rat,' also .
ipx", ij&X", if&Xo, < a corpse ;' afcxia, « a way.'
Changes in third syllable in consonants ; thus
ifci> or ^yo"43o«>&>.
Ore Terminations in $ sj.
In all parts of speech words which have the vowel ' i' in the two
last syllables, are subject to one uniform principle.
If the last vowel is o| or or 30 and if it is added by a rule
of Telugu (not Sanscrit) grammar ; that is, if it is an inflection,
an affix, such as § the dative sign, or the accusative, or a tense, or a
participle, then both the last syllables must have the same vowel Sj.
48 TELUGU GRAMMAR.
Examples ; mannu ' earth' ollu ' the body' make the inflec
tions s&o43 manti, S-Q43 (or ~^)o43) onti. Accordingly the dative is
5&>°*3§ mantiki, "?)043§ ontiki; accusative s&otSp mantini, "S)o&3j0 0n-
tini.
In like manner ' the eye' <6"3 ' a tooth' ' a house' make
the inflexions 5"o*3, a&o43, $o43 and the datives ro«3§, AciSg, s;o«3§.
Also the accusatives S'oiSp, *oi3p, aptSp.
In these words the inflection adds the vowel I, and accordingly
the dative adds KI, and the accusative NI.
But if the inflexion is not in I, then these cases end in KU and
NU. Thus in the plural S'ofiSb 'eyes' ' teeth' omoC& 'houses'
make the dative ^°£>&, °>"»o<5» £> and the accusative a&oajjSi
So those nouns which, having no inflexion, retain the nominative

shape, if they end in S), add KI, and NI ; but if they end in any
other vowel they add KU and NU.
Examples; ' a knife or sword.' Genitive, the same. Dative
? 88. Accusative Plural. §"&eu kattulu: but 'a table'
makes the G.ô.D. *>« S3 ; Acc. Mai&. Thus^pS 'an abode;' D.
6pSl. Acc. <&p8jD ; but plural N. fepSoSSex), D. ^(4>&e>S5. The
words kalimi ' wealth, possession' makes the dative 5"S£»S and
the Accusative £"8S»jt>. But the plural is 5"e»sk>e« ; the plural Da
tive is 5"eMsS»eSS and the plural Acc. 5"e»sS»e>fJ>. Thus SoS&Bo ' the
front' D. ofc£>e§, Acc. 6fc>aap. Thus ' a cat.' D. S> SS ; Acc.
&£>CO p,' Plural. t«oe».
CO D. Se«e>§S.
CO Acc. S>ex><ujS>. Thus 5a ' a Apoet.'
D. 3aS. Acc. Plu.N. 3"igje», D. 5"©e>SS, Acc. g"@e>^.
Also Hindustani words, thus &"^°§ tupaki, ' a gun.' D. 8o-&»8§
Plural. So e» 'guns.' D. Sb-£pSoe>53.
The same principle appears in the conjunction. Added to nouns
in I it is NI : but added to any others it is jiJj. Thus D. W,o(3$
intiki ' to the house :' with the conjunction ôASI^ intikiuni ' and
to the house.' But in the plural 3(o£»§3 indlaku 'to the houses'
which by adding the conjunction becomes OM0^^'r^L indlakunnu
' and to the houses.'
THE NOUN. 49
The verb is regulated by the same principle, and carries it yet
further. S^6* poti ' I went' if it adds N becomes st*&p potini : but
poye, ' he went' if it adds N becomes sHotofSi poyenu.
So the verb ©o«S<L> « to remain' makes in the Aorist ;g>o!£>a>bfSi, but
in the past tense <£>oS8p ' I remained.' Thus pe»i3bi3 'to stand'
i£e»Si> Aj 'to speak' ;5«£hS>Aj ' to walk' ; the aorists of these verbs are
pt»&>}& : *)ewS5jSb;l> : âsb^j^fc : and the other persons, singular and
plural, proceed on the same principle. The past tenses are pSfiSp ;
a&Dss?) ; jsaasp.
Thus the same principle appears throughout ; when a noun or its
inflection ends in O) the dative is § and the accusative is p ; other
wise the dative is & and the accusative is jljj.
The only two words excepted from this principle are fc>& thou and
£>r»8o you, which make the dative in and txr°&. But these ter
minate in long, not short vowels. Thus they do not break the
rule.
In the words noticed here the vowels I and U occur monotonously
in the spoken dialect : in the poetical dialect this inconvenience is
lessened by elision and contraction.
BOOK SECOND.
ON THE NOUN.
Ancient grammarians describe the nouns in three Declensions.

There are two numbers; singular and plural. The Latin cases
will be found to embrace all the shapes of the noun : and this ar
rangement is preferable to the native mode wherein Telugu gramma
rians have made fruitless efforts to mould the noun on the Sanscrit
model.
In one respect the Sanscrit model is preferable : as discriminating
the third case or Instrumental Ablative (By, with) from the Locative
case (or 7th. case) "In."
a
*
50 NOUNS.
Accordingly the cases found in Telugu are the Nominative, Geni
tive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, Instrumental and Locative.*
The Genitive case, if it differs from the nominative is often called
the inflection: thus oaiofi is the inflection of oa^ a house.
The Genitive often uses o5»ST_ « of," Thus w*SjD ««a and
c3ji!f_TLeo equally signify " his name."
The Genitive plural changes the exi LU of the Nom. plu. into
fi) LA. Thus N. Plu. «sê» ; G. Ss*» « of the brothers.
The Dative, as already pointed out, adds § to the inflection if it
ends in G) or S> ; as N. *r>«£ he, G. w f>, his, D. sr>P% to him.—N.
a woman, D. (^jt to a woman. But if the inflection ends in
any other syllable it takes §0. Thus NG. a child. D. £)£5o to
a child. As regards some words the inflection ending in \) takes
at pleasure "j& Na before §o in the Dative Singular. Thus NG.
a horse. D. JfoUfskiso or Xo[BsS»;S5E> to a horse.
The Dative plural adds So KU to the plu. inflection. Thus G.
Plu. «o\5s5»o. D. «iL?sS>oe>so to the horses.
The accusative generally adds p to words that end in G) or 8) ;
but f& to other words. Thus N. 8>j5 a cat. Accusative &8 f>. N.
a woman. Accusative, \^)P. But the plural N. &we» cats, Accu
sative S>£»e>;5>. N. Accus. ê>i&.
Masculine nouns ending in 'Q 2So UDU or DU make the accu
sative singular by changing the termination into j3 NI. Thus N.
Si^sfe a brother A. N. fc?gp«o a son-in-law. A. ^S^r*^
N. &Xt& a husband. A. sSbtfjO. N. a person. A. "US'?. N.
a-i|r»Sj&, A. STy^j*. But Sanscrit masculines in \} £$0 drop at
pleasure altogether : as N. XoSoffio a teacher. A. XiS> 0r KiSojO.
• Sanscrit grammarians (from whom Telugu authors borrow their rules) call
the nominative ÎfsSrO^Tj! First case ; the Accusative SJ&dSj^S^T § Se
cond case; the Instrumental B^§dKr°S>;p'_? Third case; the Genitive and
Dative are included in sS^lx
® S52T —*I the Sixth case ; and the Locative is called —•
a6
Or»S>$S'_i the Seventh case. The Ablative is called either {Îcsfi Instrumental
or -p Locative. Singular is called £)!f sSCjSsSco and plural MJj-wSS-CjS jfco.
FIRST DECLENSION. 51
The Accusative plu. either simply usee the inflection plural ; or,
adds iS> to it; as G. Plu. Xolffskxa. Acc. Xo^tf sSxvfr Horses.
The Vocative generally uses either the Nom. Singular itself, or
lengthens its final vowel, Thus, N. fS" a sister. V. *sf orWT"
O sister.' N. tfo^S a father. V. Soijk or «o(& 0 father! But
nouns ending in \) U change that vowel into a, or —° a. Thus,
N. tfsS^&b a brother. V. Ssfr^S or # sS» O brother ! The Nomi
native plu. adds or 59-tr». Thus, N. Plu. w Sjuo sisters. V.
fcsr_er»o' or e?f_«n>-a» 0 sisters! N. Plu. tfojabtu fathers. V. So
|_£oer»ff or SolSaero-CT* 0fathers! N. Plu. Ss^to. V. SsS»ser»o' or
asiêr»TT» 0 brothers! Nouns derived from Sanscrit, as t>^4s& a
king, may in poetry merely drop the affix Thus kjSjsS O king.
The instrumental case adds to the inflection the words tSS « 6y' or
'with;' and the Locative case adds Wofib or ST5 ' in.' In
the irregular nouns these cases are shaped in a peculiar mode with
out these affixes.
^ Na, the sign of.the* Locative case, is sometimes used for the In
strumental in the singular number; thus from w^*», a spear, w^
tfir&'Gfr he stabbed him with the spear. a stick, ^f^8""!^
he beat him with the stick.
Of, To, From, &c. are in English called prepositions because they
precede the noun : but in Telugu they are postpositions or affixes be
cause they follow the noun.
There are three SoX"sS»ttt Genders: called i£)®oK&a Mascu
line, (J^Sox'sSk Feminine and )6ôl6g'8ox'sS» Neuter.
FIRST DECLENSION.
The First Declension includes all those nouns that are masculine
and end in Du; as S:£»J6 a younger brother ; aK>ofijj*iSj a good
man; to® <&i& a hero; «S*»5SS a son-in-law. "SMXoJfc a husband.
<fo a person. )fo£a& a stout man.
Many Sanscrit nouns [such are called Tatsama] are placed under
this declension; Udu being added. Thus "îfc 'a god.' ijpêa^
Bramhanudu, 'a Bramin.' sSjJ&Ss vartacudu ' a merchant.' fe^Cfc
a son.
52 NOUNS. FIEST AND
The Inflection singular of the nouns of this Declension is formed
by changing or & of the nominative singular into J5. Thus
N. G. S^p.
Singular. Plural.
N. tf^MjSi or SsSmoSo N. tS&êjo, Sj&ooSd, Sr^fS" or
•—6.»">
G. «sS» P or G. #sS» e, Sô &, tfô? or
—i' Xr-' —* lr- —t Vs
D. tf^pg or €$4«a§ D. &sfo^<uS6, aôfiSS or
« So
CO
A. tfs^jO, esâjtt or 8^1^, A. tf^w.Sûffc, or CôSs +
V. SJsSjdS or t$sS»T«' V. tfsfcer'o', or Ssêr-TP.

—6 —6 —A ' —6
I. fJs&^p^S or S^pS^ I. ^ are formed by affixes added
L. tfs&Ojpei*-* or d^Pcsfiosfe L. j to the Inflection.
wife He, a man, sjbofi«r»£o a good man, plu. sS>o-Q«r»os£> good
people.
Singular. Plural.
G. sSboa^f), iS)0Shr»& G. sfcoOôS, sSbc35j-»8

* CO J
V. s&oSrsF'T** V. sS>oCsr»OT3^ or s£>oa«j-»"!T,>

I. abO&sr-jD^ or s&oa«r»pS^ I. iSoSwoS^^ 55bofia-»e^tf
or jfcoawoS ST*
The noun a son-in-law is declined in the same manner.

All Genitives singular and plural can at pleasure add 53» tf_ " OF"
in all declensions.
SECOND DECLENSIONS. 53
Some masculines which end in \) have two modes of inflexion
in the "singular ; by dropping s£>, or by using p. Thus
N. wOa&JSb a hero Plural ^Sifcew
G, or w£>«&?> The rest is regular
D. wSsSbpS or wSaSbjSSo
A. w8<&it> or aSsfc
2»Z&) One, a person. Plu. persons. It is declined thus,
Singular. Plural.
N. "©feSo or "©s'o&b N. "3D 5"05 or ôlfiio
g. "?>s> or "©ra g. ^>se
d. ^>rp§ or^ras D. "^s'e?
A. "^JS"?) or "©S"^ A. "©S'ep
Instrumentals and Locatives are formed by affixes added to the
Inflection.
All words ending in UDU take f>§ and $ & in the Dative singu
lar. Thus, « and WwpfSgS fo a son-in-law, «9a£?>§ and «£>s£>iS
& to a Aero.
The nominative plural of this declension is formed by changing
the final £So of the nominative singular into 00 or °gp, 8j, o(_!Sa
and even &; as &sS»,8o, tfs^,ew; fcSeusSo, weuoaSb or :
«r>So, ^r°0o. In poetry the final vowel is sometimes dropt : thus

g?s&yo tammulu, may become titers' tammul. All the regular
nouns make the inflec. plu. in O LA.
SECOND DECLENSION.
This contains neuter nouns of more than two syllables, ending in
*/&x>, —°A» and -^>!S» (amu, amu, emu) in the singular number.
The Genitive of some nouns may be formed in Many nouns
use the nominative singular instead of any Inflection.
Example Xo(tfsS» a horse.
Singular. Plural.
N. «o^«S», «b\»os» Xbltfsk^ N. Xi>\ti*x>va, «oljr»ew, Ko|_tfo
w>tx>, or XoL? sS» ew
54 NOUNS.
Singular.
G. Holfi^, or Xb(«5S»oa»r_ G. ?<j\tf sS»e>, XoL60*0^^^
e>, or Xilrye).
D. «o^s&>^55, jSSS, & D. s&coSo, 7<5l»Oi»e>5S,
[Sotx>$&,X3\rrp% or ?<o\_tf afcoêj or !(o[jr,e>§o
sS»5o
A. rfcltfsSn-t-ffc, or J&tF'l&i, A. «0l»sSj3O + f£> or«oUê)^-pj
V. !6(8sSj», or i-Ki[tfo V. 7<o^JSsfcoer°'CT,, or !ô^TJ*er»"0"',
I. fo[tS sS»^«J or 1&\tis&n§* I. XolffsS»e>^<*, «o(jPe>^«S or
L. Xo|Jfsfe>i5ofi>b, Hi(8oS»i5, L. XoltfsS»e><3So«b or Xo|rr°e»

^^tt1^ or «b^«sfcoer-* csfiosSb or Xolxpoer8.
^SjO"îS» a nsife, (vulgarly o^°£S») is the only Feminine noun
in this Declension.
Singular. Plural.
N. "SiOTr°ex> (vulg. "Sjêw.)
G. "wO'cs'sio or ~wOT3vjs&»c3m5' G. tiowo
D. 'w oTêSS
A. '^JQ'T^'Ofii
evj
I. "ô"cr° sSxi^S or rS;o"sr,>s5coS<6 I. "»)0"^°e)^£$ or ~Sjo"^*oSrB
cn 1 » Co L. tio~cz*v<s£>o& or "5jo"c°e>
sSbodSb or "ôrr^sSioyv^ er6
The verbal nouns or Infinitives ending in ADAMU are declined
in the same manner.
Thus from to go, s^:S£sS» going, departure.
Singular. Plural.
N. d*sSc<sS» or N. io"*sStf8S»e» or Sr^-cêa
G sbr«£iSsS»63oo3'Ti— G. sHsSSdaaeoltoS' Tr—", 0r sir6 s5
D. tir^SsfcojSSS or sfr*sS-T3°jS3o D. or ^ST^wSi

or s^-WjO!
SECOND DECLENSION. 55
Singular. Plural.
A. sb-ssS^sScffc or ^*s5"5»°j^L A. d-*«5dS!S»s>j4> or s^S'WeiSj
I. ^sSSs^tT6 or &>$l£six>*ic*<iO(Sb) or 3"*^
The Sanscrit nouns which take the Telugu termination »/jS»

are declined in the same manner. Thus 8$ri» a chariot. vfg&n a
horse. 8 8^sSx> a jewel.
Singular. Plural.
N. 8$sS», K<£afc , or 8?oa» N. 5<?!S»eu, or 8-qy»e»
G. 85>sS»«>, or CTfr°e)
Tr-
D. tf2fsS»ii So, or STjfjbl D. K^&dwso, or STp-»e>so
A. o"$sS»f6, or 8Tp>?>^ A. 8£tf»e>.f ffc( or o"zp>e> + i3o
V. 8£sSooer°T7°| or 8"?}r°er»o'
I. 8£«S»^3 or V$sba&i I. B?ê)^8, 8Tp.ax3») CT^sSd
L. 8$sx»54, 8"!jr»i6)8?!S»ere or L. 8$sS»e)ersi tf-q5-»oeH, SJpsSc

B$£xs$oSi) ocJfiofi&j or 8-qr°e>cil£>oaS)
In like manner are declined TJ*«gs£o, "^9"sS», (Vo^sio, sSj^sio,
6x)5îxi and many other words borrowed from Sanscrit.
Nouns in emu ; as ~Sx>o"3s£d a corpse ; "ir*"? sSn a camp ; 'F°e5sS»
fineness make the dative "S»o"BjS(b^5S 0r ~S»o^pS; -^"SjSaajSSS
or and the plural "S»o"3sSooe)o or ~2ooo«§fcu ; -^°"?sS»euj 0r
• The second form exhibited above inserts osM as !<o^SO»». This shape is
only used in poetry, where the metre requires a syllable, otherwise short, to be
made long : for gurramu being a dactyl, gurrnm-bu lengthens the second syllable.
Even the last syllable of the genitive l£) can be changed into T^) o if the metre
requires the change. Thus in the Vasu Charitra 2. 64. 8^^l^l)o'Sijao"B^s' the
fever of youth : elsewhere )6eSs'o'i4)ojr£4» a wall of crystal. In such instances
grammarians look upon the genitive as an epithet. This will be explained in re
marks on Druta words.
50 NOUNS.
Words denoting inanimate things and ending in U, of this Declen
sion, take f£ in the Locative case ; either in the regular manner, by
adding NA to the singular inflection, as, ~S~°MSsSx>$ in the paper,
es--3~,5'sS»;S in the sky, "cSS"sS»<S in the country ; or by changing the
3&0 of the inflection into "tf and lengthening the preceding vowel :
thus t0*-^, e3--r»'fi6, ciViS.
The form dniki, as ^s^rr-pS for Xol»sSx>iSS5, (also anni as Xo^PcJ.
for Xo[tfsS»?S» in the accusative) are considered vulgar; and so is the
ablative form ciVjS (in the country) from TWo country , yet we
meet with these expressions even in standard poems. Thus our
English poets, even Pope and Milton, use expressions or forms which
modern taste condemns.
Native tutors are apt to reject some good forms as vulgarities.
(Thus instead of <&n>o-sS»7>&. H. K. 5. 76.) Some indeed
have urged me to omit such in this grammar. But whether the
forms are right or wrong, we must learn them if we wish to under
stand and to be understood.
Sanscrit Neuter nouns, when they fall under this declension fre
quently use the Sanscrit shape of the Instrumental case. Thus
■jT°£d!6o Justice makes T^gîS in justice, justly. SiS^tfo dis
crepancy, makes Z>&*~$i> inimically, through spite (See T. E. D. in
tfsSsSM. S'oS't5"3reS43'(T*&o.) The proper and usual Telugu shapes
would be aS^sko^tf, •jy°_gd!S8S»e^,s'oS'tfsSsS»i6 but, the pure Sans
crit forms are often used ; just as we often use the pure Latin forms
ex parte, ab initio, afortiori, &c.
Nouns of this declension make the nominative plural either by
adding «» to the nominative singular ; or by changing the final «S»
into «» and lengthening its penultimate syllable if it is not long.
Thus N. Sing. XblSsto. Plu. ^s(tfd»e» or «o(jr»ex>. N. Sing. ~%o
ts-»jS». Plu. "^poxpex).
THIRD DECLENSION.
The third Declension includes all regular nouns that have no in
flection in the Singular.* Also irregular nouns ; which will after
wards be described.
* Those verbal nouns that end in (Sj as ^5r«ci5w4j writing, can form the
plural in ^sr»d8a3 ej«», but this is not usual.
THIRD DECLENSION. 57
Thus elder brother, elder sister, 8£ a child, #£> mo
ther, 8o\& father, use the Nominative form in the Genitive ; but the
Genitive can at pleasure add the word ^"^L- Thus &o\&*ii& or
t$o^&Sx>?f_-3>£X> the father's name. f[}S wood, S"L?s5"r^L or 5"ltf53»
the colour of the wood.
An elder brother,
Singular. Plural.
N. e?Sa, N. tsêu
G. ejSjt, or ejSjjawr. G. t*r^,e' or tSj^juoSal"
D. w^So D. «i^S3
A. wî* A.
V. V. fr^L«r»T7°
I. *s$£* or I. «iê)^ or w^w^S
L. WjSêr* or ts^_d8ioS& L. Wiêw* 0r WjSjexsfiojfc
1^)8 a tiger,
Singular. Plural.
N. ^>0 N. ^wow
G. ^9 or ^)8^r G. ^«JOe> or ^«Je)o3j351
D. ^©S D. ^bs»e>s3
A. i&np A. i&uivfr
v. &b V. t^)6*3^"^
I. ^8^# or I. ^ are formed (as in the
L. ^Der< 0r^SdSio«b L. > singular) by affixes add-
3 ed to the inflection.
The cases are formed by adding the usual affixes to the Nomina
tive or Inflection. In the plural the Locative case, frequently
is contracted ; thus $oa£ sandu, 1 interstice' iio&vw* sandulalo
'in the spaces' is written "tfo&g* sandullo.
Some nouns of inanimate things of this Declension, ending in
[y' , O) , ^),) A, I, U, and E, use ^ N in the Locative singular : as
STîS "on the wall," $8$ "in the shade" "on high ground"
55 NOUNS.
âjS in the car, "CT*8jS on the road : 5S»|& £ on the nose, S^^r*
on the breast: on the stick**
Nouns of this Declension make the plural by adding OO LU to
the nominative singular. Nouns that end in I, form the plural in
ULU ; those terminating in I in the two last syllables, also change
these into U in the plural. The plural inflection may be formed by
changing the final 6X3 into O.f
Nom. and Gen. Sing. Nom. Plural.
<5"tf a master <S™tStx>
a frog Sêo
&r°S£ a calf ain>Sew
oWs" a bone olsSoS'tu
r-oa a mountain r°ofiew
r&a> wealth rewsfojW
the ear
*b& a temple HoSbew or !fc&>
6*SS a leaf e-S>ew
?ce"g3 a spoon JCetjOJ
Also some nouns derived from Sanscrit as,
<yt>&, ts£a a forest Wejsgjtw, fcJtf&eu
69- a the beginning es-s&ew
*e a hill ftcoe»
;Sa a river â&ew
c3oP^ a man s&jfc&aeu
Some few Telugu nouns add *f at pleasure; thus p4g or Ps&^S"
fire. IToSo or iT'oSoS' the throat. So irej&,£r'v&$) -j3e,tf or "Swabs'
T3-»o043 or ^yoofcoS", &c.J
Sanscrit feminines ending in long A or I, as bhdshd " lan
guage," e>&j fortune (not monosyllables,) shorten that letter, thus
* But the £ added to words ending in I is vulgarly changed into p ; thus,
P , -uT5 Q p> f>, &e. This is not considered right.
t The letter K; JJ* the letter B, plurals S~'(X)) TPWO.
J Nannaya, Chap. 68.
THIRD DECLENSION. 59
bhasha, e>&^ laxmi. But if the next word be Sanscrit forming
(samasa) a compound, the broad A, or I', is generally retained.
Thus V°Î°St9E-iS description of a language.
ij^ and 1$ being monosyllables do not drop the long vowel. They
are declined thus ;
a woman,
Singular. Plural
N. (JL; N.
G. (J^ or (î^°|L G. (^jcj or (J»;a
D. J^S D. ^£>So
A. A. ê>^S>
V. V. (Jj;er»TT° or ^(J^tu
I. or ^/S'* I. ijôîf or (Joja^
L. ^JL;eJ"* or ^c«5o«6 L. ^wer* or ê>d&oiJ>
The word lj also is declined like this by adding the usual affixes.*
sfof>". a man, derived from s£>i£sjs3£&b (which is seldom used.)
Singular. Plural.
N. «&>P^- N. a5>i&&>ex>
G. J&jofi. or sSopSkSmS" G. sSojS>5*5e>
D. J&j02>-§ D. sfciS>X»e>S5
A. s5of>^?> A.
V. LsSjoL V. «&(S>5os>er»tr'
I. s£>jot>.^j& or <&>p&*S* I, sSbjjbsisjy^g or sSo^&ejiir*
L. afcf!>L.ere L. Jfci&i&ejer6
On Irregular Nouns; Class First.

All the irregular nouns are primitive Telugu words borrowed from
no foreign source, and they proceed on principles peculiar to the lan
guage bo remarkable that they alone furnish a sufficient proof that
the language is entirely original.
» The two words stri and sri (or shree) are continually misused : each being
•written in lieu of the other.
60 NOUNS.
Although considered as Irregular these nouns evidently form the
cases on certain principles which I will endeavour to render apparent
by classing together such as proceed on one mode.*
Some nouns which are regular in the singular, form an irregular
plural.f Thus,
N.ând G. Singular. N. Plu.
fcts a note, billet
trouble
sir* &» a blow
a net m
eo a tree c«
â a bottle
Ob a beast
an egg
a fowl
powder s!r>tfc
a wild
Hba a pint en
woa a carriage CO
a peacock ' CO
a crocodile
an old man
leather, skin
CO marriage ^,oao^, or, ôao&>
$xr°r&> a fish 8Sr°ffcex>, or, &r°«i
"3jS» a louse "wtw
a cow 69-£)ew or 53-«o
Second Class.
The Inflection singular of the following nouns is formed by chang
ing the last syllable of the nominative singular into d3 and the plural
* The rule given in the ancient grammars is that only such nouns as end in
& tf , e>, |5 , take 43 in the Infl .... See the Bhattiyam, Chap. 30.
t A few of these words assume a Regular plural form in poetry.
THIRD DECLENSION. Gl
nominative into ft or o«£>. In poetry some of them use regular plu
ral by adding «J to the nominative singular, but in ordinary busi
ness those forms are never used. The plural Infl. changes the
Nom. LU into LA.
The Instrumental and Locative cases singular usually change the
final O) of the Inflection into A. But these two cases are very ge
nerally laid aside, and instead of them the Inflection (Singular or
Plural) is used, to which the signs ^8 'hy? lmitli and el** 'in'
are added.
N. Sing. Infl. I. L. N. Plural.
a lodge ^sftCI
a cord ■^43
to
a yard
g>S& a city ha aft
waste land, to fife
common
■pr° So a country, 7T>ft
1 cv)
a day
food Si- A3 g&-°ft
on
a nest Xir-43
fuller's tJ©43
earth
r*«o the leg of a r^&s r'Aj g-^ft
CO
bed-stead
the west
the mouth "?xr>t£>e»)"?>cn.ft
or ~fxr°Q
the fore pfciS3«3
head
a river SiSouo, £>ft
an embrace ^~°ft*3 3-°>lft
CO
the cheek ^38 *j ^58 ft
Tr-
a handful
a plough TT°X43 F^ft-fôgo
02 NOUNS.
N. Sing. Iufl. I. L. N. Plural.

the court !Swo?i43
yard
a pestle S"*^ cîfSo or <5^S"o
m
theinterior er^)\43 er*fv^ or er«?iOS&
a door ■sj-»§63 ^S&i or sp? ogb
13eu the outside J?43 13 Aj
Third C&m.
Nouns noted below change the last syllable of the nominative sin
gular into o43 to form the singular inflection and osooo, ol& or o«j
to form the plural nominative. Some of these nouns also take gx3
in the regular manner to form the plural.
N. Sing. G. I. L. Plural N.
the eye S'o43 g"oAo £"#>j_eM or ^°<*>
sand 5&043 sfeOiJ
the sky X»o*3
a female's •?Jo43 tfo&j tSj&^M or tfo^
breast
Sew
m a bow 3043 S04j aoAj aeweo, ao«So Soft
a thorn sS»c43 sfcaojgb or s5x>o&
a house
rn a tooth a6043 &0b> a&oij CO
Fourth Class.
The following use the nominative singular for the singular inflec
tion : or change the nominative singular into They make the
plural nominative either regularly by adding 00 to the Norn. Sing,
or by changing the final syllable of the Nom. Sing, into or o£b,
N- Infl. I. L. N. Plural.
tS"-*^ a place iT«43 iS^k ^djaew, or
(V)
THIRD DECLENSION. C'.l
N. Inn. I. L. N. Plural.
a pair, a none
pair of
shoes
a boil ^043 iô££> or >&o*U
a fruit >£o&3 s£)o«S or 3&o&
a village CO
a nail J^SSex) cr
blood none
water f>8
rose water 16 Âj no plural
the sea
moonlight
hunger
a sickle r*£;sok> r»^ôij §~£ssog>
or §"°£sSo43 or, r*asSo&
spittle <ioft43 ôftsfc or °io?,o«b
a shed s6cfi>&
an axe itsai
a ca
pudding iroX&
pick-axe
SootSew a hare Soo-^43 S5o^^> or SSo"£
~3»«ex> the begin "3xi as ^>

ning
a mortar CO
a tortoise
the body "3;o43
Some neuter numerals are declined in the same manner. Thus
N. fk"«o a hundred ; G. c&»43 ; D. (&p»43§ ; A. j&»63j& ; L. ?£n>4J 0r
fSr»i3dSio£5b; Plu. j&i>coe», fir>«o ; N. "8o«a two; G. ~So43 ; D.
"3ot3§; A. "5o43p; L. "ô^5 or "3o4j or ~3o&o£j ; Plu. ~8o«o ;
r
64 NOUNS.
N. sSxnifi three ; G. s5ar»43; D. sfor^tf! ; A. XxniSP ; L. &r»Siok>
or KfcêJ ; Plu. &xr°&. NG. 63jpSfc>8 eight; D. ao|&X>o6§; A.
Sops»ao43p ; L. O&PSoSOej ; Plu. ^^sScdSoew.
The use of the local and plural forms of numerals is shewn in the
Syntax. Thus three threes is nine : three eights are twenty-four, &cc.
Some masculine and feminine numerals are declined in the same
manner. Thus two persons ; G. SS(«8 ; D. txugSI ; A. 3g
8j0. Also sS»XoSb
O three persons
r '; G. s£»Xo8
o '• D. sS»*o8§
o : A. «*»
£>8jD. The word iSexi&Sb is fourpersons; G. jSuoXoS ; D.iSeuXbeg ;
A. (SooaoBjD.*
Fifth Class.
Some nouns change the last syllable of the nominative singular
into Q to form the singular inflection and into to form the no
minative plural. Nouns in oag preceded by a short vowel lengthen
that vowel to form the inflection singular and the nominative plural.
Thus,
N. Sing. G. I. L. N. Plu.
■sr>O30 edge none
a stone Tr°a TP*) or ■ftw
the hand
ghee none
a well none fin, 5?
JT*OMg a pit r6©
iSfotfA C/ass.
The following nouns form the inflection singular by changing the
final vowel U of the nominative singular into G) I. Nominative plu.
change the final vowel of the nominative singular into to, & 0r o«o.
Some, however, make the inflection singular irregularly.
N. Sing. Inflec. L. N. Plu.
3pS> a field 3P ^(Oer-e 3j&ew or 3«»
>fcp>;£> a hump-back Kr«jO Xo-°fS>ew
* In poetry there occur other spellings; the letter G being changed into V-
Thus ojjCo5Sc& tw0> «S»€>£8& three, jSwfitw four.
THIED DECLENSION 05
N. Sing. Inflec. L. N. Plu.
s£r»fS> a tree s£r»jS>ex> or sfcnSSew
a tauk r*e>jo râfkuo, or B"«>
3a t»
the body
a village fro 4r*«" or ^rfk
!£n>8o«S a daughter Sj-°8o8oe» or S&-»«i>o
a name ■^8i) or ii.cS>eu or

•JO
thread yfcn>£> none
-£r»ew a share -ir*8 or
8 43
Seventh Class.
Words ending in {& form the inflec. singular in J* . The Norn. plu.
either adds «» to the Nom. Sing, or changes the last syllable of the
Nom. Sing, into <*>; thus N. T°t& a sowing machine; G. ;
N.Plu. JTêw or ?Tg>. N. S"|« a plough share; G. ^S,; N. Plu.
ri^&uo or 3"g>. N. »L*the neck; G. «_6 ; N. Plu. &\Jf»x> or
&c.
Eighth Class.
Some nouns form the inflection singular in © and the nominative
plu. in ogb, or o{&.
N. Sing. G. I. L. N. Plu.
T»«» the leg -g-»e)
"3ex> the finger
S3-ex> a wife 65-9 none none e3-o«borftS-ol«S
j&^j&Tr0 a grand sftfSj&TPo m
JSb or
e» daughter 0
r^tf t» a daughter e^gi
in-law I*
sfcSJSoo a cousin sfecJssD sfttf«ofi& or J&tf
66 NOUNS
N. Sing, G. I. N. Plu.
^"ejew a sister ô^> or Bô
a town [p*o
The word ~^03 the hand makes the G. in but it has no plu
ral.
Sometimes the same plural is used for two or more different
nouns: thus
Singular. Plural.
a day
a country "i5*™ days, lands, nerves
a nerve
a name names, splinters
a splinter
-£& a root
roots, fingers
~£vo a finger
**& the eye
} ^°m' ey«s, stones
CO a stone
a fowl
a leg or post G^ffr fowls, legs, streams
a rivulet
a fruit A os& fruits, teeth
CO a tooth
Foreign Words.
Both in speaking and writing, the Telugus generally retain many
foreign words untranslated. The words Doctor, Captain, Gene
ral ; coat, ice, glass, wine, beer, brandy, cup, saucer, bottle, court,
book, receipt, pen, ink, bureau, &c, and perhaps a hundred Hindus
tani expressions in daily use as Kharch S"i£>sfr expence, outlay, zu-
Noie.—A grammar of this language written in Telugu and printed in 1835 is
arranged somewhat in the method preferred by the English. But besides much that
is omitted it gives some false statements. Regarding many of the words described
in this page, it exhibits regular as well as irregular plurals. But those regular
plurals are fictitious,
THIED DECLENSION. 67
rur, razi, sandook, chacu, petara, jild, jawSn, roz, naucar, munslii,
nakd &c. This dialect cannot as yet be set aside : because
there are no native expressions which precisely convey the same
ideas. Take an instance. The word gazu ^s1 does indeed mean
glass : but in Telugu conveys the idea of glass bracelets ;
ginne ' a cup' denotes a metal cup. There is no word to denote a
glass. In like manner the word book, if translated [Xo$;Sx> or l^J^S"
sS» would convey the idea of a book written on palm leaves. Thus to
bind a book is sooso "SoiSbT^csSoJSo 0r 2?ew5'k>£o because there is no
intelligible and convenient word for binding. It is not easy to
speak or write Telugu without using foreign words : but good taste
requires us to use them in moderation.
These foreign nouns whether Hindustani, English or neuters of
Sanscrit origin, have no inflection, nor Locative or Instrumental
forms in the singular : in the plural a few have inflections. All these
use affixes.
Thus "^"S'co naucar a servant naukari, service, 2T* a
table, 2^ 'amu (tne English word line) S"^jO a couch. "mF* a
pen. omo! ink. 69- office. 2* wine, "cs" jfoo doctor. er»<sSco law
yer. ~rr°ts^r~ a guardian.
Singular. Plural.
N. N. "j^rBoew or ~W*&
g. "|r,reoc3x>r G. irrcoo orF^"
D. "j3"°S'oo30 D. 'jJ's'Socuso
a. -Frreoisi A. 'j3"*g'ooe)jS>
I. -prooê* I. 'ps'oooê?
L. •j3"°S'coeJ'« L. 5" Bower*
Words ending in LU as Vakeel ^lew, Amul t9sS»ew, &c. are in
cluded in the same rule thus,
68 NOUNS
It may be worth while to remark that house-hold servants at
Madras talk a broken English with fluency ; but the learner will find
it profitable to employ only those domesticks who will speak to him
in the language he is studying : such are always to be had. Our
initiatory native instructors also speak English, but we should as soon
as possible lay aside such aid and employ a teacher who speaks
Telugu alone.
ON PBONOUNS.
The pronouns may be divided into two kinds, viz. the personal
and the adjective pronouns. There are no Relative pronouns.
Personal pronouns have two numbers like those of substantive
nouns, and three persons in each number, as ~i$i&> I, fcsS thou, ■sr-sfe
he. Plu. we, you, •sr'Oo they.
The Gender of the 1st and 2d person is always clear. But the
3d person calls for distinction. Thus Mas. he, Fem. and
Neut. wa.sAe, it, and Plu. Mas. and Fem. tst»0o those persons. Neut.
a those things.
The pronouns have all the cases of nouns except the Vocative,
which, however, is used in compound words, as Aj-5t»Tw° O Gar
dener ! r» "V" O milk maid &c.
On The First Person.

The first person (/, myself) has two modes of forming the plural,
viz. we and s&iSô thou and I, or you and roe, or thou and
we ; for this includes the person addressed.
Singular. Plural.
N. I N. "&>sfaa we
G. ~F°, T^cSm jy^dj my G. sSr°, sSjôJnSf^ s£r°i£> our
D. "i^so to me D. *&»5o to us
A. fSpS^L, jSjSo me A. sfosto fS.JfcsSn, s&sfoMy
or s&sfo,e)ff> us.
* In poetry "^j8» is sometimes changed into £>j& enu or £> E'; and "t5os5i»
is changed into £uS» • and jt)>g) into
PRONOUNS on
Singular. Plural.
I. ^^StS, by me, with I. sSr«'5iJ,5Sr»S^' by us, with u.i
me
L. "srô**, TT'csfioiS) in me L. *fr»eJrf, s£r>dS>osS> in us
The other form which may be called the dual, runs thus,
N. Thou and I ; you and me.
G. s&jSolo^, s&êSb Thine and mine ; Our and your.
D. sfc£ 55 7b we and thee ; to you and us.
A. sS>£sS»;S, sfcjiiy, o&^sSxie) J/i an<J jAee ,• us and you.
The Instrumental and Locative are compounded as «S>j5^«$ by
us., s&(5c*6os& in us.
On the Second Person.
Sing. Plu.
N. thou N. Dt»S>, »r»tye»yoM
G. £>, J&SnSf^ thy, thine G. sxr>, &r»53x>?f_, 8to-»«b your
D. £o Mee D. Ecp>so to you
A. Prfc, thee A. SDosio, ajsfo^, Sosê, aosfo^
(S you
I. fr^tf, <A<?e, with I. Sxr'îS, txr>S^ by you, with
thee you
L. ^tf"*, ô53o«Sb jw ^gg L. SoêT-*, gXrodSSoifc i« you
This word forms the Dative singular and plural in and
tKr»55 iu opposition to the general rules of the Dative case of the
nouns: which would require the termination to be not & but §.
The peculiar politeness observed in the use of the pronouns among
the Hindus requires caution. In speaking to equals or inferiors with
some esteem, it is not proper to make use of the pronouns P*S) thou ;
but Eot>0S you is used. And so when a person of authority speaks
concerning himself ~&> we is used instead of I. A Telugu
when speaking to his master, uses the phrase your honor : or
"^S8oT»8o) cx!oe);Ssj-03 &c.
Pronouns of the TJvird Person.
and ftf {£> (each meaning He) are nouns of the 1st declen
sion.
70 PRONOUNS
Masc. Singular.
N. tr°s£> he, that man he, this man
G. sr*P, w»& his §>?,
D. *r°f>$, to him f>f>l,
A. sp>f>, Aim £>p, S>4)L
I. wP^-r-ci^t*, ^pS""* by SjD^tf,
Aim
L. TT»jDe!^, ^SeH i« Aim Sêr6,
Masc. and Fern. Masc. and Fem.
G. sr-S, CT*tfe', 'sr>0l? §8, £>tfe>, &ofis, SoljS.

D. -5r°0l, ■5T»Be>So) ^SSS, B>0 Sei, Stfa&S, SS, SoSfSS, So
A. -sj-ep, ■Er-tf<»iSi, wo^jai Sep, £>o"e>iS>, Sc-asffe, fbo\t£&>.

i. «r»at3a, ^.es^ £>e3tf, Sas^
tfer« Seer6, §>8o<*.
Interrogatives.
Masc. Sing. Masc. and Fem. Plural.
N. =isS«o, oi^Jfc* who, which A&&>, AzSogn, d«r*£3o which
man ? men
G. whose, which °â, oisSoSs
man's
D. ois5p§, ^sS&§ to whom cJsSel, oiôSSS
A. ^p, o^ê^l whom cSsSOp, ci;5o<£;Si
I. JsSpîJ, oisS)D§^ by whom, oijseîf, oiô^S^
with whom
L. oltf jOeH,.<iâ«r* in whom oisSSer6, oisSoaser*
* When the long initial vowel is shortened the next consonant is doubled, as
here shewn. From sr'tk he, is formed £)3T»j£ what man, by contraction
ds5£«Sa who? So in the feminine &9 cdi becomes oi© eddi.
PEONOUNS 71
■sr»aSb He, that man, this man, are used only of inferiors ; but
when we speak of any man with respect M&iSi and fc»&TT*4fc or
«£> or 3j&"7r"4So* are the proper words to be used, and when much res
pect is shewn the word is used: when still more respect is
to be shewn, plurals are used, as vr»c6 they for tt»5£> he.
W&iSb, fc9&TT»iSS and âsS) s^TT-afc are also thus declined.
The words C9-c*GiS his honour, his reverence, that gentleman,
and -SicsSji or S*<SSg;S are declined thus,
Masc. Sing. Interrogative.
N. -g*dSS;S &x&rSwho?
G. e5-e«6i$o3»§' -g*d&;So3tts' &c8J;So3»§'
D. W-c*6i65o -g*<s6jSS3 &d»^S5
A. e3-d*i6fS> -&dS>i5jS» £)dtfi^fli
I. W-dS^t*, or -^cJSSjS^^ or £sdt6;6-^?? or tf*
L. ft9-c>£fSer« -^dtfifStr* £>drtjSer«
These words have no plural, but borrow from *r»*6 and he,
that man and this man; and from <^ss«£>
Feminine and Neuter Singular.
N„ **0 she, it, that %\8>, this woman, it, this thing,
G. -cr°!&!-5r,j0oto^_ 6jo,&jao3»^_
D. -nr°pi
A. -a*p, -cp^
L. ■CJ'l&eJ"*, (Ty°o45"*) ©jOe)**, (SoW"*)

Observe, that -nfogr* and &o*S^ are disapproved as vulgar. They
are therefore included in brackets.
The feminine plural of fa she, that woman and SjQ this woman is
the same as the masculine plural of ^r»Jfc he, that man, and htk this
man. Thus w*tseu JAose women, £>85>,!>eeu Mese wo-
&c. But the neuter plural of WS it, that thing and S}3
thing runs thus,
Neuter Plural.
N. f3 iAosc things 8S\S> êy, <7«ese things
G. vr-e3, «r<>43o3M?r_ or, *r»?> §43, &*3o3x>|f_, or
» In poetry tJ&JSb and Q$gb are sometimes spelt with a long initial as
72 PRONOUNS
Neuter Plural.
D. ■sr**3§, a-feSS, 01. ^r-joi s)4S8) hkg£>, or S>P§
A. -sr»43P, •sn^rSj, or ■sr'P &eo;S> or £>P
I. •st'^^^, ^.b^, -53-43 &433tf,f>&^S, S^ôrSp^5
or sr°P&i
L. wiSe^8, ■sr'êJ'*, or sr-P S^tf"6, S^jeT*, or &P cSSoifc
Fem. and Neu. Sing. Neuter Plural.

N. £>S,oia, S* wîcA woman, "tajj tb/h'cA /
which ?
G. "^p, "^P°3w|l, fe-cr'jB^-nr'p Sts, ~tp
D. ~3p§, £tj*P§ ^43§, "3p§
A. ^P, T§*Sf>, "^P
i. -^p^s, *p&* -^pr6
L. -^Per*, ("cS°«"*,) Sniper* -êr-*, ("345"*,) ^Pd*o«J>
In the feminine singular the word cisSU is generally used for
which woman ?
The feminine plural interrogative of oi6 is the same as the mascu
line plural interrogative of <^4fc which man? Thus, Sing. which
woman ? Plu. ^sscfc, oJ;Soes& which women ? &c.
69-^Sj,S*-SjS Tfiai woman or woman and M-'Sj, or
that lady, this lady.
The word or ^°fk se//', is translated He, She, It.
Sing. Plu.
N. V, ^ffo N. ^sSm, tfaoSS, "^Sb
G. #£63m£_, G. S55b,Srfb5^3r ( (#;fce)
D. D. «sSjss, («s&e§)
A. SfiQ., «fS> A. tf^, Ssbo^sfoyi, (8sScep)
I. tSjS^tS, tfjSST5 I. SjS-ST*
* Some w ords peculiar to poetry are needless in the Grammar, and will be found
in the Dictionary : such arc obt&g& for JjS,
PBONOUNS. 73
The plural is used for your honor, a respectful mode of address.
Thus tf ifecw>o435 to your honor's house.
From these pronouns are formed many compound nouns, which
are declined in the same manner, by adding (to adjectives) ■=>••££>
for the masc and **6 or 63- "S>, e$-£)"3 and SS-'aj for the fern, and
fc93 for the neuter. Thus masc. sing. SSsfctSsr-afc a potter. "2>g
•sr»ab an old man.®$£F*l£> a child. Plu. 5Jj^Bsr-og£>;— "5«-sr»oa&,
©fSjjjsr'O^. Pern. sing. rfao^SS, tf»êr""S>, or ifco,êr»a'3 or *x>"&
sr°"&> an old woman. OjSâ a child, a girl. plu. ifc>'£9irr»os£> or ss»
•#3ft>8o oW women. fifS^55""0^ children. Neu. ^g£> /Ae Za/ye one.
plu. ^§3 the large ones.

These compound words form the vocative by changing the final
vowel U into A' if they end in &> for the masc. or by adding
—"TT0 if they end in £j for the fern. Thus Nom. JT'e-sr'Sb a cow
herd. Voc. JfjjwTS0 O cowherd! Nom. *fSj8 a girl. Voc. *>i£j,
•WP"0 O maid ! &c.
ft (From fcSfi »£) and 25 (from **£ those things) are also added
to the infl. sing, and plu. of all the pronouns, to denote posses
sion or connection : and are declined like **©. Thus T^S or F1"
cs&S mine. p& or pd68 thine- wSft 7«s, sfcr»S or s&;SQ oar*. Or»S*
year*. i3-»8S theirs; and so Tr»a my things. £>8> /Ay things- D. "P*
"wj&S /o »ni«e. 'F*^°sS§ To mine (Latine ad mea.) A. P^'^
»«'«e. L. F'xj'per*, (or F°Tcr>oir*) in mine. sJr»-cr»pg to ours, &c.
They are also added to the interrogatives : thus, SiSS&a whose
(is) it ? Sj3£8S whose (are) these things? "^p© to which (does) it
(belong) ? ~^?>a to which do they belong ? fyc. The masc. and fem.
plurals are s£T»sr>J6 my people. to»»r>S your people. Sos&oBj^Qct'o
&> whose people are these ? whose kinsmen are they ?
The pronoun »>&> is defective, and is used only in the nomina
tive, genitive and dative : Thus N. &&> what ? G. £>&>£, &8 of
what? D. Sao *38, &t3S for what1!
wosfc (adverb) There, is declined as a defective Pronoun ; thus ;
74 ADJECTIVE PKONOITNS.
D. eoribSi, orj wofi&eiSo, thereto.
Ins. eoe&^tf or «o«o:S© thereby.
L. tsos&er8 therein.
In the same manner S(o«a here is declined.
D. ssioSoSS hereto.
Ins. Sjos&^S or S)o«b;5o hereby.
L. gosfctf"* herein.
And also Aot&> where: thus.
D. doafc&j wherefore?
Ins. do«$>^3t£ or oioabso whereby.
Loc. dossier-* wherein ?
See also in page 79.
ADJECTIVE PBONOUNS.
Adjective pronouns have no singular ; and are thus declined.
Masculine and Feminine.

N. s}ojs& so many ~\ woacfc allper- } «taaeS how\ 9""obo& a /««>
persons ) sons C many per

persons.
sons?
g. sjoese.or s;o«a j tsoaa oioaa r*o«8
o3»S" \
D. sjo«ei «o»e§ ôjsaS r°o«e§
A. sjoesep eoeflp doaep r*osS|&
I. SRoejaê,s)oK-) wossS^,
orWoaSS^j orôaSiS^j orr*oaaS^

L- «toaa«r« eojsSer* oio«8er« r*oaew«
2Vew/er.
N, a^ so many vp^ a« J)»x how ~\ ^p^ a few
many ? )
ADJECTIVE PEONOTJNS. 75
iVettfer.
G. or »PJ3
tr-
D. ei^431
A. siF^P tap^&p Ap^sp
I. Sî^tf -\ ^p^^SiS
or or © ) or ) or
L. Silvers
The word WoS being -dZJ, or «o Bwo/i the following words are
connected.
Neuter Plural.
Sing. Neuter All, so much as that *sj&^ so many, all,
9P& All, so much as this eil&a. so many, all,
«ô3 how much ? ^P^ how many ?
foS some ^J?3l some
Herein the sing, denotes quantity ; but the plural denotes num
ber. Thus oiosaafigisbo how much rice ? S^P^'Sa 5"eu some goats.
Masc. Eem. WoSsaoS or woo«b all those (people)
ôSs&joo sioescfi go many, these
•ioâooft or «iooSb how many?
foSsfcoa r'oaOo some
This sometimes takes a plural form, as fo&eu, siotftw.
The initial letters 55- A' and I' (which might be called ar
ticles) and their interrogative £> E' are prefixed to many words,
meaning that, this and which. Thus fAatf tree, &-"^<&>
those trees. -S*^3|33 this tree. &3|» which tree ? But when they
precede the nouns, they are sometimes changed into short vowels
doubling the following consonants. Thus es-"S"*»tf» or e^°e>«fao
tJiat time &c. Several other words originate from the same prin
ciple. Thus w»* tluit man. £>*o this man. which man ? &c.
Also there. here. <^j>_tf where ?
76 DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
e6xô*S Such as that. «£n£ot3 such as Mis (talis) cikasSofi what
sort ? (qualis.)
So So many <^^X Sow many.
e>o&, S\o«£ #o much °*otS .Hba; m«c£ &c.
Instead of the initial vowels A, I, E, the syllables TA, TI, TE
are perpetually written. Thus t5^_2», there, here,
where, are written cx"^_^, S3a|f_Ji. This mode of spell
ing is not inconvenient. But by an error in which all persist
(and the same appears in copies of poems) the letter Te (denoting
which) is almost always written Ya meaning that. Thus abo&
how much ? becomes cssioS thus much. A little practice will ena-
ble'us to recollect this perversion ; which otherwise may sometimes
create a doubt. We merely have to recollect that instead of ye it
is customary, though wrong, to write ya.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
Some nouns have no singular nominative ; and are placed in

the plural form in the Dictionary. Thus, ê», « milk.' Many
names of particular kinds of grain are thus defective. Thus
The word water is used in the plural : unless in poems,

which at pleasure use the singular as is already explained.
Thus S"* a little water : literally a few waters.
Irregular Defective Nouns and Adverbial Declension.

Some adverbs and other parts of speech are capable of declen
sion as defective nouns of the third declension. Thus above,
§o« beneath, ^ within are properly mere adverbs ; and though
they have no nominative they have a genitive, and sometimes
other cases. But it will be perceived that in translation these
cases become other parts of speech.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 77
Thus is above ; but tho iufl. is tar>& of above ; upper or
next : and the Dative Oj»S§ to up, can only be translated up
wards- Hence we may form a nominative by adding various
words to the inn. as O^Q3 that which is next, or above.
Soes, SojSjTV adv. Beneath. G. Soft adj. last, underneath. D.
§o£>§ adv. downwards, down. Hence §o©8 nom. what is beneath.
"When these two adverbs are united into a phrase, a plural is
used thus Sofia j»T>cS>e» up and down.
ritoofiS, !&>o«tf, or JSaoofibTV adv. In front. G. «S»oh43, «S»o«3
adj. fore,fronting. D. »S»os8§, jS»o«43S adv. forwards. Hence
sSx>oe>43&> that which is infront.
"Sjig", ~3$SjSi or "3(65tv adv. Behind. G. ~3$X& adj. hinder,
lack. D. "3(S5'43§, 'SjSS'SS adv. backwards.
When these are united (with the plural affix) "SfSfjiaofibeM or
*S»ofi4>~3;6 5'ex> meansfore and aft, backwards and forwards.
The two words before and after frequently change their mean
ings: thus fc5S?>"3j6 5'433Hca& Those after him may also denote
his predecessors.
S-raoj&io adv. At last. G. t-xs=Aa adj. last.
<§"js adv. At first. G. &*o&, (SToSDotf, 8*0,
adj. first, earliest. Henco 8*_o*3S or 8°@J3& is the nominative.
WsSSe, 63-So, «s5ê> adv. Thither, beyond. G. wsSdS, CS-sS©,
wSjÔ adj. Farther. D. w:S&3§, W-tfSS, ts^8S adv.
aiS8e>, -Stem, sisssje) adv. Rither. G. -&s>8, adj.
nearer. D. «lsS«$S§, s^sS§©8 adv. 2%i's way.
e^Jfa adv. Formerly. G. er*>C& adj. former.
Sr»sfc> adv. Afterwards. G. s»»B43 adj. weatf. Hence is derived
C9-JiT«fi63Q xhe next one.
Bfctf or 8^5 or :5 fi adv. Near, by, G. or adj. wfo'e7i is
near, adjoining, neighbouring. D. fi^SS or adv. Zb, «p to,
close to.
tst>£ adv. Afar. G. (the same) K££ adj. distant, fi^f* Loc. at
a distance.
78 DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
er6, fl^^s or adv. In, inside, within. G. er6?, a^^S,
adj. inner. D. er*f)l, erî, er*:6S§, adv. inwards, in.
2*» adv. (Loc. case) outside. G. 2a adj. Exterior, outer. D.
adv. out, outwards,
^w adv. On the left hand. G. 'wâ adj. that which is on the
left hand. D. "cyÔS adv. towards the left hand.
3«)<6<3 adv. On the right hand. G. adj. D.
"3e>;6<y adv. Outwards, G. "Se>s&£>, "SuîS adj.OKter. D. "3<y<68?,
"2e>oC'63§ outwards.
«=?o34j adv. Afterwards. G. Wo&iS adj. woS43§ 0» tffe
SioSAj adv. Hereafter, henceforwards. G. ss>o£s43 adj. such. D. sâe?

*3S hereafter, after all.
adv. Yesterday. G. r>?^_*3 as Pi^fi^P yesterday's work. D.
p^43§ yesterday. L. Pi^t^f within yesterday.
"^»^ adv. jT/«e day oe/ore yesterday. G. "*»j^*S Of that day :
thus "3»;6;}43ar'»j the letter that came the day before yesterday.
D. "SsojS^tfS until the day before yesterday.
eieuoa adv. The day after to-morrow. G. ^&«o& Thus
the work to be done the day after to-morrow. D. <ê»o&§
adv. the day after to-morrow L. Sjôij ; as "tS«>ijSje»o*j to
morrow or day after to-morrow.
w^_S adv. There. G. ^^L^ adj. of that place, or country D.
that place, thither, thereto.
ei^_£ adv. .Here, G. ^|La adj. of this place. D. Si£_a§ &'*
place, hither.
o^tf adv. Where? G. ^£_&adj. of what place? D, «i£_aS
epâ£ place, whither ?
fcsjs^j jfo eêry ^7*i«^. G. f universal. D. £5^435 on
whole.
In like manner there, stf^k liere, ^tf^*3 where, make
the genitives thus of that place, s^*3 of this place, °^*3
DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES. 70
of what place? D. «^*3§, 3*^*38, oio^*SS to that place, to this
place, to which place.
A few adverbs have nominative forms, Thus this day. G.
of this day, present. "^«3sr»aSo the man of to-day, the present
man. D "^*3§ to-day.
fcs^jSb ê», s?^«6 now, -i^* when ? These form the G.
w^*3, sst^B, oia&v,43. D. eÛS, 8^*38, Ja&}*3S.*
The defective pronoun fo£S> tfAere or /Aai, is used in forming a
noun (or gerund) and is added to participles: thus sJr*ooo?SofiS>sS
for going. L. £rSox>$o&# in, ov by, going fnj*ah&a~$po&$ for
want of aid.
The acc. of this ends in * NA. Thus «32So£*«»j$oaSbjS>63oo
regarding his going.
It even may take a plural form as s^XaoaoSi for going, xpx"
eosSboSSyor coming. ôHKoocSôSa for staying.
Even some Sanscrit adverbs can in Telugu take an inflected
form. Thus the adverb l^^ô at present. G. (adjective)
3^ or Ijl&wBoi® present, existing, current. L. [&&!fSs&ot&> at
present.
ON THE ADJECTIVE.
The Telugu adjective like that used in English, is devoid of

rmmber, gender, (unless what affixes supply) and case. Compara
tives and Superlatives are formed merely by adding the words
more, less, most or very. Some adjectives add the rela
tive participle of to become : thus ^016) or ^"oa&oMjS pret
ty. But this will be placed under the Eelative participle.
" These three words feJiit^sfc appudu, S^StSjSfc ippudu, dd&^JSo eppudu,
are sometimes (in poetry) contracted: being written fcS^S) 9,^), oio5) ap'du,
ip'du, ep'du. But this is not used in common life.
80 OF THE VERB.
Some few Sanscrit adjectives are used in the Sanscrit compara
tive or superlative forms : just as in English we use the Latin
forms superior, inferior, prior ; supreme, extreme, maximum.
Other particulars regarding adjectives are placed in the Syn
tax.
INTERJECTIONS are fully described in the Dictionary.

THE YEEB. 81
BOOK FOURTH.
ON THE VEBB.
All verbs appear in my Dictionary in the Infinitive form, end
ing in t> Ta. Thus *oî}Aj pamputa to send tf«£>?5*j caduvuta to
read.
The ancient Telugu Grammarians have with good judgment dis
tinguished three conjugations of verbs. The Second contains such
Roots as end in T or S, likewise some few verbs in TT, or SS ;
such as ^cJ&ij chey-uta or *3;&*j ches-uta to do: LF*c8Mi>
vray-uta or l_p-»j4>i> vras-uta to write : &*&£uk> poy-utaor
pos-uta topour: cS&>4j toy-uta or • tos-uta to push : \j&<sSx>g
*j vrayy-uta or yS&jtJ vrass-uta to break : Stsfcgio dayy-uta or
tfîj dass-uta to weary.
The Third conjugation contains verbs that end in cu; as «oflb
*j penûta to rear, sfcôtSji) mannin9-uta, toforgive. Or in ecu as
"aj-fib^tj mecc-uta, to approve : cafc-uta, to die.
Most of the verbs which are derived from other languages are
placed in this conjugation.
Thus &"<$>• o-s&Aj raxinc-uta to protect, $-o*oajoxfc*j phirain9-uta,
from Hindustani, phirana, to turn.
All verbs that do not belong to the second and third conjuga
tions, appertain to the first conjugation. Accordingly ~ô^)ii
pamp-uta, to send, i5s£>$ij caduv-uta to read, 5fr*g*J pov-uta to go,
are verbs of the first conjugation. Each conjugation contains
several classes of verbs, and instead of the numerical signs First,
Second, or Third conjugation, the expression is, A verb ending
in du, in yu in pw, &c. But natives never use such expressions
among themselves.
82 THE VERB.
The first and second conjugations contain chiefly verbs that

originate in Telugu :* the third, (besides numerous native verbs)
embraces all verbs derived from Sanscrit, Hindustani and other
languages.
A verb may change out of one conjugation into another : thus
^csSoti chey-uta ending in T is of the 2d conjugation. But in
its Causal shape TScxuotfcAj cheyinguta it becomes a verb of the
3d conjugation : and in its passive shape ^3c»SmSo£j it is a verb
of the 1st conjugation. And the same changes take place in al
most every verb.
Verbs ending in *& are of the 3d conjugation ; thus 3 *%*J.
Some of these have the liberty of changing ■* 911 into ^v ppu
thus a^£*J which falls within the 1st Conjugation. This will be
afterwards explained. Thus the termination of the Boot alone
shews the conjugation.
Certain changes made in the root make the participles .■ and

then by adding personal affixes with some particles, the tenses
are made. Thus from ^cs&j makes the past p|| » 9 chesi having
done: and from this comes ^f^So chesinadu, he did, "So^JSo
teccinadu, he brought, ôk^ô pampinadu, he sent. Again ^
F0^ chesinanu I did, "30^t»js> teecinanu, I brought, *JoS>F°;ai
pampinanu I sent. Here the terminations are uniform, though
the verbs belong to three different conjugations. »■
These personal affixes are the same in all verbs whatever •
both active and passive just as have, had, hast, are equally appli
cable to all English verbs. Accordingly if we know the affixes
of one verb, we know those of all. And (as in English, Latin or
French) it often is sufficient to mention the first person of a
• Many of these are likewise found in the Kannadi language which appears
to be more ancient than Telugu.
THE VERB. 83
tense, because all the rest of the persons merely change the termi
nation according to one rule.
There are properly only two voices : the affirmative and nega
tive. The Passive voice is compounded with <£4fci> to fall: the
Middle voice with sr*jfc*j to take : and the Causal voice inserts
sjor£> incu. But all the terminations continue unchanged. Thus
(as in English) the Passive uses the active endings.
The tenses of the verb are Present, Past, Future, Aorist and
the Imperative.
The numbers are the Singular and the Plural ; and the persons*
are the first, second, and the third. In the Singular, the third
person feminine has the neuter termination, but it takes mascu
line terminations in the plural.
Principal parts of the Verb.

These are the Boot, the Infinitives, and the Participles. The
Boots end in ft}] " U" as s6°^ pampu, 'send,' &*& povu,
'go;' to which by adding *J (the infinitive sign To) as a&oêj,
sfr*©^ the verbs to send, to go, are formed: as they appear in
the Dictionary.
The Root (t?"£>$) has been differently defined by various
writers. Some say that )6oijg)Aj pampu-ta is formed from s&o^j)
pampu, adding *J ta. Others say (with the author of the Dipica)
that the root is aboig) pampu. Others exhibit the verb as aio&d
;S» pamp-adamu : but the oldest authors quote verbs in one form
of the third person singluar past tense of the verb : &ot> pampe,
• When we converse with a native who knows Sanscrit but not English we
must remember that I, We, are called &J|i&>^[)BoS>. ; Thou, You, are called
=&>£gofc^)tfi6.-; and He, she, it, they, are called laSt^sfc^yOosS, the first
person.
84 EADICAL FORMS.
he sent, cheppe he said, &o"3 unde, he was. This is the
form in which verbs appear in the lexicons of Hebrew and Arabic:
languages of which the bramins are not likely to have heard.
RADICAL FORMS.
The following roots are included in the First conjugation which
contains more than half the verbs in the language.
£>euii to rule, $t»fc to drive, t»«6*>*j to ask, S^sfc t> to tread,
tss&îj to sell, "iOoXota to grow, a£>tf»&fc> to leap, sfcogbij to flame,
a&SSi> to fall, SS-j6*j to play, *6e»K$Aj to speak, ^56 to mount,
■*»jSbii to sing, Wffcfc) to say, ©OotfiAj to walk, SffciJ to hear, S-f&tj
to buy.
The verb §"f3»A> Konuta when it means to buy is Regular : but
when used as a sign of the Middle voice, it is irregular.
Silent Roots.
Mand. ' Flame.' This is the root of sfco«ok mand-uta toflame.
tSr>fJ»«sboSj5a the wood flamed.
Und'. ' Be.' ô{£i> To le, stay, dwell, stop, remain, ^rf^d
7r°ci.e*> he is in the village.
Amm. ' Sell' To sell. e-'aitsaâ she sold it.
A'd. 'Play.' pronounced Ard. «-«o*j To play, M-a^-oaiM-a
7T'& the women danced.
Pa'd. 'Sing: (pronounced pard.) ■^•SbiJ To sing. AtStSx>-ir*&^&
the sang a stanza.
Pad. ' Fall' (pronounced pud) To fall. the
hirdfell.
Po'v. 'Go,' i^Qi) To go. &&&*<x»i$8> the time is past; or
INFINITIVE FORMS. 85
the sun is set. The full form sfr*3«Se>dSo appears only in verse.
Pal. 220. the form s!rS:5ecS» is in use.
At, or Ag. ' Become' **i54>, t9«ot> or ~Z?b To become. w&P
SwaMjSa it became his : it proved to be hi3. The ancient form
wNo is seldom used unless in poetry.
Paitjk, ' Speak,' a&euSotJ To speak. *oaSo£S£S§7r>«& the
doctor (or learned man) spoke.
.KAiitrG. ' Accrue' S"eu?64J To chance, accrue, be, happen. ?#f
v& There is a story. 5"_tf5"e)«b there is an owner.
Note, "êtofc) v. n. To move and weurti&j to be angry are re
gular verbs.
An. ' Say' «(**J To say. e*j»Wjr»j«6 he said so. tsjS^tJ^^
So he told his brother.
Kon. ' Get.' r*j&Jo To get. B-dSgi-isr^Sb he got or bought
a wood.
These forms skoSSio, 6o£SAj &c. being the Infinitive forms
exhibited in the dictionary, the silent roots are Mand, Und, &c.
as now shewn.
INFINITIVE FOKMS.
These are the Infinitive in A as &o& pampa : the Infin. in £ si»
Damu as ôa&fiiic pampadamu: Inf- in *-> TA. as ^>o?g)i> pampu-
ta : Inf. in -£& Evdi as obo wS pampedi. In my Telugu Diction
ary, the Inf. in TA alone is used.
The " Root in A," or " Infinitive in A" is made by changing
the final U of the Root into A. Thus out of the root >6o^) pampu
comes *6oi6 pampa to send, and then by adding Ss» Damu to
this, makes the Inf. in &£x> Damu" »>o^S«fc> pampadamu.
Some grammarians are of opinion that this infinitive ought to
end in t'ffc thus rfio^pfc, TS&tifb pawpanu, caduvanu, or by con
86 PARTICIPLES.
traction tsoi&f-, tj &£r~ pampan, gaduvan, which by a further
contraction become sÔcfe, iJs&sS pampa, gaduva. It appears how
ever reasonable to look upon this NIT or If as an affix not affect
ing the sense. Certain affixes change the sense of the Moot in A.
The letter is also added as "A"*, 15 is£~ir>pampa ga, gadavaga.
This is at pleasure spelled ôS&ot^ *fiei>&a-TC° pampanga, gadu-
vanga. It is also called the adverbial form.
The Inf. in *J TA adds the letter *j to the Eoot ; thus out of
&°^>) comes &o-4)te pamputa : and the Inf. in -53 E'DI changes
the final "Q of the Root into -53 : thus out of &o$) comes a&°
pampedi.
The Infinitives in TA and DAMU are declined as nouns:
Thus ^Jo^Jij is a noun of the third declension : and &o&££n is a
noun of the second declension. Some call them verbal nouns.
ON PARTICIPLES.
The Participles in the affirmative Verb are the present, the
past, the relative and the aorist. I shall use the sign P|| or p|]
for the word Participle. The present p|| is made by adding to
the Root or 8b; thus doty makes ô^)^ or a&o-^So. To
these the affix (out of the auxiliary verb &ot&) is also add
ed: thus sfio^tt)^ pampug-unnu and &oi£)&>&y^pampiit-%mmt
sending. But and being used chiefly in poetry, the
colloquial shapes Si and Sbrfcj. alone are exhibited in the following
pages.
"Verbs that end in *s> T'T'IJ as ' to strike' "S>*»*> ' to
place' S^3*0 ' to revile or abuse' can in the present participle and
past tense change TTU into a&Sb or ; thus r'Cfcgj
or rv& and the past tense §"*438 or or §"*
The past p|| is formed by changing the final U of the Root in
TENSES. 87
to " 0" " I :" thus out of Acid) pampu comes pampi hav
ing sent .
If a verb has three syllables, and the second is short TJ, as t»
«SbXb adugu, (to ask) tfs&î caduvu to read, S&ifc carugu to bite,
Z&fa cariigu to melt ; this U changes into I when the termination
changes into C), S (I, e, e) : this happens in the past p|| the
3d pers. sing, of the past tense, and one aorist p|[. Thus tJSa
cadivi (having read) âdive he read, and KQ"^ e,adive, who
reads.
And these verbs have also the liberty of changing the middle
\) U into «/ a when the final vowel \) of the Root ends in «^ a :
thus iJifcsS gaduva or £T«sS âdava to read.
The Relative participle is formed by adding ^ NA to the past
participle: thus froin<*>o?j pampi having sent comes a>o&j4 pampi-
na that sent.
The aorist participle is derived from the Root either by using
the root itself; or changing the final \) (U) of it into -^5, (e,
eti) or-=>«& or (Sdu, edi) : thus, *o*6); sSJotiô^d, a&c'Sjjo,
Zoloft that sends.
ON TENSES.
The tenses are formed by adding the personal terminations
to the root or else to the present and past participles.
[The following rules on formation, marked with inverted commas
['] in the margin, were framed by a native tutor in the College.
They may perhaps be useful to those who study Telugu in
Europe : these principles may be occasionally referred to when a
doubt arises. Such as read the language in India will seldom
require these rules : which will be easily acquired without being
studied in this method.]
88 " ON TENSES."
' The principal personal terminations in verbs are borrowed
from the pronouns.
' The terminations of the 1 st and 2d persons are these.
' Sing. 1st pers. iS> from "^fS> I, as j£o^ysi fT^ffc I send.
2d P& thou, as © Thou sendest.
Plu. 1st *S» "&>si» we, as "*» We send.
2d & txr>& you, as f5o Tou send.
' But one shape of the past tense changes the \} (U) of these
terminations into £) (I) i. e. fr, <5>, & nu, vu, mu, ru, are
changed into P, a, S ni, vi, mi, ri. Thus *o»,8p I sent, *°
5>03 thou sentest, i£o2>8&> we sent, i6o&88 you sent.
' The Terminations of the 3d person Sing.
' Masc. 26 from and he, this man. For the pres.
tense as <&oi6)lfsTS^«6 he sends ; also for one shape of the past
tense, as aftoSj-âSb he sent and for the negative aorist, as a&orf>«£>
he does not send.
' j3j For one shape of the past tense as *o"S>^£> he sent, and for
the affirmative aorist as <6oe4)j4> he will send.
' p For the future tense, as a&o^&p, Ao~tp.
' Pern, and Neut. S from »S or She or it. For the pres.
tense, as ô^Siiâ she or it sends and for one shape of the past
tense as a&o5>^9 she or it sent.
' j^j For one shape of the past tense, as a&o~2>#> she or it sent
and for the affirmative aorist, as s£)o^)j4> she or it will send.
'P For the future tense, as &o^,&pt a&o^p, 0r a&oip she or it
will send.
' £>0 For the neg. aorist 'as s6o<£a£> or tftcill not send.
'Plural.
' Masc. and Fern. & from ^r»cfi and They, these persons.
For all tenses, as ^c-^JttrJ^S, they send Ao%,tt>& they sent, a&o
"SatS, i6o'wOS) iAey will send, ;6o^5£& send, a&oi6Sc>
" ON TENSES." 89
send not, but one shape of the past tense changes \) (U) into O)
(I) Thus 3&OS.8 They sent.
' Neuter SD from «a and They, these tilings. Eor the pres.
tense as 601^)80^3 they send and for one shape of the past tense,
as jS3 they sent.
' |Sj For one shape of the past tense as ô-^,S> they sent, and
for the affirmative aorist as £o*&)ffc they will send.
' 2 For the future tense as ?6o^5p, aio^f), *oip they will send.
' For the neg. aorist as j6o*^j they will not send.
'These terminations take before them certain intermediate par
ticles to make the affirmative tenses ; and are added either to the
root or to the present and past participles. Thus,
'In the pres. tense —0 a is inserted for the 1st and 2d persons
in the sing, and plu. For the masc. in the 3d pers. sing, and for
the Masc. and fem. in 3d pers. plu. while is inserted for the
fem. and neut. in the 3d pers. sing, and for the neut. in the 3d
pers. plu.
' In the 1st shape of the past tense is inserted for the 1st and
2d pers. sing, and plu. while -=> E^ interposes for the masc. fem.
and neut. in the 3d pers. sing, and for the neut, in the 3d pers.
plu. And in the 2d shape 7** is inserted for the 1st and 2d persons
sing, and plu. and for the masc. in the 3d pers. sing., and for the
masc. and fem. in the 3d pers. plu. while ^ interposes for the
pers. plu.
' In the 1st shape of the future tense -=S E*DA is inserted for
the 1st and 2d persons sing, and plu. and for the masc. and fem.
in the 3d pers. plu. while -=>^ EDI is interposed for the masc.
pers. plu. And in the 2d shape —£ E' is inserted for the 1st and
2d persons in the sing, and plu. and for the masc. and fem. in the
x
90 "ON TENSES."
3d pera. plu. while S or £) (ET) is interposed for all genders in
the 3d pers. plu.
' In the Aorisfc is inserted for the 1st and 2d persons sing,
and plu. and for the masc. and fern, in the 3d pers. plu. But for
the masc. fern, and neut. in the 3d pers. sing, and for the neut.
in the 3d pers. plu. no particles are inserted.
' When these particles are connected with the personal termi
nations, they stand thus :
' Pbesenx Tense.

Sing. Plu.
' 1st pers. —°<& anu 1st pers. —°&> amu
2d —°$ avu 2d —°t6 aru
3d Masc. —°&> adu 3d m. f. —°& aru
3d /. n. tfoP or oS nnadi, 3d n. ?S^p nnavi.
ndi.
The affixes fj^P or oS and iâ are added to the p|| ending in 3&
but not in
'Past Tense.
Sing. Plu.
1 1st pers. 9P or F°fl> 1st pers. QSx> or F»sS»
2d 03 or F*6 2d 98 or fT'OS
3d m. -^>f& enu or jy*i& 3d m. f. 8 or fÔo
3d /. n. (58 or o& 3d n. enu or £3.
'Ftitttee Tense.
Sing. Plu.
' 1st pers. ^p»r& edanu or 1st pers. -oK6» edamu -£*oo
enu emu
" ON TENSES." 91
' Euttjbe Tense.

Sing. Plu.
2d -^ss® or 2d -=>«Bo or
3d »». -=>S p or -£p or £)jt> 3d m.f -=k3o or
3d/. n. -=%p or Sp or S)f) 3d «. -rAp or or
i AOEIST.
Sing. Plu.
' 1st pers. 1st pers.
2d 2d
3d 3d D
3d /. n. 3d
' Impeeatite.
Sing. Plu.
2d pers. 3» or sir1 1st pers. istSx> or "cysfca
2d «o or &.
' The present and past tenses are derived from the present and
past participles ; and the future and the aorist from the root in
U. By adding therefore the affixes to these participles, the affir
mative tenses are regularly made. Thus, from the present parti
ciples a&o^5)gbfS)^ and ô-£)& comes, by adding the affix —°&>
A'NU &c. to them, the present tense *o*y&>TJ"^;fc and
I send. So a&o^ygi^s, £o4)-&>$ thou sendest. s&o^gb
-jr^ss, a&o^J^sb he sends, afco^Sa^S or a&o^sbos she or it
sends &c.
' The final \) U of the present p|| is dropped by elision, when the
affixes —■ i*» A'NU &c. are added to it. Thus *o4)& + &-fr°X
pamputu + unnanu= & o^SbF^. pamput' unnanu. There are
also two other shapes of the present tense as <6oi^tS3(3'°c)/& or i&o
T^srfS) which are not used in the following pages, the one being
92 « ON TENSES "
poetical and the other being vulgar. They are formed by merely
changing ^ ta into csa.
• From the past participle s&oS> comes the past tense, by adding
the affixes ®p or F°fk &e. to it, as «bofc*j6 or a&o5>7r°pk I sent : *o
or «6of?r»© thou sentest : &o^>#> or ^ctTr-JSo he sent &c.
In one shape of the 3d pers. sing. £o~*?St the final £) of the
past p|| is dropped when the affix is added to it. Thus *°2>
makes *o"S)fS>.
« From the root ^ comes the future tense by adding the af
fixes -^>SS|& edanu or —Sfr enu &c to it, thus !6o"S«fS> or i6o^f&
I -will send, ^cfâg or S&o^^j thou wilt send &c. the final \) of
the root being as usual dropt.
' The reader must not confound this word s&o^jffc with E7 long
pampenu with the word ^*o~w#> with E' short pampenu, which is
the 3d pers. sing, of the past tense of this verb.
' By adding the affix «£f& Ac. to the root, the aorist is made : thus
from ô^) comes j6o<^«ij& I WU] send &c. a£»c^JSb^ thou wilt
send &c.
' Out of the two shapes of the future tense, the use of the shape
-oSfk (edanu) *6oljj5;k pampedanu is strictly confined to poetry ;
and the shape (enu) aio^ffa pampenu is seldom used : but
the present tense and the aorist are used instead of the future
tense. Thus instead of ^CS^ they say &oi&)w°&>.
1 From the root Ao^) comes also the affirmative imperative :
either by using simply the root itself or by adding to it the affixes
tSs> or svr» for the 2d pers. sing, as &o?()) or s&o^Jiio or &ot&)txt*
send thou and ss«s» or "wsSn for the 1st pers. plu. as <6c^yeax>
or *o^)-cr'fS» let us send and or & or commonly o<& added to
the Infinitive in A for the 2d pers. plu. as ô^JSo or sS) 036:5 or
ô^'oa send ye.
" ON TENSES." 03
Formation of the Negative Verb.

' The Negative Verb is derived from the Eoot in A, and by add
ing certain affixes to this, the Negative participles, the Verbal
noun, and the aorist with the imperative are formed.
'Thus i£o£ which is the Eoot in A of *o^t> takes the affix
*f K to form the "negative p|| in KA" as *os&5" without sending.
'And to this [the Eoot in A of &ojfc&] is at pleasure
added. Thus 5606? and sSoafcSootf equally mean without sending.
' Likewise the Eoot in A. adds the affixes NI to form the Nog.
rel. p|| and g» Mi to form the verbal noun. Thus atos&p pampani
that did not send, and &o&sx> the not sending.
' In the Negative verb, the aorist is the only tense, and it is
formed simply by adding to the Eoot in A the pronominal affixes
already explained. Thus ;
' Sing. Plu.
1 1st pers. &o&&> 1st pers. a&o<£&a
2d €) 2d *
3d m. «S 3d m. f. <&
3d /. m. & 3d «. ' «
' To form the Negative imperative, (the Prohibitive) the Eoot
in A takes the affixes if Ka or & KU or Kumu or 5is£r»
Kuma or S>&r° Kumee for the 2d pers. sing, as ai'oa&S' or
£io<£2o or 8&o*5osto <6oa&sosSr» or a&oS&SS&r* Send not thou, and
S"o& Kandi or Kudu or &h Kudeefor the 2d pers. plu. as
a&os&S'oa or sboa&sSKS or a&oa&Soci send not ye-
'Elsewhere instead of these forms, the verb sSexs&iiJ is used.
Thus as in the aflir. verb fciStSoaSsSe^jSa means (il fant remettio)
you must send, so in the negative, the verb £vs&> or ssg- may be
added. Thus s6o;6^g> do not send, thou shalt not send.'
The passages here marked with (') inverted commas may be oc
94 FI11ST CONJUGATION.
casionally referred to, if a doubt should arise ; but those who
study iii India will not require these rules.
FIKST CONJUGATION.
Tor the purpose of exhibiting the terminations, the verb &ot£)
pamputa To send will now be conjugated throughout. This
is a regular verb of this conjugation.
Also i5s£$S)4j to read, because it is a verb of three syllables and
undergo some changes in the formation of tenses, as was already
explained.
Also the verbs S>#>*j vinu-ta, To hear §~*ffci> Eonu-ta to buy
and *«ot> padu-ta to fall. These are given because verbs ending
in NU and DU are contracted in a peculiar way.
Also the verb is^^t* povu-ta to go because that has some pecu
liarities. And to these will be added the Irregular Auxiliary
Verbs 6oJ&4j to dwell ; to become ; 5"exKo*J, to occur.
AlFIBMATIVE VeBB.
Infinitive in TA a&o^k To send.
Infinitive in A )6crtfi
Infinitive in Damu ;6oi6£jS»
Infinitive in EVDI *°^s.
Pabticiples.
Pres. pH s&o^jjao or S&oâ&iSyL Sending
Past p|| Having sent
Eel. p|| *°*>iS Which sent
Aorist p|| «, s£ot.t3, a&ot,s& or ôsjS, a&o^J Which sends.
FIRST CONJUGATION. 95
NEGATIVE PARTICIPLES.
Negative P|| in §" Ka &o&$ "Without sending
Rel. p|| a&oafep "Who sends not
Verbal noun oj6s» The not sending.
Peeseht Tense.* I send, I am sending.
Sing. 1 a&o^y&i^-i-fli, a&o^^-i- ja*
2 ô^Jsap^S, &ot4z)w$.
3 m. afco^goi^jSb, *o<4) sT'Sb.
Plu. 1 ôc^gb-pr^sko, *o^J)

2 Aoi4)&fJ*J&, i6o4)^"*.
3 m. /. 8&o^)So pTÔo, :6o»6)-(5'J6.
3 ». a&c^SojSjS), *o4)Sa.
Here we perceive that the verb &o4fc ia added, as in English
' to be' is added to all verbs.
The Present Tense has two forms: the longer, ô^gSpj-^ffc,
pamput imnanu is 1 1 send, I am sending.' But the shorter form
ô^J^fSj pamputanu is used with afuture sense : as in English
" I send it to-morrow." This rule applies to all verbs-
The final syllable NU (££>) is in all the tenses dropped at plea
sure : Even the letter a (vi) which terminates the 2d person sing
ular is frequently dropped: thus M. 1. 1. 174, where ^3 is
written for *5f>S».
Throughout the verb the mark -t- denotes that the final sylla
ble NI or NU is frequently dropt. Thus in Greek the final N is
often dropt, and tan or tanv, tvvnrt or iwtirtv may be used at the
poet's pleasure.
Observe: in speaking Telugu, the final V (VTJ or VI) is often
(vulgarly) slurred. Thus ^PîS unnavu, unnavi, Sotoj^p
vintunnavi, 3o4jS vintavi, ttfia&Q vinuduvu, 0^53) vinavu are
often pronounced soft, thus ; unna'u, unna'i, vintunua'i, vinta'i,
vinudu'u, vina'u. But this is not elegant.
• In the following pages numerals are used to denote the first, second, and
third persons.
<M FIKST CONJUGATION
Past Tense. I sent, I have sent.

Sing. 1
2
3 in-
3 f. n.
Plu. 1
2
3 m. f.
3 n.
Futtjbe
FuTTJB Tense. I will or shall send
Sing. 1
2
3 m. f. n
Plu. 1
2
3 m. f.
3 n.
AORIST.
Affirmative. I send. Negative. ' I send not.
S. 1 s&o^y«b + is> S. 1 rtoa&fk
2 S&O^SjsSb^j 2 S&oa&iS
3 m. f. n. <6oig)fi> 3 »». S&oa&iSa*
P. 1 «&0^)sS:s£o 3 /• ». 3&03&2S)
2 afco^jjfiSbso P. 1 «6oi6s3Jo
3 m. /. ^câbBo 2 8&0(6Sj
3 M. S&o^ffc. 3 TO. /. ^&oj6csS
3 11. a&osS^).
* This has the liberty of inserting N (for the sake of metre) before «S, Thus
)6o<&oj£ he sends not. In Bhasc. Sat. XII. raetri gratia r&»r,^SJb is
spelt S"e»g"*i$0'3
TO SEND ; TO HEAD. 97
Impeeativi.
Sing. 2 a&o^t), s6ot4)s4o§, a6o^)sSr>§; &o-4)Sx§, ôÔy send thou
2 a&oa&oft, «&oT^)dfc§, *oôifc§ rio^&g, a&o4)&§.

PfiOHIBITIVB.
Sing. 2 Aca&f, a&oa&So, a&oa&SS ss»§, «&oi6S5KKr»§, a&oj&Soor»§.
Send not thou.
Plu. 2 s&oa&foSg, a&oa&SSSa, a&oa&Sooao, <6o<6So^§,
Courtesy requires, as in English, the use of the plural Impera
tive instead of the singular. But in prayer and addresses to the
deity, they generally use the singular shape alone.
Those persons that end in N, (whether ni or nu) drop this ter
mination at pleasure. This is denoted by the mark + , as i6o^S;«£>
The mark § is added to such shapes as are peculiar to poets.

The sigu [ ] denotes such as are inelegant-
Infinitive in TA iJ«Sb(S*j To read.

Infinitive in A ■ETd&sS
Infinitive in Damu
Infinitive in EVDI
Affiematiye Pabticiples.
Present pj| tJc£gj£> or "ET f%L reading
Past p|| iJSa having read
Kel. p|j t5£>B(S which read
Aorist p|| ija~3,iJS"343)i5ft'13&§,tfffl"3J£§)tf which reads.
IT
98 FIRST CONJUGATION.
Negative Paeticiples.
Neg. P|J in §" Ka aisSr, or CaforfSSo-w Without reading
Neg. Rel. P|| CJfcsSp "Who reads not
Neg. Verbal Noun iSt&>£s» The not reading.
Peesent Tense. I do read, I am reading.

Sing. 1 «'fi£>5Sj«&7r^>L+ jai, TS&$w + ;S>
3 m. tr«&$«a-p'<^Sc), \S
3 /. n. tfafcSSoâ, eSbSSoo© [tf^j-^s]
Plu. 1 iJjSi^jSofJ^Sc, iS&QWSZa
3 «. tftfâSrâ, -ETs&sea.
Past Tense. I did read : I have read.

Sing. 1 C&aO + jD, tJ83-p»+j8», [tfasr»+fJi]
2 «aas+a, tfaa(T°i$ [«©sr»©]
3 . m. ■55a-3 + (3», xSSt>cT°l& [iSasT'Si]
3 f. n. ca^, tfaaiSa, tfaaoa
pju> i caa8s», •ijaa-p'sSo, [«a-5T»js»]
2 traase, «aa?r»8a) [craves]
3 <», /. tfaae, # aaF°& [«a*r»BS]
3 n. tfe"3jai, waaâ.
Futube Tense. I will or shall read.

Sing. 1 tfa"3« + ffc§, ija"3j&
2 tfa-3«^§, K&~$$>
TO BEAD. 99
Futube Tense. I will or shall read.
3 m. f. «a"3«cd§> <sS~£&
3 n. «a"2a|6§, C6"3p, ua£>n>.
AOEIST.
Affirmative. I read. Negative. I read not.
S. 1 S. 1 ■t5«c:S + fS>
2 2
3 OT./. «. 3 m.
Flu. 1 3 f. n. ' iSsSbs5a£>
Plu. 1 ■?5CSbs5sSbo
2
3 OT. / 2
3 n. 3 m. f.
3 ft. •i5<&:SiS.
Imjebative. Read thou.

Sing. 2 trsfcig), tf&$^§, tf&^s^§, w^^g, iJs»?gjox.§
Plu. 1 -0«&^)«!S», tf«S>Jg)T3*sSx>
2 tJS&sSoS, iJs£gjJfc§, sSb^joKcg, iy«£i65§, tf«b©&§.
Pbohibitive. Bead not thou.

Sing. 2 ■iJs&sSS', iJsfcsS&S, trefc:SSojSao§, tTaSb:5SSs£j*§, i5&^S5si^>§.
Plu. 2 Ue&^g'oS, tJiSbsSScaog, ifcsS&oafcg, tfc>b;Sgo&§.
Yerbs ending in JflS, NTJ such as 3ffci> to hear, 6"i&i> to buy,

©;S)4j to eat, and tSffck to say, form their present p|| in the usual
way by adding *b ; as a,3>aa ; or by changing the f& into O
sunna as S>oH>, Or when they take they change into
cSa as Sola. Likewise in the past tense aj&Op becomes aoASp.
In the affirmative aorist affcsfcffa becomes aos&ffc. In the 2d and
3d person plural aj&<&& becomes £>os&5> or &o\&> ■ vulgarly a°#)-
Ilere the soft D changes into hard D. The form o\ifc is used on
ly in poetry. Thus wolao. M. XIV. 2. 94. and 2. 169.
Some grammarians direct us to write these verbs with ^ N, not
with O. Thus aotfc becomes But this.is a refinement ap
proved only by grammarians ; not by the people at large.
The verbs to hear, « ffa^ to go, a&«6*-> to fall, ^Scij
to be spoiled, tfxo&j to fit, to descend &c. change at pleasure
the affix -= into in forming thepast and future tenses.
Thus a"j3fS> or aPaoi*; and a?«i& or ajSo&ssfSo. And they have
also the liberty of being contracted in the relative participle- Thus
3PiS or SjS^., *&fS or and or Many verbs ending
in £jj NTJ and £&) DU (as mentioned above) contract the second
shape of the past tense. Thus apF*fk becomes aF^.?k, d&Tftb
becomes BT**fS>.
Infinitive in TA ajS>*j To hear.

Infinitive in A SfS
Infinitive in DAMU 3;5£«s»
Infinitive in E*DI a"?Sa.
Affibmative Participles.
Pres. p|| So*" or aotojS>^ Hearing
Past p|| ap Having heard
Eel. p|| apj$ or OjSj, "Which heard
Aorist p|| tf, aîS, S?a§, 2>i*>§ Which hears.
TO HEAR. 101
Negative Pauticipies.
Neg. P|| in Jf Ka ajS5io-G»» "Without hearing
Eel. p|| Who hears not
Arerbal noun ajSSj The not hearing.
Pbesent Tense. I hear, I am hearing.

Sing. 1 acfexiF^ ao&r»-f-fJ*
3 m. acto-jsâSj ao&r>4Sb
3 / n aokojâ, actooa [6o4j»fc]
Plu. 1 Soto jr^sfco, acdj>6»
2 ao&o-jj'jjSo, B0Ar»c6
3 w». /. ao^Tir^po, ao&nJfi
3 «. aotoâ aoi>a.
Past Tense. I heard, I have heard.

Sing. 1 aots + p, a^+,s>
2 ac*sa, a?r^gj
3 m. sis+fr, apoaj + isfc, aâs
3 /. n. a73/&, apok§-f-i&, aj&a, apiSO, apoa
Plu. 1 ao*3&>, a-ja^&o
2 a o438, aF^L*
3 m.f. ape, air^fij
3 «. aP(5a, aâ.
The form Sp6»>, S^paa in the third person singular is peculiar
to poetry.
Note. Cfkk to go and sfcf&ti to lire never use the form tfctfp
«&o4Sp.
FtrxuBE Tense. I will or shall hear.

Sing. 1 a"â + j3»§, sf>S3a + ja>§, a"^fS>
2 »"?««§, apofcaiSSj, aiS©
3 m.f. n. a"j3&jt)§, a»6&>&p§, &~$p} a|bja
Plu. 1 a"ê&n§, apoajasfao§, a"j§t&»
2 3"^«Sd§, aj06fc>esoo§, a"ôS
3 m.f. a"?«&§, apsfciHBog, a"^c&
3 ». aâpg, a»6ai&p§, a"^», a^p.
AOEIST.
Affirmative. I hear. Negative. I hear not.
1 a.&ssb + i&g, aos&+ # S. 1 »<5f£»
2 3i&afi;£§, aojSb^j 2 a;S#
3 »». y! n. &j&& 3 «». a£<&b
1 Si& «£:&>§, Sosfcsia 3 /. n. a^4&
2 ar&efeSbg, 30fi>b0o P. 1 a;Sss»
3 m.f. a^j&cfig, sjoj&oo 2 ajsos
3 n. Oj&Jfc. 3 *»./. ajSSo
3 ».
Imfebatiye. Hear thou.

Sing. 2 a,&, ai&ssx>§, aja>sSr>§ a^>ao§, aj&&r»§(
Plu. 1 arS>tfsS»§, 30KsSv>§, SOTS'sSm,
2 ajioS, aj&so^ afj>oa§, a,a>a§* afs>a§.
Pbohibitive. Hear not thou.

Sing. 2 ajss", a^ss, ajiSosfeg, ajSSs&'g, a^sosxp-g
Plu. 2 ajStfoft, afSSSj&g, ajSSSoaafj, ajS55&§,
s?&4j Sometimes forms the Imperative irregularly. Thus ; aoafc
or ajkoJSb.
* Thus in Palnati, D. 361 sSx*§3e>s&»zr>8s£>tr»sSbeM3 i&&
TO TAKE. 103
Infinitive in TA *"" r*>*J To take, buy
Infinitive in A B~*iS To take
Infinitive in DAMU F*$Z&o Taking
Infinitive in E^DI r*-|§a Taking n. s.
Affirmaute Participles.
Pres. pH ^°4» or r'ofcojfc^ Taking
Past p|l S~P Having taken
Eel. pH rptwrfa ■ "Who took
Aorist p|| SfjS, B^*, **?»§, **?*§, *"*%, Taking.
Neqatiye Participles.
Neg. p|| in *" Ka V0, r'ji&oTS' "Without taking
Eel. p|| ^tfP Not takinS
Verbal noun ^*V> The not taking.
Present Tense. I take.

Sing. 1 e™°^7^<i.+ ■&. §"°<W i*
2 r'o&xcjr^S), rTo&r»$
3 /. «. ôî^L6, §"o&»ca
Plu. 1 BT*c4»,p^&o r*o&r>sS»
3 m.f. r'oto'P^Jfi, r-ofcr-So

3 «. Bfo&Oj^p, r'ofcS.
Past Tense. I took.

Sing. 1 . ""•oa+p, r-pTJ* + ffo§, ST-F-jL+f6
2 r'o43s>,;r'ia7r'«§) §"7^
3 m. §^?iS», ^Ppf «=§, ^F^>
3 /. n. srî*, ^PrSe§, ^P°a, ^^
104 FIEST CONJUGATION'.
Past Tense I took.

Plu. 1 r-ocsto, r-ja-prsfcafj, §- 73^55x1
3 »»./ §~f>8, 6"P(ir>eo§, r-pâo

3 ». rapj6Jr'|»ji»§,r*gft.
Future Tense. I shall take.

Sing. 1 r'-^js + ffcg, ^psfc «+;&§, S"7§f&
2 r»"?£S«§, r'poaos^s,
3 «•./.». ^?af>§, r*ps>a|t>§, r^p, g-£>p
Plu. 1 s-^bsss^, r'jDajjssSog, r'-^sio
2 r*^« 8o§, r'p&js&g, r°"^cS)
Z m. f. r^ss&g, r*p6fc>sas§, r^ss
3 «. r*-j3ap§, s-patoap§, r*7§p 0r §~pp.
AORIST.
Affirmative. I take. Negative. I take not.
S. I S. 1 r*;Sj&
2 §-(S©
3 m.f. n. ^«s>jS> 3 m. r*j$asb
P. 1 §"*?fci5bs£o§, r'oSSbsSa 3/. n. SîS«b
2 r'ofifccsj or r"oi«s>§ p. i r*jSsS53
3 m. f. r'j&jfcKSij, r'oa&SS or §ô^>§ 2 S~jS0o
3 «. r*i&(S>. 3 m.f. S-iicfi
3 n. 6^3.
Imperative. Take thou.

Sing. 2 r'ffc, r"jass»§, §^fs>^§, r-jS)&n>§
Plu. 1 §^^>h«s»§( r°o«sSv>§, r'o-cr-feD
2 (Soft, r- r>o§s&, r*fs,5.
TO SEND. 105
Peohibitive. Take not.
Sing. 2 r-jSSostog, r"jS5;s&p>§, r*;S£&r°§
Plu. 2 r^foS, r*jSKa&§, r*i6SSoa5>§, r^ssf^.
The verb r*;S>4j as the sign of the middle voice deviates some
what from the regular verb i""ffc*j to take or buy. The middle
voice is thus conjugated. The irregular portions are marked fHf3
But in the middle voice this verb is often written 33&k> kunuta
instead of $~°t&>&> konuta.
Genebal Note. In all verba it is hard to express the Infini
tives and Participles in English, without misleading the learner.
The true import is explained in the Syntax.
Infinitive in TA a&o4!6~j&k v. a. To send

Infinitive in A &* S&o^r5, aSo^r^g
Infinitive in DAMU 0* Ao&F*^^ Ao&srfX sSxg
Infinitive in E'DI ofa r> -j5 S.
Affikmative Paeticiples.
Pres. p|| a&oîr'cto, «&o^yr*o&oi% Sending
Past p|| aSo-^r-p Having sent
Eel. p || a&o^r* ?>?!§, a&o^y§"?s^ Who sent
Aorist p|| *o4)<r% iMyr^tf, *G^r»-pa§, tto^r*?^
*o^)§~j&§ Sending.
Neg. pt| in f Ka i6o^)r"j$S§, a&o^jr'r "Without sending
Neg. Rel- p|j a&o^r'jSpg, j}^- Ao&^P Un-sending
Neg. Verbal noun *o^r*i5ao§, £f a&oê^sa The not sending.
IOC FIBST CONJUGATION.
Present tense. I send.

Sing, 1 ô^jr'oix) 73^-1- i&; iioîr'o&r'f
3 m. s&o^jrôîsr^So, 86o^)r*oi^>sS>
3 /. w. a&o^yr-o&afâ, a&o^)r°ot»oa
Plu. 1 *o^r"oto7raj6», a&oi^)§ô&r»sS>D
2 s6o^jr*ct»7J^Lc6> rio^s-o^tf,
3 m. f. «6o^)§ôi>3i^tSo, *o^r,'o&r>ao
3 n. >6o^)rBo4»ifrll>, *o^r"oi>a.
Past tense. I sent.

Sing. 1 ô^r'oiS + p, a6o^)r"jT^L+fji
3 m. ôê^ + ^rio^yr' pa. + ?«>§, a&o^s-jj^,

3/ n. Ao^r-^-j.^ ô^ji-poao-i-^g, a&o^jg-pêg,
Plu. 1 nboî-oiSao, «6o^j§-f?^Ljsa

2 *&o^yr*o639, «5o^8-|ar»v(fi
3 m.f. ô^r'jDd, j6o^jr*7rjjaa
3 n. a&o^)r«-pj6> 86o^)8-»piJa§, afio^jr'jSja,
Future Tense. I shall send.

Sing. 1 *o^)r>-^js+j&§) «&oi4)8~j&»}«+j(&§) a6o^r*
2 ô^)r«^«se§, 86o^)s-jbajK©§, *o^)r"g$
^r*pp
Plu. 1 *o^)r»?«5«S«§)»5o^r'po3jes«i»§, s&o^r'lSs&o
3 m./ a&oi^r*^ ««■>§, *o^jr»)b8S»eg?3»§, a6o^>r*^(fe§

TO SEND. 10?
AOKIST.
Affirmative. I send. Negative. I send not.
*ot& §"■>«<>.{.?£>§, S. 1
1
2 2
3 m.f. n 3
1 83- afeoT^r*^
3 /; „. s&o^r*jSsfc§,
2 83- *o^r*sS)
P. 1
ft- afao^r*^
3 m.f 2
83- a&o^6"£es
3
3 n. 83- a&o^r**
3
03- *o^r*«.
Imperative.
Sing. 2 ô^r*, (j^-*o^)§-^§, a&o^rîj,
ccj. a&o^r*^, a&o4)§î*sSKi§, a&o^yr'i&sSr^, a&o
Plu. 1 *o^)r*ojssS», a6o^jr°oT3'sS», ai)o^)r,'f£)BjS»§)
2 (J3- a&o^)r*oS, 83" *o^r*oa, a6o^)§-'oBb§)
Peoiiibitive.
Sing. 2 ®° ô^r^r, p- *o4)r£«6, i6o^jr<S56»§,
03* tfo^r^goifc^, Kf" «&o^r*So&r», Or else,
108 PIEST CONJUGATION.
«§, ^p" a&o^r'ssa. Or else,

«So^jr°i5§'oa, sfco^g-^SoaSi^ a6o^)r°i5a5oJSc§, a&oi&
r*
When ?£> ia added, contraction sometimes is allowed ;
tf^csSiiS^'p having sat may become &-°6"^p but this is vulgar.
If a verb ending in NU is in the middle voice the k is doubled :

thus ?,&|^f&k> to view from 5"ffc*J to see ; r&k> to purchase
from S"°pfct> to buy, yet in some other verbs it is left single ; thus
3i&r*jS)4j from to hear.
The past negative tense of has two forms, of which one
is contracted, viz. r^îfc and S^^te. The longer r^jSâS) i8 I
(thou, he, &c.) did not buy. The shorter is the middle form as '
e^r^flfe I (thou he, &c.) did not sell.
But the longer form w^S-jS^sfc i8 also admissible. Thus in
the notes on the Bhascara Satacam § 41. ^*j:S»S'^>§^;5"S4S) he
did not crown himself.
The form e>fe=r(JH!^>;!fc is used for ««Sv(r'pdr*asiS> and 4)H>^
rsôkpfc for ^Ji^r'^^SJi*. See the Syntax of the Past P||
in UKA.
Infinitive in TA *Sb4j To fall.

Infinitive in A
Infinitive in DAMU The falling
Infinitive in EVDI *&"Se Falling.
TO FALL. 109
Aefiemative Participles-
Pres. p|j afcifc& or ^^«o<3£l[*$] Falling
Past p|| Having fallen
Eel. p|| a&aj6 or *g Which fell
Aorist p|| 6^43, si'Sag, 6-3jSo§, 3&i£>§ Which falls.
Negative Participles.
Neg. P|| inS" KA *S&o-ra» Without falling
Neg. Eel. pll &&T> Un-falling
Neg. Verbal noun sx> The not falling-
Pbesent Tense. I fall, I am falling.

Sing. 1 )6«c)8bTT*j_4 fS>, ^«i^4-fS>, afc7p-f-i&
Pla. 1 £So8b r^jSM, s&i£>^'j£o> 3&jrptSxi
Past Tense. I fell.

Sing. 1 &&8 + p,&?ifr° + &>> d-arfr
Plu. 1 a&aSao, aba-?r»^») sSrpjio

Future Tense. I will or shall fall.

ing. 1
2
3 »s. /. n
lu. 1
2
3 m. f.
3 n. ^"sap§, i6aâf>§, aieSp, a&ap.
AOEIST.
Affirmative. I fall. Negative. I fall not.
S. 1 afc3o&-|- j5> S I *&p»
2 Sjfeffib^ 2 8&»$
3 m. f. n. i££bj& 3 m. *£S3
P. 1 a6«6SbsS» 3 f. n. *S«S>
2 S&JioÔJ, P 1 a&<5tf»
3 m. f. ab«oesbcs5 2 a&SOo
3 n. S&Sfcfi> 3 m. f. 8&JJ05
3 n.
Imperative- Fall thou, &c.

Sing. 2 8&«o, a&SbsSxg, a&dfcsfo»§ «&&*»,§
Plu. 1 afca&asSw, a&jjs-cj»ji»
2 a&Soa, at«aiSo§, a&asoab^ s&«ba§.
Prohibitive. Fall not thou.

Sing. 2 a&sr, a&sso, a&asSsfoog, !J6aSol&.§) j6«So&r°§
Plu. 2 a6a?oa, «&sss«s§; s&asssoiso^ a6asoa§.
When s&«oAj is compounded with a noun ending in «S», that
TO GO. Ill
syllable ia usually dropped. Thus <r«*6*» fear. srcsS^Sbij to fear.
e5-?"^tfgsS» surprize. ftS-^ffgabefcej to be surprized.
Infinitive in#TA sfr*êj povu-ta, to go.*

Infinitive in A or sfr*!$
Infinitive in DAMU ri^StfsSo
Infinitive in E^DI 3*oSogO.
AFFIRMATIVE PARTICIPLES.
Pres. pH sfr^So or d^&ffc^ Going
Past p|| sfr^QM Having gone
Rel. p|| 6*om;S Which went
Aorist p|| ô^giS, S*5a3g&§, ;Jr»6fc>§«o§, *«^§
"Which goes.
Neoatite Pabticiples.
Neg. P|| in g' Ka or d*5$oT3* "Without going
Neg. Eel. p|| Who goes not, Un-going
Neg. Yerbal noun &*Zx> The not going.
Present Tense, I go, I am going.

Sing. 1 &*&jr°c^+frj sH^ + ffcf
2 S^SbpT^^ ^-^^
3 «j. ^Sb-fâo, ^*-aâo
• This verb is sometimes pronounced : and accordingly belongs

to the 3d Conjugation. This is an ancient form. But in modern days it is
considered obsolete and is avoided by educated persons.
t The folio-wing instances are found in various poems. ^^■Efo,pr»>j£$Sj
DRAyo. 384. gOoSo-Bo-pr^S^ D. B. Y. 2248. S" -jT^tfsSM "ive have seen
SpT^SiSn we have heard. B. VIII. 445-
Plu. 1 sb*8o7T^sS», ir«ytf»
3 m. f. d^Sa-FTîS), sJrâS
3 n. [**W0.]
Past Tense. I went, I have gone.

Sing. 1 &*d+p, ôajpT" ir«oco3 + p§
3 /. «. 3"*gk + pfcj-. d*ooujSO,d<a»oO.

Plu. 1 6*830, SôMfTosSM, 6*cx»8SXi§
3 m. f. S^txwS, 6«oxi-fT»Sii
8 n. ^SiiSi, (frSaujiB.
Futube Tense. I will or shall go.

Sing. 1 i£r«ok>tf + ^>§, s5rôgiS>
2 jJr668j«5S§,
I «. /. a. 3"*5fc>ap§, &°&>£pt fr>atr'£P
Plu. 1 £H;ofc>asS»§, sS*6l>£ss»
3 n. Sr*6&>4|i>§, ir^jgp, sSrcoo-'^p.
• At the town ef Madras this vert is often misproneuneed. For j^*aa'^»

t£> becomes sgr° ^fT»afo a vulgarism that should be shuBned. Another error
in pronunciation is, that N is dropped : thus poinadu becomes po-i-adu.
t It has been printed out in the alphabet that osi ya and c^> ye are often
wrongly sounded and written for one another. Thus &TeS&>j3> poenu is written
poyauu and even ■d-»6Siffc and -^c5j.
TO GO. 113
AOEIST
Affirmative. I go. Negative. I go not.
S. i + 6*iSsSb + ia>§ S. 1 £«j6,;*«sSj*§
2 sir6^, £*sS$§
3 m.f. n. 3 #». d*iS>, si^ss^fj, or
P, 1 îSblSB, ^r€$iSo&=§ 3 /. ». siT'eS), 6*:S5S>§.

P. 1 dîto,
2 d«Oo, ^6sS3o§
3 n. £r*(&, d^^fSog. 3 >n.y. s^cfe, sîSeftg
3 n. ^6^)
Imperative. Go thou.
Sing. 2 s^^, 3"»»&^§, s^^§, ^^^»§,
Plu. 1 d-6-cj,,«s», sJr*g)Ksi)3§
Peohibitite. Go thou not.

Sing. 2 sJr*&, d*S5sS»§, ir'So^, d-*Sofcr.§ (or d*Soa)t
Plu. 2 sfrôS, d*95ab§, s^&ossog, d^56&§.
Verbs in any double consonant (V among the rest) as r5^^
navv-uta, To laugh, *^*> tavv-uta to dig, S""^*3 covv-uta to be
come fat are entirely regular. But those in single V as d^^jij
povuta to go, ^€)eJ avuta to become, vary in a peculiar manner.
Of these forms the Infinitive in Damu, thus ; ~S"°sS# sio.
* A few words as irslStSxi,irt'cr'sSxs1 (let us go, come along) are considered

irregular ; as mere exclamations.
t The form 4rs&~§, pokuve, Oh go not ! (intensive) occurs in the Bhagavat,
VIII. 474, when Siva uses the word in addressing.Mohini.
414 FIEST CONJUGATION.
The irregular verb &o&ti To ' Be, dwell, stay' enters into
the composition of all other verbs (just as in English) and there
fore will be given here throughout.
Infinitive in TA 6o«fcej To be; being
Infinitive in A &o&
Infinitive in DAMU 6oE#sS» The being
Infinitive in E*DI <&câ.
Affirmative Participles.
Pres. p|| ôfco, Grckafb^ Being
Past p|| Having been
Eel. p|| &o&jS Which was
Aorist p|| <&o"3, SoUg, ô3jsb§, &o"B&§, 6o«b§
Which is.
Negative Pabticiples.
Neg. P|| in 3" Ka &otfr 0r 6o£55o-i5° Without being
Neg. Rel. p[| &o&p Who is not
Neg. Verbal noun <6ojJ£o The not being.
Present Tense. I am, I dwell, I stay.

Sing. 1 ôfcoF^-j-pi, 6ofcro-t-fS»
3 m. ôfcopr^*, &o&r>JSS
3 f. n. ôka^^S), &o4»oa.
Plu. 1 &Ofc»rT^jSK>, &0&r»!S»
3 m.f. ô&mTTÔo, &c&r>&

3 n. ^ctxijSâ, 6to*j3.
Some poetical forms, are found in all the conjugations. These
are, in the Present Tense, ôfoaTâ-f pMstay, ô&»p^[email protected]
stayest, ôfo3pr^S:S» we stay. And in the Past Tense &P^?* +
<s> and ô5(j,,S + fS> I dwelt. ô^fTQ^x, 6p^ffsS» we stayed.
TO BE, DWELL, STAT. 115
There are some other forms of this which are more or less vul
gar: such as ôfeft, &o&r»S, ô&OfT^S, &oSS, ô~cs°8s, &o
ferO, ^F'cJ?, ^F^J?. And, in every person, we sometimes
meet with the inelegant contraction &otz*&)> ô^sS and 60
35*«o &c.
The following is used both in the present and past tenses.
Sing. Plu.
3 ot. ^pr^sS 3 ?»./. *7^>

3 m f. 3 n. *l*jp.
Some of these numerous forms bear idiomatic senses : the form
most contracted ©f^j*, ©fr0^), ©ifj? often has aâsi sense.
So in English '• he is gone" has a past import. The form in *j»
aa $&o&r°rS> often has afuture import : so in English "he comes
to-morrow," or it denotes continuance as t*Saer*^,o&r.oo "they
Jtoc/Z in the forest, but er* © -js^jfi merely denotes they <rre
in the wood."
Past Tense. I was.
Sing. 1 efcoaa -f- jt>*§, i&oiS + jB, ôa-jy-j-jSi
3 /. n. &o~s -f-js>, ôa^se, *oSoa
* Some forms of the Past Tense are peculiar to poetry. Thus $5)0&& JO 1 was,
$)0?ih$ undittvu (not fea) thou wast, £T&%$& ' She wore' is written
ajidtiiii^dfta in M. 11. 142.
t This form &oaQ2> if put as a question would be &0&8sr». But in
poems flea's is substituted. Thus d*6sr» becomes sJ"*"3 didst thou go ?
s!T°9j!j8'sr»j sJ*S^1} Suca. 3. 276. This contraction is used in no other
person or tense.
This is often used by poets : but condemned by criticks as vulgar. Thus
in English '" btest thou" is considered a vulgar form of ' If thou be and yet tho
l>est poets use it. In all languages some forms are in course of time laid aside
by the educated but retained by the vulgar.
11G FIRST CONJUGATION.
Flu. i Ao&s£o§, 60*220, ô&^sfc)

2 <&o&oe§, &o4se( &o8fr>oo
3 m. f. (&0&8, &o&jr°&j &o\h q. v.
3 «. 6o'Sfli) 6o5iS3.
Future Tense. I shall stay.

Sing. 1 ôTSb + js,^ efeo'Sjai
2 6o'34$^)§, 6ol£$
3 m.f.n. ô3&|D§)* 6o^jO; <feo!i|t>
Plu. 1 6o'5sri»§, 6o?SsS»
2 6o'3«oo§; &o"^83
3 n. ^ro'aajo^, &o"Sj6; &oh?.
AORIST.
Affirmative. 1 may be. Negative. I shall not stay.
S. 1
2 (feoJSbsSoiS^ &otfb§ 2
3 m. f. n. 6oSS;si 3 m
P. 1 6o«o«os&:§,6osfc«iK> 3 f. n &0&2&, "£«£>
2 ôSoKoSS^ i&osSciKS, P. 1
<3ot«b§ 2 6o58o, "€Co

3 «i./. &c«o«iBo§, &osfcoo, 3 m. f. dioSSo, "e5g5
&oi«b§ 3
3 n. ôafcffc.
These two forms have different meanings. &ot£ i& is ' I will
not stay.' It generally has a future sense. But ~i&> implies ' I
was not,' and generally has a past sense : Piaffe denotes "I
was not here yesterday."
• Thus in Pal. 227. r"lS> he perhaps will smite. £*£>£SeS\jD beau

ty perhaps will fail.
TO BECOME. 117
Imperative. Remain thou.

Sing. 2 &oJfcs&:§, ôifesS^j, ^CJJbSo^ fcoaStcr^
The termination UMU as in &oifc«s» js often changed into

AMA. Thus <&o#s&p'3S)^7r>j£> he said Bemain here : the origi
nal form being €>os£>s*p &c. So ~£dS>&p instead of "^coooafcp.
Prohibitive. Stay not thou.
Sing. 2 ôSS"*, efeoeJSo, ôSSoiSMg, <&oasojir.§ ôii55sjr»§,
piu. 2 ôaroa, (Sogsos^ ôasocisbg, &o£ssa§.
Infinitive in TA Vtj, w&sof exoe.-§ To BECOME.

Infinitive in A "5-°
Infinitive in DAMU -r"SSsSi)D The becoming
Infinitive in EVDI That which becomes.
Pres. p|| or wsy&jd^ Becoming
Past p|| Having become
Rel. p|| «a«iS Which became
Aorist p|| w^g, Wo&>§*3, fc9ofc£«b§ or »a^S§,
Which becomes.
Neg. P|| in * Ka "3"°*' or t»£otz* Without becoming
Neg. Rel. p|| "*"*?> Who becomes not
Neg. Verbal noun "S~"Jv> The not becoming.
• The forms ôH~W, <&oSSj-») ôaSoT»') &0&$ch are in com
mon use as intensives; ' remain not thou, stay not ye.'
t The ancient form tstoti is seldom used unless in poetry. fcS^SjeJ is at
pleasure written 17ej auta : but either way it is pronounced o-u ta resembling
the English word outer.
118 FIKST CONJUGATION.
Pbesent Tense. I shall or will become, I am becoming-
Sing. 1 «£)&TJU+is>, «$^* + j*>
2 w^So-pîg),
3 m. e^t&Fjjifc, w^j-yiao
3 /. n. e^sajê, w^sioe
Flu. 1 e^B&Fâa, e^B-jSn
3 m. /. «$&7^«j,
Past Tense. I became.

Sing. 1 tSocufc + JD, »oi5fx»4-;6
3 »». ftS-SsiS), wskg + j5>§|, ea»7P>JSo
Plu. 1 WomSs*,, fcSox>pr*!£o
3 «»•/. «ooo6, «o»7P>CSo j"t5o»g8]

3 n. ej-oBa-fjSa, WcxmjSS, [W3MfT»a] or
In this Tense we see the principle so frequently occurring that

a short vowel followed by a double consonant is equivalent to a
long. Thus 63-^> ' aye' or ' a-ye' is the same as ' ayye,' which
last is chiefly used in poetry.
* The final a b often dropt particularly in verse; as ^08 afflN©
f (MB.* is vulgarly written©-,** which is wrong. And in careless talk-

mj the m.ddle N is oftenomitted. Thus ^fi^^did you see it is pronoun
7sZ^' 01 6Ven^ê- S° «^*> he become*
TO BECOME. 119
Eutuee Tense. I will or shall become.

Sing. 1 Wft"g«+f&§» OE%*
2 W6fcgse§f wc&§$
3 m. f. n. «5&§&p§, »£&§?>, Woan-^p
Plu. 1 t958»3««to§, »&§iSa
2 fc9aag«ao§, e^gOo
3 ot. /. t^saCofj, ec&^SS
3 n. W63og&|t>§, »o&5gp, «o»r-^p.
AORIST.
Affirmative. I will become. Negative. I shall not become.
S. i «£)<&> + ?£> S. 1
2 »£)&$ 2
Zm.f.n. »«J6 3
P. 1 3 /. n.
2 P. 1
3 2
3 3 m.f. ■5-»0o
3
There is a poetical form fcJtosfcffc Ac.
There is a rude inelegant form «=$sk>, instead of T»«6, and
fcssSKb for"^^.
Impeeative. Become thou.
Sing. 2 -v, *«^§, *«*2*§, *!$§> rg^§. «*>*»§
Plu. 1 W£)«SfaO, W^T^sto
2 ro&, rc&, ro^§, [-r-oa.]
Peohibitive. Become not thou.

Sing. 2 T»8",-r»l6J -r"5i!fc>§, -5- Sos^^T" &&>■»§
Plu. 2 T'S'oa, -s^Soefc§, T»S50*§, T»So^§.
^rfs
-^ li§§^
Infinitive in TA ftui&b Kalugu-ta,
TO BE, EXIST, HAPPEN, ACCRUE.
Infinitive in A £<sK
Infinitive in DAMU fvX&Oa Existence, happening
Infinitive in E*DI rST?a.
The initial §" K is often changed into X G.
Pres. p|| £"e»*oSc> or S'ewxdSoi*^ Being
Past p|| rSfc having accrued
Kel. p|| $€>%$, or S"« and **> which was got
Aorist p|| re*, rt-fa, r8^ffio§, r&-5ia§, r^x,
Negative Pabticifi.es.
Neg. P|| in §" Ka Ze>Xft$vK$>o-zs<> Without being
Neg. Rel. p|| Setfp or "dp Which is not
Neg. Verbal noun ~$sa The not being. Poverty.
The Present tense is not in use.
Past Tense. I was.

Sing. 1 SS*© + p, Si)*TS» + j6, KOS + jB, X"8TT» + i3i
2 XQ%Q + S>} lOfffify tfiDS + a, XQ-p*&
3 «». *'£>•* + #, r©*p»*&, KU-f-j*, KD-âS
3 /. n. z®n+&>, rosâ, rsaoa, >tsa x-sâ.x-sos
Plu. 1 S"Sfc83o, r©AF»sS», XSSSV), TfST^sSM
' o » o
3 m.f. S"S!^6, rSAfroSo, ?f8e, X-S-jîSo
3 «. S"8TtjS>, g"!)*jSa, X-©^5>, K"Sff>
In the other tenses, in like manner two syllables may at plea
sure be made one. Thus S"S"5?(S> haligenu may become Z^fc
kal'genu &c. And in like manner S"9* becomes T®.
Future Tense. It will accrue.

Sing. 3 m. f. n. r8-5?&p§, ra^p, re^p
piu. 3 n. rsnap§, rsTjp, rekp.
TO EXIST, &c. 121
AORIST.
Affirmative. I am, I was. Negative. I am not, I was not.
S. 1 S. 1
2 2
3 m. Stt)XiiS>, 5"e>«b 3 m.
3 f.n. 3 y: ». S'aX'sSb or
P. 1 p. 1
2 Se»XoS£>t£>, 5"e>3o 2
3 m.f. 3 «./. "goo
3 ». 3 «. s'uJCiS or
The Imperative of S"«x>xo4j is not in use in modern Telugu. An
example occurs in M. XII. 2. 271, where it is SuoxoSm and ac
cordingly the plural would be *<mXo&,
The verb S'exiXot) has three meanings, " To Be, to Happen, to

Be Able." Thus : added to the Boot in A of other verbs it means
Can, and the negative means Cannot. Thus,
S. 1. sfrsX'«urt>JS>i& I can go. Of which the usual form is &*Xvpi
I can go. Negative I cannot go.
2. £5*Xtx>fo&&> or, d-*x"<a€) Thou canst go. thou canst
not go.
3. &>K*>1& He can go. d^XodSb Bae, it can go. d*"^ he can
not go. WBd*"3«& she, it cannot go.
P. 1. £r'X'ejo)6Jfcjs» More usually JirVaska we can go. vre
cannot go.
2. sHX-oo!(b«bc£>,5fr6x'e>Sb Te can go. aj-o&drôj ye cannot go.
3. They can go. {m.f.) ^r>o«a^6"gSb they cannot go.
3. &*Xt>$ Those things can go. was^"^ they cannot go.
These are the regular forms : the irregular forms in use are the
following.
Singular. The first and second persons are wanting.
3. m. 5"e>«o He is, or was ; thus £<6'xr,»jS'e)JSb there was a cer
tain King. Negative ~^^> he is not as he is
not here.
3. /. tt>& She is. Negative ~$<*>.
3. n. S"e>«o, or There is : thus 2*£-fr»sniS£& there is a (cer
tain) proverb.
Plural. First and second persons wanting.
3. m f. There are: as 9i$_&£ts there are mer
chants here. Neg. ~t& they are not. Thus fôgf*
omi6jj8o"<58c> they are not here now.
3. n. So© They are. Thus WotfoSoffcX'tttS'eg) there are ele
phants so large. Neg. Thus eaau^sfc^sg)
they are not (here) now.
These words are used as auxiliaries thus,
8. 1 Su;S> lean ^fr^tyXefr I can say
^fit^^-tfit I cannot say
2 3"«& Thou canst frâîCe^) Thou canst say
£>Q^;6y£d Thou canst not say
3 m. S'eab He can wifc^Mb^tfeSb He can Bay
»8 "3 tyKv & She or it can say
p. 1 r*>«S» We can "& do We can say
"&>ii»'3a6}"«5tSD We cannot say
2 %vt£> You can oj»t&*J^tfe>tS You can say
jst»Bo T3rfjj"<SEfc You cannot say
3 They can vr-odfcâ^jceifc They can say
ct»oj£>^j6^{6 They cannot say
3 n. They can waôtfxti^ Those can remain
<^5>3ot5~3& They cannot remain.
"CAN." 123
The verbs "cr^h to suffice ia likewise used : thus,
g. 1 xT-ew&ja* lean •^(S.â&j^'tweS)^ I cansay*
"^j3»:3^Tj,,eiS» I cannot say
2 sr-oojSb^ Thou canst p^WdfrjWoisS$ Thou canst
say
SMDxJ^vff^g Thou canst not
3 m.f. n. ^r*«»iS» •p-Soôtf Kr-vijs, He can stay
eSs&osJ'Er,t»?s> She can
tsS^jotf vTuojab It can
*r»s6$ofiTT,e>«6 He cannot
stay
*s&&o&Tyes£> She, it, cannot
p i vT°ooi£«Sm "We can "feiSuî^fw&iSs) "We can say
■€oJS»â)6j:iT0e>«fa3 We cannot say
2 Tj*t»«SbOo Te can Bcr>Sj>^*y3'«H«S>* Ye can
B(r»0o:3!6^tT,e)^> Ye cannot
3 «t./. ct««w&8o They can sr»o«&^3*yiX°twe&B3 They can
ir'osg>lZ&yX°t>& They cannot
3 «. vroifr They can ea^Cfcufk They can go
ead-ttruiSj They cannot go.
The verb rS&iSiJ or "^^^ to Can or " be able" is thus used,

S. 1 "jSiSbSb + ?*>§, + I can. î&^^^ji,
I can say
"î&îîy^tf f& I cannot say
2 73<5oSo«>§, "fSsos-© Thou canst.
Thou canst say
* Tho initial xT» is often changed into Sf\ Thus "^jS»:ail&j8r,t»Sfcj3i.

124 FIRST CONJUGATION, " CAN."
£)$x36yifog Thou canst not say
3 m.f. n. ■^Sfo^3ty~jSi£rs)}b He can say
ee^s&^§S^s> She can
wa-3a6yi3eo}j4> it can
■sr>aSS'3i£^ffeSS He cannot say
waîf^ffaS) She, it, cannot say
P. 1 TSOoSbs&D^ -fi&sr&n We can. "S»tf»t3a&i"p8be-*iD "We
can say
"& sio'iSS&^tJsSa We cannot say
2 "^JSaooog, "^SSe-oo You can. £w>Soî£^&Oo Tou can
say
Or»0o v5^"^tf c£> Tou cannot
3 m.f. 7§&3c>c3§, "^CoBS They can. ■sr»o«3i6^*c6 They
can
■sj»og> ^3*^50 «b They cannot
3 «. They can. tsoâf-^B^Sfc They can
say
fc?3T3i^yptf^ They cannot say.
The reader may think the rules tediously minute regarding the
first verbs of the first conjugation : but the great difficulty of the
language will be removed if they are thoroughly understood. The
remaining verbs are treated with more brevity. The termination*
being entirely uniform, those of a single verb will suffice for the
whole language. Thus in English sliall, did, should, &c. are. uni
form in all verbs, but they vary in the root.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
This contains verbs the root of which ends in cSSu YU or <s&g
YYU which is changeable into or Thus ^5«*&»*» cheyuta or
SECOND CONJUGATION. 125
^&^> chesuta to do. ljp-di&4j or Ijst"&*j to write. ^cJ&>£i> or \ *
$$k> to split, ficj&^fc) or to be fatigued. Either form is
used indiscriminately.
Some verbs of two syllables Lave a liberty of being spelt in two
ways. If <*S» T is single, the vowel preceding it is long : if dou
ble the vowel is made short. Thus ^SaZate clteyuta and S^csSub
may be also written ^cs&gii cheyyuta and r><sk>g*J. The Inf. in
A and become â^g and e^d*g. Thus the vowel
followed by <s&> YU is either long by nature or is made long by
position.
All verbs however have not this double shape. ljcr»ci£oij y. a. to
write is distinct from |_ss<2&g*j v. n. to split.
Verbs of this conjugation deviate from the first conjugation ;
for when they take the affixes beginning with the vowel Q I to
make the past p|| or -=> Ev to make the future tense or -5 E" to
make the aorist p|| they change the syllable TTI into & SU.
Thus from ^<ssk " to do" comes ^ having made, r£'rPiS$> I shall
or will do ; ^"f> that does &c.
They can likewise change at pleasure the c&j into & SU in the
Infin. in *J TA and in the 3d pers. sing, of the affirmative aorist.
Thus ^cS3Sj*j or iSfrk to do and t5cSx>;S> or ^ ôfS> he, she or it
will or, shall do.
In the affirmative aorist and imperative the usual terminations
are added to the root. Thus from t3c«» comes wcs&sfcffc and
^SctfiossSx). Or, changing c£&;££> and cKw« into & and # ; thus
^tfbfk and ^tfs$».
In verbs of three syllables of this conjugation, if the middle
syllable be £) I, it is changed into \} U in one shape of the affir
mative aorist and imperative : and in the Infin. in *j TA. Thm
from 3&cSw&> to be damp, makes tf&cs£oeSb(& or 8££>{6i& and 0&
(3&>ksS» or oiSitfsS» and #&css»(fc or and#&ce3o*J or
126 SECOND CONJUGATION.
In the Imperative the root of verbs of two syllables changes <sfij
into *». Thus from 35<s&> comes x3°» or •Bowg do thou. In
other respects it presents no novelty.
The present p|| is formed by adding to the root in U as ^5txfi»
or by changing csfijtf) into Thus 35]^ doing. So also in
the past tense ^Sp, I did, thou didst, become iS
_| a &c.
The letter ^ being pronounced ts as ^cs&t* cMyutsu, these
letters change places in forming chestu. ,
The letter S is written either $ or "?> or * at pleasure. And
as the initial t& frequently is softened into » or the word 35*
(having done) may at pleasure be written or "t>?>.
Some learned men wish to discard $ (the santi-sacaram) and
substitute the ^ (or sulabha-sacaram) in every place : but this is
a refinement that never will generally be countenanced. Some
places alone of the second conjugation admit the (santi) ¥ where
as all may use the $ (sulabha). A few accurate scholars who
wish to exclude $ (santi) altogether declare (with the grammari
an Appa Cavi) that this letter # (Siva) ought to be used in Sans
crit words alone. But in the common mode of spelling some
places admit one letter, some the other, and some both : this is
unobjectionable : and is countenanced by the oldest manuscripts,
and by nearly all the soundest scholars: for even among the
learned a few alone wish for any peculiarities in spelling. The
difference indeed is as trifling as between the French words
avait and avoit ; allais, and allots ; disais and disois : and the mat
ter deserves notice only because our native instructors are apt
to dwell much on such trifling points and condemn the use of the
(Siva) $ though themselves use it daily.
In apology for this inconsistency they alledge that all persona
(themselves included) are in the wrong and they urge us there
SECOND CONJUGATION. 127
fore to write in a manner which has no advantage to compensate
for its peculiarity.
The following, as well as the other verbs which belong to this
conjugation proceed according to the rules given above.
SccSotJ or to take
s^dSoi) or £r*fc>i} to pour
r^cs&tj or to cut
iicsKbij or "3§&*j to throw
"fcdtfcifcj or "&r&>i> to graze
tfvd&ii or to become fatigued
"Sotf aSaii or "3jKfi>*J to gleam, lighten
SSOcSooAj or HaCSaôi) to rain
e5<s5SjtJ or ««Sb(3o*J to fear
JOcSSotj or Fiuo^4j to mix
nOcOoiii or »w»j6a4j to grow.
And :Se<s&>i> or sse>&i> which denotes (in Latin, debet ; in
French, il faut,) « Must.'
Roots.
Chey, cheyy or ches. Root of ^csSuio, %Jc8»gi> or t3&±> To do.
(Facere ) The vulgar spelling ^"eifijAj or ^"cssmAj must
be avoided, though in general use.
Coy, coyy or cos. Boot of r'csaktj, S-ctfiogii or rôt) To cut,
(secare.)
Poy, poyy or pos. Boot of d^dSati, **dtfc>gij or sir6^*^ To pour
(fundere.)
Valay or valas. Eoot of SedSSiij or sse>#>*j (Debere) to owe :
whence JSe>?>iSa must, ought, should, as "O'sSoîia you
must come (debet venire, il faut venir.)
Tady or Tadus. Eoot of #Sco»*j or 8s6#)4> to be wet (madere
in Latin.)
Dayy. Weary £<a&gi> or £*£$i> To be tired, (langueo.)
Vrayy. Split IjScSixjfa 0r \*fyi3 To be broken, to split, to be
shivered (Dissilio.)
128 SECOND CONJUGATION.
The ancient grammarians might have reasonably defined the

verbs of the second conjugation as ending both in Y and in S.
Of the verbs here given the first three are quite regular.
Valayu ' must' is irregular. The next &&<3&>i> is slightly
irregular and the two last are peculiar in changing TT into SS
(thus U^c**0^ to split p|! U^?$) whereas other verbs though they
use TT at pleasure, do not use SS. Thus r*a&k> or S^csfcgt)
to cut: p|| 6"°f> never 8""?$.
The conjugation will now be given at full length, although it
uses precisely the same terminations as are used in the first con
jugation : the only deviations are in the radical syllables which
hare now been given.
Infinitive in TA ôS»*j, or ^&*J To do

Infinitive in A tScSi* or ■3<*5g
Infinitive in DAMU 3cS>tfsS»,t ^cjc^jSm Doing
Infinitive in E'DI â The doing.
The roots in H?DI are made from the termination in S alone—
thus â, \jr*~$&, sir6"^©.
Atfikmatite Paeticiplis.
Pres. p|| '3d3ktib§) 3 <&> or 3^1% Doing
Past p|| t3# or ^^ Having done
Bel. p|| ^jS.'or^fS Which did
Aorist p|| ^, 3i>«3, 3"?)i§,3T>«fc§, or ^cH3j§ "Which does.
* Vulgarly spelt VdSS a form which we must avoid. Thus^VdSSoX'eja

•fo&sSxiVJ &c.
t The student must be aware of the common erroneous spelling, wherein

TSd&H&o^Gfoto^c&p are written ST'dlfiSdu, xT'oaioij^csSJ^, This
must be cautiously avoided as well as the similar vulgarism Vdtfitio, "ôSa
ii &c.
TO DO. 129
The shape ^w is in daily use: it is contracted from "^dfi>

®> which is used only in poetry.
Neg. Pj| in Sf Ka *3cS>S", 'BdtcgS' or ^d^SSo-Co", n3d*c55oS
Without doing
Neg. Eel. p|| x3<sfip, ^3c*6gJ> Who does not
Neg. Verbal noun âfcaa The not doing.
Present Tense. I do, I am doing.

Sing. 1 ^'csSx.tSirr^+i&§J ^^p^+ja*, or '$■£• + fr
2 ^dt£otS>i3^gj§, ^îê, or ^5»^j
3 m. ^cs&t&fr^JSc^, ^•^•^•^k) or 3>>So
3 /. n. ^<3Sjji»iSj»§, ^"^Ji^s, or ^ôfi, [^^°60r^
3 m. f. ^dS»tS>f3^6§) ^^JF^*, ^^c5

3 n. âSuSo?^, SS&jÔ, ^», [/£*;».]
The second and third of these forms are in common use : the
first is peculiar to poems. The forms appear very numerous:
but in fact are merely different modes of spelling.
Past Tense. I did.

Sing. 1 3c-a + ?>§, 3_?>+j!>)3?>pn> + #.,orêFD + jSi,
3 m. ^T' + rk, ^?>7T°«3, ^«7t°J*>, [âb]

3 /. ». "Gî+fr, ^£& or ôfi, ^9;sa( ^5§oa
Plu. 1 ^|>SX»§, ^-p»;&3, ^jt&>, [^r&o]
2 ^88§,^FT*,or'3«P*So):3_*a,[:3'!?'c;->]
3 m. /. 3^6, ^F"*, or ^"P'OS, [^T'cfc]
3 ». ^f,&, ^«j«a, or ^?>fSa.
s
1£C SECOND CONJUGATION.
Fctube Tense. I will or shall do.
Sing. 1 3"?>!S4.jS>§, 3"f>jS>,
3 m. /. ». 3-1b&p§, 3"3&ft>, or ^|»Jb, î>{D

Plu. 1 3"?>Ssfao§, ~£~%&a
3 »». /. ^T'M*§, ^"^Sj

3 ». ^?ait>§, ^f>P, ^Sp.
It will here be observed that § and ^> are used at pleasure in
the past and future tenses.
AOEIST.
Affirmative. I do. Negative. I do not.
S. 1 ^ci£oJS) + jS>§, s. 1
+ fS> [3& + j<b] 2
m.
3 f. n
P. 1 SScXfcjfi&tfMfj, 2
2 ^caaja£ao§, ^SeoSo 3
Some other forms are rarely used : these are ^S^&ffc, ^ôifi^>
Impebatiye. Do thou <&c.

Sing. 2 T§oa>, ôag, ^c»msS»§, '!dd85osSr»§f
Plu. 1 ^dtfiiSsSoij, *$V&a

TO DO, TO WRITE. 131
Prohibitive.
Sing. 2 ^d**-, ^dBSgS", ^cs&sS, ^SdStjgo, ^c05Sotfc§, ^dSiSo^g
Plu. 2 ^d*S"oa, ^csS^roS, "^dfcSSjSbij, 3<*S5ooSS§, ^d*So&§,
In all these, the long vowel followed by a short eya may Be

changed into the short vowel followed by a double consonant ey-
Infinitive in TA [^•atoto, or LF*^43 To WRITE

Infinitive in A Lfc* To write
Infinitive in DAMU \jnd&£zix, The writing
Infinitive in E*DI l^r^S, [*n~iSi Writing.
Aitirmative Paeticiplbs.
Pres. p|| tp"^ or l*^^;^ Writing
Past p|| tF"* or If*!* Having written
Rel. p|| IF"?'* Which wrote
Aorist pU LF"f>, If* LF'^^S, Ip-cSufj
Which writes.
Neg. P|| in 5* Ka . IsycssB" 0r |rr»<3fi&o-cs0 Without writing
Neg. Rel. p|| l_sr«cs£ip Who writes not
Neg. Verbal noun lsr»c*6a> The not writing.
Pbebent Tense. I write, I am writing.
2 iF^f^L©, If*-!?©
3 m. Ip'î'F'jJSo, [*r'-$2&
3 / n. LF,î'sjL8> 1^^°°.
132 SECOND CONJUGATION, TO WEITE.
Plu. 1 Jjr»;fc-pr>^S», Lp'jJ'jfca
2 l^j^l^S.*, ljr>;r£»8a
3 m. f. \J^^>Ty^>, If\$"c&
3 n. iF'^r^S), Lp»1^3.
Some other forms also are occasionally used. Thus \jr>3Ss>1£>
■pr^Lffo, (_p»!S&5«)-iX^) &c, which are peculiar to poets.
Past Tense. I wrote.

Sing. 1
2
m.
2 tp*f>88§, lF-_*8, L*r»^TB»e6 [Lp-."7*&o]

3 m. f. lF*?>e, l_sr»?>F°03 [(jr>7*Bo]
3 n. \jr»-îS>y (jj^jSS.
Futubb Tense. I will or shall write.

Sing. 1 lsr--p« + fjj§, la™-f)fl»
2 ljr»"?)»$§, ljr»î©
3m.f. ». lF,T&a?>§< LF*"*P, \jr-^p
Plu. 1 jjf-âstog, Lp»"f»s»
2 ljr^BC6§. U^"^
3 m. f. \jr-~îs&§) [CT«"f)JSo
3 n. [•?•"<>&?>§, {T--*>p, or Lp4i&.
AOEIST.
Affirmative. I write. Negative. I write not.
S. 1 s. 1 \^*<&>fS>
2 2 (_3r»dSl$5
3 m.f. n. ^c8»jn&§, (jr.^ 3 nt. L«r»c8C«3
P. 1 |jsr»d&&«J»§, (jT^gisSn 3 f.n. l5T»6B3aj
p 1 |_tt»<*6jS»
2 (jST'dBSBo
3 ». ^r-cSS»iS>§p \jnfrfr. 3 m.f. (_*J-»(Ss5Cfi
3 «. Lfr*<s*€>.
TO WRITE : TO BE WET. 133
Imperative. Write thou.
Sing. 2 ^«^,o», ljJ*<3S>isS»§, Lsr-dK»s&*§, Lsr»cJ£i&r»§,
2 l_sr»<SfioS, (jycSftjJ&S, l^r«ci3ajOJjS§( (jarcifi:a§.
Prohibitive. Write not.

Sing. 2 |jT-<sSr,|jp'ci8JS, Jsr-(3fiS5j&>§,ljr'c«SSs&«§, Ijj'cSjSjOt'I,
Plu. 2 LF'd&S'oa, lw»d£SSe&§, \_sncSS9oOSSbg, (ôSiSoag.
Infinitive in TA tîciSJji), or «JSfeô4J v. ». To get wet.

To be moistened.
Infinitive in A tf&t*6, &££
escssjjji&o, es^jj«&». «•
Infinitive in DAMU
Infinitive in E*DI «&i)a.
AtFIRMATIVE PARTICIPLES.
Pres. pl| #&dS»«C)§, OsSo^J
" or 8JSb^JjS^ Being wet
Past p|| &&$ Being wet
Rel. p|| tfa?.* Moistened
Aorist p|| eai>, sa-ftf, &&"?>&§, â-?)ao§, sacs^.
Neg. PH in r Ka «a<s6r, eaar
Neg. Rel.p|| «a«*p, tftftfp
Neg- Yerbal noun «$a<*ia:, tftfsiifc.
Present Tense. I am wetted.

Sing. 1 ti&û-fn^ + fr, tit&iz + fr
3 f. n. saoûâ, s^b j6jo&
2 ^s6^F^?o, Sab-jWfc
3 m.f. &&'&£?*£&, Sô^Co
3 n. esjAj^, ejsb^s.
134 SECOND CONJUGATION, TO BE WET.
Besides these forms others are occasionally found as, H &d&>
^Pli+i*, tfaafiaifc-p^Jj &c, which appear in poems.
Past Tense. I was wet.

Sing. 1
2 «a?>os§, eaâ, aa^-fr-®, [Qa7°$]
3 m. »a-»>+^,) ea^fyjsoâ^'iSb]
3 / n. tf&^+tf), saê, eaôa
Plu. l tfaâjtog, gajbao, aa^^r-js^ raav&aj
.2 ea^se§, sajê, aaôs, [$a*\s»]
3 m.f. «5^S, 63^7^05, [a&T*cfi]
3 ». «a a*, «aj>js».
Eutuek Tense. I shall be moistened.

j3ing. I #&"?>« -fjfcg, »a-f>;s>
2 â-»)ise§, ea-*i$
3w./ «. »a-?»ai6§, ea^jB, &&%$
Plu. l ea !;«*&§, «a-*)jto
2 ea^scfis.cra'fisj
3 «./. »a-7J«eo§, eaijcs
3 ». eja-^-a^g, gaiip, tfa&p.
AORIST.
Affirmative. I am moistened. Negative. I am not wet.
S. 1 tfacssco «£> + (£§, &«isb S. 1 tfacSG + j&g, JftfsS-f.
2 eSadaaiefc^ tfffioSo^ 2 «ac«fre§, SSS®

3 w. »adS52Sb§, SSrfjSo
3 m. f. n. sacs&f&g, tfeSo&jk
3 /. n. e?ac»«o§, 8tf;$4&
P. 1 âcc6js6!S>3§) 8^b«)
P. 1 tfadSisSsag, 5tf £<£»
2 sadssog, sessso
2 aad&jsbjssgâsbgjeo,
3 »t. /. 8ad&&§, sa'scs
3 mf. tfSdt&dSbaS^SoSoao, 3 «. 0a«i©§, QZ£$.
3 n. tfasskj&fj, tfJJaôfj*.
TO BE WET. THE VEEB MUST. 135
Imperative. Be thou wet.
Sing. 1 *&&, S&^îj, ss*«*k>$, tf&=s«sJj*§,
gi5b^)sST.§) eJ&cS5»i£xr»§, &Sfc£)»y§.
2 d&ts&oa, stfssoa, sac»»«b§, £*«=&&;>§,
Prohibitive.
Sing. 2 S&d6«", ^^s-, ea^ss, «Ss5», *&*«*»§, tftfa*
*Sto§,S&<SfiSos&«§, {$«:*«&*&.§, e>ac*S£>fcr>§ 3£;S&I»*§
Plu. 2 «ad*roa, tfaaroa, 0 &(&&&§, «a^*§, tfa<*6&o
t&§, s«sSsSoab§, «ac«s.sc,a§, estfss&as.
*.<*fi»b or 3«?^ ' MUST, OUGHT, SHOULD. ' Thia verb

ia a defective auxiliary and has few tensea.
PaBt pll *°*
Eel. pll *«**
Irregular Neg. Eel. p|| *•**! ^
Paat tenae
3 Sing. «. i-Bfftopê^ft It must
3 Plu. n. *«?>*» Theymuat
Affir. aor. 3 n- 3<M<s&i& Must
Neg. aor. 3 ». sSos5efe§, *e>«b§, S*> Muat not.
To understand thia, it will be uaeful to conaider the verb in
phraaes. 3d**e>*jS«&P what ahould or muat be done. ^<&Tr>p*?
What ought not to be done. ^P ia the neg. p|| of **&*» to come-
^MitliS (you) must do ao. ejf^ctfrp* (you, he) must
not do so.
136 THIED CONJUGATION.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
The Third Conjugation contains such verbs as end in gu or
iS)^ ecu, as "S>OT&ij to rear. iSbcô-Sjij to excuse. *6&oi5oij to
examine. "3riS>î> to approve.
Some of these are verbs forming the causal in sôQj incu or gu
as Zbnte to bind, to build : 3"*3otfcij to have it bound, get it built,
^cssSoAj to make, ômOtS>4j to have it made, get it done, cause
it to be done. Ijt*:85i>Aj to write : \jr»3i>otSst> to get it written,
have it written.
Nearly all such verbs as are borrowed from Sanscrit or Hin
dustani, as ab6&oiSii> to try, S"S>yoi$>±> to contrive, tjaocSaAj to
compose, 3joir»do££>&j to adorn, »F*oMOiS)4j (from Hind, ba
nana) to fabricate, ■ôar,o»oiS>Aj (from Samjhana) to pacify,
belong to this conjugation.
These form the affirmative aorist and imperative either accord
ing to the rules of the First Conjugation as "So*S>«b I shall rear
and 'wOi£>«2&: let us rear : or by changing and into 8i
and 8. Thus "^>°&&>, 1>o5$sS».
Verbs ending in double "&>^ likewise change the and S into
& and j£. Thus "^^s£>iS> 0r ~3»&t& I shall or will approve;
and "Sj^SiSa or "3; J| let us approve.
As many verbs in this conjugation make the Infin. in A and
the imperative in a peculiar manner they may conveniently be
arranged in five classes.
I. -%oxSbfa To rear. S&os&fcj to divide. ts-5S>^t> to owe, ok>?$>i> to
think, to reckon. tJ» to rub^Sk^ to attend. -&>k to ima
gine, to think. to scrape, to scratch. l£r°£&*J to weigh, ""fcffl&v
i> to increase. "Sj>S^^> to approve. ■sr»ljfi>,iS^4j to say. 76^6j to
string (pearls &c.) L?^*0 to break in pieces. &3î> to settle. T»
twvjtj to burn.^Ê"^ to join. Oo^>i>to think. s^t»£^*j to change.
&r»tî> to join, to sew &c.
THIRD CONJUGATION. 137
These form the Boot in A in the usual way according to the
First Conjugation. Thus "ôij, «f>otf, wtt^, ôtf, xr-ty,T«fJ &c.
II. Other verbs form the Hoot in A by changing "5S> into VA.
They use VU in the Imperative. Thus,
r ^ /■ A. ^
r'twS, r'tisS, or r*t,^) Serve, mea
sure
conquer
none grow
?>UK50k> stand
«C!ocSat> cry
Situ®, i<uo£ call
r80Ob43 bite
walk
suck
X-SosS, X£lS, X&£ none pass
weep
Verbs of two syllables.
~&5bi> "3^, or rise.
VerbB which have three syllables in the root as 5>wjski> to call,
s&Sbi&to to forget, 5Se»tfo4> to love, S&tfa&j to break, use at plea
sure either A or II in the middle syllable, thus these may be
written &e>*S>*j, s&tfsfcAj, 3uiS>t>, 3tfifci>. Accordingly if one form
is not found in the Dictionary, we muBt look for the other.
III. Some Verbs make the Root in A, in or 55 at pleasure.
Thus,
In/In. in A.
, * N
-g*2fci5oAj or -3*^, To draw
<S»ao*6t> <5»*^, &&\S, 6*^, <S*afc:5, <S»fi£ sweep
jScut&to, or jSe^**, fSwotS", ;Se^, jSoi^,iSe>^ crush
s
13S THIRD CONJUGATION.
Infin. in A.
chara
*?<»tt>tJ, XKiS grieve
thresh
bear
<r*«>tsi>i>, fir*e«^4», sôtr, r0^, ir^ bore
cast
blow
These make the imperative either in or & at pleasure.
Thus ■^JSo'a6«Si», or -Si*6^j«jas, but more usually in sfi alone as
«*>©, plural -&fi$oa.
They form the ifoof i» Damu in the usual manner, adding it to
'the Root in A. Thus ■&t&£&tSx>,
IV. Some make the Root in A in either ^ or ^ at pleasure.
Thus,
a&IÔ'UbiJ s£>j0jOt5 Or sSa JSÔiA To forgive
UlV- otibtj -g Tr~
§ otf.' "SiXT" oa& count
bless
deliver
"C43o-eS3i>
CO "B*3oC.
«0 ' •> "843oa6 double
yawn.
In the Present Participle these use either *& or Thus
^pCbab or s&Pjpi&ab ; ""BiSotSai&ifS)^ or "BgoT^JSkfSyL.
The same change takes place in some parts of the Affirmative
Aorist : as JfcPôOodfcjai or ^>p^p^)t&fi), "Sô-i&i&iS*, or Uô^
&fS>. Also in the Affir. Imperative, as ^b^pebiSa, or ssô^sSxj.
V. Irregular Verbs. These form the Root in A, the Present
Participle, the Imperative and the Root in Damu in peculiar
ways.
Pres. Part. Imp. Root in Damu.
1 "7 *
sStf^tfi, 3#j tt» -cr-rfJi&a Come
HibîS), -§ tisSsifo bring
"TO EEAE, INCEEASE." 139
Tres. Part. Imp. Boot in Damu.
give
die
enter
none pain
see
«0tS3iS>l S5ot£>,
tear
count
place
160 tfc divide
string
scratch.
As examples of this conjugation, the regular Yerbs t,otfci> to
rear and doj&j£>fi>t> to forgive, *6oLo-Efci> to examine may be
conjugated throughout as follows.
Infinitive in TA -Zo&i> To EEAE, INCREASE

Infinitive in A "ô-tf Rearing
Infinitive in DAMU T>otf£iS» The rearing
Infinitive in E'DI "woâ That which reari.
Affirmative Pabticiples.
Pres. p|| tioCbSi or "S)0^8»fJ^_ Bearing
Past pll "So© Having reared
Bel. pll "So fif5 Who reared
Aorist pll «o^! "So^*3§,,S)0:3&§,,Sj0âb§)"SoCs5 Which rears*
Neg. pll in S* Ka wotfg" or ôUSoo-ra» Without rearing
Neg. Rel. pll tioijp Which rears not
Neg. Yerbal noun "«oiJ&> The not rearing.
Pkesent Tense. I rear, increase.
Sing. 1 "wOti38of3^_^-j8i> "?iOiS3W-f. j&
3 m. "ôoObJSoTT^jJo, "S>ot£>-g^«o
3 / n. "SottigofSâ, "aoabjfcoa.
Plu. 1 TjO€Sao'(3îSi»j tiOifc'^'a&j

2 "ô-essipâo, ■sotSb-g-'OS
3 m. f. "SoCbeSb-p^sS, "woeo^SS
3 ». ô-db&iS^S), "aocotfa.
Other forms such as ÔTfc-tfc-jj^jfc &c. are occasionally found;
Hi noticed with regard to some verba already explained.
Past Tense. I reared.

Sing. 1 "ôaS-fjO, "ôO]T» + J*, ["ao^ + jao]
2 TiofiSS, tiofifr-igj, [ôir»ijj]
3 m. IjoxS-j-ifc, "So£>iT»«Sj [tiOvT'aib]

3/. n. wofiiia, t>o£oa.
Plu. 1 "wOOBSXJj 'woafT's&o ["So'CT'jSc]
2 lioase, ôa-j^co, [t,0ij*o&]
3 »». /. "ôea, "SoOfT'cso) ["Sotj'jfi]
3 ». ^woxSfji, tioCjia.
Fuxttee Tense. I shall increase.

Sing. 1 "ô^Kj&g, "ScrSfSi
2 "aoâgjJj, îo^
3 »»._/ m. looâSpg, "woSiD.
Plu. 1 "So^sjSb^ ttOÂa
2 tioâco^ "ôÔo
3 m. f. ô^JsKbg, "Soôo
3 n. "Soâ&j&fi 'woOp.
TO PARDON.' 141
„ AORIST.
Affirmative. I Increase. Negative. I increase not.
S. 1 "wotfjfc
2 "S>otf£i
3 »». ôUdSS
3/ ». ôtfafc.
P. 1 tioSil&t&a, "SoSosfca P. 1 t,otfsS»
2 "So-S5i«&eo>"wOSaCo 2 ôtfSi
3 m. f. "So-S&SSbCo, "S.08080 3 m. /. "io-iJss
3 n. "wOxS>jS>. 3 «. "Tiotf©.
Imperative. Swell, increase.

Sing. 2 lO-Sa, ^S)0-3JsS»§, "wO-&sin>§, "wO-£kOr»§
Plu. 1 "Xo-&>s«s»§, "ao^dso§, 'Sio-sSj-cs'sSn, "wcyin
2 "woiSoSs, "wo-i&Sfcg, "SiO-SSoodSog, "Soô&§.
Pbohibittve. Swell not, increase not.

Sing. 2 "Sio-or, "SotfSS, "^»otJSSsS»§, '«ocJSotSr»§) "S,otrSooT.§
Plu. 2 "tiOxjroa, "ao-05o«o§, "wOtrSoo«o§, ^.otJSo^g.
Infinitive in TA sfcjBjo ■££>&» To FORGIVE,

PARDON.
Infinitive in A sfc^C or sfcôaS To forgive
Infinitive in DAMU zzp^pKUZa The forgiving
Infinitive in E^DI Jfcfôâ Forgiving.
Pres. p|| «S>5jp&T&§| aojô^-ikg, aoô-i&So, sSbpôabSo^sSi
Pd*^1^ Forgiving
Past p|| sfejSôO Having forgiven
Rel. pll jfeôfiiS "Who forgave
Aorist pll **>?>jt0^> ^Pa0^43) «S>&.°â§. «&feLO«afc§>«6]63Lo-e&§
Forgiving.
142 THIRD CONJUGATION.
Negative Pabticiples.
Neg. p|| in §" Ka *>rs?V<f, tfcj&jpris^, or &p<±oti$>o-G>f >&>
ôabSooTS" "Without forgiving
Neg. Bel. pll «S>^L°»P, Unforgiving
Neg. Verbal noun sfcpôiJSto, «s>ôi6sx> The not forgiving.
Pbesent Tenie. I forgive.

Sing. 1 i&ôifcgopy^ sS>^piS3^' + pS)i!Sb^û-i3^L+^-r
3 m. j&jOjpt&gbiTîfe, sSbjSjoaa-srjfe, sfc^^Jpr^So, «s>
3 m. j&ô-EfcsjpTôo, saôao-iras, ôjBj.^Trâo, tfcjs^
Besides these forms, others are occasionally found, thus &f>£?

■aaibjcr^j&j o&pô^Jttj-p^f* &c., which appear in poems.
Past Tense. I forgave.

Sing. 1 sfcpôSO + p, s&^LoSij' + iS>> sS>^ [sSo^Lotr,+
*]
3 m. ^ô^ + ffcj ofcj&ôfiiT**

3/. «. ^0^3 -)-;&, sSajDjofiâ, sSbjftôOoe.
Plu. 1 ifcjDjpaaao, JSsiOjoOiT"^ j&jBâo, [jjopôTyao]
3 «. JSj&jp^jfc, JSjpôfijSS.
'TO FOEGIVE, PAEDON.' 143
Putube Tense. I shall forgive.

Sing. 1 j&pjLo^3« + fi>§, sSifoo^rb
3 m.f. i&ûO«&?»§, *>&p*>p.

Plu. 1 J&?>âE5s&o§, sfcjOjO^Ss&o
3 ». / s&>l&i?^3«&§, s&PÔ^tfi
3 „. *|£p^&P§, &P£>tp.
AORIST.
Affirmative. I forgive. Negative. I forgive not.
S. 1 s&|&ôtf j&,S&|S>L0!6tf>§
3 m. JSoHôtfa^s&ôd&ttbg
2 «s>ioiptf>e£>3!§, &PJ?
3 m.f. n. ^>pô«5ffc.
P. 1 *|^pO>«&*»|, **>&?
3 OT./. sapÔtfSi, JS>PAo*«,§
3 ». ^PôtffS, «*>!&?*«§.
3 n. abôtt;*
Imperative. Pardon thou.

Sing. 2 laPa?**. sfc&ottjssc^ sS5Sa01^*SB§, Î^^^S. *
Plu. 1 »&?>jOtibBtf»§, !fii^p^)K!S»§, JSbÔTSj-cysfc), t&p^pW

■WsSw, ofei&5Lo8j5b3§1 sfc^jo^sSu, [sfc^T^rto]
2 Kfej&jfUJoS, sSjjOôd&O&f}, s&ôx&So^ ifcp^p^Ss^ ;&
144, THIED CONJUGATION.
Peohibitivb.
Sing. 2 sapôijr, s&fôs&g", sSoôtfsS, j&pôaSaS, jSoôtrsS
tf»§, J&pôa655sS»§, sSjIOjotJSokSj^, jjbj&joa&SisSr-^
Plu. 2 sa^pcroa§, s&j6ip3&s'oa§, asbnôtrssasjj, e&jôs&ss
Infinitive in TA a&6JLo*>t> To TRY

Infinitive in A
Infinitive in DAMU <6 6 & o ff tf sS» The examining
Infinitive in E^DI afcSJLo^S Trial.
Aefibmative Pabticiples.
Pres. p|| a&6&.otJbso, &6&.&I, 46&.ott>&$£i> * 61^(3^
Trying
PastpH *6&.oO Having tried
Eel. p|| if)6Jxoa^ Who examined
AoristpH *6&.o^ *6A.o^*s, a&6&o3«o§, *6&o3&R
* 6 & o «>§, Examining.
Neg. pj| in r Ka rf^&oijr.aSJvotf 5S0T3» Without trying
Neg. Eel. p|| *&&.o%p Untried
Neg. Verbal noun rfS&otf&j, <66&0!6&> The leaving without
trial.
Pbesent Tense. I examine.

Sing. 1
2
*•«.
'TO TET, EXAMINE.' 145
3 / n. a&6uLoaa*jSja, afc6&oifc8ooa, a^JLîâ, a&6J>-
Flu. 1 £6 JLox&SbF^sSo, a&SJLoSiiP sb6i).^)fr°c^sS») .6

5JL
3 m./ atSiôiSi^-iTîSOj d&SJLot&vos, *6Jv^6j-f^kOo| i65
Besides these, there are some other poetical forms. Thus a&6
Past Tense. I tried.

Sing, l a66&-oa?> + jt») at6i>-oi3(r» + jS), a&S&Jj + jD,
3 w. )66JLo^3 -f£>( ai6ixoa'pr>«fe> [a&S<l.ot3"46]

3/! ». £S°t>-o^3 + iSi, a^JLofifSS, afcSoLoaoS.
PIu. 1 ^6&-oaSt»,*6cLo©7r°ss»( afcSJL (bas, [<£6JxotT*tf»]
2 afcSJLoaaS, stSixofi-jT'So, *6JLjbe; [aôLoêS]
3 m.f. *61>-o09, a£)5i>»oa-fj't6) [ôLosr-sb]
3 B. afcSJLo^fSi, atSJUoajsa.
Ft/tube Tense. I shall try.

Sing. 1 *6<i.o:3KiS>§, a&SoLo^ffc
Zm.f.n. a&S&o^SjSg, a&6JL0ajO.

Plu. 1 a&6Jl.o^s«sx§, s£6oLo^si»
2 afr6JLo3«sts:-§, a&6JLo'^{£
3 «. y. afc6JLo^3«sit a&6jLoô&
3 «. a&S&o^s&js^ £6 JLo6j&.
AORIST.
Affirmative. I try. Negative. I try not.
S. l isfc6JLotS>s£>-|-pS>, *6,S. 1
fS>§
«§
SSo§
P. l *6JLo«b«frss», *6 3 f. n. «&5JLo«s£>; s&6JLo:6
«£§.
P. 1 sb6J>.0Ef!S»> st6Jko*
«Sx§
2 *6<&.oijeo,!£6jLoa&tso§
3 m.f. 3 m./ 8&6ifcOtya3, o<&3o
3 «. itS&woiJ^, £&&.0£
3 n. «Sj6uLoB6jS>.
Imperative. Try thou.

Sing. 2 ^)61kotS>) <s6Jt>.oi53sSa=§, a&Sokoîfoa^ a&fioLo-tfasfo-^
SS)6i§^0^sSj'§j St6i>-Ot5i)Or»§> «£:6oLo^))ar»§.
Plu. 1 a& 6 <§>-o i66<S>-c^)(Stfa5§)366ô€fc-CT»ss») a&SoLo
^jj-wiSm, tfSJLoSsSo, *6<l>-o»r"«s»1 sfc6ii.^>tfx§
Pbohibitite. Try not thou.

Sing 2 siSJLotfS', ^JLoar, *6&.otf*>, a&6il».oa52o1 a&S&o
Flu. 2 *6ixO-i35'o5) £6&.o&£o\ «t6&o«5oJ£§, *6JLo6

«to come; 147
Ibbegulab Verbs.
Infinitive in TA Stiâ To COME
Infinitive in A "o*
Infinitive in DAMU
Infinitive in E'DI tsê>.
Atmrmative Participles.
Pres. p|| **&a«5§, Coming
Past p|| Having come
Eel. p|| ^î4 Who came
Aorist p|| ^^,ss^4S§, tfâ§,<^«fe§, s5«^§ Coming.
Negative Pabticipleb.
Neg. p|| in 5" Ka ■cS', tt'Siotz' "Without coming
Neg. Eel. p|| u*? "Which comes not
Neg. Verbal noun trfia The not coming.
Present Tense, I come.

Sing. 1 ^F^-ffl.,
2 :S Af^©, sSt£»©
3 m. f^Sb, sS-A^Sa
3/ n. î^?, sSj&oS.
Plu. 1 SST&lfT^jSM, sS^Jiu
2 s^P^J*, s5^°*
3 W./ ^F^, 5$>Oi
3 n. tf^Jfe*, *4a<
The longer forms already noticed are seldom used : such as sS<*^
*T^S.f*, ^^^t^f1*. &c. The forms rf^© thou comest :^So,
55^©) are erroneous. We must shun the gross vulgarism
of "?>*J5jvi> voc,cuta.
Past Teuse. I came.

Sing. 1
2
3/ n. X^ + fr, aaê, aeôo.

Plu.
Future Tense. I shall come.

Sing. 1 *^« + i*§, S*j*
2 sS^Ki&§, 55^©
3m./n. sâ^s^p.
Plu.
2 sSS^wSSg, *^C&
3 m. f. ss:a^Kac§, ss^cfi
n.
AOKIST.
■Affirmative. 1 come. Negative. I come not.
S. 1 riSS^ IS. 1 -xrfr
2 ss<&;g) 2 trî
3 m.f. n. JS^JS) 3 m. TT'4So
P. 1 ri&tSn 3/ ». TT'S&.
2 sSSStS
P. 1 -csfoa
3 w. f. sS&eS 2 •ctfi
3 «. ^<S)^S6. 3 m.f xr«o3
I 3 ». 'U'lg.
The form «S]6.#, sS&« &C-) is wrong
As already noticed the final NU is dropped at pleasure. Thus
*W6*. shall I go home (lit. shall I g0 and return, a phrase
for 'Farewell') is generally contracted into &OX&&* the last
Towel being elongated.
TO COME, TO GIVE. 149
Imperative. Come thou.
Sing. 2 -o%s&b§, tf^§, ete^§.
Plu. 1 sS^!io§, riefiSQ
2 8oS, BraôS, BoJ£§.
Prohibitive. Come not thou.
Sing. 2 "CPS', tt>S&, TySotfvg, TP>&StSr»§) TPSbiu^g.
Plu. 2 TT-ro^, -cr>So«c>§) -cS6oj6§, tr'So&g.
Infinitive in TA ss^k or owtSÂj To GIVE

Infinitive in A s^, aqcsOg, -#sS§ To give
Infinitive in DAMU 3}s5£tf a». ssicsfigtf a», -&ctf>£sto Giving
Infinitive in E*DI Giving.
AFFIRMATIVE PARTICIPLES.
Pres. p|| st^^Sj, eû, S&fSy,. Giving
Past p|| s^Bj Having given
Pel. p|| 33^S Who gave
Aorist p|| 9fa*a, ^^»§, ^*§, Giving.
Neg. p|| in 5* Ka Wf£&, SRcssigr, qs£Soo-o», stcsfig«S0-t5» •«»
<sfir§, Without giving
Neg. Eel. p|[ P, Si<*§P, -&P§ Not giving
Neg. Verbal noun ^^SS», 3<*fi£&> The not giving.
Present Tense. I give.
Sing. 1 Sj^F^+i*. +
2 ^P^,
3 m. 5?^J 1*^5*, Bt^tfb
3/ ». ^ oft.
Plu. 1 s\1^,(:ÛlSx,,
2 3^!^*, Si^*
Plu. 3 m.f. m^JF^, si*"*
There are also the forms ^tk^Fî3* and 3?<S>^46'P,<^_fl».
Past Tense. I gave.

Sing. 1 F>§, Ei^fr* + fS>, [3^*]
3 m. si^ + /a>,^fr»iSb, [s*<D^«fc]
Plu. 1 Bâôso, aJ^pr»ss», [gu^sSo]
3 m.f. sâ, sieves, [>ar\>«>]

3 ». ^<*, 81*^0.
Futube Tense. I shall give.
Sing. 1 ss^ « + st^ffc
2 es^KS§, si^;g
3«./ w. âi6§,.^feip.
Plu. 1 6t^BsSn§( Sj^sSo
2 ês&§,
3 m./ tsiâoog, sjÔo
3 n. a^SjSg, a^p.
AOEIST.
Affirmative. I give. Negative. I give not.
S. 1 «(^ + fS» 1 sa^*., a^ffc,
2 2 SiîS, 81<*,S^, "&©§
3 m.f. n. sit^ + ffc. 3 m. ^'<&$&, 3dSoga»,-£iSi§
P. I si*«S» 3 / n. s^c*6g s$>,
2 Sj&cfi
3 »>. / 3SSao
3 n. si«îS». 2 81*5*, sieves,
There is a form si^fk, o»A 3 m.f. Sôo, S^tf, -&8c§
© : but this is wrong. 3 n. sjss^^.Sjc*^,
IRKEGULAE VERBS. . 151
Imperative.
Sing. 2 s.omj, 81!Sm<§, ss$S«k>§, av36ig«fc>§, qs&gs^Jj, 0r
Ph. 1 S(_giio§, S^Sm.

2 SS£S°S, Si"^°a, sioJfc§, 3JdKxg«j§, ^
(*&!£&§.
Prohibitive.
Sing. 2 aseB^S", *r, aj^&§, 3%&^§, S|<*s<5
Plu. 2 S^foi, SidS^roS, SiS5^«Sfo§ SldSig&aog, 8l^S5&§,
The principal parts and tenses of the remaining irregular verbs

of this Conjugation, will be given, with a few phrases to assist the
memory.
U&îj To bring. Eoot^S, as"**"^ he did not bring.—Present.
"dfSv^Soir^L + fS), Ui&J-pr^ "3*r-+?S>; Aor. ps>, &c.
Past "3«^©-fc P, ~3S^ + rS>, + Imperative ~&, "Ssfcôa.
Neg. ~Sr*>.
Bi^k To give. Eoot ; Si^; as ssis5£"3«S> or gc«££''Sfi& he did
not give. Pres. 8l*^*7»*jL+ f*>, Sjîî + ifc, s^+f*. Aor.
ss(& + f&. Past 3*^8 + P, gj^ + P, ss;a^F° + ffc. Imper. e^,
eiôS, [-8*o5.] Neg. st«*3#>, Past tense ss^âfc, or
stotfcg"^, -Stêfc he did not give.
sstfc^k To come. Root as "Ce54£> he did not come. —Pres.
3 tfcy:tofj'£>Li&§)sS2&) 7^1+ + P&. Aor. *8$> + fk, + i&] &c.
Past ^CjO + p, Imperat. tt>, e&o, Bos£>, boS, [xr*oa.]
Neg. "tf'rk. Past tense "Wttb.
i3tS^4j To die, expire. Root 'CP, or tf>£ as xy;S"3«Sb he did not
die. Pres. C*bjtt>7P«a*§, ^^fr'^>, Aor. ts-S^fSi
Ac. Past tfSÔ + p, tf_& + p, C«j-p»+i*, CC^fysSb, Oîsfc.
Imp. ct°Si&o,xT,'€)JSo§, xT'ôa, TTe^)5§ Neg. *t£.
152 . GENERAL RULE.
Trîj v. n. To enter. Root xS"« as Pres. ->r*sfcy-3b
TT^Sog, tS^ {S^&fT'a.'* or iS^-^Sfo. Aor. tS~&i&. Past Tr*a^-|-fa,
T.r*sîy -i-;S), Tr°^+ -rir* -(- jt>. Imperative tS"£C>sS», tS^soS,
Neg. ir*SiSo. Past tense -<r,tf"g«&.
^sk^k) To pain or ache ,- this being a neuter verb is only used
in the third person ; as, it aches, they ache. "?»'a^*->, Root "Sus^S,
Tbar-sS, "?>j-° as "?»sS£~^«£> it did not ache. T^tf 5" without aching.
"7b=p>«e)oSSi> to speak painfully. —Pres. ^^"E&>l|xe§,Twî^,^>o
oS or vulgarly [~p»ê.] Plu. TjotS^&â &c. Aor. "Sw^sk,
Past lloa^B, Tu^ffc. Plu. Neg. Tbo.-<£"3<K>.
-ESr-nb&j To see. Root as •c&-°#'Ss& he did not see. Pres.
■*Sy&w°<x+i&, ■E&*7iH> + i3i. Aor. + {Sr>«S>-f-iS> &c. Past
■i&»aS + ?), iSr»0|!r» + -nSr-^-fp. Imperat. -aar*fi&, iSr»eSbsSxi, -iSr*
JSoojt, ■E&'ifc^, Cfiftfoi, tSr>JSc&. Neg. •ESr*Sf&, £Sr>£jfc.
GENERAL RULE
The affirmative and negative relative participles form the basis
of the tenses and will be best understood from examples. In
these we shall perceive that the Affirmatives end in INA and the
negatives in ANI.
First Conjugation.
fcS<&3*J To sell sold —*r unsold
play who played 69-3|o unplaying
-2r«.So4j sing sung iY*£p unsung
become done -B-°p undone.
Second Conjugation.
Do done undone
cut cut uncut
pour poured £*<S&P unpoured
"must" sSejf^ £v$p
be wet &i*iS wetted <$&e&P unwetted.
PASSIVE VEEB. 153
Third Conjugation.
-r>«bi> To boil boiled vtfp unboiled
caU called fcasSp uncalled
love loved :te:S|& or £°&P
who brought Hp
die dead vrap undying
&SS>oiS>iJ have called fcOfcotf p
have done
place &otfp
bend sSoi5f>
count oioCfS reckoned oôiSjt) uncounted.
PASSIVE VERB.
The Passive Verb is formed by adding At£>i> 'to suffer' to the
Infin. in A of any verb ; the initial P being softened becomes B.
Thus from a&o^)t> the passive forms are as follows,
a&oa&wsfcij TO BE SENT.
Present tense 1 a&os&MSfcgop^-f jfc I am sent
2 «&oa6»i68o"(T^3S
3 m. ôa&wJSoSjfJ^Sb
'if. n. H&oa&wJSbaSjSâ &c. &c.
Past tense 1 afcoa&M&S-f-p, &o&H%jr* + fr, a6o<£)Mw»4-j9»
I was sent
Future tense 1 a&oa&M'Sssifc, a&oa&M^ffc I shall or will be
sent
Aorist 1 *oa&»3«oaj>j3i
Negative Aorist 1 a6oa&«S;S> I shall or will not be sent.
The Imperative might be formed on the same mode, but is
needless in the Passive voice.
T
154, CHANGE OF CONJUGATION.
As afcjfci* 'to fall' has already been conjugated, we need not
here give more than the first person.
Some intransitive verbs can at pleasure adopt a passive form.
Thus from &o&to 'Be' &oUwxsj*e& (a rustic phrase) he was, &c.
So in English, we say he is gone, he was gone (which are Passive
forms) instead of has gone, had gone-
Some parts of the verb S>;6«iSb4-> to be heard are commonly
used in the active sense, as 3j4w«o&rr^jj& I am heard, S;S»&Qp
I was heard for S>o&»7r^jS> and &o£p I hear and I have heard.
Further details will be given in the syntax.
ON CHANGE OE CONJUGATION.
It has been seen that the verb &&>&> to fall is the sign of the
passive voice in all verbs. It belongs to the first Conjugation and
accordingly in the passive voice all verbs fall under this conju
gation.
And the causal voice ends in cu. Accordingly whenever a verb,
whatever its conjugation uses the causal voice ending in cu, it
appertains to the third Conjugation.
The verb L?r»cs65 vrayu to tcrite is originally of the 2d conjuga
tion ending in Tu : but its passive is (jr-aawssbii which belongs
to the first Conjugation and its causal is l_sr»ouot& which belongs
to the third. Accordingly verbs are merely distinguished as end
ing in cu, yu, tu &c. without any note of Conjugation.
MIDDLE VOICE.
The Middle voice is formed by adding r'j&i) to take either to
the Root in U, as has already been conjugated or to the past
participle. Thus *o^r>4j or aboir* j&t,.
MIDDLE VOICE. 155
§~°fS>£> as meaning 'To take, or buy' is a regular verb. But
as an affix of the middle voice it is in some places irregular.
Some verbs use the middle voice ; others (as in Greek) do not.
In those verbs which use it, the conjugation is uniform.
Examples.
Present Tense 1 ô^) or *oar°c4x>'p^ +&>, a&oS)r*o&r» + jS>
Past Tense 1 a&o^ or a6otr,c*3p, a&o&e-'T^fb
Future Tense 1 *o^; 0r <s&o«,r,'-^«j3i, aSotr'^fS*
Aorist 1 &o'4) or a&o»>r,,;s>iS>jS>) aSotr-oSifSi.
And all other persons are in like manner conjugated as in
i4)r"r&k> to send. The form ô^S^fS) pampi-conu is rarely used.
Verbs in the Second Conjugation form the Middle voice with
SU or ?> SI but not with oSb YU or «» TI. Thus Sj&r'j&Ai or
^^r*jSiij to do, L^^rî&iJ or l^r'i&ij to write, never ^
Further explanation on the mode in which the Middle voice is

formed and alters the sense of words will be given in the Syntax.
THE CAUSAL VOICE.

The Causal Voice is made in various modes. Some verbs have
no causal. The simplest mode is this ; Qofb incu is added to the
Root in \}. Thus from j6o^)4j to send, ôS>otfc*j to cause him
to be sent, v. a- to build becomes S"*3otSd4j to cause to be
built, â6xj*j v. a. to tell, ^ftyjtfii) to have it told, §~<gk> v. a.
to beat, e"°goiX>&> to have (him) beaten, "r3cjft>&> y. a. to do, ^
oMo-SbiJ to get it done, 6"*c8x>i> v a to cut, Sêxuotfci) to have
it cut, ljtr»c»k*J to write, (jsr»cx»oi56&> to get it written, &*&&>t>
to pour, J&^cxooHbij to have it poured, "^c&»&> to throw, ômo^Sj
*j to get it thrown, v. n. to play, £S-&oi£ii> v. a. to play.
156 CAUSAL YEEB.
In English we often use the same verb for both voices : thus
rfbj&ii iato turn, v. n. as it turned: and &>fooiSit> y. a.
to turn, as I turned it, e3-sfct> to play, v. n. fcS-&oifcfc>
v. a. to play.
Some verbs in & GU make the causal in cu. Thus v&io
v. n. to boil, T»iS>*>, to boil, v. a. -in*7fc*J v. n. to hide, nr-ikAj
V. a. to hide, e£r"Ko*i v. n. to weigh, tir'y&li or ocfcii v. a. to
weigh, •jfr'JfcAj v. n. to extend, stretchj^^tJ/jÂoiiit^to stretch,
extend, S*Koi> v. n. to swing, 6tcfc*J y. a. to swing, &&i6>l> v. n.
to break, SSotfatj v. a. to break, ssoxiij y, n. to bend, tfoQatj y. a.
to bend.
Some verbs are contracted as follows :—
fi#>!6*j v. n. To tear, Ootbt> or Oo^tJ v. a. to tear, tfcj&xii*
v. n. to sink, *s»o^£>*j v. a. to sink, to drown, ■w&rtoia v. n. to
grow, tio&ti v. a. to increase, &&>foto v. n. to break, *>ctS)*j
v. a. to break, ©Xa*J v. n. to descend, 8oTfct> 0r Soij(yfc> y. a. to
take down, v. n. to break, "3oiS)*j or "3oi4)*j v. a. to break-
Some verbs change ?6 GU into PU. Thus,

tsc&Xii) y. n. To pass, ki$>i6)*j or «8jiO-si>i> v. a. to cany on,
"Si&tefc) y. n. to be tamed, ~&&-4)t> v. a. to tame, 8&*ofc> v. n.
to turn, 8*>}t> v. a. to turn.
Some verbs in & DU, & EU and e» LU add $u. Thus,
tSyi&ti v. n. To fade, be scorched, tfo*ifc«>4j or t£r>2£^t» v. a. to
dry up. wJfefa v. n. to fade, w«SoCS)*j or sr»î> to make fade.
sgp>«bi> y. n. to be buried, %p&&>i> or sgrS&^J y. a. to bury. *&•
tk*J v. n. to change, «fir>co«ofc>, sSr-Sv^tj or s&»0oi6)k v. a. to change.
Ôo*j v. n. to arrive, ^&«fc*>, v. a. to join. e5-a5t> y. n. to
be extinguished, es-Sot&fc>, or 55-Oo^)4j v. a. to extinguish.
Sj-coAj y. n.to sink, &"»e»Oi>i> or Sr»eiJî> to ruin. T°txit> v. n. to
burn, TT'euflbi) or V»e»^*j y. a. to burn. ftSt»*j y. n. to move, 5"
Bewi&iJ, S'eojO ©r 5"sDott>t> y. a. to move. xr»««ii y. n. to flow,
CAUSAL VERB. • 157
fall, TT-iactfci^ tJH«^4j or ■c«3^)*j v. a. to make fall.
to float, 1$cotiot> "«5sm^*j or "SSo-i&ij v. a. to make it float.
Some verbs in t&> DU, r*> NTJ and YU are still more irre
gular. Thus,
a«bfc> v. n. To be loosed, a«fctfcfc>, s*j*j, a«>^4j v. a. to loose,
riiSofc) v. n. to fall, *8-&4j to spread, Pcifc*j v. n. to fill, Povfck,
j&oîJ or pofto-dbij v. a. to fill, 5"fS>*J v. a. to see, fpfco-Bbk v. a. to
make visible, ffki) v. n. to say, eptiocbt) to make it to be told,
©£>*j v. a. to eat, Qptct&to to cause it to be eaten, s r*>*o v. a. to
hear, 3pS>oiS)&> to recite, e4dtfio*J to fear, KSfcotSaio to frighten,
S58dSo4o v. n. to rain, &'8S>o<S>Aj or &8a»o£fc*J to pour, "Sotfcsjojti
to shine, "aoB&otSsij make shine, tSrxs&l* to be foul, sSj»^4j to
dirty, ■âdaSotj to graze, or"^>tjofici> to graze cattle,
e»r°jS>fc> v. n. to rise, "SoeuSûiî) v. a. to awake.
&o«6*j v. n. To be, forms in the Causal &o-s&t> To place.
Thus *ao«>*J, Sotfgsfao, eoxSaSo, ^joa, $o3. Neg. $ocrjt>. middle
©ocfoSr*jS><J. ©o-Sar*tf S sS» To keep.
Some verbs in cu change into t>otf> pincu. Thus «fcr°i&i> to
weigh, «fo-°?jo-abiJ to have it weighed, *e»tf>4j to call, &9&otf>i>
to send for, to drag, -&4ô*S4j to have him dragged, 3e
■Bsaj to love, s5«io-fS>ij to enamour.
Those in <;cu are thus formed: *3tfc^*J to bring, "3
•j^ccfcij to send for, =1^^ to give, sô£bt> to have it delivered.
But others are irregular. Thus pwjckiJ to stand, poo^Jtj to
stop, "eSiSiiJ to rise, to arouse, awaken, ■E&»'&>k> to see, iSr»
^)t> or «r>?)OtS5iJ to shew, to die, tfo^yk to kill or tfoio
■iS>*J to have him killed, sS«^4j to come, BfcôiSiij or TF-aoflbti
to cause him to come, <^tfs^*J to increase, A$§p&te to have it
increased.
158 CAUSAL VERBS.
Qn Monosyllabic Roots and their Causal Forms.
T» That is «3>*J ' to become' forms in the Causal T»ao<i!t>,
Tgaoff<£«S», "5""3oQ, -r»ao^ meaning to effect, make, perform.
But this verb "5~°3o*<j ig only used in poetry.
■cr° That is sS«^*j < To come,' forms in the Causal tJlôiSik, tf
-S* That is ' To give' forms in the Causal sôabi>, *
That is ' To bring' forms in the Causal 1ISôtfofc>, "3
Those verbs that form the causal in, IN£U or £U are of

course included in the Third Conjugation,but those that form it in
other terminations, are placed in the first : and various verbs take
various forms ; which indeed are generally placed in the Dictionary
as separate verbs. Thus "€&Xo&> v. n. to break, "3otSi4j or "3o^J)t>
v. a. to break, &c.
The Causal tenses are formed exactly according to the simple
verb t>o-Efcfc to rear. Yet it may be useful to conjugate one re
gular verb throughout.
Infinitive in TA abo&otkij To hare it sent, cause it

to be sent
Infinitive in A a6o5>oi5
Infinitive in DAMU aS)o2,otf£sS»
Infinitive in E'DI aft o & o 3 e .
There is a form i£os>os& but it is used only in verse.
Pres. p|| a&oSjo-Efc-Bbfj, afcofcotfogbiSj^, a&o?>^)fly_
Past p|| a&ofcoO
Rel. p|| *cS>oOiS
Aorist p|| sfiofco^, d&o&o^fS, a&o&o^3§, a&o&oâ&g, a&cto
»§. •
CAUSAL. 159
Negative pj) in g" Ka d&o&oC? or a&o4>oO$>OTS»
Negative Rel. p||

Negative verbal noun sbo&otfSo.
Present Tense t
fb^ + ffc
3/. ». AofcoiSbsoiâ, a&ofci&iâ, [i6o4>^Joe.]
Past Tense
rs&o&OTJ* -[-;&.]
Future Tense
Affir. aorist
Neg. Aorist.
Imperative sing. ssokocfc, «6of;oiS>6»§, a&o°>o«bsSr'§) aGo
2)OtSboji>.
Plu. a6oio*0HsS»§, ôf>oS$s£», a&ofcot&Tyojfco,
2 aftotoijoa, a&otocbaog, a&c»)oe)^§.

Prohibitive sing 2 <S&Oj)0'ffS', *0&OTJ§0, £ot>oiJS5sS»§, a&o
&otf§5sSr°§, a&o&osys&o^g.
Plu. a&o&oxjro&ô&otfSojfcgjif&ototfSSotfb,
a&of>oi5SS&§.
The various forms here omitted are the same as those used in
the verb "SioObiJ « torear' which is already conjugated.
The Middle and Passive voices are as usual formed from the
Boot in TJ and in A. Thus a&ofco-s&r'jSi^, *o&oC»«&i> and
these are conjugated like §"*rfck and «6«o*j.
On Jj7vs&2'fo:)ei0 Rustic Phrases.

Some forms used in common talking are considered vulgar.
Thus &9?>-*3 for tSii-^fJîfc I will call him. This contraction
160 COMPOUND TENSES.
is equivalent to the English ' Til give it ;' 'you're going :' ' he's
coming :' which rarely occur in writing. Learned natives (though
they often talk thus) wish such phrases to be excluded from a
Grammar : but a foreigner requires information regarding them.
They are in daily use, even among men of education, and also
occur in some poems.
ON COMPOUND TENSES.
Having now gone through all the various conjugations and the
irregular verbs, it is requisite to notice some forms which are ap
plicable to all verbs :—some other forms will be noticed in the
Syntax. Indeed they all appertain to the construction of senten
ces.
Compound tenses being formed from a pronoun joined to a re
lative participle (thus, he who was, iSoSjSsj-ifc) these forms are
some times used.
ô5j5w2efS» ' I was.' Lit. ' I am he who was' iSoSjSct»£»$
' Thou art he who was' which by contraction as already shewn
become £)0&fr,;&, ôStt°^ I was, thou wast.
The following are the compound forms of the past tense and
are similar to those already given under the simple verbs. The
negative affixes are applied as already shewn.
AfFIEMATIVE.
Masc Fern, and Neut.
S. 1 m^fb%)o&$sr'l&+ jfc I am he who was 1 "^ffcôajSTS"($-)-;&
I am she who was
3 m. ■zr>&$o&fioT*e£>. 3 fcJ3$oa;S£>.
P. 1 m. f. "&sS»©o&jSsr»tf sS»
2 m.f. Sxn>&&o&#-ar*&
3m./sr»&§o&j$;r»BS.
COMPOUND TENSES. 161
The neuter has no peculiarities. waôcliSe it was. fcSaôSjSa
those things were.
The first and second persons singular have a feminine form bor«
rowed as usual from the pronoun. And in the first person sin
gular the ?k NUas usual may be dropped: thus &o&pTX*$ +fr
becomes €)oSj$Tj»jS ,*
And instead of the Rel. p|| the aorist p|| may be used. Thus,
in the Mahabharat (X. 2. 275.) &<if>rrQf[ag>&7>r-stS33
we serve (him) and live.
Or by adding *3ox>op &a., the following compound tenses are
made which are in daily use.
Masculine. Feminine and Neut.

S. 1 "^fS)?joa^3-^23 + P or WocoiT»-t-3i l^Sfkfioa^-CTvTJa 4-p
^^^rQêS^Q + P &c. ~fifi>&o%f>zr°f,~$ ^3-» _j_ ffc

2 p&&c&$T3*£J>&s> 2 ^©ôa^T^pôa
3 m. ^^SoajS «r»£6fc>g-f r6 3f.ll- <&&&C%#tSato§+<Si
P. 1 m.f. "&sS»^)Oa^sr-S'S;8aj
sSao sr»s ^ KT» 6»
2 «»./. Or»8o£)Oa;StCT'(i?a8
ton t£ © o a £ sr» "3 ess
3 OT./ sr-S ôa^.CT'Ô
•r»CSI)?)caii^r»"3 (OfOj
3fl. »3iJ)oa^!5So^ + 3*
«aôS j6sr«So + fit,
♦Examples.—Aniruddha Charitra, Canto 2, stanza 112, the

heroine Usha sayB jr>tofao&^p&x£-8$,$sjx°$ Ever since that
day have I remained thus. Again "^^SÔiSÊol&t^ciS^-n*
F>a. I always laugh when I (fem.) see her. This is similar to the
use of the feminine participle in Greek; a*apiia2A2.\ x"/"*"
AVOKpiOVTOf avrov.
Negative.
The two forma &oZi-p*fS> or & fTÂ « I stopped, stayed or dwelt'
and T*fi» ' I am not' are often combined thus,
S. 1 'fijSi&o&p^&i-r'iSi I did not stay.
3 tit. w^6©fr^SbT,*6
3 /. n. waôaâ-r-iSb.
P. 1 m. f. ■ôJSbaôa^&aT'iSoa
2 »». /. 33o™»o€)oafr»£fiT'&
3 m. /. ^T»8o^)oS-jT»iSa_roC£)
3 «. waô-SiSa^-*?).
Or by adding to the Rel. p||.
Masc. I did not stay. Fern, and Neut. I did not stay.
B. 1 "îS)i£ioaj65r»Sj4>-BîS> 1 -ffrQo&pTS*
■^jS>$0&j$«r''t!>L-S-«jS> "^ffcôSkiSTB'^T'/ai
2 jb$$oS;SCT'tf ©"s-»$ 2 frS£)oaj6-Gr',jS$-r'£j
3 to. ar-afci2io5i6CT»JSb-r°j6. 3 «. fc9a(gjoajSQT"j£>.
P. 1 to./. ~fotix>&oh$sr'3 sioT'tfja
2m/ £>r»aoôa^sr«C3or«c£>
3 to./. a-»t£>ôa;S«j»3o"B",SS
3 «. wa&oajSST^.
These forms are literally I am not he who was. Thus resem
bles the idiom used in French. Ce n' etait pas lui qui Pa dit.*
* Some propose the following forms : but they are not in use.
Masc. I did not stay. Fern. I did not remain,
l i$*>$otfjt>«r»ai!»it> l iSffcôap-nyjâio
^fb$o£p*nm<$p 2 ^©otfp-Gr'ji^ga
COMPOUND TENSES. 163
The termination in N (P or ?X>) as already noticed is dropt at
pleasure, because the letter N occurs so frequently that it is not
consistent with harmony : which is primarily considered in
Telugu verse. Even in common talking it is often dropt.
The syllable » VI (fc>a»03, <fcotSa) which terminates the se
cond person singular of the past tense, is often dropt.
Thus in M. 1. 1. 174. ^?>S is written for 3f OS and this fre
quently occurs in common talking.
The negative aorist is sometimes compounded with the verb
<&$)l> to become, in this manner. This conveys the sense " I omit
ted to stay," " I failed to stay," &c.
S. 1 ■ffr®c£j38 + p (or)
2 ?$®oii£QZ> (a)
3 m. •r'JScgjoiSsSaog -j. fb
"^73*So + fit
p. i •&>js»©oera)8&> (c)
3 m Jf. ^r«Oo£)oa'B8
a—
(a) Thus ai$28» Surabh 1 14. 1h38 Balram VI. 278.

(6) ~f$TT>-GS°&>p> (Katam Eaz, page 494) he was not in sight.
P^-cs'oîS) Radha. 3. 103.
(e) The compound form ■&>jjf_'5i8Sv> occurs in a stanza of the
Vedanta Rasayan describing the appearance of our Lord to the
Marys after the resurrection. This poem is described in the
Madras Journal of Literature (July 1840) in "Notices of some
Roman Catholic Books existing in the Telugu Language," page
55.
3 n. «a«o5:5o3a^ + iS> (i) -^sJoa^-f. ?&
These are all conjugated like the verb W*£i> to become, but the
sense is negative.
There is also another form as *od&2<g,p^!fe he is about to
send.
The verbs *o^)t> to send, 3<sSjAj to do, "^ctfcAj to rear &c,
take the same forms ; and these forms are applicable to nearly
all verbs. Thus,
1st Conju. 2d Conju. 3d Conju.
1 &o&lid+p I did not send + P I did not do ôtfâ
+ p I did not rear
a&oa&'ssa thou ^(sasss "Socasa
*o*el6ajg + 3* he ^Sc«iisso- + i!ii "Sotssofcg + fs*
Kfcoat«Sjg+-^> she •ficsiBoa^ -t- ffc "aotfoafcg + |S>
Or else or or
a6o*-cs'as-|-fS> he "$c&-cr>^ + j& "a otf + ;&
«&oij£)TToao4-ia» she ôsi-iy^ -t-ffc "SoO'cj'oij+ia*
&c. &c. &c.
Some pedants assure us that i6c*^8p is not negative but af
firmative : ' I sent.' But tins is absurd. Some forms are also
mentioned which we may reject as wrong, such as *o£T3 r'"'?**
"S"V& I did not send. Those who advocate such phrases ought to
produce proofs of their assertions.
Herefrom lja»&S_i> to adore, l3xSf_^6.&> ia %ce omitted to

adore.
So in G-. X. 158. aStf'îGDgCSo^L.c^jTS^ôS' SeiSsw l*>^,9
(d) In B. X. § 10. 391. tfA^wrgcwowtf^sSigr- the words

of the hermit did not fail.
SYNTAX. 165
BOOK FIFTH.
ON SYNTAX.
Optimi ad vulgus hi sunt concionatores, qui pueriliter, triviali-
ter, populariter et simplicissiine docent.
Luxheb.
Nobis prima sit virtus perspicuitas. Qcikctilian. VIII. 2.
The Syntax uses an arrangement of words which is common

to the Peninsular languages (as Tamil and Canarese) but entirely
different from that of Sanscrit and that of Hindustani.
The Telugus are a people quite as highly civilized as any in
Europe : occasionally their modes of speech resemble those of
Italy. Thus instead of * Sir you told me to do so' the phrase is
&,& ^cx£»&p (Sôtvoo **>& txuOôo (this do saying lordships
order gave) My lords (plural) gave me directions to do this.
When the Telugus or Tamils speak 'English, the syntax they
use is strange, because they think in their own language : and
in like manner in speaking their language we cannot without
taking much pains use the correct syntax. The Hindus, even those
who are uneducated, are generally quite correct in speaking their
own language ; and certainly never err in number and gender, as
the English often do in talking English. The dialect used in
Telugu towns is somewhat corrupted : that used in the town of
Madras is objectionable : for Madras is a Tamil town : but in
retired hamlets the language isspoken very purely : and the style
used in Vemana, the Lila, the'Tales of Nala, Hariscbandra, and
Abhimanya ought to furnish a complete key to those niceties of
Syntax which daily occur in speaking and writing.
Sentences or paragraphs run into one another as is the custom
in English Acts of Parliament: being linked by past partici
166 SYNTAX.
pies (having so done) or gerunds (by so doing) instead of verba
and conjunctions : thus instead of he arose and went the phrase
is "^CôMiâfc having arisen, he went: or else &S)£]4osSbp5$_&j&
by (his) calling (me) I came, that is he called me and I came. Thus
resembles the Latin Gerund.
When a long paragraph is composed of several smaller portions*
it is often requisite to reverse their order. Indeed in a long in
tricate paragraph I have often been obliged to read the first line
or member, and place th.e translation low down the page ; the
next line over it ; the third above that ; and so on until I reached
the final member, and placed it as the commencement of the Eng
lish paragraph.
Numerous instances of this may be seen in the Telugu Reader,
and in theWars of the Rajas.
From the peculiarities of the southern languages it is hard to
translate into them from Sanscrit, or English, without a very
great change of arrangement.
In poetry and in ordinary talking (as happens in English) the
order of words is sometimes reversed : and the arrangement used
in the poetry of the one language is used in the prose of the other.
Thus instead of <3-°Sfn>^cx»aî6a the lady gave (it to me) we
hear Qft±$S<S"6ir>p she gave (it me,) the lady. For TfSôjfe
sSa^fyJSb my brother is come ^?^'?^>^>FT> tSsîfo he is come, my
brother : S"fiT>4aa& !f_;6 tie him up, the dog : which would correctly
be So§" frte^kn.
ON BRIEF EXPRESSIONS.
Telugu like Tamil and Cannadi is as laconic as English and we
collect the meaning from circumstances : thus s^fk " Give
say" means tell (him) to give (it to the man.) Or it may mean
desire (them) to give (you the things.) "Cp^^^&jd 'come let
Baid they,' that is, they said ' permit him to come.' 0 adj. cold i. e.
* See LanghorneB observations in his preface to Plutarch : on

that author's lengthened periods.
BRIEF EXPRESSIONS. 167
■ It is very cold.' B£S 3» fever i. e. he has got a fever. fo[p horse !
may mean, I want my horse; or the horse is come. ê>sr» leave ?
that is will you permit me ? or may I go ? to which the reply may
be f6jl§ yes. tsabxPif jS» Error ! i. e. pardon me. s>r»e^?5o^^'«S» your
favour ! meaning thank you, OT»^)regii'0 I entreat you : thus a sin
gle noun or a short phrase is often used in speaking to convey a
sentence. In the ordinary language used in letters, the style is
not difficult ; but the spoken language is often obscure, because the
natives often use a single word or a short phrase, perhaps aided
by " suiting the action to the word" a motion of the hand, head
or eye ; which are not easily understood by a foreigner. Indeed
silent motions or (fc?$;ScSi!&:) gestures often convey the phrases
" I will come ;" " quite impossible ;" " I do not know" " he is
gone" '' admirable" " shocking" " tall and thin" " large and fat"
"he is gone to eat his dinner." These and many other phrases
are conveyed in a manner perfectly intelligible to natives.
With peculiar gestures the single word aSossSx" < a feast'
denotes To-day is a feast day and I request permission to go
home.*
But in writing Telugu letters and statements such brevity is
not used : indeed the style is often verbose and lengthy. A pri
soner or witness often gives his statements very briefly : which
the clerk "will write down in a diffuse style supplying dates, hours,
ages and numbers according to his own knowledge.
Even in written Telugu the brevity of the dialect often makes
it obscure: thus e ^j^^r* &i-fr>^rt&-&> 'Let come if say
anger : go if say anger:' that is, ' If we call (you, you) are angry ;
if told to go you are equally displeased.' Sl^sSb^Hoeupo w
6~" o3&a « now day full, night little :' i. e. At present the day is
longer than the night: This brevity often renders it hard to
translate with precision.
In the comedies the following phrase is common fîSbTPsa
•Oo|_«5io"^5S>fS>'*"F°c5,!^> (Sugriva Vija) Then Ramachandra spoke
* See the remarks made by Montaigne in his apology for Ray

mond de Sebonde ; where he quotes Plin. N. H. VI. 30.
168 SYNTAX.
as follows. When a speech commences thus, the phrase t??T3S>^
"fr»iSb is sometimes omitted at the end.
Pronouns also are not used so much as in English : being often
omitted. Thus (•r-|>'Fr,»j& I have written (it.) *^5> P'&they sent
(him me, it &c.) st«ot»s» îSi he sold (his) house. "itu^^r"
p^Jfc he cut (his) finger : but when they are expressed they some
times convey a doubtful meaning ^{Sb^PoweufcSs^fT'dSb he sold
his house, would mean that one man sold the house belonging to
another. XiljJsko"^^"^ (I) want (my) horse. Literally horse is
wanted.*
The numeral " One" (as one book, one horse, one o'clock) is
generally omitted. Thus X'o4->~f)3&43f sSf^TT'iSb he came within an
hour : oj^ôoj one rupee : ox»'A»o»iS^tf one rupee and a half.
The verb &oJ&&> > To be' and ' To become' are frequently
(as in Hebrew f) understood and not expressed ftS-"&>&a>oocfc£)2»
uo©FVlSo by leaving out the verb es-'aoS&aaOM&aû To her
how many children ? that is, How many has she ? —sr»ifcotbsS£«6
he who i. e. who (is) he ? ** £>o&>&> it what i. e. what (is) it ?
■ssôoa>?fj£ they where? i. e. where (are) they? £>"~15£b your
name what ? i. e. what (is) your name ? ^"p^S this (is) mine-
* In ancient English of Henry Seventh both articles and posses-

sives were omitted. Thus (Paston Letters by Fenn Yol. 1 p.
445) each of them embraced [the] other in [his] arms. This is
printed Ech of them enbraeyd odr in armys.
In the English Bible we find the words he, him, I, me, tee, our,
she, her, they, them, printed in Italicks because wanting in the
Hebrew. And these may also be omitted in translating into Te-
lugu.
The accusative case of nouns also is perpetually omitted : and
this also is a Hebraism, See Exod. XVIII. 22, the burden. Judges
Y. 11, inhabitants. And in like manner the auxiliary am, art, is
are left out. See 1 Samuel XIX 22.
t Thus in St. Luke XVI. 15. that which (is) highly esteemed.
SOFTENING INITIALS. 169
"S>iS»es-dSiiS?fsSn e>js» we (are) his brothers. SjSsooOa this (is)
good. a*aw&p«»ew this (is) his house, ziaespa this (is) his.
Tr,§2>oT»Sij&cs& a beggar will love her brat. Lit. The crow's
chick (is) the crow's pet. afcoapCoiijSwiiaMofaa he who has
slain the boar (is) a hero. £S8JSI»fcoa«r»4fc he (is) a good man.
Elsewhere the verb understood is " which is the root of
fc9£>fc>. £)0&7n-zr>oc& these (are) my people. •&'3?es-drti6oajo*r*
aoj£> there (is) a feast in his house to-day. ~$tyt:o& to-morrow
(there is) a marriage. The verb which is understood is «s^«ooa
from «*^)^> to become.
On SoriENiNa Initial Consonants.

This has been sufficiently explained in page 41. Other words
use this change only in poetry.
And even in poetry it is a mere matter of taste as in English,
Governour, Saviour, behaviour, honour, favour &c. may be other
wise spelt Governor, &c.
Accordingly even in transcribing poetry or inserting a word in
the Dictionary the soft or hard initial is often used at pleasure.
Thus s^txa poi or sSâw boi; &f> cani or tsp zani ; * f^kannu or
X$>X gannu ; "^Sfc tokku or <S^* dokku ; ^ko or This is a
matter of small moment. The learned assert that all words have
such license : but this is not correct : and as regards Sanscrit
words the initials are softened even in poetry -i5o(K i8 sometimes
written ®o\gs but sound scholars usually shun such an alteration.
Conjunctions.
The conjunction #>X nnu stands (like que in Latin) at the end
of words ending in U. Thus ■sr'o«bj&^"^»«S»^vandlu-nnu-memu-
nnu, both they and we.
Words ending in i as w*r>5 vaniki • to him' use fJi nni : thus
i
170 SYNTAX.
ct«PS?>>l£>P§^_ vanikinni viniki-nni ' both to that man and to this
man.'*
Sometimes the final vowel a, 1, u, is merely lengthened : this
accent serving instead of a conjunction. Thus -zr>t& he : but w*
j£r»jS^3\ be also came. *>*Jt» clothes, Jforêx) bundles may be
come w*ê>r»sfoT^fc)ex) clothes and bundles.
But the conjunction is very generally dropt: thus f *
"^fS) He and he and' I. e9-ooS£t» the wife and children. cS^tJtS^cr
"i*""? master and mistress sr>p§ &p§ to him (and) to him. s*r»0o'&>
* Some foreign words which end in i also use ^5. but the long
vowel is shortened. Thus *o I, pallakr, gadi have long termi
nations. But when there is a conjunction, these are made short :
thus *o pSllakinni gadinn!.
The following rule is devoid of proper authority.
' Another form is which is added to words ending in a, a ,
and e ; but the short vowels are generally lengthened : thus ** Jf
atta mother-in-law and mama father-in-law may become ^
rb&Q&r'îb i*3L both his mother-in-law and father-in-law.
a jacket, *"K» a turban, become ^'T?friSgp*rtr,yuitQL A jacket
and a turban. "TV&'a gadide an ass, «lj3 barre, a she buffalo,
become "K*&~&fi>fS>£«>lllt&rSQ_.'
The form f*tf>i. is occasionally used to the postpositions termi
nating in a short : without lengthening the final short : thus
In poetry ffc nu alone is used, thus (B. VIII. 188.)

S>x>is<m?S> (nu) |t>er« <S^^;s>
■SMSeufi) (nu) fc>"3
"2?o£& the beginning of all was in Thee, And the end is in Thee ;
both end and midst, and origin art Thou of creation: like as
earth is to the vessel."
CONJUNCTIONS. 171
(both) you (and) we.f c* A reddi (a reeve or head farmer,)
"i&o a clerk, 'S^Sn&>:!S^Lreddi carnamunnu, both the reeve and
the clerk. tsjf acca elder sister, «f ^S0^5 acca chellendlu, both
elder and younger sisters. fc?^ young, "S>B old, pinna
peddalu, both young and old. This was an old word for the com
mons or common council in a village.
Sometimes the conjunction is emphatic, and used at pleasure :
thus 8(*safci%'&>i&)oes:s»f&jd)j sSMTT'€)7r£LsjM At present " too"
we are all happy, eJ££«6jSbyo»4s»"tf this is always the case.
There is another conjunction <sX» YU which is used in poetry
In poetry we sometimes find that the first word alone using the
sign. Thus a bow, wsêu arrows would in common life be
»tvjj& tsêuffc 'both bow and arrows;' or atowsêAifSo, 0r sim
ply 3eufcssS»tx). But in poetry it takes the form ae»jS«S»w villu-n-
ammulu, -Z^vofitytoo rice and milk.
" Night and day'"o*iaoMXoao is contracted for ^lO^Kotu .
And &G>o-tnB£ ten and a quarter, <&n>*jWooaeS>o-i-°SS' 105} These
are similar in construction.
D. Abhimanya p. 76. ?>9 ~isx> "3"^ £>r«3 Luck (and) want
(are) light (and) dark like, That is ' wealth and poverty follow
each other as do night and day.'
f Thus in P. 2. 47. *|| tfcBSgiiaiSSS -j3c*6gtSix>j$ s6 aetfg«S»i69S
•fSsSi'JsSecSSxj "îT,55"2>iSr" S"d3jgsSx> "KWO^SSb puo^dSi "^d*g!i» SdSÔ
The Pancha Tantram is written in verse with much learning

and eloquence but it is an elevated rhetorical style and the amor
ous descriptions are highly coloured. There is a prose abridge
ment in Telugu which our native teachers often advise a learner
to read. But the style is pedantic and the book is dry and use
less. The childish volume called Vicramarka Tales ■Er°£l»o:?
tHpogfo$$a3 is more paltry and should be avoided. The
original poem is greatly admired for its style. These prose
abridgments are like the ordo printed in Borne editions of Horace.
172 SYNTAX.
after a word ending in a or i, or e thus WiS<&» e^c&j, Hoa&i
§^gcs£ot &»6cf&> sâdHu both that and thia. ^Sd^&^s&âa
DEB. 601. Hari and Eudra fought. So in U. B. ^sScSMsfcO&dfcj
The word «s>8 (yet besides, but yet) is often used as a conjunc
tion: sometimes NI or TU is added. Thus or sfcOccfo
[Thus in Latin at or atque.'] These words have been erroneous
ly used in the old version of the Scriptures in places where Telu-
gu requires no conjunction. The word &&o~tj (id est, that is to
say) has also been wrongly used for the conjunction.
The conjunction "B"*P or ~K°P (the initial K being softened into
G see page 41) signifies and not : it stands at the end of a phrase.
It may be rendered indeed thus ^SStt-P or M"**?**8ê»as$<fi
they will grant permission to you but not to him. Literally to
thee indeed, to him permission they will not give. ■sr'Jfc'Oes^STJ
jS»rtiTvS0fc9tfss&o-s-<'iSa wbat he studied was Telugu and not Tam
il. Lit. " What he has read is Telugu indeed, Tamil not"
P Except this, and besides this. &<X>$*o tfS>ss&'j3-7r»pj&)eo5»ra
sS£<xo-»i£f>T35f_d&#d£> This can be effected by none but him. Lit.
Unless by hiim indeed this work cannot be settled. See Lila XX.
219. 221. In such phrases the Telugu omits the affirmative and
uses the negative verb. The words T-p or oowty* when repeat
ed are used for either, or; thus ^TT'P^JSbTr'f) s^sScfc^jfc either
you or he may go. ~$£<yx>TT'~§£ox>TF> either to-day or tomorrow
but when fc»owp» is not repeated it signifies even or at least : as
^:5oa5(T»Tr'5'dâa even thou hast not come-
Other observations will be found in the rules regarding the past
participle.
On the Emphatic Affixes, A', E', O'.
In common prose these are long. In poetry they are shorten
ed at pleasure.
The affix a denotes question. Thus ^S^Tyab he came. sS^tt"
did he come ? E' denotes certainty : it is the intensive. Thus £
^fP1^ vaccinade ' surely he came' : ' he certainly came.' that
very man, only that man. 0' denotes doubt $6^7?° vaccinadd
THE AFFIXES, A', E', 0'. 173
perhaps he came. a^?wf)ac&)'3x» perhaps this is his. 6fr»<jfi'*"3
perhaps he is there, perhaps he is not. to thee, f^pl to
him. frr'sr-pr* perhaps to thee (or else) to him. ^ST6^^
perhaps he will come (or perhaps) he will not come.
If O is added to an interrogative, as a>?£_5"?>T« it
may denote douht : as I know not who, some body or other ; I know
not where, some where or other, I wonder who, I cannot tell
where.
But O' sometimes denotes reference: thus îÔo ye said.
txr-&^^-4z&.^l>£-ir'6HS&&'li&\iTr>&> I have brought the book
which you mentioned.
The sign of question (A') is often dropt, the voice alone denot
ing enquiry. Thus ~t4)Tr>& ? he won't come to-morrow ?
?£)otf iS ? you won't stay to-day ?
The affix a is sometimes a mere intensive : thus (from
to rise) (sing) rise. "SoS rise ye. Intensive forms "B*^ !
•ô-cy ! Oh rise ! Thus ^S^jt) to say ÂgOo Bay thou. H&g&v
(or in poetry dropping one letter ^3^)^) O tell me !
In poetry emphasis sometimes uses a short instead of e long.
Thus, ~f&> .Nenu ' I' becomes "î* nena, I, myself. sniA vadu ' he'
s^JS vada, that very man. thou Mnlva thou, thyself. s**$«o
now or just now, even now.* In common speaking
these would be *r»Tt.
» aXjkoaso Mo^^ro^riboto f)sS (niva) jasS t&e^csw

VIII. 444. Thou alone art the great cause of all, thou verily art
the universe ! SjSS'tSao Xon^ ao^ttiSo tt<"S Xo"oao e>tf
"3j^P§ golfer- Xv& -sr-tf (vada) SSSfJoSo w£ (vada) a&oa&o
■KT-tf (j6rt,(jbcBS v&rsosfcr- efe2SoE-|| Panch Tantram II.

124. "If a man has accumulated wealth all his good qualities
obtain credit. If any one is opulent he (vada) is a man of high
174 SYNTAX.
In compound verbs as £&% + &oi£sb) 'being' sôw-l- $oJ£st>
'going' the emphatic sign may fall at the end of either verb.
When it is joined with thefirst it denotes certainty. Thus from
w&oaj (to sell) fcfa^TT^Sb iie nas sold (it) By adding the empha-
Bis to thefirst verb tsîS F^Si he certainly sold it. But if add
ed to the second verb it denotes wonder. Thus *=* «^ c3!^ Be
hold, he has sold it! £>&o£bfc> to bless, ©aoe® râo he blessed.
6»o^-pâ6 he certainly blessed. 6ao»©fr^ Behold ! he has
blessed !
Sometimes E' denotes only as well as emphasis : thus £>T?$D°i
■fT»c6 « these very men were there" may also mean " Only these
men were there'' f<j 0:3 fy>«& "he himself said soy' or "he
alone said so." -ffw^^^p there are butfour. w£ <JS"ta«s5 <S& i£o
you have merely to ask for it. Lit. Asking alone is wanting.*
birth, he is a man of learning, he is graced with every virtue,

he iB a man of eloquence ; he is popular, he is celebrated for
his powers in speaking."
(Et bene nuinmatum decorant Suadela Yenusque !) Sananda
Ganeswaram. 2. 120. f>f% ■sSr#X'8?.iS eôw ^Sôku "7T°"3 sSj-SS.
If the emphatic E' is followed by another vowel, N is interpos
ed. Thus *» atad ena what? he? feSSfj^-fy accadane
na what ? there ? (Atadu being a Kala word adds e but «S ^_a£
accada being a druta word interposes N and likewise adds Na.)
Sometimes E' denotes question. Thus "^fdâa"^ was she
away? (Panch 1. 801.) i. e. &*<x>3$Tr>, So again in P.
2, 50. ? || «t»;5o#!to -r*5'iS»"^ I wair-fSsS jSj&-tS> aao S&eorSo \jb
ST I «auix.(5 ;5^5SSssa I »«iS»5'6ts^ô^ we.*S»o voiio > Can that
be called strength which rests in the body alone ?
* But with druta words N is inserted: thus s^c£T* in the
house. o4S-°"l5 in the very house or only in this one house.
s** 5k2^ & ' On his only stabbing her' or ' the Moment
THE EMPHATIC AFFIX. 1J HE
10
The E' sometimes denotes identity : thus this is the
same man. ^3'3-i&)-4z~£a this is the book in question, or the
same book. ~8ot3psr-""6 5"g;ar*:5> the same people built the both, st
these are the same articles. ts'Pom'^^S her house itself is
[sacred as] Benares
A past p|| as "3?>, sâco, "3 ? may intensively become &°
5§og,'3l? and thus takes the form of the Rel. p|| : thus »",*oljr»"f>
I have already written the letter. B^xS'l^xr0® by
acting in this very way you have been ruined. ^"^Sif3^.^ he
already has said it.*
As shewn in these examples the emphasis must in English be
laid upon the auxiliaries "is" "has" "did" "was" " does" &e.
to convey the peculiar force of E'.
The emphatic E' sometimes has a taunting sense. Thus oi|&o
<fciS"3 To be sure you are a sensible man ! ~3<S^>i6s-£l3 you are
he stabbed her she fell down.' Thus in the Sumati Satacam, verse
10 : 5" |j ^T^-z^tfste 1 ">r»"$ e^raSsfccxuiS #>efc$)<y~§ or |
Vemana says, tfo<6 t*3*3 «"(«boa& tf£ | «"? iSp

sr*p ^3tfi-JTr«fol JiP-^x' Srs^^ -ffo^-fj. a. 'If a foe
worthy of death fall into thy hand, do him no injury, do him
every benefit and dismiss him : this is killing (him.)'
Here tfo^)~f> this is killing merely uses the accent.
A similar affix prevails in the language of the South Seas. See
Cook's Voyages Part 3. Bk. 1. Cap. 4. § 19 (in Kerr's Voyages
Vol. 13. page 46.) " Here the suffixes era and ira save many
words."
* In poetry (The Druta) syllable NI added to the emphatic affix
E' forming E'JNT signifies if: Thus ^^Ssr-aSsSoMS-Sp aitiVeni,
If thou be a native of that place. ôMo^ref (i. e. #8 "§)
M. X. 2. 34. If thou fail of effecting this.
176 SYNTAX, THE AFFIXES A', E', 0'.
very clever! ^SSauodS-Safcjfcwg'S Tara 3. 8. I suppose you have
nothing to do at home !
In a few places the letter V is inserted to prevent elision* and
E' being retained becomes E'VE' : thus #® mother ^j^S'j* tall-
eve karta the mother herself was manager. W3"pS"5'?9t>iytT»tf3 he
himself consented. f>£fs£» certain. I1^"^3 quite certain. f>«"& "3
absolutely certain. 69-_?> estate. or ^~t^ the very estate. V
tfg a wife. fc9tSpv*~£,g"3:3&^S his very wife said so. Ssflaoifcii
to inform, tell. 6&e*oi6l§ M. XIII. 4. 306. O tell me !
Further details regarding E' and TE' are to be found in a sub
sequent page regarding the Syntax of the Past Tense.
The affix 0 generally denotes doubt but sometimes question.
Thus ^(T6 Oh ? he ?t
If O is repeated it denotes or. Thus p>"§p#:Sm either you
or your brother.
If E' is followed by E' or A', the N is placed between. Thus
ts^^"?>T» possibly that very man.
When ' 0' is added to the 2d pers. singular of the past tense,
ending in VI, as £r*8a potivi ' thou didst go' a peculiar contrac
tion takes place : the VI is dropped .and ' O' is added to the pre
ceding consonant. Thus sâ^^r potivo ' perhaps thou didst go,'
becomes poto.
The verb with regard to the second person uses another
contraction: for §"*p&"$r becomes &~°P&* Konito and even
* Some object to this definition: they look upon 've' as an

emphatic affix.
t P. 2. 52. Jfj| $£og cKujTsfaaaS fayia&'ZcsSo^ -ffr Otfoâ
fatxr- frsofifc xt»x i)[p\%$t& aa&aoao oaoâ"^"^**!! «oo^
f»-$<S* for SOotJtiTT*.
ELISION OP MU. 177
Konto. Thus in Dasava IX. 310. sS^tfsS'F'oS'4 thou didst
take my clothes. This is a rustic phrase.
Sometimes O is a mere interjection : thus Oh is he
come ! thou comest not, ~v~§r you won't come ? Elsewhere
oyi is added as ■tr'-aôw (a rustic phrase) Oh come !
The vowel 0 added to a numeral changes it into an ordinal :

thus F^tMrtj four, ôiK* fourth, w«ms& five, wom^ fifth &c.
&xr°&~*Sii&x> the third day signifies next day but one (just as
sas^F'iSf On the eighth day, means, In a week.)
In common letters, these are contracted by writing only the
last letter of the word. Thus for «a<f3F*iuo?rG (64th) they
write E-tf JT6. And for t^S"* (100th) ooo 6* &c. a& oâyS^
(19th) op- <S^. 3|<fisSar*£ Twentieth is written so Sxn..
In poetry the form is AVA. Thus TJ'eux'sS, tSowjSsS &c.
Sometimes the first short syllable of a Telugu word is

lengthened.
:S"Si* Must
r'o^j&j A little eô^sSoo A very little
fTC* Likewise ■^-»tvi>.
Some words of three syllables lengthen the second,
fcJoa Power Wer*a
BjSsfca A day ^F'sSw Daily
Asf-fr- Eegularly &tj-$t
«£»■<& S Old &»?«®
©iâ She, it is ©FÔ
w^"^ ' That is to say w pr"*
SoS^di To whom c&rsr°£8S
WfSwaojsfc It is called fc9iT*w«bi&.
Some of these words are altered thus, in verse, to suit the me
tre : elsewhere to denote emphasis.
x
178 ON TERMINATIONS IN MU
On Elision of M.
"When a Sanscrit noun ends in MU, as ciif «S» desaniu, a country,

Tr°BgiSx> a realm, Itfc^sto grandhamu a book, theMU is elided, if
the next word is Sanscrit, and begins with a vowel. Thus nS" &v> -f-
•is des'an tarainu, another country, ~u*S~ôiS
(jfo-qrô^BsSxi granth'antaramu, another book.
But if the next word is Telugu, the first may drop the vowel as
Ljf o^sSyjjSâ oca grandham'unnadi' there is a book. But it
never drops the consonant M.
The MU at the end of words as we, sS>i$!S» we,
a horse may drop the vowel U if the next word begins with a
vowel as 7r°;<b\tfsfao + d»jS^6 < na gurramu unnadi' becomes F'^L?
tfofS^Q na gurram'unnadi 'my horse is here.'
Telugu words of two syllables, that end in MU never change
MU into M. Thu3 ~&>sfea (we) never is written ~&>o. -iytia p5mu
' a sake' "S^^n momu ' a face' never are written or "Sr"o.
Vulgarly these words are written with O. Thus ^"wo, sysyo,
Telugu words of three or four syllables continually drop

the final U : Thus Kb|_»sS» is constantly written X>[Vo and Se»
sS» is always spelt S'sreo. But this is considered inelegant.
In the spoken dialect the final vowel is dropped even though
the next word begins with a consonant. Thus ;<>UfsS»sSO^?sa, «o
l_o 5&>pOO;5 8 gurramu vaînadi, gurramu nilichinadi are written
and pronounced KoysosSfi^S, Hi|J5op8£>ii&.
In the Telugu Dictionary such Sanscrit nouns are classed as
ending in s*» mu, Thus "S^l \J<o$\ s&», xr«Kg I jS» the sign \ being
used to denote that the final syllable is changeable and is not re
garded in the arrangement.
Hence &>$&o mana mu a Sanscrit word for Mini is spelt^(5|rf»
ON DKUTA AND CALA WORDS. 179
and the final «S» ig not reckoned in the order of words. This
word therefore ia not placed along with the Telugu word ssb(6si»
manamu ' we.'
ON DRUTA WORDS.
The following remarks on Druta and Kala are needless to be

ginners.
Grammarians have given the name [«fce$;£jo Drutamu to the let
ter N when it is used to prevent elision.
In Greek Grammar we frequently see N added to the dative
plural or to some persons in the verb: and a similar interposition
of N is common in Telugu poetry.
Drutamu denotes the N which has no meaning. The letter N
has a meaning when it is the sign of the accusative, as bidda
• a child' accusative ; or the locative case as ojo4_,;5> 'in
the house,' or the verb ; as i£'fD§8p < I spoke.' 'he went.'
Hut when it has no meaning, and is merely used to prevent elision
(like an for a in English) it is called Drutam, (or the Extra N,)
and the words to which it may be grammatically attached are call-
ed ls£&lj6^S5'!S»eu druta pracriticamulu, or, words of the N
class.
Examples. "SfSS" adv. behind, "3i$g'-f &oSa may become "SiSS"
ffco&8 they were behind. ts^,rr" atlanS? is it so ? Here atla end
ing in A' is followed by A', denoting interrogation, 'atla + 5;' and
between these letters N is inserted, atla-na. fcsapTS&jSSftoce atani
cheta-n-adiginchiri, they asked it through his hands. Here cheta,
ends in a vowel ; and adiginchiri begins with a vowel : to prevent
elision, N is inserted. Again; tr»"^'Ss& ran-c-ledu he really did not
come. Here ri ' come' is followed by the intensive e, 'ra e'
180 ON DRUTA AND CALA
and to prevent elision N is inserted ; ' ra-n-e' because tr0 ra the in

finitive is a druta word.
ON CALA WORDS.
There are particular words which are not allowed to add N in

this manner, and these are called S'lT'3'jjriKto Calasabdamulu or
Cala words.
All nominative cases are included in this rule. Thus ■sfjfc&o
"3i& vadu-undenu, ' he was' may by elision become ■snt&o'&jSa va-
dundenu ; but not snSoi&o'Sffc vadunundenu.
Should however the N be inserted as here shewn, ■sr°s6fko"3j&
vadu-n-undenu, the letter N would signify 'AND:' thus 'and
he was,' or ' he also was :' because fl» or fcj. (nu or nnu) may be
the conjunction. Thus N may be inserted if it has a meaning:
but cannot be inserted (as in the Greek words already noticed) for
the purpose of preventing elision.
Further rules regarding Druta and Cala will be placed in ano
ther Chapter : because they may be required by the advanced
student ; though unintelligible to the beginner.
The principles of Druta and Cala have been supposed peculiar
ly obscure : but we may observe that the Telugus, even the most
illiterate, who never heard of the Grammatical terms ' Druta' and
' Cala' find the distinction easy. Hence we may fairly conclude
that the difficulty has arisen from the mode in which the subject
has been treated in Grammars. There evidently are two parts of
the subject, one is quite easy and has now been explained : the
other being more refined can only be understood after we become
acquainted with the Syntax and Prosody.
In some grammars it is asserted that all nominatives are Kala
except l^fr nenu, ' I' and î$> tanu ' self.' In poetry these words
may become "^ ne and V td. But long final vowels, (e and a in
ne and ta) never can suffer elision : it would therefore be needless
to add N to prevent elision. We therefore do not require any
ADJECTIVE. 181
such rule. It is sufficient to know that these words have each

two forms.
The learner need not even peruse the rules concerning Druta
and Cala. Native tutors insist greatly on them : but they are
unnecessary.
ON ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives are of two descriptions: some being Telugu : others

Sanscrit. Each will be considered separately.
Telugu adjectives are all regular : in general they are devoid of
number, gender and case : and (like those of the English language)
form the comparative and superlative degrees by adding the words
more or most : or by other modes of construction. Thus "^g003
*" a large house. ^S0-"0!^ large houses. tiSo»oS«H in large
houses. «s»£0 old. sSx^S-sr-iSo an old man. &d$E& an old woman.
sko& good, sfeoesr^&b a good man. s&ofiS a good woman (or
thing) AoOsr-oS) good people and ^>o«o good things. -0;^. small,
aryl«r>sSb a young man. Cr^ a young girl. €)p£sr>cc& little ones.
fiâ»™ a small house.
Many words which in English are adjectives are in Telugu
participles : thus OftjS fit, "^Sî* proper, 'BS^ or o^ bad, ruined
Ac. These will be considered under the participles.
Some nouns are used as adjectives. Thus J^°K^j prettiness,
s^sfcHo tallness, >&>$>,$ civility, 8>8 a cat. These may become ad
jectives, thus ffyfc&fiiSja a pretty girl, ir&i&K^ci a high wall.
jfefS^fSjfcpL. a man of civility, &£^CS& cat's eyes : denoting what
we call blue eyes or sapphire eyes. Some of these add w^
" which is" (past rel. p|| of «>©ej ' to become,') as jfr^lGoMjS
pretty. £p«6X'omj$ high.
Some Telugu adjectives or adverbs ending in MU may add **
owjS, fc?3ooj$4»;Sct3 or ^fo, a8 ej£«s» (or) w&sSooijjS opposite. Or
182 TELUGU ADJECTIVES.
they may drop, MU, as wS-ca a cross road. r$j<&x> or TSjSjs&oM
£ or "^fli?3^ a fine cloth, 69v^sS» purity : hence «3<^tf» pure, t*
tf^Hexifo or t9^s&cx»i6"3t)o«o pure Telugu.
These have also the liberty of being used in their Genitive
form, being considered as nouns of the 2d declension : thus
slightness, ^(S^^sfciJ slight sweat, &<s£r-Ds&j sweetness, &
csfi-°t5'^S):£r»4jex> words of sweetness, SôsSso largeness,^6 b^) large.
eo«rf» beauty, «oasig) or t?o«'goi5 beautiful.
The nominative form may be used instead of the Inflection :
thus otaaS spittle forms the infl. ô%<3 Hence oiofc*3*#jSj!SM
defiled food or <ô?>Sfc9i^sS» leavings of food, «ic^^^ST.*Jew or
oioft43&r»3e» fowl language, nonsense.*
Certain adjectives ending in the short vowel a and denoting
qualities which are the peculiar objects of sight, taste, or touch,
may at pleasure add the syllable P ni or *3 ti, Thus £ v black, "3o
white, red, yellow or green, sweet, sour : thus
01 01 ^g, a black man, ~%v or "3g> P or "Be^SSXog
a white cloth and so on. The respective nouns are F^^y black;
ness, whiteness, o3o&<^red, yellow, 6^) sweetness.
But the words tf*^ insipid, fine invariably add P : thus
tf*J0«&»*» an insipid or dry word, C|_pjfc?)ij- a handsome man
never iS&ySyb or iJ^_sfcF>^-.
Some add 43 or «5-*3 or ^r-*3 Thus s&'S&Ko high, d'JfcTT'iS tall,
jJr°«oTr>*3sfcj)2>. a tall man. «r»i& large, «r»«r»43 . *^;Sj.fine "î^*3 or
•tfjSj***3 thin.
* The Hindus look upon spittle with disgust and are much
gratified if we so far respect their feelings as to avoid touching
our mouths in their presence with either the hand, a pen or pen
cil.
TELUGTJ ADJECTIVES. 183
Some Telugu adjectives occasionally take a plural form : thus
little, great, a^tuâs ex> both the young and the old.*
Speaking in English, the name of fruits and flowers, and also of
Ilindu castes, are nouns : thus a mango, a rose, a carpenter, a
merchant (these being peculiar castes.) But in Telugu and other
languages of India they are generally adjectives. Thus Sfcts^)
means appertaining to pepper : this is the radical word : whence
£»o"i6?ios a pepper corn, Sa6a&'^)is%& pepper powder, »c8c&^3
a pepper plant, 458*3 appertaining to the plantain, *s8&s*'c&
a green plantain, fcs843i£c&> a rjpe plantain. Thepluralis either
fcsetST'dtfceu or&6l3£ct& plantains. amango, »fe*&>&B|»a
mango tree, ^•Su&^'S^ a mang° blossom, 8Sr»£u&"5"'c«6 an unripe
mango (lit. a mango knop) i$r'Sx>c»^cS>Tr*cSi mango pickle, *&*ao
ftaoS" mango gum, s^s^S^^. mango bark. Thus the plural
will be sSr»aoS"S-"c!fiuo, s&*s»2«*ci& mangoes.
The names of trees can be used as nouns in their plural form
but not in the singular in which they are generally considered as
adjectives : thus margosa trees, CoSto Tamarind trees,
:&»Sto§o mango trees, p-i^tH Hme trees : plantains, <6°& e»
tumma trees, «s>Looeu banyan trees.
But as generic words they can be used in the singular. Thus
C3- 85'Sjoad<c»>j$a The arika (crop) was dried up. The same ap
plies to 3S)oiS,T»5'«, lime (lime) &c.f
So of castes, H*X of the Telugu caste, S"o-ê> of the goldsmith
caste, "So«a of the highlander caste, ssgs of the carpenter caste,
* This frequently occurs in poetry. Thus clean shaven

«Jt)ew8r6iSb2.jsôo^)ei)jr*sfcer» their heads are clean shaven but
are their hearts pure ? (Vema) fc>Kbr3sSx>e»5T*)6w great are thy
virtues. B. X. 120. crooked, s&ofwt&r'^â our acta
are crooked.
j One poet says T,S'5jjpi>s-»^S)J $zSys-°c3fit»-ir>-&j&.
184 TELITGU ADJECTIVES.
w^fS of the brahmin caste, sST*e> of the paria caste already ex
plained, *&r*5)X of the cobbler caste. Hence by adding sr'iti we
form "3caX'5r«4£> 1 A Telaga' of which the feminines are "3e>x£> a
Telaga woman, to-peiQ a goldsmith's wife &c. Plural 5'o^b*o&
goldsmiths, §"o^t»l)^ the goldsmith's street &c.
FEMININE AFFIXES.
The word S3- tw is added to a few (Tatsama) words of Sanscrit
origin ; the letter R being inserted. Thus 25 raô/fcaSS a learned
man. a"cr£o&"tr°e» a learned woman. a merciful man.
£c£>T?,o£;Oo-cr,tuo a merciful woman. (Anirud 3, 55.) tfr*?f:«£> ne wij0
is brave. iSr»cC>xr»ex) she who is courageous. he who is
right minded, ii^ttî^txt she who is virtuous. tfoL*e?J>!§€)'3 $
when his father was living. #0 ofr£&TrJ^$)$gtigC£>
when his mother was living.
«3-tu Forms the plural «S-ogb or <&o\& the letter R being in
serted thus «>9 s5oosoTj°oSb or «»S>s5oo8o"a,loijSi women who are
prudent. Jr^jjêw she who is barren : plural K"[y>°°&> or S™
Ij3*0^ : the latter form being poetical.
A few words add ETA : as R"$> belonging to the cow-
keeper tribe. K",osr»#S a herdsman. R^S^ a female of that tribe.
<6;e«r»afc a country man. a rustic girl.
The Telugu Compabative and Supeblative.

Some rules properly belonging to the noun and the participle
are placed here as that arrangement may be more convenient to
the English reader.
The Telugu comparative is formed by the word S"o1j or I"
added to the genitive. Thus ts*f>fo~^>} (or 'n*Pîs<^) qmQ«S>ob&
This is better than that. lfr-*Sb8 8 o^Lo-tv fbfefi the
mother is fairer than the daughter. is'?>5't5ôMSiir'iSb?6 this is tall
SUPERLATIVES. 185
er than that. 8J- « 5" oxto'Sj &>\$~Tr°iS>$£R Than her, this one is
fair, i. e. this one is fairer than her. Or Tzr°p$ o^>an-'~&>&>3 [V~K*
fS» each form equally meaning. She is fairer than her. S(otf
sioaa "Ssi. There is nothing better than this, sioSS'-jr^
^3;&a "^sS> there can be nothing worse than this. Here the force
is superlative, while the form is comparative. ssi33=oTb~3oofc9fr'>£
cSjsS»"SsS) There can be no tyranny greater than this.
Elsewhere thus D»"7r*©j^9rS ôtS^w^^Q It is as fine
as it is i. e. it is comparable. There is no saying how fine it is.
[All adjectives are Cala ; because they are looked upon as Nomi
natives.]
The Telugu Superlative either uses jt>o-os» « fully' s&6* ' great'
«9 ' exceeding' tot 8 'much' ' plentifully' &c. as Pot»»
S>e> (tenerrimus) quite a child "^F'SSS. (diffieilimum) very dif
ficult. S'JSbS'sjlkiS, saxes' a. "go £ equally mean Extremely hard, i. e.
hardest ^S5"*!^ very hard, xx>|_8sS>o&a very excellent: but it
does not mean as in Latin Greatest or most.
[The word T°js* is in general use, but the learned wish to
Bpell it "<S(6.]
Or like the comparative, it uses the dative sign with all, than
all. Thus eoafl f j^SStoe 8he is tallest of all.
Or the phrase runs thus Q3~£oX}<x> sSefcOozrâber* ? ss>x"»r»o^>
£&>&irs&<>r> ? women talkative ? men talkative ? i. e. are women
or men more given to chattering. s^sfcTv «»8 £iroiSoTr« that
one tall ? this one tall ? i. e. Is that or this the taller ?
Another phrase is If you look at. Thus TyîSr0^ ox>8>
ire&fo-rr ^â this is longer than that: lit. if you look at that
this is long, i. e. longer-
Two persons of the same name are distinguished thus
~7t*& " Senior master" and ftfS^cS^tf tvbS "Junior master" or
" young master." Likewise regarding two persons in one office of
z
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.
whom one is the senior- Here and great and little evi
dently convey a comparative sense.
Or else the adjective is reiterated with the dative or the loca
tive sign. Thus [3r°&o&\Jr°$>i& Shrewd[est] of the shrewd.
ffes5jcer-€S'6 sS» hard [est] of all, lit. hard among the hard.
Elsewhere it is a mere metaphor. Thus Si&SSîSoo 1 he is a
jewel.'
Or thus §c£ert6fc5S& S« ? 1 which is the oldest of these V
ocoo Jser6 ok© jsoofifi ? ' which is the best of these ten houses ?'
^^V"400^8"^^- ' Telugu is the best of the country
languages.'*
Thus, as in English there are two superlatives : the one imply
ing contrast, the other a mere intensive phrase. There is usually
no sigu : thus Sj©s£>o &S> This is the good one or this is the best
one.f
* Vemana 2. 29. ~dQ3f>oX (Jr-recaoo. \Jr>n

a£)S& &J>. 5"^ s&Xoiu a&nS sÂjuj • The sweet of
sweets [superlative] is life : but gold is sweet[er] than lives :
and woman's words are sweet[er] than gold.'
In Hebrew there is no comparative or superlative. These are
produced by reduplication. Thus in the ordinary English we
say the great church and the small one meaning the greater and
the smaller.
t See Ency. Brit. 3d Edn. " Grammar" Chap. V. Section 93,

note C. says, Hie unus dolor est ex omnibus acer (i. e. acerrimus)
amanti. (Propertius 2. 22.) So in Paradise Lost IX. 795. 0
sovran best and precious ofall trees.
In K. P. 2. 117. The poet says |>|| 3;S>i3ao Jfo^tyjfSotfjS s?r»iJ
^)<y<SSSoJ£> s&fr2?<!X> i&frzs>t>ol&> I yy Sx^ta;e>aSoiui

SYNTAX OF PLURALS. 187
On Plurals.
The Singular is called kS'sStf^tfM, and the plural wSx<u:Sffj5 sSco.
The usual plural form is t» as 5: ^_tu dogs gb^Souo guns. ?<>lTrtu
horses.
The plural form is sometimes used when the conjunction is un
derstood. Thus w^ssêu elder and younger brothers : ^^.xS
T8°sfc sisters ; elder and younger.
In such compounds it may be uncertain whether either word
is intended to be plural. Thus either or #sS»«sb (or neither)
may be plural. And the same of and In such
compounds the word is generic not specific. There may be three
elder brothers and only one who is younger : and still the com
pound ig«i^B^«M.
[The Second Declension has two forms in the plural, "îf sS»e»
and T§Ve». The form "cST'oo, $)~6s^tx>t ^"Sêw, is by native
tutors condemned as inelegant. But it is in general use ; and the
oldest Grammarian (Nann. § XII) merely observes that ' it is to
be used in verse only with words that poetical authority justi
fies'].
Other instances ; &r»Kji a&tfsfctfoo east and west, S*Jfcs&"e5
«« towns and villages, SSaoôj parents. Herein is
spelt 83. Again $o\& 8^sSb&ew father and son. feS-rSaa^w
(Nala D. 3. 604.) hunger and thirst. Htrt^tosix>£~ winning
and losing. s^P^^t" loss and gain, "SoSKOTVKjSaseu silver
and gold. (Vaizayanti. 3. 93) foafc&p'i&eu topsy turvy, upside
down, tyc&zf&vS* with fear and devotion, j6<sfi$r<s6;&KesS>otf
8ofi using persuasions and threats. Also see M. 9. 2. 141.
This is a series of comparative superlatives.

188 SYNTAX OF PLURALS.
Even Sanscrit proper names and other nouns are thus combined
L^re^s&^tu Drona and Bhishma. jSBer'r A)Ber65'-fr'Xer* g"sfa.-.»u
DRTJ. 588. 9. in earth, heaven and hell. l&*aaxr»*j~i5'dSijt»
M. 7.3. 302. ts&§ir&fr<x> Achyuta and Arjuna. TT-^Ktfresta
ook)^ efeaoS'SoS'tj-cpg) fiotf «6SÂd*^fl*j Ljsr^jSs-'wo ' a letter
addressed to T. Vencata Rao the farmer and C. Tammaya the
clerk.' Lit: To farmer and clerk so and so. S;£§"'o£ j3« o
r*oSex>. The towns of Vinuconda and Bellamconda ; 5r»<ag<ssr»
:5£g~°sfr»S-5r»$£-5'£sS»euj&^ infancy, youth, manhood and old-age.
[Only a few well known words use this sort of compound.
Thss we could not form 8o\& into a compound with B^jfc 0r
Such a compound would be simply &o[&tnôr Ho\&Tr*
As in English, yo« may be used for thou. Thus o^tfe you

•ss-»t6 they, or, his honor.*
[In the Manu Charitra I. 26. the hermit is addressed as you.
[The plural is elsewhere used where the singular is meant, to
denote respect. So&eisS g-'sir-aSs&S'SftfyaSo. Sons were born to
Kusu : which name bears the plural form.
[In the popular tale of Harischandra two sages are mentioned
O^jjStoLSaiSoand sSSêu ; the plural denoting respect being used
with the latter alone. Because the other is a hateful character.]
• Our native tutors are usually bramhans, and instruct us to speak proudly, is
bramhans do: saying We instead of /and Our instead of my. In Pritcheti's
translation of the New Testament lie always uses this mode regarding our
Lord. Thus " They seeing the multitudes, went up into a mountain and their
disciples having come, they opened their mouth and said"—and in Matt. XVI
16. Ye are the Christ. This is the French fashion. ' Roi du Ciel ! je m' anean-
tis devant vans' This version by Mr. Pritchett was printed in 1819 and 1829.
The Rev. Mr. Hough having spoken well of it in (vol. 4. p. 270) his History
of Christianity in India, 1845, (citing History of British and Foreign Bible So
ciety vol. 3. p. 462, 463) I will mention that in 1826 I met Gurumurti Sas-
tri the Head Telugu Master in the College : whose .favourable opinion is Uiero
FLTJEALS. 189
[In poetry and in religious books ' thou' is the respectful form,
ev«n regarding a father or the deity. Thus p^pôj&a (Sar.
Dwi) Thou art the father that bore me — Again ; (Parvati, or Juno,
thus addresses her spouse) |>|| afcejSS-^>i>-a (thou) S'j'sS
(thou) 5'oo5'fj*L?^-iS)-Fr»ff"^6S^) (thou) cor' (thou) ~3&oXf>$ £
t \Js&oft£x>$~£i& Thou art the omniscient, thou art the Lord,
thou art the one Supreme and merciful God, nor is there a single
occurrence unknown to thee." Here fervent adoration uses the
singular number.]
The common word doctor, is thus written ^^Jêu.
Other words use i^<& or ^<*> thus tfo(jiTr,Cfi) Father, 8 9
"WCfi, Mother, t9£_''r*e>a, Sister, xS^tSwSi Master, which ia
English become singulars. But were the words intended to bear a
plural sense, the form would be eJoljfceM, fathers, Sej>«x> mothers,
wSjuj, (S^tjeu. Thus tsaifigsr-cfi (Their honours) merely means hi*
reverence, a common phrase for a bramin and particularly for a
schoolmaster : not intended to express much respect, fcojgor-ao
sSOv'P'Cfi The bramhan (or the tutor) is come.
Some proper names derived from Sanscrit ending in LU, as
■pT'XisM, X o«oeuJtr°^3$«x) (like the foreign words Soôj rumal, a
cited. He acknowledged that lie had declared to Mr. Campbell his approba
tion of Pritchett's version : I therefore challenged him to read and under
stand a chapter in the Gospels. He admitted he scarcely could : and laughed
at some odd expressions. On my asking him why he had given it that sanction
which had promoted its publication, he replied (like a true bramhan) "Sir,"
who am I, that I should oppose Mr, Campbell, when he wished to encourage
the version ?" Mr. Gordon and some other missionaries have since printed
Telugu versions of parts of the Bible, but these are inferior to Pritchett's,
which is founded on Desgranges' Telugu New Testament. The ' Telinga' ver
sion printed at Serampore in 1818 is in some parts tolerably good : probably by
Desgranges : other parts are apparently translated from the Sanscrit by a native.
Elsewhere it is evidently composed by an Englishman who knew little of
Telugu grammar.
190 SYNTAX OF PLURALS.
handkerchief, k-i^wa the post or mail, Wo^tu, Council) are in
declinable and have no plural.
[Some assert that Bamulu denotes the three heroes of that
name : but this solution fails regarding the other names.]
[The word, Sri Rama, being superstitiously placed at the begin
ning of every letter or account (like Allah ! among Musulmans.)
the plural form (#tx,iS»e» ig used, as more honorable.]
A singular noun major (mahat) may often govern a plural verb
•&xo(j5si« sSr°fc?c»c>g (3-°&omS^8 my father gave me this horse
(Lit. Noster pater dederunt. )
As here shewn the word my becomes our ; t&r'tioy^ our father*.
Names of grain as "^~^^>, f£>, &c. are generally used
in the plural. Thus *>s>$)£$$> ten tons of paddyt (rice in the
husk. rîSo s&j&a there is (are) some paddy. eSfaaa^sSjSS
©tSâ how much (many) paddy is (are) there? 69-"5j"^«i>63o~7S>^jl
■^"^flo* I do not know how much green gram there is.
The word r>& 'water' is plural. Thus ^^^6^3 < how
much water is there (lit : how many waters are there ?)' S"r»j&£«>
tâ there is some water. ^^fSj? there is much water.
^jffi^SS this is excellent water. The singular form frcfc is used
only in poetry or in a few compound words, as s"*§ the water
crow.
The word for milk is always plural. Thus B""rJj»r**»Y,3
■®fS> I want some (lit: a few) milk. But ST'o^sSo-iêx) a little
milk.
A few other words also (as T*SStM taunts) have no singular.
It has been shewn that *s>oa or Xot£> as &ox>i&s&o&J 63-afc»b3o
• Just the converse of the Hebrew phrase in the first Terse of Genesis bora
Elohim.
f The word paddy is borrowed from the Malay language.
PLUKALS. 191
may be added to numerals with (mahatt) major nouns. This how
ever is sometimes dropped, as *acj$y£a&J>-£»oastu three hundred
sepoys.
Words denoting days of the Hindu lunar month are generally
plural in form as f>^zxr"tM. See chapter on reckoning time.
The singular is sometimes used for the plural. Thus »n,8 5';&-
IjcSk B. 8. 445. deluding their eye. a* 8sSjfcis&xn.$ (Padma
Puran 3. 7.) Closing the eye of all the world (in sleep) sr-9
-?>cn>4j3iy^3i I heard it at their mouth. rt^y^rîâo
he received it at their hand, V p^cxut!! S" much brick, s# :3ij«*-
ro-B^§-gi3-°cS> they stripped all the leafoff the trees. t?*s&>~&
ts^sto^^go Much people* ^S-^&êr^â the worm has
attacked the crop. j&'Oo oij-» apace*lu a hundred leagues.
The plural is sometimes (inelegantly) used for the singular to
denote uncertainty. f Q"3^£t£> or wfrScbsSco who is that man ? w ho
is that (neuter singular) &J-s£r»i)C&^!?63ci;fj5H!. I know not who
it was said so. °-3&$&,~°t5S*£$)6HS I know not who is his master,
eSo&êo who is his mother? Pal. 364.
In the multiplication table we say four times ten : the Telugu
phrase is "fJ-'ewaoAjfceu four tens.
The plural in verbs and nouns often has the singular meaning
(as in Greek and Latin) thus (tenebrse) darkness (Surabh.
121,) (colla) the neck, ^ttbtSxtu the waist. The verb some
times is incorrectly singular. Thus pr"''&>i«ew~?>o;v»Jo8 my neck
aches.
The plural is sometimes colloquially used for the singular : thus
(T- 2. 9 !) fc9£sSK"5~°;SsS>3 I (lit : "VVe) never even look in the glass.
es-SoXoSoiôeFjSs&y.S'SfcO Offspring six sons were born.
* Thus Horace (Car. IV. 8.) says " lingua potentium."

192 SYNTAX or THE CASES.
Some Pronouns can take a double plural form. Thus tu*S«»
you, V6tx> they, sfcêi us.
Plural neuter nouns may (as in Greek) take a singular verb in
the past and aorist teDses. Thus S^S a fowl, a bird, S"' ft &"•■?>;&
the cocks crowed.*
SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE.

When two nouns come together the first often has the force of
an adjective. Thus <SôX a thief, a rogue. <S"o)fs£r»t> a roguish
expression, a falsehood, <S"oxj^j&3 stolen goods.
When connected with a verb in the Infinitive the Nom. is in
English translated by a genitive : thus s*r°t6sSiSj^«j your coming
r>6-^6'St> thy going. Lit. ' you coming, thou going.'
In English we say ' let me come,' ' let him go,' ' not let I,'
• let he :' but in Telugu either case is used. Thus w&sSbtT'^ or
etfe3jTT,ja ' let him come.'
The Nominative of neuter nouns is sometimes used instead of
the Accusative. Thus âa>&^3"?>9 (instead of ^t^.). You are
to do this. 6*t£>^8fr>{£ (instead of they went home, or,
to the village. 6TJ&8&fi£rfVy«6 when tbey left their country.
jb&fe&§"g>-tr> bring water. f^'S^ctf) Get fire. (for
~rr$fy ■sSyiiiv when they saw the stores. eS-»S\uocoL>fi^'j3-°«3
(for i£r»5'ejr&) he paid the money.
Or instead of the Locative ; being usedadverbially. Thus "tS^'O"*
Come to-morrow. s6Keu:SO^-pr»S> they came by day TJ'ia^sa-pr'ab
he arrived at night xr» ^tftSôo they will come at night. Thus it
* (Surabh. 1. 125) fier^S^"^^ the parrots chattered.

Tr- *0
«S»SS<u
V- Kg" xr- OX" kg jfcooHdS "SoSiT
NOMINATIVE. COMBINATION. 193
may mean yesterday evening ; or this evening. Wjkr^^jSBjtf
(or SjSo) instead of or eitfeffc ; on his doing so : ^(S-ffoS"
2a ôî5) putting it under his arm : "ê>(_sT»l!rS) he wrote on
the ground : ^^J* there. & here.^ where <^&s& when &c.
TvT'Sb on that day, to day &e. are nominatives.
Nouns neuter ending in A whether Sanscrit or Telugu, as P
sleep, ^J#5" a bed, frequently use the nominative singular
instead of the Instr : or Loc : that is, the affix of the case is
dropped: Thus Mo-fi"Sbr£i>-»tf t5'3£iS~',"i3 jje buried the gold (-2r»#
tier*) in a pit. i&i^S kindness, a*™ t3 viewing him with
kindness. S>(_«l5B rising from sleep Bcsfi-E&'-t) looking on mo
with favour.
The first declension, which ends in DU, as tftoSo can in
poetry insert N. viz : tfs&ôeSo, 8sS»o;sC>. But in common prose
also, the N is inserted when a pronoun of the first person is
added. Thus vsp-ii&ôZfr I am his brother.
ON THE COMBINATION OF NOUNS WITH PRONOUNS.

When a noun is compounded with a pronoun of the first or
second person (I, we, thou, ye) the termination is changed ; by
adding affixes borrowed from the pronoun.
If the noun ends in I the affix uses the same vowel. Thus, from
So|_4 a father and a mother.
9o[ip I am (his) father.
"^£> &top I am (his) mother,
îjj tfol&a Thou art his father.
«Sa Thou art his mother.
In ordinary talking these affixes are not much used. Thus
Nouns of all other persons make the affix in U : the first per-
0. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. a a
194 SYNTAX Of THE NOMINATIVE.
son singular uses ANU ; the second AVU, and the first person
plural AMU, Thus, from ss>^5S»a& a grandson.
~jSfh 65-5*6(5 s&>j6sS»c«i& or, s£>;Ss£aoc5i& or, skfSs&iefÎ am his
grandson. (Inserting the sunna before D.)
jbg e9-d*;S ssbjSi&ocSiS Thou art his grandson.
es-dSjjS sfcj6sSMe>5io We are his grandsons.
Of which the negative form adds "5-»fS> I am not, Thus
ot&*£&£T*fr I am not his brother. **sr_r&~yf& lam not
his sister : s5bj$s$MTr,<yiS'~5",'f£> I am not his granddaughter.
The following are compounded with a noun of the first declen
sion.
1. "$sS9o«& A servant.
~fiSt&> "£>sSSSiSi& 1 am a servant.
~?S!S> -f)^SSoa?S> The same.
~$$> "fjs$s5cS The same,
•^pfc -îsSsfee^ The same.
2. -^SoS£> Thou art a servant.
3. fcS5$«b -fiS&ao He is a servant.
Thus the third person is unaltered.
1. iSssio "f>sSsSe>5&> We are servants.
Oj^Cfi -fi^Soew Ye are.
•srrccS "fjssgoew They are.
Thus the 2d and 3d persons plural have no change. But in
poetry the 2d person may add *J Thus aoT>Sb"f>sSS5<yoo. Ex
ample with a noun of the 2d declension €V">£xi a clerk.
1. "î* Stf rastofSi, of, "î* S'tJ-c?^ I am a clerk.
2. rgnoSM^ Thou art a clerk.
But the second person usually has noâffix : thus : ^SS'tfnsto.
The third person has no affix.
1. 5'o"resS»<y:S»( or, S'T7°T3'e)5S». We are clerks.
The other persons have no change.
COMBINATION. 195
Example with a noun of the 3d declension. "T"^> a tenant,
inhabitant.
1. -jSffc « r_a -r»^>f£> I am a tenant there.
2. ?>© «{>1& -B-»Tî$ Thou art a tenant there.
But the second person generally has no affix. fr^cs-*^.
1. "3o:Sm -ff-«^)e)5S» We are tenants there.
Thus "î* ^tffÎam a master, ~$1&&$£jS> I am his brother,
j&w ^_ f& I am his sister.
The pronoun w«6 he, and 3a she, belong to the third per
son : but in compounds denote man, person, woman ; as 5&o*>«r»«i
a good man, s&ofiS a good woman. As this form is much used,
it will now be given complete. From «£>offl«r»^> a good man,
sSboCQ a good woman.
1. m. 1^ *s>oOw£i& I am a good man.
"pifji sS50««r>fir5)T,ffi I am not a good man.
1. f. &>ot>~&°$r& I am a good woman.
"^ffi 5fcoa-!5»56i&r,f£) I am not a good &c.
3 m. •sr»aSas&oO-5T»«Si He is a &c.
•yas&oaa She is &c.
3 neut. MS ss>°» !<oljJ5i» That is a good horse.
In the plural the masculine and feminine are alike.
1 m. f. ~^>^xs&>oS>rr'ts3Sx "We are good.
m. f. ifto& «r>c£a:S» We are &c.
The remaining persons have no plural affixes*
2 b./, fcj»sos£ca«T'«> Ye are good.
3 nhf. w'&saofiÔo They are &c.
3 neut. fc9Sj£>o©Kol_tf stow Those are good horses.
The pronoun °^j£> ' who' is contracted for ei «n£2Sb what man :
the compounds are found in these phrases ; "pii&aasSSel^wPwâ
they asked who I was : "&i5»aosôa sfcn>w?>wa* fr-Si they asked
who we (were). rf^^^JL wno am 1 • im anSry expression)
196 SYNTAX OF THE NOMINATIVE.
^^jSj^^-^t I wonder who thou art. wJSbajsS^ (Ille quia?)
there is no saying who he is.
The following two pages should be committed to memory when
we are learning the declensions.
Nouns ending in sj I form all the persons thus :—from #o'L5
a father and a mother. The negative forms are added.
1. m. "ffr *o\»p I am his father.
■ffr wtfp tfo[&» I am not.
1 f. -ffr fcSdp »Sy> I am his mother.
■^ja* eg3p #0 p -r>fi> I am not.
2 m. r>© »8P <So\&S> Thou art his father.
p& wSp «o(aa tb-»© Thou art not his &c.
2 /. r>6 Thou art his mother.
jbg wtfjo #8 » -b-«« Thou art not.
3 m. s<fi t*S? Sol* That man is his father.
«n>£b WSjB 8o|ji -ff*jjo Is not.
e*-"Si w&p That woman is his mother.
«--a> tseSjB 80 -r»e£> ls not.
The neuter has no affixes.
w©fr>S'j> That is my sword,
tsa -pr» -b^jS) That is not my sword.
Plural.
1 "fa&o -zr>b «Jo(jtbe)si>D We are their fathers.
"&jS»«r»8 i$o^j£>e>3» Tr"s&o We are not.
If. "Sasfca ■ar»8 tfewesio * We are their mothers.
■/ CO
"sSo &o wfl &euesSx> -b~"sS» We are not &c.
The remaining persons have no affixes.
2 m. &r°& -sAQ Soâ&oo Te are their fathers.
sxr»c£> sr»fl So ^jSbeu "S"">Bo Ye are not &c.
2 /. Kw«3 b<8 #<wex> Ye are their mothers.
KctCS -snS Stu oo Ye are not &c.
COMBINATION". 197
3 SI. SCSo tfo|Hot» These are their fathers.
These are not.
J <v> These are their mothers.
|)8o sr>8 eJeuew
CI "VSS These are not.
3 ft. W3 sSr»r«&«0 Those are our swords.
Those are not &c.
The following is an example of the Second Declension. 5"tfns>»
a clerk.
1 rs-*??^ I am a clerk.
I am not.
2 Thou art.
3 He is.
1 We are.
2 Ye are.
3 They are.
tie of a noun of the third declension ending, in U.
,a husbandman.
1 I am a tenant.
I am not.
2 Thou.
Thou art not.
3 He is.
-BêSb He is not.
1 "SosSod ■r,'^)e>:&) We are farmers.
We are not.
2 Ssr>& "TêM Ye are.
Ye are not.
3 73-5o 'B^^Jtu They are.
They are not.
Prom -=r»j£> already given, a feminine is formed in Tr°eM, Thus.
ftr>X&>sr't£> a handsome man fW&"U*e» a pretty woman. Thus.
1 "^ffc ^Xp&j T7»ofS> I am pretty (fem.)
198 SYNTAX THE GENITIVE.
"p?S> fi*7<pb xp&fft "s^fSi I am not.
2 r>iS ft^Xfa xno& Thou art.
r>£> ^*X'f&> ■O'e© Thou art not.
3 69- "Sj ^°x";&> tpw She is.
63- f^X^ tt»«j T»Jfi> She is not.
1 -&>5&3 ^Kt&i TroUZ&d We are (f.)
But the Plural is not in use.
THE GENITIVE.
The sign 5k>£_ does not affect the sense. w&P woo and W&P
c3x>|f/£t£ equally mean ' his name.'*
Nouns of the 2d Declension may take in the genitive : thus
7<> [s^b. But this is rarely used with Sanscrit nouns, as li><^#
The genitive sometimes gives the sense of an adjective. Thus

5$»&sS:io beauty :S»3osSoi&'3o-o;ls» a face of beauty : ^3£;«6 deaf
ness "SS)43sr»afc a deaf man. a crippled state »3*3«r»JSb
a man who is crippled barrenness Si3^SiS> a barren field.
Thus Milton (Par. L. 9. 645) says, by a Hebraisin ' the tree
of prohibition.'
In such compounds is never used.
Even adverbs are used in such compounds. Thus. ^^"5*
afterward tf"0"*£8w>ifc the next man. Or»K above, ttr»Gi awe» an
upper chamber. §oS under, 49- So© t3»om the stone which is
* This 5J»r_ is stated to be a Kala word : thatis wtfpa»r_c»»

e« 'his house' never can be written wj$pa»Sf_P|» ataniyocca-N-
illu. But why should rules be given regarding errors that are
never committed ?
In conversation, instead of €3- ' that' and ' this' we some
times hear es-SSMB- . -^SSmS" . This error Bhould be avoided.
THE DATIVE. 109
under it. cr'tftf formerly, <JrtX?i~3£_ the former account. s;o
■cfB' lately ap-Gr^tf «rêsgsS» the late suit.
Sanscrit nouns that end in^TJDU as ^C&jgb 'a man' would form
the inflection in P as <scf>p. But in poetry this p may be dropt.
Thus instead of tfOSP^tf by the man, iS<5S^tf.
ON THE DATIVE CASE.

The Dative originally means To or For, as edPfcxo^jO I
gave it to him I_=r»§i6-5r,c)? for writing. But in various places it
means from, in, by, at, of, &c. &c. implying a general indefinite
connection.
EXAMPLES.
To. a house, SjoiSSsiT6 go to the house : go home.
I, tsS'p,,So"30ciSja& I do not know it: it is not known to
me. He, •3-°p§(»?J!>p I gave it to him.
For. *Sy*i> a word, sfo»t>&s*r»ij word for word. 8fJ&^ belly
r^^SS^j&Bo^ss, he has no food for his belly. death, ^©
&5>»»feoM;5^jiSa when he was ready for death.
!Peom. a village &8§<6s>î"ê> a league from the vil
lage. oj§» they, •sr°o^*-cj'l5'FTloaSb he hid it from them.
In. ■5r»8si» a week, ,sr»5<sS»^SSs50^'?r»«So he came in a week.
~f>-4) time, r*o -gawâ&BS in a short time. F°«<> a day,
in ten days. Jf*S a wall, X^fi§oS')SjsS»"3^)?io he dug a hole in
the wall. (5£osS» the middle, i$&sxi§a8';3;So he broke it in the mid
dle. 80S end SbesSS in the end.
At. fi^tf the end fisSsSS at the end. "3? time 69- "3 #85 at that
time. tt*18 night xt'ISS at night.
By. a month ôSoô month by month. sS>e3«b Cupid
200 SYNTAX OF THE DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE.
tSz&p&o &-& he was agitated by Cupid. *&<*» hour tficKSSSjcacsss
hour by hour.
Of. <6a a tiger- ^BSa&TiffcJie was afraid of the tiger.
Sometimes it denotes indefinite connection. 6^^ a league. S"*
&£>#*& ;S less than a league. w#«& he ^Sp^îj after him. t>3
that T^pJtf-0^6 after that. Other uses of the Dative will be
found in the English-Telugu Dictionary : particularly under
English prepositions.
The verb To be connected with a dative denotes (as in Latin) he
has. Thus fc53«S he, &tip$&&&$^?, to him there is a mother : i. e.
he has a mother. ^SS5"ofio"s3sr» have you no eyes : lit: to thee
eyes not ?
Impersonal verbs (as in Latin) use the dative for the nomina
tive, e'fti) to seem. *3-»F>ie<bT§o;sa he thought so. TT'ScitSAT.
e-8"ei«i> I did not think so. It did not seem so to me.
The syllable $ (as •4i>sSx,fi& to the place) is colloquially drop
ped, and they say "ftesSxiSo. Thus tsBl»r«cs6J«;ta>§3J for (j«r»ca3S
**»?$& for writing it.
When »>« ella, all, is connected with a dative, it is (as in English)
placed at the end: thus *r°3S to them. b*61b to them all. **^j
&>, Then, forms in the dative **A»*S8 and (by adding the conjunc
tion) vtyta^P^JEven then, although. Thus &te*t*ox>$ s&jiSi^Yet :
Even were it so : but omitting the conjunction it merely means
when. ■5r°o£6;SS\1;S;6\i3§ 0n their arrival : when they arrived.
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE.

The sign (P, P^~, i&, r&f, ni or nin, nu or nun,) of the accusa
tive, is frequently dropped: ^S^^&^w1^ he cut down the tree.
g" _8&&r*p-o-' for g<zp&&>r*p-u° bring the knife. asWo'S^
KUR. 2. 262. mounting the car.
ACCUSATIVE. 201
[SoM&Sb makes in the Accusative %ox>&p or else «oM&r"
or else B«»Sb. In DR. 3. 33. (JsJomScoXoSoC. p«a»8b"Se£b 1 will
bring your husband. -D'«S»Ke)^3 he thought of Eama. DRK.
217. carrot) So ^*og er*psfc8ô63. DRTJ. 539. -cr>jSsr'03r;33i)
OifS'oSoiSipao.]
The plural Accusative often drops the NT or NU and ends in
A or I ; thus «ost£> all men. G. Woe8 ; Acc. woesefJo or &otS
dp or wosOj,; or else Wostf or Pal. 106.
The accusatives ending in efl. as f^f^, *"f*t!Li "^6^J.are nob
used in verse.
The word *r°P ' him' the accusative sign of ^r»2*S ' he,' is also the
Acc. Plu. Neut. of °5 ' those things.' And in like manner
these tMngs will form the Acc. & P similar to the Acc. Sing, of
h&> this man. See instances in the Dictionary.
Sometimes an intransitive verb t'i&iJ 4 to become,' governs an
accusative ftfSb ts'^jl (her, acc.) he was mar
ried to her ; wherein ~s~°&5&a ' to become' seems to govern
(the acc.) her.
By adding UDU, masculine nouns borrowed from Sanscrit may
become nouns of the First Declension. Thus becomes "O*
«i»«b and forms the accusative tp«s»P.
[And in some places the letter N (P or f&) may become nacara-
pollu or sunna [o] or the semi-circle [c]. Thus ~8&P§~°&&p
I hit the antelope may become (in poetry) ~$&§~ or "3 So or "e5&t ;
as "B&cfT'|39p. These niceties regarding the shape of a letter
are much insisted upon by native grammarians as affecting rhyme.]
The poets occasionally double the accusative sign X°8poxp
Gouri-nin-gani (for T'SpxP) when she saw Parvati.
A few verbs (as in other languages) govern two accusatives, as
jS fis^nSex) fc*Sftfr>e& he asked me for the money.
A word of Sanscrit origin ending in MTJ, as f&r»(^sS» may drop
that syllable in the accusative. ^'[pKtSpba straight as a line. sSg^*
;S!fii£>*j for ££-6$>&x>&&k>. To sorrow. foS*6.4&k>. To be glad.
0. P. Brown's Telvgu Grammar. b b
202 SYNTAX OF THE CASES.
[Some anomalies occur in the poets. In M. 3. 5. 262, &|| s&
s&> 23K[3d3oo«xi^2o sScr*3e>-A"' ^.)]S8o^J 'Place us as goddesses
(mothers) to rule the universe.' There sWa"^ is for sST»#e»e
c§agio|MTr\ But it is sSr«eJe> not sfcr»8eo. Probably it is a con
traction for s&»*uo + e9X' that it is X" the root in A of e*>k>.]
ON THE VOCATIVE.
All nouns ending in si make the singular vocative by lengthen
ing the final vowel: thus $o\h O father ! ef> O mother I i| !
good woman ! wife! "c^&ro Sir! your honour! my Lord!
0 sage !
In the plural, the L is often doubled. Thus s^ôSSw sons,
Voc. S-iSbsoen-TT" O sons.
All other nouns make the vocative in 69- as &sS» "w O brother,
**F^L Brother or Friend ! Madam ! eSf_ej-Tr» O sisters. In
the colloquial dialect the first decl. merely lengthens the final U
of the Nominative, as S&s^&r* O brother! w*ji£r» my dear
child !
[In poetry the final long A or I ! is sometimes shortened : thus
e?T_er°tf O sisters ! &sS» 8 O brother ! êM&tf my friend ! #8, LJ>.
[The syllable RO is sometimes superadded. Thus from
(madam) is formed fotsdS^ O madam ! csif_5'* O sister, madam !
[In poetry, Sanscrit nouns masculine ending in UDU, often
retain the Sanscrit vocative: thus "^55es5-qr°c5 (Tara IV. 199.)
Hear me 0 God ! Here the prose Telugu vocative 'would be "ciiS
■w. Thus, one of the songs in the Eadha madhava Samvadam
says.
S" || r ! [for SSs^KSSts"/] Trv°$£f><$-iy>tS ] [for
tS^&ts",] •u,,-a»r^^> I [for ^skTS" &e.]
[The words son, father, brother, mother, &c. denoting affection,
are used in a very wide sense. Thus (M. 1. 2. 35. Vish. 2. 17.)
Cadruva addresses her serpent brood as fcSjS>l«r*T7* O brothers ! So
ABLATIVE. 203
in Harisch : Dwip : 2, 2009. the mother lamenting over her son

calls him ^T^J, O brother ! In the Lila 8. 56. the parents la
menting their daughter's death, call her jr°at>S_ O my sister.
Thus Andromache (Iliad. 6. 430) calls her spouse father, mother
and brother.
TThus V^ "V instead of V"4 Sots'. L-cr-EciiicI ss ! c5n>«c«j*
■$n>o\ts ! •3o-oxr»s«v;-s-«a ! "a^r. &;$»&. ! N. D. 3. 14. 11. Were
the Telugu vocative forms used, they would be ci"^^-^, -fr°o

labTS", es-T'OoTs*! tJiSi-SSTS" !]
The pronoun feminine t>8 forms the gen. ~cyp and the Voc.
UV, This occurs only in compounds Thus OfSjOgirl. Voc. ©fS^
T3»fP> 0 girl ! "3(SB a simpleton "3 lAw-jr' !
ON THE ABLATIVE.
There are two Ablatives : the instrumental and the Locative :

but many nouns unite these : and thus " Ablative" becomes a
convenient name.
The affixes ^# or s$« ' by' and • ' with' denote the instru
mental : and er* or fosSb 'in' denote the Locative: being in
general use they will be first explained. Thus "ff^Sti by me.
■53-d^tf by them ss^tJsSclSS by fever. 7%&*r>P^36o?>Qp I 8ent
this by him. SaEwaê? tfoâj^Si he was killed by them.
e3-d&i6:SS:3'e)^^J^feJ§^'F^, they took leave of him. -sr-o^^tf
^sr°oMOfip"t,5£ he had it written by them, r^g) by you. ,sr»aêj
by him ss^&fJsSa tSoMâ this is effected by him. ,sr»eô cxmbt1^
B& this cannot be done by them.
fyes -with me. ■raffle wlVA them- SOSes' wi'$ a knife, wpo
^5»^8f) I told him ; lit. mij'^ him. rTb^r^g -?r°i& he beat (it)
with, a stick. «£ip>§§r,'ls",Syvr>eo he shot (it) with his gun.
Examples of the Locative, ^ko a tree ^êr9 or ^kôSK)

' In a tree' air»er^ or âsocsb < amongst us.'
20i SYNTAX OP CASES.
When the plural inflection adds the sign in the Locative,
contraction sometimes takes place, and LO becomes LLO.
Thus as <*> 1 bushes,' Infl. friso LOC. siPsseer6 podala lo or
&esg* podallo 'i»the bushes.' -o»l8"3? nighttime plu. Loc.
TT°|J>"^?eier« or Tr{®~£$tr* ' in the night time.'
The postposition $ NA, when used as a sign of the Ablative is
added to neuter words in IT •. as &°g> time Sr-s&iS in time S^sSh
the breast S^^jS on the breast. Or it has the instrumental
sense : as the nose iSs^S^,* the bird pecked it with
its bill. §ôS5 timidity fosS^-s^-sr- she hid herself out of'shame,
tf o-^^g^î* he sawed it w;i£7i a saw.
Masculine nouns of Sanscrit origin in UDTJ as (StfciSo a man,
may sometimes in poetry merely drop the DU in the Instrumental
case : thus iSCo^^ instead of the longer form jStfip^^.
Some neuters borrowed from the Sanscrit first declension often use the
Sanscrit form of the singular Locative : thus from ;ScS3o and ap"dSoO are formed
jSc&iS, i?oL$ ' by fair or rough methods* of which the proper Telugu form
would be jScSBSsSceT8, ip'dSjsSxjS^', or jSdBSsfao^tJ, i^dtfirfjo
Some nouns of the 2d Declension form the Loc. in two ways
when they add N. Thus sâsSo 'a field ;' ôsSwi* or sêr»j6 'in
the field.' <5£r°tfsS»i$ or <&-»-CPj6 « at a distance.' or "rSîS
' In the country.' es-f&ifccSSsk^ 0r e3-&fc<s&»;6 ' at that time.'
•^)n^!Sx:^ or ^"î* ' ly your favour.' ja^MWcg 'by your good
ness.' 3r>?«-^r»^r»i5 'by his wickedness.'
[The form ambuna as $o?frjsSx> war, 1$ox't$CKtt;S 'in the battle'
is chiefly used in poems : the common form is ana viz. : ôKTyjS
which the learned disapprove : but many poets use it. Thus
r^vtS^ forf^v&tsSxt or Kêtitowfi < by simplicity.' (Vijaya
• vilas. 2. 428 )
[If fc»o<& is added to Sanscrit nouns ending in U, the letter N
may be inserted at pleasure : as S<&s>;SosS> Vishnu-n-andu (Padma
vii. 46) or S>£s>$;SotS> or S>f*£o&>. < in Vishnu.' sSfS sa» « a forest'
ABLATIVE. 205
sS;S8£oiScs& or s5i$sSboa£> ia > a forest' \Xo$*x> a book (Xo$tSx$os£>
or \j<o$ s&osfe ' j'b a book.' The form a&jiSoaSb is peculiar to verse.
In speaking, SJojacsfioaS, sSfSjSHcjfcosfc are used.]
The affix fc»o«£> andu or BoSr andun is colloquially changed
into SSojfcjS anduna. Thus l_)Co£ss>o«i>ji in the book. &j$s&oe&>$
In the mind.
Some neuter nouns of the 3rd Decl. which end in 0 T
make the Ablative by adding NI. Thus the head,
on the head. "S3 the ear 'BsP in the ear. ^8 a road "^8 p
on the road.
Others use NU : as &~°oi£ a mountain S-'ci.fSi on the moun
tain weariness *=»e>&fi> through weariness favour escaofSo
by favour. Thus P. 2. H6. Setfjthy^tfiaOj Ticca. U. E. 5.
133. But these affixes are frequently dropped. Thus, ^S-SQ
hunger, makes the instrumental S*-?^ or 5S-5"9^§8. And yet we
hear the phrase $3-X£~3:d*xsixn'rX!S~°p£r(& jâ < mv earg are rjBg.
ing teifA hunger.' This often occurs, particularly in verse.
Thus, from ^3?)S» love, kindness, $$£d£)ix>ti&>o& rescuing me
with his love.
[These instances occur in various poems in the earth
(ND. 3. 1418,) «o"3x»a for 8e>£s-So-.a (BD. 5. 309) sS?SAj
grief, £$k>sSx,p% sunk in grief. e3-^«)o8oS for 59-8^ ffc or W-tfê"4
thinking in his heart, »3»> for uSa^ with might. T. 4. 108.
sS6fe$iSr°& regarding him with kindness.]
Sometimes £ NA is used for P NI and NU. as Vî5 on
the road : K*&jS on the wall "*SSiS for "^Sf> on such a date
"S~»aiS on the yoke &c. ^î5 for ^"^fk.
All neuter plurals make the Locative in ajfc, or or (drop
ping N) in «. Thus r*o£eu hills §"c£e>;S> 0r r-oSeji" or roS
«a or ôfiodSooaSb in the hills : Thus ->5^î places in a
few places.
These examples shew that the simple Ablative (that is without
affixes, as in or by) sometimes has the instrumental and some
times the Locative sense.
206 SYNTAX OF THE CASES.
Many of the Irregular nouna of the 3d Declension make the
INSTRUMENTAL Ablative without using any of these affixes.
Thus *«»a tooth (Infl. *>o*3. Abl. *ot>) a&o*jfre-§i*> he bit it
with his tooth. "^03 mouth. (Infl. "?w43. Abl. "^t°4j) •r'P
T^4jao43?> I heard it from him. Lit. at his mouth.;
the eye (Infl. SotS Abl. 3"o*j. Plural. Soeb Infl. r0g)
^ 06 -eSt" £d they saw it with their eyes. A thorn (Infl. s*»o
*3. Abl. «s»ofc>) sSMoti^S^jS) he pierced it w#A a thorn. V
a cord (Infl. ^*4S. Abl. 'ar*j) îJX"&^ he bound it
a cord.
C9-£© Hunger (G. W-S-© or abl. e3-rt>) «3-r&. tftS^fc to
die of hunger.
JTSSAn axe(G iT£43 or K"°£°43 abl. JTtfoij for mSQg*,
(or else TC&oto) j68"?ffc he hewed it with an axe.
1T[& a drill plough. Infl. R" _8. abl. fT_2) X^jS
he sowed (the land) with a drill plough.
Examples of the LOCATIVE case. 3)*» a house (Gr. SoiS. L.
ssôij) Sioij -cr-AfyiSb he hid in the house, ssptJf&fJ^Jfc, or
©F^j* he is at home.
^°cog a hand (Gr. ^3 ; L. ^tf ;) W^P ^Sjfr&S'JJ 0r 38er«
$5)0 the sword in his hand.
3<w a bow (G. S)ot3 L. ao&>.) aok&ASo^jfc he fastened it on
his bow.
fiûi a mortar (G. 6^*3. L. 6Âj) o^fcdga (otherwise 5^
tfsr8 or 6îr*i6«S) it fell into the mortar.
«8o a name (G. «0 or "843. Loc: or ^tfk ) es-ari» -pr° "
st> jjsr>§'(3-»^) the letter is addressed to me: that is 'in my
name.'
§"*l&>. Across, an impaling stake (G* Loc. §~°0o# or
triS.) sr»% "3j>a they impaled him r^cfeôaJfoo^ra let
every poetaster (be hung) on an impaling spike (Swa. 1. 200.)
ffcooog a well (G. rSr»S L. fS»»tf (or $rd<r*i) *JS[a~"3
ffc he pushed it into the well.
LOCAL ABLATIVE. 207
<£*« a town (G. &8. L. <£*S.) £•* (or f&eer* or &£"") J&jt*^
Sfc he is in town.
-iS"«&» a place (G. tT«*3 Loc. iSîJ. Flu. -<5^*» G and L. iT6
fc>.) §"* ^.tS^6^ in a few places.
"B»«eu. A root, a beginning (G. "S»es*3. L. "axffiij) "3»«
fcjjj*Tr'igjjScie it is sound at the root. (plu. "aM»^ G and L. "S»
8$ at the roots) "a»BJj£ssS &i^j.a it is found at their roots.
-r°oo a foot (G. ^0L, v». Plu. "*"& G and L. Tr»g) W-
c*6iS-r*?i:£o3r,'i& I will fall at his feet.
&&&$ the west (G. *£«*>£. L. *£**>k) &&&>& in the west.
[The Ablative case being included in the words of the Druta
class, the letter N is inserted. Thus *Ss&*jfS>rrjj«fe 'padamata-N-
unnadu, he is in the west.' anp^tfjSofcOp. ' I sent it by him.']
[Native Grammarians, arguing on Sanscrit principles, occasion
ally doubt whether a Telugu word in the Ablative is to be ex
plained as instrumental, or as Locative : but we shall easily meet
the doubt by considering it as the Ablative ; wherein both senses
are included. They also some times doubt whether a word (for
instance &c£ from ^0£p> eyes) is ablative or accusative. The con
text will decide which is intended. Thus ôgs may be instead of
Gen. 3foJ»55»5' or Ace. S'oJSfSi or Loc. S"o2»?S> or 5"iS>\edS3o
«& or instr. *°g&* (Vish. 8. 3 46.) 2r^8S»oS&^c^°* sit
ting on the banks.
For the Ablative may as in Sanscrit or Greek bear three senses.
See Classical Journal vol : xi. 148. and the ancient Telugu
grammar called Chintamani, Section xlvi.]
ON COMPOUND NOUNS (Samasa.)

Samasam ■^s^'Ssfc in Sanscrit signifies combination of words :
formation of compound terms : unting several nouns in one
phrase ; the final word alone having the sings of case.
These rules regarding compound nouns are not to be studied
until the student can speak Telugu easily.
208 SYNTAX OF COMPOUND NOTJNS.
"When two nouns in poetry are compounded, as a row " of"
teeth, a pair " of" eyes, a string " of" pearls English uses the
genitive plural but Telugu uses the Nominative singular : thus
rteu tooth combined with s5tf£ row becomes a&ejosss^ 0r,
:" tooth-row." so Sfft^ eye ?Css pair S'i&x'sS or 5" £3 a pairof
eyes. So S'f^+"dr»A=S'p,,Â the pupil of the eye. So
(Sôoj becomes •C^"^". &c.
Indeed the spelling is altered in nearly every compound
phrase. Thus &S)3o(& becomes &e)cso\% parents. Sg> talli
being written &® tali. Elsewhere a single letter, is doubled :
thus So ' head' has but a single L : yet in the compound #g,So
eieu upside down the L is doubled.
In many compounds the word which is first in English ia
last in Telugu. Thus:3°"3Sba cupful. water ô-3sfc^&
a cup of water. Lit. Water of a cup. S^^SSê land of two
miles. That is, a mile of land. a^tii&ptJ or &5"sS»-°*jw4oao a
bundle of clothes. S"i*>rttf "eye-pair" i. e. a pair of eyes.
tip and 'Sa ear ^^-33 the tip of the ear, or ear-tip: which if
not compounded would be "5&5k>5|_§'''>;S : thus S"jS"3eu the tip
of the finger. (cosa) tip "So^r hair r*i$-3oi&»r the tip
of the hair.
Sanscrit feminine nouns of more than one syllable, ending in
broad A or I, must in Telugu shorten that letter : thus S"5^
becomes S>«§ and tfsfcsl becomes tfsfceSa woman.
But in compounded words the original Sanscrit spelling is
retained. Thus becomes in Telugu 'a story' but Zip-*
•ôilL^!«s» 1 the summary of the story ' retains the long vowel.
In some compounds the first word drops the last syllable : or
retains only the first : thus s&j-°!*> + i&nootw becomes sfcoi&T^Sj
three hundred. x>xp>s£> three a sixteenth sS»£££sS»
' three sixteenths.' F*e»7<s+ jSjôoew becomes four hundred
COMPOUNDS. PROPER NAMES. 209
!S>T»So + er,§'«SintM becomes &o;£"e5's£>=tu the three worlds (or uni
verse, heaven earth and Hades). sfor»!6 f Tfexjew becomes «s»3?
to three quarters. Ccr»a upper + "s~*to leg becomes Sxr>~ir-w 'the
upper part of the leg.' "lo^y aruby "S^St lip "3 3»rO a ruby lip.
xSouc a hand S"_© a knife t3^_§ a small knife. 65- €> a cow ^"So a
male a bull.
Nouns that end in MU may drop that termination in com
pounds: thus i5e>sS» anger (compounded with Îj3^,) c<y*^
being angry. H. D. 1. 2117.
The following words combine a Sanscrit and a Telugu word :
this is disapproved, but is in daily use, even among the learned.
\jr,s&>~6% the reeve or head man of the village. U^'oSsT0^) a
tenant, as^^n a poisonous tree. &&i&)5>fo a venomous snake.
8b jSsrtftf bad conduct. e£>«r»r-ar a bad habit. or +«*s>
becomes "S^sSjSs&o, -3>V*sZ>t5Sx> the name of a certain voca
bulary. In this instance the Telugu word stands first.
In some compound words the second is superfluous in transla
tion': thus &e> and iSvw^cXi equally mean the head. "3^1. and
"S^J^ri1 equally mean butter.
"When several nouns are combined, whatever the case may be,
they are usually in the nominative form, and the sign of case is
added at the end. Thus yr'^tMoo, jSjJ&eo, Sos5'oo£>5:3d
' By bramhana, merchants and Musulmans.' Here the three
nouns are Nominatives, and ii8 " by these" is added at the
end. Thus 6"°5fcS3, *jt>sr°* &ap foHo€> 'Concerning
his brother, son and servant.' «3, ^=r»fS, 6MfD, ©xiew, &4Ss5o
Literally ' Cold, rain, hunger, fear, by these things.
RULES REGARDING PROPER NAMES.

Among the Telugus the family name is in the genitive case :
and it therefore stands first : the personal name follows it.*
• Thus in botanical Latin we write the name of the species but abbreviate
that of the genus ; -which is placed first, like the Telugu family name. Tho
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. c c
210 SYNTAX OF
The personal name is often that of a Hindu god or goddess : as
TPsfccsfig Ramaiia, and «X Laxmi : but the family name is usually
that of a place. Thus ZiS&Tr>s&,<&g Ramaiia of Kadapa. It is
hence called either ssto£j-=&& house-name or Stfl'Sao village name.
Among Europeans the family name is known to all, even to
strangers : the Christian name is not so often heard. Among the
Telugus the contrary is the case : we may know a man well by
name, though we may never have heard his family name. A man
baptized at Madras in 1837 was named Wesley Abraham.
The English contract the christian or personal name and write
the family name at length : the Telugus do the contrary. Thus
j^Ha^c&g 'P. Chinnaiia' may stand for *ft^ê3ajSjcBSe 0r
Chinnaya of the Pasupuleti family. In signatures the personal
name alone is generally written. In marriage the wife takes her
husband's family name. But some persons and castes have no
family name-
The family name is often that of a place. Thus there are
places named &fr-4)-$& and §"o£i>ao whence ^rMîS"^^^
Ramaya of Pasupuleru foaSfiS^cseg Krishnaya of Conda-
vidu. If asked the names of their respective families, these
men would answer (using plural forms) "^sS»*f&>^"343«r«oi£8S»
we are of Pasupuleru &c.
In such genitives ^"^ is inadmissible.
"When two or more persons bearing the same family name are
mentioned together, cor° 'This' (equivalent to Ditto) is used.
Thus*£^«^*>«*$,«r«*)&<*6S Ramaya and Krishnaya of
Pasupuleru. Or, Pasupuleru Ramaya, and ditto Krishnaya: like
' John and Charles "Wesley.' Thus Eo^jiS-ôSg Narasaya ofyour
family. s^xr'sacss our Ramaya, &c.
Chinese too place the family name first. So in old English, John of Gaunt,
Anne of Geierstein, Balfour ofBurley. The same is the custom among the
Finns and also the Hungarians. See Foreign Quarterly Review No. 57, p. 65,
where ' John living at Kinte' was called ' Kinte's John' &c. See Blackwood's
Magazine No. 334, page 178.
PROPER NAMES. 211
"When junior and senior are intended the words ^>g elder and
^<Sj. younger are used. Thus "3<uK'jgr»4 wgjjsc&g cra-» fiiS^&tfcsS
Viraya senior and junior of Velagapudi. The words for senior
and junior being applied to the personal names.
Servants who have long been attached to some English or Mu-
sulman or French masters occasionally bear their names. Thus a
native Hindu family at Masulipatam bears the name of Holland.
Another bears the name of Majumdar ; that is, Accountant.
Just as William or Elizabeth may become Will or Bill, Betsy
or Betty, the same Telugu name may take various forms, some
respectful and others familiar. Thus Jagannath Rao, Jagga Rao,
Jagannatham, Jaggaya, Jaggappa : and a female name Laxmi
may become and even fSy So among men. ÊotJsStj may
become x3o«nvTSS but the word "7r*«*b (equivalent to fellow,) is
applied only to the lowest persons. In speaking they often con
tract such names into ôeSnv* in the vocative ; dropping the last
syllable. This should be avoided.
Some personal names as a&"CP'o3o:3'«S», JjlSs'Sox'sfcD &c. have a
neuter form. Or the termination e» as stf £jsv. See the rules
for the plural.
As names (personal) take forms so numerous,* & misnomer
cannot well be pleaded, unless regarding the family names. Some
few, particularly men of learning, assume new names ; or epithets :
but cases are rare of an alias assumed for a fraudulent design.
Sometimes one person signs on behalf of another ; using this
phrase i>i£^Bp "3o ;SeMc3;5 "ôa-SSj^^p-^f) ' signed by me,
Medideh Krishnamma, on behalf of my uncle Viresa.' Literally
• Signature (H. nisMn) of Krishnamma by consent of Viresa.'
It is considered improper for a man to call his wife, or a wife
to call her husband, or, in short to call any respected person,
by name. Thus English servants if respectful, do not speak
* So in ancient English, some names as Raleigh, Burleigh, Shakespeare,

■were spelt in various ways, without any rule.
212 SYNTAX OP PROPER NAMES.
of their master or mistress by name. A man never mentions
his wife's name ; nor does a woman mention her husband's ;
unless by compulsion in a court of justice : where it is consider
ed a hardship and indignity. A woman speaks of her husband
as j£r»c33*js£î&JSo or as *S»»ft9- <sfc|S Master, or my Lord.
Though Sita (the spouse of Rama) is a feminine name (in Telugu
it is also borne by men, with the masculine affix, viz.
|>3cSS£ Sitaya (as Maria forms the name of some Frenchmen;
or as Helena and Helenus in Greek). But Telugu ladies of rank
(Velamas) use the masculine affix : and sign their names as |>3ctfg
Sitaya, or tfoXcjCg Rangaiia ; instead of |>3°£> Sitamma or tfoxsfc
Rangamma.
This refinement originates in pride : the common salutation
" Madam " is ' Amma ' Mother ; but a proud Hindu dame
scorning to let every man, whatever his caste, addresses her as
mother, assumes the title «*a«6e ' Ayya ' " Father "—equivalent to
Sir or Lord. Such is the reason alledged.
Thus Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria. Theresa. The Highland
Scotch use the word Sir respectfully to ladies.
Hindu letters generally commence with absurd flatteries. " To
the most noble, most reverend" Ac. which are mere eipressions
of course, like 'your obedient servant.' In modern days Hindus
see the emptiness of this ; and to get rid of the custom many begin
their letters with " My dear Sir" (written in English) adding, at
the end, " Your obedient servant" while the rest of the letter
is written in Telugu or Tamil. In the native newspapers correspon
dents fairly commence in the English fashion, with ' Sir'
ending with # jfc^siSoîS 'your servant.' Even the English
mode of using a fanciful signature " A Friend" " An Observer"
&c is imitated.
Ill as the natives pronounce English names we enunciate their
names yet worse. Thus on the map we see Kotta Kotta for E~
Sîi Kotta Kota, (New Fort) and a^â&AJsio Visakha Patnam be
comes Vizagapatam, LfT^&tfrfao Sricaculam is written Chicacole :
)fr'lSvT'& Giidulur becomes Cuddalore. :Sc«sr»^ Vandavasi be
comes Wandiwash : Hiroda is turned into Errode.
ON PKONOUNS. 213
Eight points of the compass are named as follows :
North. &J|S:S», also called S>"3ae>& because its regent is
Plutus the god of wealth.
North-East. -&^°pig:fcT»«>, ruled by the Destroyer.
East. «6"°tSo>. Sometimes called 3i0liSB^L, as its regent is Ju
piter.
South-East. W-^jc«65&n>e) its regent being Vulcan.
South. ts&-r>&x>. Sometimes <*6ê& its regent being Pluto.
South-west 28c)®:&xr'e>' This is often written wrongly
"3 [838, or ~^l_wx8. It is named after a regent named
whose name also is written PljôQ or Ptxo^Q.
West *2 & S (Genitive ££^->«3, western: Loc. in the
west) which is occasionally called ;Ssbre&§S. as Neptune ia the
regent.
North-west. sr-c*6sScsS>T<>e the regent being JEolus.
ON PRONOUNS.
Pronouns, as ' he, she, they' and possessives as ' My, his, their'
are not so often used as in English. Thus w^^4 (he)
told (it) to (his) brother. S 0^4:5 ^fJ) 1 father came' may mean my,
your, or Ms father.
The singular pronouns £>£j'thou' r> 'thy,' Pf^'thee,' are
in colloquial English rendered as plurals, ' You, your, you,' as
^Sc&DjSbSj^ £ where (is) your brother.
But the plural pronouns ^co ' those men,' £>& ' these men'
■when used to denote honour, become singular in English. Thus
■sr»cfcrf'^J7^Sb his honour is coming : literally, ' They are coming.'
The pronouns of the 3d person are these. ■sr-iSo 1 he,' 0r
"sr>0& ' they.' (a feminine or neuter affix) is contracted from
' she or it,' the neuter plural affix S is contracted from ' those
things.' These may be added to the relative participles, and some
other words : and then denote man, woman or thing.
214 SYNTAX OF
Thus. s£r°sr»JSo ' my man.' s&°zr°ot£> 'my people,' 'my rela
tions.' t» 5^43sr»sfe ' a man of that place :' HQ$p>?r>i& < a clever
man' 3£\ (Sôsfc those who came. &o^«r»ca£> 'those who are
there.' -cp^n'osS, 1 or»o£sb' those who came not ; absentees,
^■sr°"lsr»«So a writer. WtSpsSotSsr-ab a man like him. Ufkrtwa-'Jfc,
a Telugu man. "3iUKb-Hr=Gd£>) Telugu people.
wife and ^r"°^> sometimes denote disrespect. Thus Si^jt-iSo
a boy, «^_4sr»JSs a fellow of that place. But in the plural disres
pect is not always implied : thus &r*?r'0!& my people, fi;5^sr»o£&
children.
■5r°3i or ~7^& denotes respect. "39S(6«r«0o -wise men : 8 STT^Jfi
my honored mother 6oL&tt,jS> his father, or my father never
tSo^CT-Kb. <5",stv*3o or "^^tSÔb Tour honor, my lord. <S^tf
■^n:p7vxiS) honored madam.
[The word ' Mother' is always used to denote homage. 8

' You are my mother,' signifies ' You are my all in all.'
-rr°^"^» 1 Sanscrit is the mother' that is ' We cannot do without
Sanscrit.' This has been wrongly understood as though it meant
that the Telugu language was the daughter of Sanscrit.]
or "S"*^ is always used disrespectfully that man,
gô&TVJSb a man of peevish temper, wosstt'jSo a handsome man,
f^x"^ t*<3c> a pretty fellow.
The neuter affix is plural a ; for «8 ifc, es those things,
o^p&his. -£*Kol_tfs*» W8|0& this horse is his ■^^'^tu -w>pz>
these jewels are her's.
Sometimes this affix comes before the noun. Thus wSr>B;SS"
63-£) a cow of his 7*"& ^tuXo &S ex) four guns of mine.
The affixes of pronouns may be added to postpositions. Thus
from e^f>, (inflection of tr>, 'in') -&3&o<£> S3- ST i) these
fruits are from that garden. s^S 2t® wa ôSO' This is the upper
one, that is the lower one.
PKONOUNS. 215
Of feminine pronouns, «a is equally used for all grades. It
is contracted into 6, as s£>ofi& a good woman an old
woman, SiSjS a girl, ~3£)f>p£> a clever woman £r°*jS& a bramin
woman, "a* pa she that is not come.
W-^Si, W-'aj denote respect as F*©* a bramhan
woman.
In poetry <^ eta is used as an affix denoting slight, as f*^*
a milk maid a fish woman.
C9-e<4£> and &-a£>$ are used respectfully for ' He.' C'P'^So
he who is the junior. ^J^Qjfc the senior. ^F^^rS the young
gentleman tSj"ct'c*C(6 the old gentleman. "38§Ft<ssi;6 a man of
sense.
Contrast this with the disrespectful plural. artCsfccB an ac
tress : plural (feminine) jr*A"o«r»odSb dancers. So t^^tS, or
rô5o43sr»Jfo a shopkeeper; in the plural e^sfc^sr-offio.
Elder relations address their juniors as ' thou' (en tutoyant is
the French phrase:) who in reply say 'you.' Every woman
(unless when talking affectionately, or to a servant) addresses
every man as t*n& or &«£>S> ' you' or ' your honour.'
The common respectful address of a woman to a stranger is
wd£r>g Sir, or Father. Other men are saluted as ** fî. elder
brother or younger brother : according to his age. Women
are saluted as w^J mother! or elder sister !
In poetry r>0 thou is much used : especially as expressing love
or honour- In H. D. 2. 151 the wife addressing her husband with
affectionate reverence styles him " Thou."
[Some plural forms are peculiar to poetry, as sr>pix>y &Sex>
Also some contractions, as for <^s58§ to r>€> whom ?]
A pronoun which in English applies to one person, often changes
in Telugu into another. Thus ' They asked him who he was' be
comes PS) a^s^sSp ' they asked him saying who a/t
thou.'
' They discouraged me in this business' becomes -e* îp p
licd T»tf]r^8o 'They said this work is not (possible) to thee.'
216 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.
So in the Gospels ; Mark. XI. 24. ' Believe that ye shall receive
them, and ye shall receive them, incorrectly rendered s&;SsS» iyo
e6«bj£>'Pi$^3so&) -sr-tsp £ort£> &-°ot&>i&& Believe saying ' vie
shall receive them' and ye shall receive them.
The various degrees of respect denoted by pronouns can he
learnt only by practice. We may say to a footman p&tu$>
'call the doctor.' He replies V^sMTvep tOS pr».& ' I have
called his reverence.'
The English pronoun sometimes denotes the mind, as " they are
angry" or the body, as " I am hot.'" But in Telugu and its sister
languages the word body or mind must be expressed : thus F*
& sr*g-K* ^jS^ft (my body is hot : i. e.) I am hot ^F>§
«b3o-3sS>. he is ill. -&*P&$ &>v* tÂ&oiv etf^B (it is angrily
with her mind : i. e.) she is angry "§)î'3C)ciSj5'^)^'SSb. or "iSsfr*
sSâb"^0^. he fell down senseless.
The relative words who, when, where, &c. when combined with a
negative must be rendered ("not any") nobody, never, nowhere, &c.
Thus where •^^_TsT,"^sSb nowhere ; dsfc^sSo when ds£j^JSi-»"<3
S> never ; who dsS!£>~$sS> nobody ; what £ajrl5dS> nothing.
When we translate from Greek or from English, the relative
pronouns, ' who, which,' must often be rendered by direct pro
nouns. ' He, She, they, or, ' and he,' ' and they.' Thus in the
135th Psalm, in the first chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews,
and elsewhere, the pronoun ' who' must be translated W- csfijS He.
The pronoun self, or I, is thus used ; ^* ^^^L # © ?>
** fj^Sa he says he was there literally ; "he says I (or self) waa
there."
When in English the phrase is " He said that he went " the
Telugu phrase is He spoke saying I went " d*oa3fr»j6pt»fJ^«6."
Eor the word ■tô^-^r'&p'ts^yî would mean that he who went
was not the speaker. Thus -fir**) pr°tf p^-^t^ he said they had
seen (it) ^r&tdr*8fiptspo& she said she had gone. Lit. she spoke
Baying I went "^ssA-sr^tfskp wp^SS they said they would
come nest day : lit. they said we will come to-morrow.
PRONOUNS. 217
The pronoun -sn>i£> ' he,' in composition is translated ' A man.1
Thus sco£sr»;sb a good man, sSr»sr»iSa my man, my relation. **>°
Osr*o<So good men sSt»s3",cs& my people. ^>gw>E£> old men.
So in the feminine fa 1 She' is translated a woman : being
contracted into e*. Thus s&>ot>& a good woman, she or it ;
t>e;Scr»a She belongs to us.
The neuter pronoun W8 « it" it, forming < those' in the
plural, are contracted in to S and a thus, tsfisnp© ' that is his,'
tsas^pa ' they are his.'
These affixes may be added even to the words in, from, &c. as
e5-s"c^^px:5e5;6xej^p6 that story is from the Bhagavatam.
[In poetry the spelling of pronouns is sometimes altered to
suit the metre. Pi&j., sSbfto, may become f>, ?>fS),
«£>;&>. Thus P^cS^l^ (for ^^«j6iS^tf.&o) the ill thou hast
done. H. D. I. 1987. The word s&>ê» 'us' may change into
K*>(Se>. Eadha 1. 49. For or*43p, a*Sp (those things, these
things) the poets use t»P and £>?>. In Vasu 3. 189 are three
instances. In Gr. 1. 284. S^dvoKosr>p, fC&r&Xosr'f), §rxx>*»
X,e>«r»jD;So&i:Je>i£> <y0u should not trust those [creatures] which
have tusks, or claws or horns.' The possessives, ' mine and
r>s£ thine, are peculiar to poetry and have no plural form : thus
■pr>&gGow<x> 'my hands' Adhyatma RK. 399.]
we ' That' added to a p|| forms a noun- Thus l3^Sy>& that
which is written ; or, that which writes ■sj""2& s5:'?^9 SSaAîfc
■when is he coming. As here shewn, it is translated by a verb. It
may be conveniently considered as an Infinitive : and it has no
plural. It is also used in the Negative. l«r»<JB!ip8 that which is
not written.
Such nouns are in English governed by a genitive. Thus w*
afcssSKjSa 'fl;s coming' but the Telugu uses a Nominative ' he
arrival' not ' his.'
This subject will be more fully explained under the Infinitive
in J)J.
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. n d
218 PEONOUNS.
Some other words admit of gender and therefore may be consi
dered with pronouns. £>& ' where' (with the hard D) is mascu
line, and &9 ' where' (with the soft D) is feminine ; thus ; <So\&
«5oS 'where is my father' dj>«ba where is my mother.
In addressing a superior, the Hindus use the respectful pro
nouns Sxr»& 'you' or self, selves. But in respectful affection
or strong devotion ' Thou' is the only phrase. So in poetry,
(H. D. 2. 151.) the wife addresses her husband with reverence
as r>6 Thou.
In addressing a respectable native (particularly a paid tutor)
Ot»3j You is the proper word. But in conversation we may gra
dually learn how to avoid pronouns : thus instead of {jy^^sy
hast thou written it ? we can say \_»r»§§d;5"n,> {9 it written ? In
stead of dôwâ^ go (thou) and tell him, we can say sôm^*^
sSe>#;sa ilfaut dire. But the niceties of conversational style can
only be acquired by closely observing the manner in which natives
express themselves. There are delicate points of politeness which
cannot be defined in rules.
Eelative pronouns are sometimes translated without the rela
tive form Thus 53- ^"fcr& 53os5$eS oSo&> 3« pn>Bo? Did anybody
(quis) do anything (quid) to the box ? Lit. Who did what ?
The defective pronoun t9o«£>5 (noticed under the Adverbial
declension) may be added as a gerund to any past or Aorist p||
thus ; 5SSô&-,5 « by coming' Tyfio&tf < by not coming,' sSfi^So
for having come. And it uses a plural dative form rrXao
efcoSS (ad veniendum) that (he) may be able to come.
Eelative words (who, where, which, wherefore,) must often be
turned into Telugu by ' he, they, there, it, therefore ? In the
135th Psalm, in the first chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews,
as also in many parts of the Liturgy, a series of relative pronouns
cannot be translated intelligibly into Telugu Tamil or Cannadi
without such an alteration.
BOOK SEVENTH
SYNTAX OF THE TELUGU VERB.
The following Table exhibits the principal parts of those

Telugu Verbs which have been already conjugated.
220 TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL
Infinitive
In TA. In A. In Damu. In E'DI.
Fiust Conjugation.
sbcT^jo To send
•OdSi$*j Read
»;*>*-> Hear
S"f&ij Buy §~"j£a
IT (S. 4j (The Middle Voice)
ifcasoij Fall
£r*£)*J Go sir* ;S,sir6
&c*i> Be, Stay.
t9<£k> or ^3°^> or w*>*J Become
S'ooXoij Be, Happen. rs-â
Second Conjugation.
^dc&>4j or ^ô*j Do 3i>a

^jt»c«xj4j or Lpîôij "Write
tSSdSook) or ei«S=> (4o*J Be wet saâ
:$od(&tJ or sSu&Aj Must
Tiiibd Conjugation.
Rear
Forgive sSoô^Sa
Try
Z^4o Give
Come T7»
PAETS OF VERBS. 221
Aefirmative. Negative.
222 TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL
Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense.
■yfk I send
I sent I shall send
§"* o &x> , 9"°0&p> f& §^0*3?), r'-pîSi

none none none
ô fc»fT^L ?S>, ^ 0&r» fSi ,
none none
none sS»«;sei must none

(In French, II faut
In Latin, Debet.)
.—o 1
°$_^P, sS&^'^pk o5 -Sêsf^j ■S^j*

PAETS OF VEEBS. 223
AOBIST. Imperative. Prohibitive.

Affirmative. Negative.
I send I send not Send thou Send not thou
none none
*<5S5
sir* or sJr*^
ôjffJ)or"^pj
none
reefe, S"gb it is, "3*6 it is not
there ia
:5"S + must ^cr°<sS3 must not none none
t> offS3
\ cor=
1 tpSo
224 SYNTAX.
OF THE VERB.
All verbs are Transitive (Active) governing an accusative ; as
■E&»&pT>?£> I saw, S>9fi?r°«i he called: or Intransitive (likewise
called Neuter) governing no accusative; as fcSHbjS&a;S& it appeared.
Verbs of going or arriving generally understand to or at. Thus
&4r&£r*ox>fr°d& to what village has he gone ? Q°£ *:&-?*& he
arrived at home.
Verbs of descending &c. generally understand from : thus "o [p
sS»9x alighting from his horse. £*«l>"3£~3 he went forth from
the town. M-6" (oS'SiSS descending from on the impaling spike.
In English ' To Have' is an active verb, but in Telugu there is
no such verb. It's place is supplied by the verb' ' To Be' (<feo«Sbi->
Uunduta or 6"e»HoiJ Kaluguta) Thus p> ssg &->§ ©r&w* ?
' have you a gun ?' SS^.6" ©^^p" ? ' have you dogs : Lit.' By
thee is there a gun: are there dogs ? £>£» "«5p jSSojS s'JfQ "6aSb
(Vema) ■ he who hath nothing shall receive nothing.' "3£>3 X'asy
*£> (gala) one who has sense. ~3®a ~tp 5r°<£o ' one who has no
sense.'
The Passive voice merely adds ^ô^j (to fall) to the root in A.
Thus iJo^Ji) 'to kill' tfoifews£k> « to be killed' 2>ootfb*j 'to
call' 4jos5w«o4j or &e£w«bAi 'to be called.'
The passive voice with an active sense is used even with some
verbs as ' Be,' ' Bend,' and ' Hear' : and sometimes is applied to
active verbs without giving them a passive sense. Thus &o£
wcfjSb for &o&-fr°t£> 'he was': :SoS\iS and £oXk>£ equally mean
bended, stooping. SoT^ and 3;S»^fS> equally mean I heard.
■pr»&£cK&sSx> So&ajSjS, or, OjSwao&â, 'music hears to me' that
is ' is heard by me' —That is, I hear some music. (See Telugu
Dialogues.) ^s^^ (act p||) and "cr«g (passive p||) equally mean
'Arrived, come.' iSt&^dfi-fnx&m and ii}&ri:<S«i£-$r'<£s>u} equally
mean. The witnesses whom I called. «a»F°«o and "S^wji'ab
ON YES AND NO. 225
equally mean He became. "30ct£ot> and "BCdfcwJfcio equally mean
To appear, become known.*
It sometimes bears either sense : thus ^c&i* GsSoZ a fearful
antelope, efal'i&'&i&O. a fearful tiger : one word meaning timid:
the other meaning terrible, if<tf> ;$fc«fi;£tf sS"Srk. You
should fear him who is to be dreaded. lf<&&~&isp$ if<&>'&t£iZ~6ci>
you should be afraid where there is cause for fear.
Sometimes the active form is used when the sense is passive :
Thus sr»P eT* s5'4S ^fc^ SfiSSofcoâ when you say one
thing to him another thing is heard : that is, ' he is deaf and hears
wrong. Thus S>okx>p^& « it hears,' is used for £f> & 'it is
heard. 't
ON YES AND NO.
If a question is put with a noun, as w»MS S sS^-ra" < (j8) ne
vour brother?' the answer 'yes' is the same noun : as "jo^Ssio
*fc ;' or else with the intensive accent, r^t'ô yes. Or else,
«€>?£>, the aorist of **€>t>.
The negative would be froSsSw jfc"s~c2Sb or ~s"°s£> No.
If the question includes a verb, as sOsiJ't!' 1 Did he come ?'
the reply "yes" repeats that verb : sSe^froi^b yes : or else,
It is so. iêwF' 'is it enough, CT-ewfl*' 'yes' w«sS> 'no.'
If the question is regarding a future occurrence, the reply
merely repeats the phrase : thus : £rexosr« can y0H g0 ?>> s^-s^ti
i*> " I can go ;" "will you bring it?" " I will bring
it." In such instances ts&i* cannot be used.
* Virgil uses penetrabile for penetrans ; Or. 1. 93. Mb. X. 481.

f In the Greek verb the active and passive senses are sometimes
undistinguished. In English we sometimes use the passive for
tbe active. Thus we say ' they were gone' : meaning ' they had
gone.' In Shakespeare (In Romeo, 4. 2.) Juliet says " lecomed
love" for becoming. And the foot note says, ' One participle for
the other ; a frequent practice with our author.'
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. e e
226 SYNTAX OF YES AND NO.
This happens in other oriental languages. But Telugu lias
no separate word for ' yes' or ' no.' Compare Genesis xlii. 11,
and xliv. 28.
Some interjections are used in conversation, to express yes ! Thus
C9-sr°aha or ?3-£3- aye, aye ! Elsewhere some nouns are used to denote
reverence : as «mB or ajêscsfir^ yes sir, (your pleasure !)or
which bears the same meaning. The words 'the same!'
' the very thing !* 1^6 < right !' s&>8 1 aye !' T'Z&oSa < why not ?'
are also used.
An easy hum or grunt, mh, mh, with a shake of the head
" Humph," denotes ' No.' In the negative the lips are closed :
but in the affirmative ' aha' the lips are not closed.
ON THE DIFFEEENCE BETWEEN

"Vfe Xadv and "3s£> Ledu.
The verb t?$t> < to become' connects two nominative cases : or
a nominative and an adjective, as w©?5^6 T*efc it is not mine
KiljjiSiD «fco-aQ"B-"a£> the horse is not a good one. So5|_ f)OEj^:fe-8r»4S>
a dog is not a lion. Here we see two nominative cases connected.
The verb &ot£>b 'to dwell' always implies a locative; in a
place, or at a time. Thus go*£* ' is he at home ?' is he
alive ? <&Fîe*> (lit. ' he is') yes. ~^^> lie is not. This locative
is often understood, not expressed.
Kadu denotes kind, quality, or condition ; Ledu denies ' life'
and ' locality.'
Thus much is sufficient for the learner : but after some pro
gress has been made in the language the following statements
will be found useful. Meantime he may pass by these rules with
out perusal.
The verb Ledu is the Negative Aorist of &o«oio 1 To Be,

dwell, remain' : and is also the negative Aorist of £vc7&&> ' to be or
accrue.' it is, it is not. The affirmative is 6"e>s£>, con
KADU AND LED1J. 227
traeted into 3"«£>. Thus I cannot tell whether it is there
or not. ^ss55't>c£> there is a road. <3~*&~£e&> there is no road.
[So Horace says " Quod versu dicere non est." And in one
of the epodes Neque est levare tenta spiritu prsecordia. Thus
Shakespeare says " This is no place." (As you like it, Act 2,
Scene 3).]
Again «^6S ou>$ to whom dost thou give it ? oêtlSJfc to
no one. This is contracted for olsset ~e5sS>.
It is often joined to the root in A, to denote the past tense : as
3(^^25) (he) did not give, 6o&-$ & (we) did not send it. This
is alike in all persons.
The word "^sfc is the negative aorist of W£)i> to hecome, turn
into, be done or finished. This is often rendered in English ' To
be.' Thus <&(SP i&[?sSx> that is not his horse. ^?t>
&, «r*afc, it was not I but he. 2>8£>?SS -zê&> it was not he
who called. £?Syt. ~^«& not me. ***F>S ^"°cSb not to him. up £
sSr»tr» ? TâSb Is this your statement ? No. ar»«6 oaafi^pO a&r»S3
"5-°fi& he gave it (but) not to us. «■ Xoa w0af o*>o£rfi"S-"<& that
marriage did not take place in their house. prS^&o&t
(contracted for e^>§a ~s~°e&) that work cannot be effected
unless you send me. -&wo& j£o'~Q"S~i:'£& this carriage is not to
be sent.
In a few instances may be used for ~£&>. Thus rr°£e>
*jS8 (you) must come: of which the Negative may be either
-iy;Se>8jS£> or Tr>s5e>8;Sa "T°C&. Again: — ^cS"§ "?>o?>^
? If you bend it thus is not there pain ? Here we may
say "^"cr» instead of ~B~°~ts°. Again £e "SaSb, or, £ £>~S~°& it is not
practicable.
Occasionally a masculine noun takes a neuter verb. Thus «i>^>
«b-r»«fc it is not a bad man. 3>«o a&JOa-JSo -3-°«S> (for ~^&) be is
not a (good) workman. s&'WjSîfcj 0r, tfj*53jS^J5o my brother is
not here.
228 SYNTAX
The two verbs are contrasted in these phrases- ?r» Ko(tf «fao
~ê&> it is not my horse, W X>[p&& i£si> niy horse is not here.
~5~°j£> or when joined with an instrumental (" by") may
imply possibility. Thus 3ia sr^t* W5&»& this can be effected
by him. *>"*P it cannot be done by him. F*o5ol5<& it
cannot be effected by me. x3"î>oe>oSi ■p'^tS"s~-'iSi I cannot say.
ON THE INFINITIVE.
The Infinitive form of verbs, as shewn in the Dictionary, ends
in fc> ; as *ot4)*-> pamputa, d*Sji> povuta, JSsfc^j va99uta. Some
have called this the Root.
It is declined as a noun of the third declension : thus; N. *o
sending, Dative *o^ks3. Abla. a&o^srB^. for sending.
Acc. *oi£)4ji&. lnB. Ao^)e>îS, a&oî) A.>55e>, by sending. Loc.
j&o^J)t>e5"* in sending. Plural «&o^)±jto the sendings.
Another form of the Infinitive ends in Adamu. This is a noun
of the second declension. Thus N. a&oa&dioio sending. D. s&c££
jIkjSSS or Aost-T^jS* or «&03&jjo&>jS~§ for sending. -Acc. <6o*^
sfcjffc sending. Ins. dodStZxiSiS or 3&o«bd£sS»iS or a&oafrjssicSJe^ by
sending. Loc. ssoatgawer* in sending. Plural. >£oif£j£oex> the
sendings.
This is sometimes wrongly spelt *jsS», thus ôi6ajsS» pampatamu.
Another form of the Infinitive ends in E'DI and is declined like
the pronoun 'that:' N. a&o't.a the sending. D. ô^-nr-PS
or ifeoTSrropT! for Bending. Acc. iô^-sr0?^ the sending : Instr.
&o'i-ts*p*iiS by sending. Loc. a&o'l.-ET'per8 in sending. This has
no Genitive, nor a plural.
The noun ending in DI is declined in the same manner. Thus
N. s&otijsa the sending. Dat. Acfcji-cr'j&S for sending: Ins.
^>oj)|6 ur>Px3d by sending.
The negative ending in MI is similarly declined. AoAsa the
not sending. s&o^Sto^S by not sending. Plural, ôdbtfxe*;.
THE INFINITIVE. 229
The negative noun ending in ANIDl is similarly declined. N.
afco*pe the not sending. Instr. *o&pss-'p^& by not sending.*
In English these infinitives are generally translated by tenses :
Thus
TA. pestolt is true that (he) called (his) sister.
■zr-o&Xt i6oi^)«j& t9£-£ota 0T wcfis, aboaba s£»;S§o O&c&iSo
• what prevented (your) sending them ?' Lit. ' for sending them
hindrance what ?'/=r»8 afeo«£)«joj a»&r» ^;6ja Lit. their sendings
are thus!
DAMU. # *>tM#£sS» pzj!S» The same.
Xb[»cîSo *oi6^s5xi -gssb (He) will not send (his) horse. Lit.
horse sending is not. •sr»8 ôafcfisSxew o»-»er»633 (the same) This
implies that they sent nothing.
silS jfr^sSiisSM This is my departure : I am now going. Lit. this
(is) going.
l_sr»c*<>eiji» woosâ "VVritingis finished; that is. (I) have written.
•5t>j£> ■xr'i^^H sSa^S by his not coming.
]6ffoj_ &cz££x s5e> by sending me.
DAMU. i&\0&x>r& ifcoabiSsSêr* in sending the horse.
DI. AotiS, a&oafcps, (I) do not know whether (they)
will Bend (him) or not. Lit. the sending, the not sending, is
unknown.
* In considering the Infinitive as a noun, we are justified by

some English Grammarians. See article 1 Grammar' in third Edi
tion of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (§83) where the critic shews
that " the Infinitive is no mode of the verb but an abstract noun."
So in Latin, ' Non est vivere sed valere vita.' ' Dutce et decorum
est pro patria mori ;' and in English ' To err is human, to forgive
divine.' So in Greek (Acts XX. 35) ' It is more blessed to give
than to receive.' So in Trench ' baiser' to kiss is also the noun
' a kiss.' The same principle is found in Persian and in Hindus
tani. And see Lee's Hebrew Grammar, note on Article 145. And
as to the negative noun see Ovid " Heu quam difficile est crimen
non prodere vultu."
230 SYNTAX OF INFINITIVES.
EDI. woijB oaêso afco'Se "8D<x£& It is not known when the
carriage is to be sent.
DI. sr>£fc ss^ft joke>» he will really come: lit. His coining is sure.
r*£=SSrS> i6o-i>-CT*p§ "S>S^F°s£> he agreed to send (lit. for the
sending) (his) son.
no&p ôi^-cypi ^sfcTP^Sb what did he say about sending
the carriage ?
p& i6o&!Sa fT'SS ISSJcsJsS) I did not know of your sending it.
75 i& |ja-»§;$a (jr»§;5"3 what I have written I hare written.
i6ok;Sa-&>sSx> it was we that sent it.
-cr»f sôwjsa =r»«b it was he that came not : i. e. he failed to
come.
<6ofci6 t&°P^ ■atr»^,E!-» do you observe their sending this ?
p#s^&o%>p-cr°pl cfc)s£>f3-^«b what did he say to (my) sending
you ?
p/S)^ Ack^-cr-Jbtf-8 omoS tfff^ Ôâ all the uproar was
caused by (our) sending you. Lit. Thee in sending, this confusion
happened.
£=83q5&) a&odfcjaa pain it is true that (they) did not send the
rice.
xo(_tfjfe)fS> s&os&pa "3su&ii& they know that (you) did not send
the horse. Lit, ' horse not-sending is known.
«r»5"e)?J) &o£p-Gr>p$ by reason of (your) not sending the
money.
DI. (b£)Tr°pa"S"*a& thou not coming, (it) cannot (be done,) that
is, how (can it be done) unless you come ?
It has been shewn that the ' Root in Adamu' has a dative case.
Thus &b£j5)i>a forms in the dative 6o££«s»j$£> ' for staying.'
And this may be changed inte the ' root in A.' Thus &c£s6is»
;6 5o"3s& 'being afraid to stay,' becomes &o& ~3tiS>. Examples: —
"cyxiij v. n. 'To hide.' "cyx'-G»o;58o ;S-*ow(T»iSb may become
Tr°X xâu-fyjfc 'he went to hide. C3-&>4o to play, to dance. W-£
^stojSSo TîSa, or, es-êâ < 8he learned to dance.' 3tio^ to
come. Eoot in A "^ ; xr sS^sk^So &p-§&} 0r, xr°&p-$& there
THE INFINITIVE. 231
is no occasion to come. ~£&u to rise. Root in A <^ ; hence "®s>
ts^SSsÔP, or !5;Ss!r6S I was going to rise. to go. Root in
A sir6^ or sir8 ; hence "C^rk s^f* coming and going, ~^t^
&^>iSx>ta afc&jSffc It will take ten days to go and return.
Yerbs which havo monosyllabic imperatives, insert V and Y ;
thus.
Imperative. InfinUTA. Inf in ADAMU.
sfrîj po-v-adamu to go.
& &^£o4j IcsSJssSm ti-y-adamu to take,
none -PtSvîj \T°£&£x) ca-v-adamu to die.
■»$ ~td££x> te-v adainu to get.
8^to ^^jStoji-yy-adamu) tQ giyc
or sjs^jS&o ) i-vv-adamu )
These infinitives, as already shewn, are translated by tenses : as
■^4Sa xxs» r'eS' ^ês& ^fc) this day my hopes are fulfilled : Lit.
' to-day, indeed, my wish successful being.' «8 S|S>«j ~Sv>eSex>
ever since hearing it. cxuS_SS sS-tS^TbAxi what means your
coming here ? Lit. ' thy coming here, how ?'
Substantive nouns are governed by genitives, as "Pômoo my
house, jbîSj your name, ■sr»pi>p his business : but verbal nouns
take a nominative : thus J*n>& St^«j S3^«^> when are you
coming? Lit. You coming when? ■sr,oi& iJ^J) u°£&&a they
are coming to-morrow : Lit. they arrival to-morrow.
ON THE INFINITIVE IN A, OR "ROOT IN A."

If the Infinitive sign TJTA is dropped, and A is substituted,
this is called the Boot in A. It is the adverbial form. Thus *o
tfo*j unduta becomes &oi£ unda. povuta becomes
pova ; or, by contraction, sfr* po.
And this is translated as an infinitive, thus ]ie
thought to stay. d~6pO}"i?x£o he let (them) go : he suffered them
to go.
232 SYNTAX OF INF. IN A ; OR, ROOT IN A.
The syllables s-, pSi, *, tt", tfr", ttT", Trffo, and with a
sunna preceding these crt", otv", oxt", &o may be added to the
infinitive, without altering the sense : and these are used both in
prose and verse. Thus in the various dialects, &o5i-(
feoaSffc &otf?f, <&o£"A°, ô3?ff~, ôfiTVE-, «&oax(S),6oS-7T,i&|
&c£o>f, &o£o-tt», ^ciJoxr, ôô-Teg-, (SotfoXfJo, &ce£oTr-;&
These are exemplified by adding another verb. Thus, sEi«x>&*.> -'to
speak" the root in A is 5", s&e>5's-)!6e(5'fX))*e,rx'1 «&«r-7Vf «&e>? x"r
tt0, AoS'oX'r", a&e;§'oTr*€_, *e>S'c»Ci& abe)?OTT,F&. and by contrac

tion, &c.
The shortest of these forms is in daily use. Thus from ljr»«3a*j
vray-uta, ' to write' by substituting A for UTA, (_p-°«6 vray-a is
' to write.' Thus ^î*) he was going to write.
csfixpsSi (you) must not write. (p-»c*&sSej§j6a (you or he) must
write.
Elsewhere N is inserted because the next word begins with a
vowel. Thus &g°[jr°css>f$v atla vray-an-ela, ' why write thus ?'
L«r»c«j pj'Hoô'S vray-an-arambhinche ' he began to write.'
"Where the N (called ' o' sunna) is optional, as &ojStt» undaga
or £»otfoTT*} undanga, some modern grammarians propose the
(arddha bindu) semicircle or dot ; as ôSc"7r°. But the semicircle
has never come into general use : and the few who use it, particu
larly the printers of Telugu newspapers, are in error. Sound
scholars declare that the semicircle ought never to be used in
prose. The ^j^&iî. semicircle does not appear in ancient
manuscripts, nor in the common writing of learned men. But the
circle is often written instead. Thus we sometimes see n>oab
vandu while the proper spelling is sr-&> vadu, ' he.' The vulgar
speak much through the nose.
The affix has an adverbial force. Thus ^'S, (adj.) right.
a -7T° rightly. ~3f>* back. '3jSS' tt» backwards. error,
erroneously.
BOOT IN A. 233
The * root in A' may sometimes be considered as a noun, and
governed by *g By, through. Thus from the 'root
in A' is "B~° whence by being so ; Therefore. And the ' root
in A' of &os&t> is &o£ ■ whence &o£wg by his being there.
ô^wgTVjD =r*o«Sb Had not I been there they would have
died. ^^J5* u6$raoi5wg (Lila XIV. 7.) by his being born there.
From "3q^*j to bring (the same as "3a^Soa£jj6) by bring
ing. "s-*e>5S» csSo j£sSx>~ir° ls«>g (i. e. &8j5oifciS) as the season
turned out well. J&'5'e»os,'£>*3 by having money.
The root in A of some verbs has an adverbial force as in
for a&'SijiMTr0 when joined with another verb. Thus.
Inf. inUTA. Boot in A. Adverb. Examples.
to fall down *£r°&sak> to knock down.
-3t&4j to rise up to lift
oloiSbi) to dry v. n. hotly oJoS^Stoi) to sun.
Scr"iKo4j to gather v. n. together &~°£'^> to save.
UKoij to snap ~&i< breaking UxT*;&>t> to cut off.
jOewdai) to stand jBosS standing pe>£ "3 &»i> to raise up.
s6xtu*j to break v. n. a&Xe in bits &Xt>r°kx>&> to break topieces.
■ir-Soij to run •^•tf through •ir°ff'i5sfciSfc> to read over.
away -ir°ti~£;&olj to throw away.
Xoi&b to stoop $oK down ~oX "3 fco&> to bow down.
•£r°xbi) to go on "f"0* on -p^Kô^)k3 to send on.
aboiSbij to redden * o£ redly <£oj5~s-°?vi6& it is red hot.
■sfct) to go "S^ off "3? r*ta>4j to drive o/.
£*d£>*j to become loose loosely Am&j to knock out.
Bxjeo to descend 8!f away SXfr°aSit) to leave.
So-r.«joij to fall &-°e> down âs&aki) to fall down.
gj-«e)<S"s5
Tl— *i to knock down.
&3o*-> toendv.n. finally §tJt3S3F°^> heread to the end.
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. r f
234 SYNTAX OF THE INFINITIVE.
The Precatory or Imprecatory forms, used in blessing and curs
ing whether in prose or verse belong to the Boot in A. Thus ;
v*pt»a tp'o-, (from »)© sense and -3,^ to bum^ 4perish his
wisdom!' or, w*p sfeo^^face) "êr. may his form perish, or
let his face be cursed. «3-dtfi;S w;& (^f^sfe -êr. Be then his love
accurs'd (Paradise Lost, IV. 69) These are equivalent to the
phrase in iv>* as Wfcr. ts^Tr-g- may jt be so ! ljid*;&j re»?fc
"fS" Mayest thou be happy ! st*?) omo^* a?"êSo-s»o«r» (from
•ôoi&ij) May the wild tree grow over his house: i. e. May
he be ruined. £> £|Jk *£ I wish you the lock jaw. $ sfr'oto
&o-7T° Perish thy pride ! These exclamations are in common
use.
ON THE INFINITIVE IN U.
This is formed by dropping the sign ** ; so from ^dSkk, sS#>nA>,
■StNOT&iJ, are formed 3dS», ^, ^ô^. But &>$l} forms it
irregularly &*s$ or **.
It is often used as an imperative : as w^S^ka pUt (it) there.
S||f_eS;g)°«o Stay here.
Elsewhere this form ending in U is the 3d person singular
aorist ; as ■^s&Scn'S^ he will grant, e^ he will give, **^j he will go.
This is also used as an aorist participle : thus [»r«cSw-sr»iSo i3
the same as l^r^^rogfe he who writes. &*t>J3F>og£> for &»a&>e
■CT'ogb those who go. e3-ifces-ffios£r>i>tu for es-'^ssr.ijw, the words
she said. K&;3-»j6Kb8ctfc>troasSx>!S for SS6^>tfo«s>M;S like a torrent
of rain. Lit, like the raining of a heavy shower.
[This form is Druta : and accordingly uses N to prevent elision
of the vowel. Thus &* & +w*j* becomes &®fS6s& But this
N is never used unless in poetry, bo -^w^âo N. D. 3. 102
for 1&8-=§>k;^8o. M. 5. 4. 86. ^;S& and in M. XIN. 3. 103.
UoâfijSg. in modern Telugu these would be written tro?,^.]
IREEGULAE VEEBALS. 235
[The verb ««ot> < to become' retains this form ««o in poetry,
bearing the same sense as tJocujs Thus B£'s5o!<o'33-»tfi» for s S"^c«jfS
sfc^sfe her lovely face ]
ON IREEGULAR VERBAL NOUNS.

It has been seen that the Infinitive is a noun. Thus from
t> to dance or play is derived S3-£££«S» 1 dancing,' ' playing'
(saltatio, ludus.) This is a regular form. But there is an irregu^
lar form which equally means ' a play, a game.'
The phrase * Irregular is objectionable :' but it is the only word
in use for " the minor portion ; the smaller number." According
to their principles all these are quite regular.
The Regular forms, already exhibited, as C3-<5#5£», 69-iSb
A> are common to all verbs : but some have peculiar verbals.
To exemplify this in English : To arrive ' To receive' ' to con
trive,' make ' arriving' ' receiving,' ' contriving' which are regular :
and ' arrival' ' reception,' '■contrivance' which are irregular. And
in words of Saxon origin, ' To Live, to Grow, to Die,' make
' Living, growing, dying,' which are regular, and ' life, growth,
death,' which are irregular. [Thus in Greek f^w, Xtyw, wpaaau,
have the derivatives *p«"c> Xt&s, vpuUs-]
These Irregular nouns form a convenient vocabulary of words
which are in daily use.
Glass Ending in A.
to fruit ■ff^dtfi, a green fruit.
to bind a bundle.
Ending in AKA.
to come TPS' arrival.
to go going.
to be angry ««S" anger.
to be hot x»f heat or fever.
to plunge tsafX a plunge.
to break Sbf^ a bit.
to know ôo3> knowledge.
236 SYNTAX OP
Ending in IKA. To these also the Negative participle in AKA
will be subjoined for the sake of contrast.
These nouns ending in IKA. being nominatives are therefore
Cala words. But the Negative participle in AKA, like
the infinitive in GA, is a Druta word. Thus -u^pfcfJ^sfc. He
comes not.
Infinitive. Noun. Negative P||
TA IKA AKA.
jSri»t> to believe fS^S" what is believed; (5 not believing.
belief
SjjSb&Aj to settle SSaeS" settlement 5" not settled,
•iffcjjw to think <^P^f thinking •î^S' without thinking.
fc?e»fcj to plait plaiting without plaiting,
sisfaoaok to fit v. n. StStoSS' fitting sisfc & 5" without fitting.
•snt&ii to use w»3? custom ■sr»iSS' without using.
3-*s»&> to resemble d"8© f resemblance 5" not resembling.
Mb^> to bear kiS" endurance k*8" not enduring.
wSewij to weary 8 f weariness aS.eS" not wearied.
Class 'Ending in Akamu. Plural. «5S"s$o3eu.
^>otS)4j to share a&oa&S'jSjo sharing.
jSsSm t> to believe ;S£&rss» belief.
to sell ts^râ selling, sale.
:5oiSSt) to cook 5So4j5"sS» food.
Ending in KADA plural 5"£e».
ptM-E&ij to stand F>ej_£ steadfastness,
to come tt°Si£ coming.
Ending in IKIplural Keu.
6oj64j to dwell being, remaining.
TP>Sip§ absence.
"3&p§ absence.
eS>p6ji> to plough e£>S ploughing.
3i*t> to hear »F>3 hearsay.
IRREGULAR VERBAL NOUNS. 237
In TA. These are distinct from the Infinitive in TA ; which,
as already shewn, is common to all verbs, and is here placed in the
first column. Plurals rioêu, aoêw &c.
to fruit a crop,
Siot&ti to boil cookery,
to sing -2r»<b a song,
to play 63-Aj play, sport.
In TV plural TLTT.
to fall -in'kxi, -ir» 433 fall, trouble,
OtfX"»eS3i5 to rebel OtiXs^ho rebellion-
to return sfcj&w&a return.
to ruin ruinplu:
to cast a blow, a shot, a hit,
plural "^£>.
Ending in DIplural «• j£> or
to walk conduct.
to eat diet.
to rob J CO plunder.
xr°xS)4j to rub rubbing.
to rule reign.
to extend tillage.
SSCfo^J to come income.
Ending in TA plurals Sfc LP"cS>jAj K-»-i7e
writing.
ff^dBSiAj to reap reaping,
2Jr°cJSoij to cry a cry.
&c. &c. &c.
And some of the third conjugation change IN9U. into 1NTA
thus.
eifjôtioti to deliver ea&ôtf delivery.
SYNTAX OP IRREGULAR VERBALS.
Ending in PIT or FPU plurals
weS^&j to owe debt.
to produce productiveness,
to see -tfr-îj sight.
to ruin ^3S>i£) ruin.
&c. &c. &c.
Ending in VTI.
to serve S"°e»55) employ.
poo-do *j to stand ptwgi a man's height,
to die death.
Ending In VA.
te descend ©Xo:S the lower part,
to mount upper part,
to subside WkoSSiS humiliation.
Ending in VI.
to give -^3 gift,
to know *38a knowledge.
The Middle verb in KONU sometimes makes the verbal in ^f*.
to wail "^»*8^^ lamentations.
SjxX>ir*ffc*J to give s)ifcirfj& givings.
^HS^r^ffct) to receive 18)^r<^ receivings.
eJjSbcor»i!Joij to meet oisfooor*^ meetings.
The regular verb §"°i&4j 'To Take' never has this form.
It will be observed that some verbs take two or three different
forms in the noun : some of which have various senses. Thus ;
"^cs&*j To cast ~&l3,~3k$> hunting, a shot.
f)ewi53t> to stand P%_& height, steadfastness.
âfe«bt) to walk ££5", ?sjs:S&, conduct.
t58o&> to arrive ^85", ^{fesS nearness.
iSsîj to trust rSS>i4s', iS^S'sSw trust.
NEGATIVE VERBAL. VEEBS IN IN?U. 239
All these classes are peculiar to nouns of Telugu origin : these
nouns are derivedfrom the verbs : but in words of Sanscrit origin
the noun is the root and the verb is the derivative. Thus 69-;5ojsjSx>
rejoicing ji 08 OtS>*j to rejoice. *8iS>. Examination a&6<£x.o££>4o
to examine. ôS^ pleasure, -poS^tô^tj to be pleased.
On the NEGATIVE VEEBAL in MI.

This is derived from the Infinitive in DAMU. Thus ;
coming the not coming, non arrival.
being the not being, want.
doing tUc&So the not doing.
knowing ignorance.
seeing blindness.
agreeing enmity.
settling unsettledness.
arriving the non arrival.
It i3 governed by a nominative, not by a genitive ; as F'oojwp
my house. Tayati 3. 126 wSSbTyStolzr*^ grieving at his non
arrival.
On verbs in INfUTA, IMFUTA, and ILLUTA.
Some of these which end in IN9UTA are derivatives : others
are causals. The form illuta is used only with a few verbs and
never gives the causal sense.
The affix incuta sometimes changes a noun into a verb. Thus
"3ifcKo the name of this language ; UrfcaosfcAj to Telugu : that is,
to turn (or translate) into Telugu. Some Sanscrit words are thus
formed into Telugu verbs : creation, "^j^0^^ to create ;
&ti_gx> reasoning, &A_oiX>4j to reason or argue; ôeT^sfca
pleasure i>o£T6Z>.o-S>ii (or in poetry, ô^f1^^) to rejoice. ^°A*S»
a curse if 8>otfcfc> to curso. The noun is the root of ~Ss9
to bloom. From sSwê- fainting, 5&r»^ to faint.
240 SYNTAX. INgiJ.
The form IN£U sometimes changes £11 into "4) ; thus.
&So«m& pT^fc— feao^)tfoj3^L(& I bless.
^Lo&a^La.==^Sxo^cb(T^Lf6 I will protect.
s&ôxSJtfo-p^f^— sfcôâbi^rS) I will pardon.
»r»8o-c36&^^^=5T"6o'!^xS3-(3^lf5b I will do away.
A few verbs admit & or £u or Pu at pleasure,
esotfot) or eso-£)kj to pound.
5SexK:£i> or #ex>4)io to crush,
fiofiitj or xtoîj to tear.
Ho'&ii or Uoîa to break.
a&otSbt) or *oÂj to share.
The negative aorist is 3j63oi5fi& or £b43oA<£> « it does not happen.'
Some verbs insert G before INgU. Thus from 6^.6 sSm anger
EâôcSai} y. n. to be angry ; fi^sxsto fury e^&ftockij to rage;
tsoess&n prettiness «otfftoxS>4j to be pretty. But the learned
condemn this form as inelegant.
The middle sign is added to the verb incu, as "3&jox£>§"»
fj»*j but never to the form which ends in impu.
The vowel that precedes in9u is sometimes either A or I at
pleasure. Thus sSêiowoti) pola-incu or ^SoMOifc poli-incu. Ac
cordingly if one form does not appear in the Dictionary we must
turn to the other. Only a few verbs are thus uncertain in
spelling.
SYNTAX OF CAUSAL VERBS.
The causal* adds incu to the root of regular verbs. Thus ^ cs&> t>
chey-uta to do forms ^SoMOt&tj chey-in9utato have it done : cause
him to do. \jr»cssc«io to write \jr«ocoot&«j vray-incuta to get it
written : cause it to be written. In old English " to cause write"
was the form.
* The original grammarians call the causal e3eoS(_!cifi Nij-anta-

criya : i. e. the verb which ends in the vowel 31 which is techni
cally called Nich.
CAUSAL VEEB. 241
Verbs ending in cu, as "5~°iJaej to boil, form the causal in ^) as
"5~° to have it boiled. • to occur to the mind
to remind : <îS^*J, to come tf8>Ôi&to to summon, or cause to
come. v. a. to settle, decide. §9ôi&4o to get it decided,
to do away sfo*pôfX>Aj to get it done away.
Sometimes the causal form gives a passive sense. ■p*SSwgx»aj&
!)03;$a it sounded so to me, is the same as S;Sw&a it was heard.
In English the causal verb governs the agent, as I made him
write : they caused him to sell it. But in Telugu (as in other
modern languages of India) it governs the object, as asrao Ijôm
j^P I got the letter written, wswoa^jfc I got it sold.
*3oa(T»i& I got the house built.
In such places English uses the accusative as ' I made him go :'
but Telugu uses the nominative t»Sd£> d^>^ger»«o ^?^P>. And
"^ffcsraM (jyiia-Xb ^S-jcr»«b he made I (me) write the letter.
The Telugu frequently uses the causal form where the English
omits it. "I built a house" would in Telugu be S'goSfT'jai
I caused it to be built. " He wrote me a letter" is often (respect
fully) expressed lw*oo90*>7P8& " he had a letter written to me."
3jo«Sc>iS)68oa efaiôMoS fcSi£pÔ§cx»Si^J^> I wrote a letter
and gave it him.
So in English ' I wish you to have this done' denotes ' I desire
you to do it.' d-»o«&>ea « to get' Tô&£>-&titix,&'oSoZ)-$r>&> I got
them a cargo. I enabled them to obtain cargo " Thou hast slain
him by their sword" would become tfoS> jba thou hast caused
him to be slain.
The Causal is often expressed in English by using the neuter
verb with the active sense* :—Thus.
♦Native grammarians disapprove of the mode in which this

rule is stated. They would say ' Some neuter verbs are changed
into actives thus :' For they do not call these verbs causals.
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. g g
242 SYNTAX OF CAUSALS. MIDDLE.
"3-°Xoi> y. n. To boil t»<$>4j v. a. To boil
"3*>*j v. n. To break Soâ v. a. To break
-ct*X>4j v. n. To hide -ra*iS>i> v. a To hide
TP>e»4j v. n. To burn T»ujtf>fc v a. To bum
^JSSt) v. n. To spoil ^BSCbfc) v. a. To spoil
69-SSAj v. n. To p)ay eS-&otf>4j v a. To play
«?£>X>4o v. n. To tear Qoflbfc. v. a. To tear
Some verbs adopt the past Eel. Participle or causal form at
pleasure : thus âsîf^ 0r ^SoS^r^ the money paid.
riobjsgrw or «o&oo^«*« the letter sent. tJ8|5a*, or ffSoafS
S& the seed sown. '" ~~°
Some verbs are changed into the Causal, by using the Soot with
the addition of Safi,* 0r some other auxiliary : as in English I
made him write it. Thus ; sjtS^fc to give, ajtôfibfa or Bh^*j*»3
f^^tomake him give; have it delivered ; cause it to be given
S»S** to come, Oôtfot, 0r TT*»oo>i, to sendfor. sS^^^c^
get him to come, \yatot, to write [*no»oa>tot get it writfen ^
e*3a&4> yrf Urn to write, have it written, -girt&fa v. n. To
hang, *^tf *<*,*, (aet) to hang. **«*> to flow, or run, v. n.
■J-ff^dfcfc tomake it flow or run_ fw]bii tQ ^^ ^k
£&&> to cause, effect, bring about. &0ot> v. n. to end &eS

«*** v. a. to end. A««fc to go, *•"£*, To drive away, to lose.
east To burst v. n. *»*»-*»*, T. a. To bur8t or shatter_
** to come Ti-w^t, T, a. To receive g^^^ or gâ^ y n
To break or split. *»«»«-*.*,. v. a. To hlegk QI ^ ^^4,"
to make good, to turn to profit. »e>:6tf tfcfc, to strengthen
Thus *-ô»*> 2b «* forms tnBpSstoi, To seat, So**,
to stoop down, sSo>f^4,to make him stoop. ^**j v n To
M««rf forms ^*o*>fc, ^x^cai^.o,. Ûo^*, to send away.
ON THE MIDDLE VOICE.

The following rules for the Middle voice may at first be passed
over with a simple perusal: as we acquire more familiarity with
the language the principles will become clear.
ON THE MIDDLE VOICE. 243
The middle voice is formed by adding î*4j KONU or (less
often) Soflbk KUNU or f KA to the verb. The verb being either
in the past participle as l_sr»^§""°;k*j (almost peculiar to poems)
or else changing the final I of that participle into U viz. (jr* ^ffk
*J Thus from "3^&>. to bring "3sô-BorT;k*j or U5>joar*#*j t0
procure. to ask, wabKoS-ffcij or w&fti^ i&fc> to request.
B*j*> to say xJ^j§"* fiits or ~34$&>&>&> to say. §css3o4j to take,
kfat-a* bring it S^d* take it away. §"*|x>"3",,i£>4j to wriggle, to
wince (formed from 8"* and 6S-4fcfc) is also written gîosS"^
From a.»cSM*j comes z>G&>£d*!dte to be bruised. Lila
XIX. 169. ftuotforsS ^ he called and brought her (Eadha 1. 81.)
From i$r&k> comes c1'3sg-'«S35'ir6cw)â the well has fallen in.
"S>cfc?f_© sr^fc they tore and devoured it.
Verbs of the 2d Conjugation end in cSx> Tu or & SU thus t3cHx>
*j or «(&*>. But in forming the Middle voice the only shape
used is STJ viz. 3&r*j*i>, {jnfrsr&b, h^pbi, never
^dsrv>r"j&i> &c.
The verb §~°i&*J to buy (like sfk*J to hear) is a Eegular verb.
But the sign of the Middle voice is in some tenses irregular.
Thus the Inf. in A. of r'fS.u To luy would be §"•?> KONA; but
the Inf. of the middle verb is er* Ko. Thus r'îSotuî^ he
proposed (or thought) to buy it : but L^^Seiafi'* he propos
ed to write it. §"°iSjS|f_tf"3«SB Cona-N-accara ledu ; there is no
occasion to buy it. But &&>S'*j6|f_tf"3sS> TiBuco N-accara ledu
there is no occasion to take it.
When the Middle verb is added to the root in A, such verbs a3
end in 5" or X often double that letter. Thus E"'i**J to buy,
makes r*jS>|piS>ii : and er»Xoi> to pull, makes er°Xor*i&ij or tr»§^
j&t> : and <£*Ser«>for*ffcA> or <£^r^ffe*J.
[The Middle verb answers to the French Beciprocal verb in se.
Thus : II se maria, ' he married.' ' lis sont jaloux et se battent,'
meaning They fought together. Napoleon said to Lord Whitworth
' si vous voulez armer, j'armerai aussi : si vous voulez vous bat-
tre, je me battrai aussi. (Gent. Mag. 1803, vol. 73, part 1, p. 580 )
214 SYNTAX.
This verb ±> originally meant to take ; and in Hindustani
the verb lena is used in a similar phrase. Thus woh apne ap mar
liya W.t«cJgJ«j he killed himself; tf^tfo^r-prâfc. Here
Lena is the same as S"*!*1^.]
The force of the middle voice is seen in these phrases. êoîS
they built the house ; SjsoS'gofi-jT'Sb they got ahouse built ;
Elup £ faa§— (Nrv^Bo they built a house for themselves ; ^to0**3
e~°rr«t£& they got ahouse built for themselves. sr°?£g^#>t> to kill,
s$-8g ^S^j&iJ to kill himself; fa*w^fTtoar* I lostwy
money; F' JSr»5"e« ire§^gfr»«fi> he lost my money. «$»r'
T^s&he sold his own house ; V* wa^fj'iSc) he sold my
house. The word green or yellow also signifies tattooed marks
on the skin ; aS)tf^d*&t>ot& Aj to tattoo another person; rit^CS
%>o&>&~°frs& he got himself tattooed. &S«63^S)""|>*T*«b he who
mortgages. Stfc!S;5tair'^3'!fc he who lends upon mortgage.
73jS> -ar>eF°* I saw wgsSoer* -tSrKfcrôtfp I saw myself in
the glass. **#Sb sntp r°6f,ot>w°^ he had them shaved w&So rr
efcosfcr'rr^JSc) he got himself shaved, wâotfctj to give charge :
waf>■kfco{fcr,' j£i> to take charge.
The Middle voice usually denotes volition : that which is done

by choice, or, for one's own good : not what is done either by
command, or for the good of another person.' The robbers plun
dered the town' (S^-tkr'-pr^GS ; here the middle voice is used :
but 'the troops plundered it' is (S^fi^r**; without the middle
voice. But ">r*0 3« oar* zr»S eioKOo "3o^r*jSjQ ' the ship
broke away from her anchor.' Here the noun is neuter : there is
no volition : and there is no advantage. Yet, as in English, the
Bhip is spoken of as a female.
The middle voice alters the meaning of the verb according to
circumstances. Some verbs always use it : some as 3*, &o
«6, never do : some use it only in poetry : others only in prose.
MIDDLE VOICE. 245
The brief remarks found in the older grammars were insuffici
ent to explain the use of the Middle voice. In the course of reading
I formed the following classification which appears to me to em
brace all the senses of this verb. The reader may refer to this
statement when requisite.
Instance of change of sense so great that a separate English
verb is used to translate the middle voice. s£r»43-»sSc>k> v. n. to
speak; s&'fo'ifo^'^bAJ v. a. to bargain for. waîj to owe, «**^
r*fS>4j to pay. to say, to suppose : foas^JOcotj
to protect, give shelter or refuge ; fotf ^jfer'rfcfc) to take shelter
or refuge, seek protection. ■ESr»i£>i> to see ; «Sr>T5i to tend
^Jîj to send, rfa&^frij to take. to pull, &&>r*fi>li
to take. $>g£r»dtfc>ij to pour, î^&Sî&tJ to bathe in. To be
pregnant as SS-Oâ ^ftê^g-pdsSoâ she is pregnant. 'S>*».*'
to put, "S>*aa§^;s>t> to put on, or wear. *&*rk*J v. n. to heal, î*1
S~i*>*j v. n. to desist. wi6^fcoikt> to deliver over, give into his
charge ; &&^ho-&>g~°fi>to to take charge of, take into his own
hands. S?S>*J to bear or bring forth, S"?fc|2i&Aj to perceive.
5>otS> to appear, S"p5>o£Si fj&io to visit : (see the Reader, p. 68,
line 19.) jSaoiS>*J to walk, iSabcfcr-jS,^ to behave.
to rear a child ; but to ?S>"S>OTfcr,'fSi*j to adopt a child.
It gives a Neuter sense to some transitive verbs : as §~ko4j
CO v.
a. to beat E~"bx>W^&tij v. n. to play or beat, as the pulse ~*r>&t>
v. a. to fix ■6'#>§"°?&fc> v. n. to take root, to fix or become fix
ed, v. a. to join, set ; &~°&s&*iS>i3 v. n. to sit down.
Sometimes the sense is reflective or reciprocal, Thus a.S'e'ôS'
eoS",4»r*p,£a& they fought together, they beat each other. And
in such phrases the nominative is sometimes neuter; as £8tsf><S
e&r'Poe the tide rose : gewBerâ the house caught fire ifeofo
po&r*f>oa the pit filled, wo£3dS»t> to prop. Wofi^îfciJ
to lean against, lean on.
246 SYNTAX.
Wherever self is intended this middle verb is used—so
oM^/fctT^put on your jacket. "7r»dSSsS»^3 ^-jgâfc he gave a wound :
TT,dSio^^r°|3^l«b he wounded himself. tf^Kosgp^Tyab he applied
charcoal >T*?6^»âr"jJ^«6 he blackened himself with charcoal.
ê^âxêM^psSaêfc he went out shooting and got shot.
The imperative rarely uses the middle form : only if a benefit is
intended to the doer or to them to whom the act is done. Thus
Lift it up ! never dsfcff"'. A mere command never ought
to use the middle voice. ^r*£«'-«sSres-e3?r|x> put the nail into
the wall : not S^tosr6.
The middle voice is very vague in its application, and the dic
tionary and general custom furnished the only guides ; the poets
also sometimes deviate from common usage.
In the following instances is simply the verb To take : it
is not the middle voice. It changes some nouns into verbs. &°
n. s. the head, &e§~*pfck to begin. a whirl r&>4S~°j&k> to whirl.
0*00 a stream, TT°tx>§~*frii (Vasu 2. 101) to form a line.
heap &ê»r'iS>*i (P. 1. 670) to form heaps. "Swkoo commence
ment. ~&»««Ajr*ffct> to begin. a prop, to be sup
ported. 'tS)^8 a turn, i£>|s)§'"°jji6j to surround. "4oi&> opportunity.
■j&ojfcST'fSik) to seize the opportunity.— without 6*t5 5oo«3«j
to do without, to be quite.—2 above, 2!^"°^ '° mount
within, er^r-i&ij to submit (Tara 2. 75) s&>Oc.tx> love, sfct£eur°
ffctJ to make love. '
PABTICIPLES. 247
BOOK EIGHTH.
ON PABTICIPLES.
The Participles are (as in English) indeclinable, being applied
without change to all cases (,) numbers, genders, and persons.
They are present, past, past Relative (,) aorist, and negative as
already shewn : the aorist and the past Relative participles have
relative forms : Examples.
Present P|| a&cÂ, sending.
Past P|| *oS> having sent.
Past Relative rel P|| *oS>;S, INA, who sent, as i6ot^sr>Jib
he who sent.
Aorist P|| *o~=§> wh0 sends, as i6o"£«r>So.
Neg. p|| in Ka doits' without sending.
Negative P|| *o*f), AJSTI, who sends not, as ô^pwJSo
he who sends not.
The passive verb and participles are formed by adding the verb
dse&t> 'to fall' to the root in A of another verb ; as &oi£)to
' to send,' 8&o3&«>ao*j 1 to be sent.' &o£ti&ii « who was sent.'
When two nouns are connected, one being the agent and one
the subject, the English phrase varies thus; from aooKoio v. n,
' to break,' ^'e»a8s\;S3r">j£ ' a man whose leg is broken ;' lit. ' a
leg broken man.' From wtfofc v, n. ' To swell,' nSoajg-sr-OiSe 'a
woman whose hand is swollen ;' Lit : ' a hand swollen one.' And
the same words may mean ; ' The hand is swollen ;' Prom ^di&>t>
' to do,' ^«^5ia&p ' the work thou dost;' Prom ôifck « to be,'
f>$&o'&$F& < the town in which thou livest ;' From tf«S>iSk> ' to
read,' "î&OEStf \Xo$!&>oi&> < in the book which I was reading.'
$$-u*£ia%>$-1$$ 'the time at which you must come;' From *Ji&*j
'to go,' (P. 3. 199) 'the day after his going
248 SYNTAX.
there;' From sir6^ 'to go,' -sr-sSb ■fj"r*tf5S d-«oa>j6T»tfg«s»
(Anirud. 3. 66.) ' the matter regarding which he went on my
account;' From 6o«o4j 'to be' ?>£)$i%L§9"T• « as if you were
there ;' From jScfcSSk ' to cut' '3£»j68§iS?r£S ' the axe with which
he felled the tree :' here both nouns are in the Nominative form
though one has the Instrumental sense ; From '^'s^*, ' to die'
«Joi&tffiîSt>e 'a child whose father is dead,' or &o(_&tf£^;Sa
' she whose father is dead,' —here though the verb is masculine
(tf^'P'So) the form is neuter; From wa&jAoiS^ 'to deliver'
ga Ox»3ol5-7t»8o F°SS wa&ôfijsa 'These are the things which
your father committed to me.'
"When two similar nouns are thus connected, one of them may
be translated by the Instrumental or locative case ; Thus <>>*§&
"gôajew i a house wherein there is nobody.' Lit. ' Any one not-
house.' ^S>T3^_Pi£o^« 'a seal whereupon no name is engraven'
(a blank seal) lit : 'a name unengraven seal ;' For "S J_?> is the
neg., rel., p|| of ^S6 *J ' to engrave.'
In the English Telugu Dictionary it will be seen that many
participles (both active and passive) are translated by words dif
ferent from the English verb to which they belong.
The word &v<Sf4$) ' before' may govern an affirmative or a nega
tive participle at pleasure. Thus fc9&J&Tr°g':SK;fc,£. ' before he
came,' (lit. before his not coming.) And (in the affirmative form)
ts#Sb sS^tJosfoSSsfcoiSjS has the same meaning.
The P)| is often translated by a tense, particularly when fol
lowed by otti*tb ' then' or any word of reference. Thus S'r&tJ
« to see ;' but £$$&$& ' when he perceived,' JjD&jiâSb « when he
called,' fcOCjS^tfl 'on his calling.' "jSjfcsS^jSfc^ti 'after I came'
t38<£>$&y$io ^ks&jjSi < when he sent me.'
The Past Rel: p|| is sometimes used as a gerund and translated
'of,' or 'for;'—as wa^^ôstf ' the trouble of writing it.'
3«>S43iS$oK8 ' the circumstance of (his) building the house.'
PAKTICIPLES. 249
When verbs are compounded, they are generally Past Parti

ciples except the last one. Thus from "38oiSsk> v. a. « To open/
Ueaîxiij < to lay open.' ^f^SjDc^^ffi 'he called and said to
me.' Literally, 'Having called, he said.' K"5^^)! abSolSew^J
U80 cx»oAr*Tytfw's^> he got over the wall, opened the door, and
entered into the house.
When the word -tfoxd < matter,' is added to a participle, it is
usually left untranslated. Thus w?5Sa^2£5S'j8oX'0 < what he aaid'
w«SSo LmSSôx-Q OQôx-S "3e)d<6-3tfb. « I know not whether
he is alive or dead.'
Present, Past, and Negative participles are governed by the
next verb; thus. Present, e^&tki&s^r" ' it came roaring.' §"°fe»&>
•r^c^r- « he went beating it.' Past. joSa^Nfl 'they stopped and
said this.' Negative in KA. sT»^>€)O"Sa"3SCi*5'^rsQj0 ' I went with
out knowing that he was there.' Q<$£d*ox>fr>&> ■ he did not eat,'
lit: ' he went without eating.' Tr»rsb-6a»oT'«6' he did not come'. $&
&*s's-°si> 'unless you go there, it cannot be done.' Tr°gti%§fyt£>
'he failed to come.' î^^T3^ ' he did not say.' &*rrfT.jSj& . ' give them to me or it
won't do.' ^<sC§rsê"6^T»-3 < If yOU will not give it no matter.'
"c £"£>F^}S£> ' he came not,' Lit : ' he was without coming.'
The Past Relative, Negative Eelative and Aorist participles as

well as the 'root in A' of a verb ending in £ have the liberty of
using certain affixes. Thus. Âx., *», wfcoSoa as S^8j$ho (and)
jfco'Siijfew, iSOjiSfoasSoa and these are translated by verbs; thus
woaSbjjf,*,*&£ |s> or ur^gâfJ^Lpfc ' I heard that they were
in trouble.' fcS-cfl&jisSS^&gsajir^fc 'I heard that he arrived.' &*-<&
P'35i5o0?rol?6or «*lSâp^* 'I heard that the business is
ruined.' 5*-"^ sS^-^j^'iîo&xi a^r^Si ' I heard she grieves for it.'
This is the same as the Latin fecisse, venisse, periisse. "C^feo
G. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. h h
250 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES; PRESENT; PAST.
sSo43 that did not come, is the same as trp. ~5^$bx>£ot3 'which
is not done ;' is the same as "S^P.
ON THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

This is formed from the root by adding & TU, or «& 9U, or
& STTJ. The final TJ is lengthened at pleasure. The form in *
is pedantic, unless in poetry. Thus e3-aS&r*-£»«Be£r<>5$£^;sa « she
came dancing and singing.' r*&oi£r°8&»e£r» < beating and scolding,'
In the rustic dialect the & or &* (U or U7) often changes into
«- A' : thus »6»&r° (TU) ©iSja ' she is sewing' becomes 3S*»^>
(TA') &$&.
It adds &4i. UNNA or 6o"3 TJNDA. (which are from &o«d4j
2b Be) at pleasure : thus es-irôrfceaf^r-pi (M. 1. 1. 210.) 'to
him who was angry :' •s^«6&j^Br»Sfe he who sings. p>B5tx»S' &&o
"<5t6p ' the business which you have here.'
The Present Tense (as shewn in the conjugation) is formed
from the present p||. The present Tense is, as in other languages,
often used with a future sense : Thus oiglSWfP^b 'he is coming
to-morrow.' Sji6jJSo|jsr>w) fr^J&> (vulgarly iF*3*) ' I will write it
immediately.'
ON THE PAST PARTICIPLE.
This always ends in I ; thus <6oS> pampi, having sent; x5f> chest,
having done.
Verbs in YTTJ form the past P|| in SSI, as ScSSjgt), to be
wearied, 8?>j DASSI ' being wearied' Prom «kafrg*J, to pene
trate **>?$, having penetrated.
Compound tenses are formed by adding auxiliary verbs to the
past p|| ; thus from ^0Sfc> « to arrive' êgjfrâfc he has arrived :
lit. he is having arrived. Prom ljsr>csfc>*j 'to write' Jj^^JTr^Lrfc
' I have written.' lit. ' I am having written.' Prom &o«6&> ' to
be, or stay' wSpSsgo&^Têfc 'he actually ia there.'
ON THE COMPOUND NEGATIVE. 251
On the Compound NEGATIVE Tenses.
The compound forms of the Negative verbs are formed by
adding some Negative verbs to the root in " A" of another verb
and to the Neg. p|| in Ka as *S or ^JSS" from to fall. Ijt»<3S
or U=r»c«5§' from Ljr-îj to write. or "3s5S" from !5i£>*i to rise.
Thus or it is not or I was not of &oifc*j to be
eft, {jr>a£>~ii&>t (I) did not fall, write, rise or ^Sî*,
Lsr-iSfiîS), ~iss~3fc I cannot fall, write, rise (see page 160.) Thus
one refers to act and the other to ability. 6"e»!6k, xrex>t>y Lt^)4j,
to be, to suffice, to bear, are used to express can, and negatively
cannot. Thus Ijr-d&x'ejSo, {jr*c&ir<Mr&> [jr>c&-?xni£)$, all mean,
he can write and l_=r»c83'3sSo, l«r°<sfiTj*e>s6, [•r-csS>-fxr°&l£> all
mean he cannot write. In the last of these vraya-n-opadu, the
N is inserted to prevent elision, "^tf or "i^BfSj an irregular negative
of "jScS^ to learn. i£r*7§tf or &*~jStipi I cannot go, w<£*^<*67&r
or "^tffÎ cannot do so tt°~$s& they cannot come, and from s^?5
*J to go ôifcAj to stay, sSy*Mi to refrain, to fail &c. Thus
(j5r°d8i5'd*os38 they failed to write ; Ijp'cSSoS'ffco&'P'Bo they re
mained without writing; IjpcafiS'aj*"^ he abstained from writing,
lor»(Sfi§'i$î&> he missed writing.
For these the Telugu uses the negative form while in English
as here shewn, we use the affirmative form.
The difference in spelling, between the aff. and neg. partici
ples, is in many verbs slight and scarcely perceptible. Thus
eoOfSoaSbjS vicharinchi nanduna, ' by examining' s>^°0o*JjSod&>ji
vicharinqa nanduna, 'by not examining.' ^c&jSoe&fS pampi-
nanduna, 'by sending.' &o£$o&$ pampananduna, 'by not
Bending.'
"Whether the intensive accent is on the past p[] or on the auxi
liary verb, it gives the same meaning. Thus ^Tr^So, chere un-
nadu ; or eke xSOig-fr^'S cheri unnade, ' he actually has arrived.'
See pages 18 and 33.
252 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLE.
ON THE PAST EELA.TITE PABTICIPLE.
This ending in 3)£ INA, as Ip*^ vrasina ' written' : or the

passive form && badda as \jr»c&v>& < vrayabaddaH 'written' are
used as adjectives without reference to gender, number, case or
tense. Thus Ur^<S~5~°5tfjio, or ljn-»d*wg ^-»g#is» 'a written
paper.'
But when the A at the end of «liS or "S is lengthened, it gives
the meaning of W^tfSp^ 'though', as ^^L?*^ 'though you
■wrote.' w8|_p>cBSM-^* ' although it was written.' In such phrases
it has no relative force.
And it may denote 'whether' as ^$^©^73^, ^dSirfv &&stp>
whether you or your brother come.
The following expressions are in daily use : they shew the vari
ous senses of one word ; LpîS, the past rel. p|| of l_jr»csfi>t>.
erta [«r-}>fi -sr»«b he who wrote the letter.
wjm Ijp'SjS sr>o<Sb they who wrote the letter.
o-»ab [~n%>$ 2Tsn the letter which he wrote.
-$?& &*tn[sr>§$ &>& the town at which I wrote the letter.
gr-*» \jn%>$ Ha the date on which I wrote the letter.
ar°a» Lf'fjS sfep the matter about which I wrote
the letter.
£T°ko (jr-^-^* 4369- 5a the palm leaf on which the letter
was written.
jt*ko l^r"?)^ JCoAjsJm the iron pen with which the letter
was written.
STew lj«r°f>i5 psn&&n the reason for writing it.
And from UI)csS»&j to be known, the past rel. p|| being "38^ ;
"3Sf>|S-sr»JSc> he who knows,
•sr-pi '3S^^sSt»A} wnat he knows.
In such phrases the passive form may be used without altering

the sense : thus er,s»ljsr-;&6'"£<B£=r»sb ' he who wrote the letter.'
sT-Sblp-'-sor'MaSs-Kw < the letter which he wrote.'
PAST RELATIVE AOEIST. 253
Certain affixes can be used with the past Rel. p|| ; one is w^s>
:So43 or etossotf such (in Latin 'Talis') Thus ifi^, **^S&»
:5o«3 or :Se^5i&>!$o<3 equally mean ' That came,' or 'which came'
trp xr^t»s5o43 or tt°jSZ®&o<3 'that did not come.'
The affixes f os&]5, woa&sSo or wocfc^tf < thereby' or A&*
' therein' (See page 65) are also added thus : sSaôa&iS, ' by
coming,' TrjSosfc^ 'by his not coming,' ssaôefcsSo 'by coming,'
-gj6oei>56 'by his not being there.'* "j3i* tsS_&§&*°x> ;$£&>£<» < on
my going there.'
This or the aorist p|| may be changed into a verb without
altering the import ; as s&»4JsS»-s3^©i63j-»eSo < the man whose face is
swollen,' ■sr°j!>!SK>4>sSM-sr»©;S&, his face is swollen, Sf^"^?)^^,
'the man whose house was burnt.' ^ft>a*>ex> Trâ, his house
was burnt &xn>&~$<x>E~ £j&~itf5>«>, ' a kettle in which three seers
may be boiled.' ■3»tffc«Hfcr»fi&"3e»s- ©JSb&gjâ ' this pot boils
three Beers of rice.' That is ' three seers may be boiled in it.'
ON THE RELATIVE A0BISTVK&THCY21M.
This usually terminates in E' Thus from S^cofc) coru-ta, ' to

desire' r*"5sr»aa core-vadu he who desires, "FSj&r^XoljJsSM ' the
horse which I desire,' (or) 'which I ask for'; So from ôssbto,
' to be to dwell,' &&&>&o'&ox>v? « the house in which he lives.'
From *5c»V>to ' to do' arocfc^"^)*? ' the business in which you are
■engaged.' Erom <S~eoS&k> to be got, v8&&*S~iTS*?>'$ex> 'there is no
means of getting it.' Erom t5^6^> ' to read,' T2S>-£^&s he who
reads. From ss^^ to come wrj^sSâsfasStfc 0r wâisSx^
•sr-SiSssS* who is he that comes there ? from «i*t> to say tt-sSm
a^^£&, a man called Rama, sto*fr&'p~s^*ft>Sx>, a poem called
the Magha, Xox£tso<&~fi$p& a village called Gangavaram.
* See "Wilson's Sanscrit Grammar, p. 413, note.

254 SYNTAX OF THE BELATIVE AORIST PAETICIPLE.
There are some affixes added to E', Thus, wtoSotf, S<8, thus
ô"34j&aSo435 ôcliS, ' such as stay or remain.' From ^^SsÂj
' to come' ssÂJtosSoiS, tfxS^tS, "coming." from â&Âj to say,
T3^t>&osSot3, t3^£^3 saying.*
Another form of this is the Root in U as sHsfi.f
Thus from sfr^tSiJ to go, d*S)^r°4fc he who goes, s^SiS© she
who goes, «r»oa& s^-gjtS^sS the way they go. From 8&oab&> to be
ripe, !6o&b"373ê> ripe (i. e. bright) moon light : from 3^*^ to fail,
«*a&£s£p>4o a falsehood. a wrong expression. From
"SS&îa to say, T3*£«£sSj»AJtu (literally the said words) backbiting.
From "^lOOisfcj to rear, ^>o^)JSatfo^ a nursing father. From t>
* In poems there are other affixes : <^>, Thus &° 35,

or (feo"3£o. Each of these is the same as ô"S, Hence come &o"3
&bsr>£So) or ô'S&sr°{So he who is. feo'S&S, or dso~S63© she who
is. i5|6S3o'Safc«r°o^) 'those who did not go.' ljr!^j^|jT»"@JSoa8&^
*r*c&$w~ lifee the bowls of a balance. From i6e«S5*J to speak,
narrate, ^8"iaevx,;Si$!&A)) *a§o^S^^Tj»;SbiSr[sS>o4i£>. The
poem now written is the Bhagavat and he who inspires it is
Earna the blessed.
t As this is a Druta word it inserts N when it is followed by a
word beginning with a vowel. Thus. S]| 3)3^ <S8 3Sg ; tJrssS»jS|
' Liberality alone is wisdom : [nothing but] entering the com

bat is bravery : criticism is a right relishing of good poets : med
dling with gramels [causes] grief. [The remaining words merely
fill the metre.]'
[The verses of Sumati (&>s&8?'#S'sS»and Bhascara V^.s5'0S'«Sn
are popular books in Hindu Schools : but we should not attempt
them until wc have mastered Vemana. ]
NEGATIVE PARTICIPLE. 255
to mount, °}s6 aSb«o^tfsSsa a saddle horse. From d'aSifctJ to pierce,
£r>«o^ysbsS7°4je» taunting words, from «ci&i> to beat with
a pestle. KoxoJfcacsssgjfea pounded rice.
The verb S"o;xo£j forms the Ao P|| in *». Thus TyXewifc one
who can come. &^SoacoaîS^j&]^^€fc^^Xe)T3-»<>3>LI am ready
to receive it whenever you give it. ^f&fKvaavo a house that
has a thatched roof. 2^^"^ÔMS? a house that has not a
thatched roof. "39a* eisr°& one who has sense. "^BaT^^Sa
he who has no sense.
OK THE NEGATIVE PAETICIP1E " AKA."
This is formed by adding ?f to the root in A, and is translated

" without" as ^dts>j*j to Do; root ^<s6 ; and hence ^c^ " chey-
aka" without doing. e^^csCS" without doing so. Erom ôs£Aj
to be (,) the neg. p|| is "35" without. Thus Sr-t*x>~§£ 'without
money,' or 'for want of money.' wewt) ' to suffice' xJ'oS' « without
sufficing. PL»vT°o5' '■for want 0f sleep.' "B^S" is the neg. from
fc*^)4j to become. Thence Sr^cAjosSbSossoTr^S' being unable to go.
In a few phrases the affirmative and the neg. p|| give the same
sense in English. Thus "How long is it since the house was
painted? It was painted two years ago" : may be thus expressed
s}o43§s5tf sS» sgr-SSbj^ôMjsa "this house having been painted
how long?" or Sio43|;Srag-jS»^r.cKig'soi3^L§ 'this house without
painting, how long ?' Again :—' How long is it since he came'
w&sfcsS^ ô^LJk ' he having come, how many days?' Or—
■=r»«oTr»S'aofy^L tfc ' he not having come, how long ?'
Sometimes the a before S" is lengthened as WfT'S' see the rules
for emphasis.
Some verbs form an irregular noun (see p. 235) spelt the same
as this participle. Thus "o*S", £"*$", "***, * 8 S" mean ' without
coming,' ' without going,' ' without becoming,' ' without falling.'
256 SYNTAX; NEGATIVE EELATIVE PARTICIPLE, AKA.
But as nouns, they signify coming, (arrival) going, (departure)
heat, a bed.*
The affixes sS»o«S>f sfcaoestf, sS»jS>i^, (meaning Before) govern
the neg. p|| in f Ka : thus Tr£sSx>&}~i, before he comes : lit. be
fore he come not. (jr»c*fiS':fc>o«£> (lit. before it was not written)
before it was written, ^S^S'sSoaoestJ before he said.t
On the Negative Relative Participle in NI.

This is formed by adding p NI to the Root. Thus &8o5o*j
utukuta 'to wash,' &S5;S utikina washed &<$£p utacani 'unwash
ed.' sStf^fa ' to come,' Root, tr», Neg. P|] "cr»J> ' who comes not,'
' that came not.' ^r»a&Tr°pa>£jSi ' on his not coming.' "O^psr-So
' he who is absent' 37*j ' to become,' or ' be :' (the root of this
is v) Neg. P|| "T»f) ' that is not done,' 'which cannot be done.'
-s-°p-&H&,t>&*Ty>i&-w*t!) ' why do you fret yourself for that which
cannot be effected ?' Tr&^psr-sSb ' one who is not a king' ^3
' unhandy.' WptsSba"^?) "3? ' at an unfit time.' ~£o£x&£-cf'
ê)£S»-B-»y>55on.ej"3S^ ' when he learned that we were innocent.'
* But this part of speech (p||) is Druta, inserting N :—whereas

those nouns, being Nominatives are Kala : thus -vS&iSn or
TT'g-fizxi raca-n-emi why should not (you &c.) come "a,0S'f&o'3;S> be
was without coming 65*J™ ^crtiS"^^ (Do so to be sure) why
should (you &c.) not do so ? lit. "Without doing what ?
whereas the nouns [which are Kala words] would be thus formed
without the N. ~s^*f t»o%&>Sx> what [do you mean by]
saying heat? not "S~°5'(So"&^ja3 for here the N if inserted would
be the sign of the accusative, ~s~*Xfr.
t In French we sometimes find a negative which in English is
rendered by an affirmative. Thus ' Ayez pitie d'un homme qui a
vecu plus long tems qu 'il ne croyait.' Have pity on one who has
lived longer than he expected, (lit : than he expected not.) And
in Persian Gulistan 1.18. "danah ta A/a yafshani" until thou
sow the seed. Lit : until thou sow not the grain.
NEGATIVE EELATIVE PAETICIPLE IN NI. 257
fc5«j*"5-°j5*£.;Siod& « in the event of it's not being so.' ' Should it
not be so.' *(j$sto^&a&j5[jpw^[0rf^ssb;sa a6pg-cr»sJr>^«&
' his statement that the signature on the bond is not his, cannot
avail him.' &oa&fc> 'to be, to dwell ;' Eoot in A 60S. Neg. P[|
&o£p or —^r»«bwsf_S-gjSoabjS ' as he was not there.' ~B®&~§
y>sr»£b < he who is devoid of sense.' &&£~tf>sr-i& ' he who is fault
less.' "cr°"§pss-»ao ' he who is unable to come.' &ob>~$$isir>&>p2s$xij
' it is very true that there is no crop.' ■syS&sSoSjSosfcjS ' as he
would not stay there.' 8°oXo*-> to return. Root, in A, 08 f. Neg. P||
Qstfft) • unreturning.' (Childe Harold. III. 27.) 8&x"p^<6!k>
a curse that will not fail. to love. Eoot in A, sse>rf. Neg. P)|
£v£p or Xv&P 'unloving.' (Padma Puran III. 62.) ~$<&-o*pi:p
* the thing that ought not to be done.'
Verbs in & can form the root in or as "CT'M^fc>, wjb,
' To wear' ; hence the Negative P|| is in like manner, formed, in
P, or a&p. Thus the Neg. P|| "^^f> or ■vyv^P ' unwearing,
unworn.' (Tara 2.)
The Neg. P|] is translated ' un' or 'in' as 3p6fc> 'to hear' »
~& ' audible' 2>$tt&Trp, 'inaudible, unheard.' ^3*^^ ' to
say,' 3a&^"CppsSr»4jew 'unutterable words.' "S9ds£oi> ' to be under
stood' HQd£>f> ' unknown, incomprehensible, unintelligible.' Ijf*
' to write' ^jr»c»ip~5~0§ wext 'unwritten papers.' *<3c*j 'to
suffer' abaSTppîM 'intolerable trouble.' E. 3. 64. &t£$r>£P ' into
lerable, unsufferable.' Thus Horace uses amabilem for amandum :
and Virgil uses non imitabilefulmen for non imitandum, and vene-
rabile for venerandum.
ON THE CONDITIONAL AOEIST.

This is translated If or when. It is formed by adding " "9"
to the past p|| whatever be the Nominative case. Prom ^&
Sou to bite, §~eg1S if (it) bites, from to drink if (he)
drinks, from T^hîj to pierce F°43~eS if (you) fix it in the earth.
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar- i i
258 SYNTAX OF THE CONDITIONAL AOEIST.
but when the root of a verb ends in ifck, <s&>t>, or £>fc> the affix
"3 is changed into T|, as to boil, "S^'S'S or 'ff'jS ifit was
boiled. From (jsr»<sfc>*J or Itt"^*^ to write Lp*.^ if (I> you> he,
they,) write.
The verb <&oj£>4j to be and some other verbs ending in f& NTT,
as «i&fc>, to say, »>?£>k> to hear, 8ffc*J to eat, change the NT7 into
(Sunna) and have the form in &o"f> if (I, thou, he,) remain *»o"£>
ifyou say, SJo"^, if you hear, &°~t>, if you eat. But when the
first letter of the verb ending in NU is long as in to soak,
sfcfffcAj to cease, or be healed, these have the form in "3 as jr*P~&,
'ifit was soaked,' «&"ff3, 'ifit were healed' if it was
touched, $-°?>"3 if he takes.
It is also formed by adding (,) folb to the past tense and
*otjax>H to the Past Rel. p|| and to the Aoristp||. Thus,
t3^P if he comes, ^^sfo omJ^sSoIj if you give it now, ^SsSa^
jS4oaa5~3 or f>2js5:^4j4Jcxu"S) if you were to come.
And it is formed by changing S) i or & U into 5?- A/ which is
at the end of the past tense. Thus fciS^j^^* if you come, "^f&^li^
ST^" if I promise. wJSSsSOyi'TC' es-afc jD^jJr^jSo if he comes (lit.
Did he come ?) the business would be ruined. "^r&sSJ^'fr* if
I come.
It is often translated by a tense. Thus ^"SsJP'oa, Go if (you)
choose (Lit. if you go, go). come if (you) are coming.
(■=r«j5 \*r>ox> write it if you choose. ©â^CaS)© Bead it if you like.
ô~t)Qo2So stay if you choose.
The phrase bok^ when used after a noun, differs from the
sense "If It is rendered, Indeed. Thus "^?:cx»1jx>_|jD I indeed
came. rr-tSox>% Ty~£t&> As to them they did not come. |^goco"£j
■£r»^;S> indeed it is getting late, to be sure it is late.
The phrase t*ax>"3 used separately means " But" The literal
sense being, ' Should it be so.'
THE IMPEEA.TIVE. 259
OH TIIE IMPEBATITE.
The common forms of the imperative have been exemplified in
the various conjugations. ^cK5osS» ' Do thou' singular ends
in UMU. But if ' W(S> to say' is added, UMU. changes into AM.
Thus from 'to say' the imperative is ^S^sSm cheppumu,
'say thou' but t3^«S>P cheppamani "saying tell thou," from
' to do' ^5<s&><S» chey-umu, ' Do thou' ^dtfi^JD cheyamani
' saying Do thou.' ^Xok to become agumu, ' become thou'
D. E. P. 436. waS^tftojS^fBsS^sfc^^ "In wrath he said
become a pariah ! and I became one"—u°& amicable settlement
u*s2i&6praz,jj-fr°&t They desired me to come to terms with them :
but in common life either in speaking or writing, only these
forms are used. ^3*<j (which is the Inf. in TJ) or ^s^sSs for the
singular ; and t3K^°& for the plural. So ô5'^, and
Some forms are colloquial (though used in poems) and cannot

be reduced to rule. Some of these regard the 1st person. Thus
fc5£T*3'5ros>M let us do so, si ITTAMU Let us give. Pal. 53.
line 8. ■E$r>«rj5fe let us see. SSSSoQ-TC'sSa let us read. Observe
(page 229 line 3 ) S"o«!*o let's see. ~£8s& for ~tw°iSx> let us cast.
The 1st person plural has an irregular form. Prom to
go, it makes is^wtSaa, and colloquially a&ss or ^"cp&sAa let's go.
Some forms even of the 2nd person are irregular. Prom ~£fc>t»
to put, forms "3o», veyi, 'put it.' S9^=^Sd8Ms^n> O do thus ! "S8^,
JS rise and come to me. eT=$)s£r° on stop. K. P. 5. 52. &v&> for
eT=§oa stop. M. 4. 3. 194.
There are poetical forms of the 3d person : as r* May he
bestow ! fts4»Tr»?5&r" so be it! These are irregular and therefore
are placed in the Dictionary. These are in the colloquial form sSe>
f>;SS> as SR:S£s>e>{'iS8.
If two or more imperative verbs come together, and form a
sentence, the last alone bears that form, the others being parti
2G0 SYNTAX OF THE IMPERATIVE.
ciples, either past or present. Thus &*«», WeSpe 'Bi&y. Go and
tell him.
But a serious of imperatives, not so connected, may retain the
imperative form, fas in the following version of (Luke XI. 2.)
the Lord's prayer.
&S»o&>s$r- Q s&sSMjjS 3&e&er«"wAj§S8£r>(,) taoei^j&oO sSbsS^CoLo

ON THE AOEIST. 2G1
BOOK NINTH
SYNTAX OP THE TENSES.
THE AOEIST.
The Telugu Aorist is often translated by the present tense,
as ?3-&8e$ftS'?)3'§'^§'e>«£> (from S"oo«b^.) 'There is a garden
near the town.' wQâ that is mine (Here the verb to be is
understood,) «fi"Fr'a'r"eSj 'that is not mine' (from %?&> to
become) fc»4x°^s6^5sS»S'g) 'it is usual to say so.' '^&;6&>?k
' I know.' "^BX'fS* ' I know nothing :' this is the phrase used for
pleading " Not guilty."
Elsewhere it is translated by the Future : as "$^S)sS*&^r& he will
come to-morrow. 5$Tr£&!}8oj& I will bring it afterwards.
Or it implies doubt : as ts^ôjfcfj) it may perhaps be so.
In a few instances it may have a past sense : as fjoS^Sgew
ccsr»^>6"s^^)«o"5î33 Their forefathers were not inhabitants of
this place.
It is sometimes translated would, should, could, as «fcr»^&"cr>
would they do so ? WoB&a&OJXos&eo Every body would know it.
Or it is translated ' Can,' as »^«S V* Can it be so ?
I will add a few instances of the Aorist : which the advancing
student will find useful in solving doubts. But the beginner has
no occasion to read them.
* It is rendered in Latin by the Potential or Subjunctive : thus ' Trojaque

nunc stares Priamiquo aux alta maneres' ' thou would still be standing.1
And in Ovid &c. Metam. VII. 677. " Certe si fraxinus esset (if it were
ashen) fulna colore foret (it would be yellow) si cornu nodus inesset (if it
were cherry there would be knots.) Again. XIV. 650. lecturum voma. putares,
you would fancy, you might have thought. Elsewhere this has the force of
the past, as in the Eclogues Mirabar cur mcesta " Deos !" Amarylli vocures
I wondered why you exclaimed " Mon Dieu !"
2G2 SYNTAX OF THE AORIST.
The Aorist is used to denote perpetual action. I copy the follow
ing from the cSôs^f'SS'sk) which is in print : it is a small poem
much admired and well depicts the superstitions which fill the
minds of Hindus.
|>|| tferjsior&cfi ^jSfi»"S'3:â& £ra§o£ jytSi -So&TPeSa
3JfsSr°t5<6l§c> aijyf)Xo"ij'r»p ^r-s^S^^ SoSosSâss.
No one brings (">§*&) negative of ('«5*^*J) wealth with him from
his mother's womb : nor does it follow him ("Soij-cr'sS) neg. Aor.
of =S^*J) on the day when he departs. He may hoard up wealth
and pride himself on it but he (Ssafctfasîfc) cannot consume the
goods he has laid up.
Or it has a Past sense. Thus ■3-°o£^!)£&5Sxeu*£"B Did not
(those ancient heroes) the Pandavas suffer hardships ? ^SfOaT^jS
(nivuniki cana) I did ndt see ("S""r&*J to see,) that you were there.
(fcSjfc&jto say) sSr»"a'SS*JfSiwithout contradicting her he spoke thus.
^fftj2T°c«55& (Lila XII. 16) he never quitted my side. The follow
ing verse M. IV. 207 contains a series of verbs (here marked with
stars) which evidently have a past import.
In the following verse the Aorist is exemplified with a present

tense B. VII. 371.
3!>.sroSbr- * $Tr»5SboSSr-
ON THE AOEIST. 263
The following well known stanza in the Gajendramoxam,
(a legend in the eighth book of the Bhagavat lately printed sepa
rate) uses a succession of verbs, (which I have marked with stars)
in the Aorist form, with the past sense. " The god" (says the
poet,) " heard his prayer,"—
a&e*r»tfcaoi& ^>s£' * (^rx's&So s£;jDo;&-c5* *re3s-*-»0
" He spoke not to his spouse, he arrayed not himself with the
conch and discus : he called not his train ; he saddled not (his
steed) the feathered kiDg, he tarried not even to bind up his clus
tering tresses, and even forgot that in his grasp he held the veil
of his queen ; as he descended in haste to rescue his suppliant in
the hour of need."
The Aorist denotes usage, or custom: thus l>e>aHsSe£>c£> they
would come on being called, (j^ôM^î/Soao they used to
pass their time thus.
§■]] x£;SXe> sSbX'jb tr°£Kp
" Women will lay down their very cloaks before the feet of a
money making husband ; they view him with all respect. But if
a husband be able to earn nothing, they will laugh at him and say
There comes, the walking corpse."
(B. VII. 64. Tale of Prahlada.) " wealth may be safe in, the'
street under the care of providence : it may vanish out of the
purse. An infant left in the wilderness unprotected may [or often
will] thrive : while one duly tended in the palace expires."
264 SYNTAX OF THE AOEIST.
See further instances in L. VII. 40.. -rtâ <^S>&«
^dt&sfcOo Also for the Neg. Aor. feminine See Padma 3. 17.
describing Ahalya.
" She never turns her glance towards me : or if she looks, she
will not smile : if she smiles, she will not fall into conversation :
if she begins talking, she is not frank. No it is of no avail to set
my heart upon her : why did I give myself up to these thoughts ?
Love incited me to try every method to gain her : ah I had better
be dead!"
The following verse P. 2. 123 well exemplifies the Negative
Aor.
|| S^S jO<r*cS53 (,) »oi£ £pg>X& (,) gjcSeu £o<&-f®-K*
eSjScSS (,) Kj&swEoOa "gSfroJStfi ar* (,) ^bpio^s-sSoSopr ||

' When the noble behold a man of wealth they do not scorn him
because he listens not. They will not despise him though a blind
man : they will not gibe him on account of his paunch : if he has
lost his ears, they icill not avoid him. Though he be a dwarf they
mill not depart^ they will not quit him though he is sour minded
orignorant, nor shun Mm nor will they call him a wretched diseased
creature, and even though he be (a man of no morals) immoral,
they will not revile him, provided he be opulent.'
Or it has a future sense. Thus s^^ts" will not he come
again ? T^sSe&So they will come to-morrow, ^îfc^1^0^5^31*^
Aj-S^)aS)<o«6 (for, §~o«SbiS) and 5><Sb?S>) Ah! when shall I em-
.brace him, when again shall I hear him speak ? In the Tale of
Tara (3. 87.) She says ;
ON THE AOEIST. 2G3
" Ah when shall I obtain him, when shall I enjoy sweet converse
with him, when shall I gain an interview, when shall I quench the
flame of desire ?"
Again : a&fcoSb I wjH state. ^Bs&^ffc he will say (Luke XIII.
27. here the older English says, he shall say) ô^sk^r0 shall I
send it ? %ts&x>T*XoeZi it will be seen or made clear.
[The following occur in poems] o&&f>$fgfr*e*> 'V'Bwtfi
N. IX. They were indeed in hope of beholding him to**"?) Sef■?"»
^&»"3d£> Nothing shall be impossible to you sS*&$ Pray come
sa^■€&'&?£> TVS' I hope you will come and see it "5"»^ys ow
8£S&-"e>x'<S's&33fe>£^ ! Will you ruin the family which is in a
flourishing state ? Tr>rr° shall I come wilt not thou come
SiSX-tfaao 'W. I. VII. 174. I should like to hear that story.
In some of these, it will be observed that though a question ia
intended, the sign of interrogation is omitted.
It may have either a past or future sense. Thus <i^_SfS>oa^
^^>> "£_*Jd*^§'& (Tales of a Parrot p. 40.) Wherefore you
come from ? where are you going ? whence are you and where are
you going -S^^sT-paSTS iifr^>ôtt>r*osi:fi> 'If he knew the
language, I would get him teach it me.'
Verbs that end in N as S"f&*J, Sffc^, §î&Aj &c. use a contract
ed form in the 3d pers. Masc. plu. Thus 5"jS>5S>cS> they probably
may perceive, becomes S"o|«o and o;£sfcC£> they perhaps will say,
becomes $sc\i& never °&\ Vaisaianti. 3. 23. Thus ©oa&sfc* tin-
duma shall we eat it ? This is vulgarly written ©oksSj» tindama.
from sJr»i£>sfo*, &*ts&r. Panch. P. 1. 366. Shall we go?
Some critics think that the form E^Kfcn- (du) is " Can" " we
go?" But £r6as£r» (da) denotes " shall we go"? see P. 1. 366.
But the colloquial form i3 ^"ra's^ (da.) So ©o&sfc*, ©ossst-,
Ooxy°s£r> shall we eat ? so SosSj», j?;Sr» or iJ^°sSr» ' shall we
die ?'
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. z k
2C6 SYNTAX OF THE AORIST.
The Aorist Tense sometimes has an Optative sense. Thus
(from <S)ifcScr»cs^*J To bestow, confer) -6i&#r°<*&\&#><& may the
Lord bestow ! This phrase occurs at the close of each canto of the
Lila. ssaj ■E&»«b^)7r,5' pray come and look at it ! or plural,
And it may have an Imperative sense sSefc-^rw I wish you

would come! atffc "Sroao I wish you would give it! 'S^fik^j
I wish you would tell me. I hope you will explain it.
Vemana says 425. &o$&>o\e&) iT'cH &V£8s&>o\t&)
t>$n&o\j£>. They call a pot, ' olla' and a hill, ' collis,' and salt,
' sal.'*
By adding ifp the Aor. takes a precative sense. Sar. dwi.
188. ■E&'£-u'cx<T^"&e»iSr&>£)Tr'p Mayest thou enjoy the fruit
hereof.
The verb S"ex>?<ot> has these irregular forms : ?e>ig> he is or was
Xt)(&> or it is or was there are, they are, neuter.
Some forms are peculiar to poetry. Thus fc>«is£>fS> I become
££>woo$oo£;Srtj& (Vishn. P. 3. 402.) 'Iam Rubhu byname.'
t&ciStnSx,-^ (Bhasc.§ 60) ' would it not flame ?'
* Sir William Jones has spoken of the mystic obscurity in which the sulras
or metrical Aphorisms of Sanscrit Grammar are involved. The treatises writ
ten in Sanscrit verse by Nannaya, and his commentators, on Tehigu Gram
mar, are equally abstruse, and the rules on EDI. (Chap. LXXVI1,) are peculi
arly intricate. Every Telugu rule is laboriously deduced from a Sanscrit
canon ; the connection of which with the Telugu language, is not easily dis
cernible. That arrangement is, to an English enquirer, illogical, and were
Nannaya and his laborious commentators translated into plain English, the
rules would still remain nearly unavailable. Happily for the English reader,
Mr. Campbell's Telugu Grammar contains all the more useful rules ; he has
excluded much that was unprofitable, and I have yet further abridged the old
rules while 1 have added many that are new.
The Grammar written by Nannaia Bhatta (who is also called Annaparyulu
fc» jS^j^jjfigtw) has the title ' Andhra Sabda Chintamani,' Or, The Etymolo
gical Standard. It passes over, with very brief notice, those niceties regarding
ardha Undu, and tacata Btp/.a in which modern pedants waste all their strength.
ON THE PBESENT TENSE. 267
The middle voice uses thus thou wilt not lake.
The 3d person singular Masc. may insert N if the metre re
quires it •i &x'Jfc becomes •JSatfortb Kalahasti 3. 58. He knows not.
THE PRESENT TENSE.

The present tense, as in English, often has a future import :
thus A^t^S) They are coming to-morrow.
Some contract forms of the 1st person singular though condemn
ed as inelegant are in daily use: thus ll&s&jr^. I bring, or I
will bring, becomes "3** testa or "3^fS» and USô-ffc-tfcp^fSo be
comes "t'&jj^' or Hl>îr'fi> and •SiX^-iSifr^fk becomes or
55 25** ; These are only used in conversation.
In the 1st conjugation likewise are used for 'BJ&^&i
F^ffc I will tell you. And this is even pronounced t3»t'.
Instances.—iS!f_eweco^3 'jackals howl.' W-Skwrr-euOa 'leaves
fall' dtSoiSifMis^trtfj 'girls laugh.' These phrases use the
?>8§:SjJs$j*jisS» or habitual present: but the Wj&t*gsSj£sSr.;S«fco or
■5r,^'8frf_SsSr«i6!S») or 2^ ® 55 ^^f5^ (the occasional present
tense,) is exemplified in the following expressions. «cfi'i&>i£)5>,Tr,iew
&>rQ3, # V^fi denote tltey are howling, falling, laughing :
these are marked by the longer form of the verb, rendered in
English by the affix " ing." Thus one denotes habit, the other
present act. And the habitual present is equivalent to the Aorist
participle; thus W- Sown*"3 a, j6§^tuW0â, a£)dSb-&>oo;6"3£»r»eS.
The forms A^jMo and &o&r*sft have different senses. Thus
<fe fJ^£> may be either (present or past :) thus ' Here is (or here
waff) a man:' but &o&r°«s-> denotes (present and Future) 'He
stays, remains,' or else, ' he will stay ;' 'will remain.' "^^Ji■ESW^"7^,
fig)p7^j£> 'when I saw him he was there.' fcS-aMo43«r*$o4r.
e£>t&*j£> ' he will be in the house : you go and see,' &o
ef-$sj F^tS) ' There are (or were) four persons therein.'— but 6o*r»
Co denotes that ' four dwell (or will dwell, or stay) therein.' In
268 SYNTAX OF THE FUTURE TENSE.
like manner &?&?, &&J& &c. often convey a past sense ; but &°
4j8) &oksy for i&cfcojS^ ôto^p often bear a future meaning.
Thus in English, he goes, he eats, is often used with reference to
a past act : but he is going, often conveys a future import.
Thus »jyp may be considered Preterit: Thus "^fS»"cr»7r'tja
wlTSsS jSâ 'when I was coming it remained there:' and the
lengthened form is <=7râ, sHeS^S it remains, it goes. [Thus in
the Parujat. 1. 114. &\\ ^p^^^^ôisA^ÂxiTê), i. e.
oJs&j;^.] The forms sS^2& he is coming, Hoo^S it is Known,
wherein unnadi changes into W" 6 are considered inelegant : and
the vulgar (but very common) forms ^T6^*, S'tovfoo, Jir6^0^,
or S to'efcSi are equivalent with the antiquated English expressions
" he goeth" " he speaketh." Instead of d*&F^KS they are going.
The expression ei"6o»:Si£l>r£> for s^cxusS Aif^fSi ' I will go and
return,' is the colloquial phrase : as the other word 5fr*#>7r^s&
' I depart' is imagined to mean ominously ' I am departing' or
' I die.' Thus iSo^ôx,^ &xr-^ after his father's death.
FUTUEE TENSE.
The first person singular may as usual drop the NU at pleasure ;

"3^ m f& or ^"^ « ' I will tell you ;' 3 ^ « ;& or s; ^ a ' I will give.'
&>r_i3d6a-7?a (M. XIII. 2. 178.) ' I will ask you one thing.'
if^SictolS »$ Lila (L. XIX. 198) 'thou
wilt see,' yltfsio n»f>^ 'aa&^KP^jgiS 'Take care or you will
tell him.'
Colloquially, the present tense is much used instead of the
future : thus &it§k»3Ws£Xo5r';g> ' what will you ask for this ?' ^^»
# 'I will come,' tfr^pi 'I will ask' 2V3jHi& 0r ssî*.
' I will give.'
Or the future is expressed by X» ' can,' from 5"eu?<ok> (page
120,) which is added to the Root in A. Thus ^d*x"e* 'I can
orwilldoit.' Wosfcso ■&&»"^)j6;jr6A'e>sr>tfsS>3 ' we will abide by
that decision.'
Instead of this, the indeclinable affix I'NI, is sometimes
used : and this is the same in all genders, persons and numbers.
Thus fc»&r»fc9cw«gj> alia ayy-ini 'it may be so.' "^Kgssboor^p ' you
will surely perceive, or, will know.' ~vf> e»r»gp < he probably will
come.' d*w°§P poyy-ini ' He shall go' ' they must go,' ts^_fig)0
hp He (she, it, they) may be there.' i6pi5Sf_£ oor»^jD 'the
business will be settled,' ^ftôiitow^p 'then it will (or may)
be ten o'clock.'
Or I'NI has an imperative sense: as S3- » $&hp 'let the com-
mand be executed' or ' it shall or will be executed.'
THE PAST TENSE.
1st. As to its form. Contraction takes place. Thus

may become it happened and *|>_ said.
The termination N is dropped at pleasure. Thus ô&Of))
fr>i&> s&o'&rb, or by dropping N, ^joS^ &o"3 I was,
it was.
In the 2d person singular also, the termination YI, is often
omitted. Thus from to rule, £>8S» becomes £>98 thou didst
rule.
And if the sign of interrogation is added, A may become E' ;
thus -£$^58^ may become nSvdH • didst thou see ?.'
The 2d person singular in poetry may be thus contracted. âs>
8a may become 1^8$ < thou hast taught.' M. 5, 3. 234.
270 SYNTAX OP THE PAST TENSE.
Contraction is used in poetry even when E' or O' (see page

172.) is added. Thus ^>"§f> for ^&~tp 'even though thou
do so.' Thus 3o»o6rtfS lip for 8l_dSp (M. X. 3. 34) ' if
thou fail to effect this.' **$8* for ^S^T (Bhadra Parin. 3. 93.)
' Perhaps you came,' ' I suppose you came,' ' I imagine you came'
*S>90"3 for J&8aa"3 have you forgotten. M. XV. 1. 137. ao"gj for
ao£3«r», 'didst thou hear?' 6o5* for 6o&8-^ possibly you
were there, isles' (Tara 4. 107.) for 's'^S'^r ' surely you were
born there !' wôS^ for Wtfgfioca-^r (Ellana 1. 254) ' hast
thou learned ?' sHp^&'T8 Eadha. 1. 93. i. e. ^F'&a-^r' ' surely
thou didst reject (my advice.)
In poems the final N of the third person often drops its vowel.
&*Sai&, ^^)f& poyenu, chesenu, become d^Sot-, i£^>r" poyen,
chesen- This N is sometimes written o (Sunna) as T"oiSoJ)S
for "A'o'^rfcStf ' the child saw;' or else the N is entirely dropped,
(if metre requires a short syllable) as ~t^°o^Si %. Those gramma
rians who approve of the semicircle, use it in such places : thus,
TvcôOJJ.
Cm
If the metre requires it the N may be doubled : thus 3'ifd,

65-csSiS may be written B"^7*^*1* he said.
2ndly. As to the meaning : some verbs (particularly those of
seeing, hearing and thinking) use the past for the present tense.
Thus ■ESr«^sr» > do you see ?' ' didst thou perceive ?' TJSf>i6-ra» « do
(did) you understand it?' U3f>y>& < Yes,' "5ig)sS_?;w» 'if you came
to-morrow.' Lit. ' Didst thou come to-morrow.' tf^tfj^ 'I die
I die, !' or, ' I shall die' *aa < O I shall fall,' :*_* ' I'll come,' or
•I'm coming,' tXTT&wiytS^fio-ra* ' do you think so ?' S"ji&jr*o*3!
5&oi3 ! Lila XV. 117. ' I behold thee ! I live again !' "^pfcw^dos
tf»^dBi"3s& 'I do thee no wrong.' ^•"§ (Pal. 319) ' it has hit
him' i. e. ' it assuredly will hit him.' -r»_S>»> (Pal. 500) ' I will
spare his life.'
ON THE POETICAL DIALECT. 271
In such places were the present used, it would give & future
sense. Horace says ' Tempua erat dapibus sodales :' ' it is
time for a feast.'
Additional examples. «^_%§s5_f^r» < if you come.' sr-oS&sSa^TT'
' should they come ;' ' if they come.' St^'f ' do you hear ?' £a>
fc»i3^!© ' what do you say?' lit, ' what didst thou say?' s^h^^r-
' does the water (Plural) boil ?' TîSs, 1 Yes' &ao© j*»<5x> ' we bless
you' (a phrase common in letters) sSji ' I'm coming.
' Here ! I'll give it you.' P^fi ?*i'rr'& ' I rely on you alone.' Lit :
' I have trusted thee.' ~t$)-zr-t&>£S)^$&gi£> 'when he conies to
morrow.' Lit. 'when he came.' fcST&r-.g-ff?) 'Oh I shall die'
('Horatio I am dead!' says Hamlet.) fcââoSpâfc < he is
of this opinion :' ' such is his belief &£x<$<!)£ijr°d 1 what think
you?' tfa^jSTypsT5 Kic}i&<oi»pr»4g> he is breaking his
heart about the death of his sou.' 69-c«i^S) ■Sodwgsfca e> |» fj^Bsfco
' we are (were) his brothers.' s&sarir*oMiT» <S> «a»i5a 'it turns (turned) out to be
the very book,' #£î6S it is'wet.
. It has already been noticed that in rustic talking the N of the
past tense is sometimes slurred. (In the 49-k>VTX' ^cSakoto 0r come
dies such irregularities occur in verse describing rural conversa
tion) Thus sS€>^^"sr» vaccinava is written sS t^-st- vacc'ava.
The poets use some anomalous words which are referred to the
past tense : thus t9^^)«b he said &c. t5^*-3*i~7r,> on his saying
so and T»^j6c&3§ Chenna. B. P. 4. 82. ' he appeared' ["r*;S3oajg
' he did not see'.]
«
ON THE POETICAL DIALECT.
" What an excellent horse do they lose through want of address
and boldness how to manage him !" says Alexander concerning
Bucephalus. (Plutarch.)
The Poetical dialect varies in several points from the ordinary
colloquial Telugu in orthography, syntax, and phrase.
272 ON ORTIIOGEAPIIY.
I. Iff OKTHOGEAPHY.
As a short vowel (laghii) becomes long (guru) when followed by
two consonants, the letter N (sunna) is frequently inserted for
the purpose of lengthening a short syllable when the metre re
quires it. Thus t?e5J£> atadu becomes f #oJ£> atandft, and oiiSSo
evadu becomes dôSS eVvandil. s$*e)8 polati becomes sWoOj
polanti 'aofr, veladl "So oft, velandi alati tseoa, alanti.
In like manner, in the 3d pers. sing. masc. of the Negative, ^ ef
sSSb ' he reads not' sfr^sS&b ' he goes not' &o£j£> 'he stays not,'
are in poetry occasion^ly spelt Qesôt£>^ EfGsSoJSo, <&ojso£So.
The sunna thus inserted is called SS-tlS'i&ijS^ ' the optional N.'
The insertion of N in poetry is more fully described in the
next chapter, on Druta.
"Words commencing with I, I', E, E,' U, U,' O, 0,' AJJ are in
poetry, as in the Dictionary written with tS &t a. i,, 27
as 3,&£> 'he,' oi^«o ' who' but in the ordinary style of every day
like these are changed into oxr-, 63.1, c&, ^j, $y>t ~%>t and
: Thus coj-=J£> 1 age' is in the Dictionary written &t£>, and
18 'breath,' is shaped £»2>9. ,
But in words of Sanscrit origin, as g^fc^sfca -S^&So, Ssr»g5£ot
tacS^KsSM, &?£s-jS», irs&> and S^fgsto, the vowels s\, &c.
ought not to be written thus om, eon &c.
The semicircle («S or WT^r&c^tf **» viz c ) is a charac
ter iuvented by the learned, and much used in printing. But it
has never come into general vogue, and we need not either use it
or regard it. It represents the circle: thus, &°t>oQ, ~3f>o&J fc»£o
&> &c. noticed above, are supposed to be the original or full forms,
and ~3v&, WtsJ& to be contracted forms: wherefore they
are written EJr°e>cS, Soc£>, w#c«S &c.
But the simple forms devoid of both circle and semicircle are
original. The circle was introduced only to lengthen the preced
ing short syllable : as atadii, ataudu.
ON IMPERSONAL VEEBS. 253
[Another alteration in the verb occurs in the 3d pers. sing,
m. f. aorist. S"^ becomes GfiSo ' he saw' cone ' he bought'
becomes r'pas coniye. This form is only used in poetry.]
In Tenses ;— occasionally the present is used for the past : thus
Parvati Kalyan. 2. 43. ftS-da^So offcab-j^^ 'To which,
what replies he ?'
In pronouns : thus ffi (Hunc me) KP. 3. 31. " This me."
Some poetical forms as trwe pi are now vulgar : Thus in English
' To Ketch' is very vulgar and is used in Spenser 3. VI. 37. Thus
in every language some vulgarisms are merely the antique forms.
Peculiar contractions are used in the verb : thus «£>S"3c!&3 for
!fc»"eBiS + akao KP. 3. 18.
Several words drop the final vowel : particularly U. Thus S")
becomes ?>S~, 5"#, S"6~, Ho^/sSeuo, ^[VsSnjr, esoHOoj*) tJoscfir-,
ON IMPERSONAL VERBS.
In Telugu as in other languages there are impersonal verbs :

that is verbs which use only the third person singular : as it seems,
it rains, it ought, it must, it should.
Examples : from "3ScJfc>t> to appear "3cx>(6jâi. it seems U9#jSQ
it appeared, it is evident, I know. Aorist. Ue"&>, or Uuo&fSi the
same. These may often be governed, as usual, by a dative : thus
TâS'gaj^jê it seems so to me, I am of opinion. ^"Stx)^^
you see it sr»o£°&"33bS>a2»fib they cannot see it. sSej&ij This verb
originally meant To love, but as an impersonal denotes Must,
should. &*s>'Sr& (Aorist) must go "O'^ "a must come. The nomi
native may be any word, singular or plural. Thus "Ss&ooJr6^ "53 i&
(we) must go &r>&d-s;S13p6 (you) must go. Past tense sSaSjSS
thus ir*:5ej§i5a (you, we, he, it, &c.) must go. The aoriat and the
past are in English translated by the present equivalent to il
fallait in French.
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. l 1
274 ON IMPERSONAL VERBS.
The negative is (Aorist) £o& : thus TrsSaafc (it ne faut pas venir)
must not come, or, Tr>sse)f^6-r°s6. Or by contraction as
TT°ig> Dont come "^^J^'g* Do not you want this water ?
Another word of the same import is borrowed from to
come. Aor. ^^fk. Neg. Aor. "V&. thus "O^tf î*> may come
d^ss-a^js* may go -<y°Tr°t£> must not come, cannot come si c
must not go, cannot 'go. Thus Sir>S>rr'£-&>^pi Yon may come
«p>oSaTr,TT»3Si they are not to come.
The neuter verb &~°t£>te to fit, to meet, is thus used. s!r«Sr*
SopP' is it meet (Aor.) to go ? d*$r>lSi& it is not proper togo fto'
t?;S Sj-âfc it. is wrong or impossible, to say so xr»Sr»a§' as he
could not come : as coming was out of his power.
The verb & <6^*j oppilta to suit. The initial being a vowel, the
drita N is inserted. Thus wgf ^dS"^^^ is it fit to do bo ?
2w86jjfS> yes 3»i6â& no.
The verb "3o to dawn, appears to be impersonal : thus
"3o •sr'Cfi&iS^8 it is dawning Ita-sr-aâ it has dawned, it is day
"3osr»&S'«s»rkw before it dawned. In fact it is (albescere) from
"3 2, white, and paruta to flow.
In English we say day dawned or morning dawned, but in Telugu
it is strictly impersonal. Thus also in Sanscrit Ramayan. 1.
XVII. 21.
d«5-^ eSôlK s&>(js*<&o f&^S&v''"^' p^s&sS). " This day has
my night given way to a most auspicious dawn." Here Carey's
note points out that instead of morning dawns, the Hindu phrase
is that night dawns.
The verb (of Sanscrit origin) wâooi3o*j or wêSt=jSs&SS*j
it grows to evening (vesperascit) Lit : to set. Thus WjJJttoWfrto
1*^ before sunset.
The verb to go, may be used impersonally : thus Vishnu
Pur. 4. 257. ^p#>u;S>£l«p>ê> I -u*89>iSr>Stf£s£> it is improper
to behold these.
DEFECTIVES, ETC. 275
The verb S"«mXo<o with its derivatives may often be impersonal.
Thus $"SA(5«6;ys& when he is wealthy, instead of ifiSskoS'SM*^
when he has wealth. This and a few other verbs only seem to be
impersonal, because the object is not mentioned. ThuB &*or*
S"e& it happens among us, instead of s\*£»;3c!fiatSoS'e>s£> and T»P
a thing of nought: for £i>ofiO"ff"»j&i6eSj) and not
to-morrow: for ~€i&)'&<sS>'&e$ii&T'&.
DEFECTIVES.
There are a few Defective verbs among the Auxiliaries. Thus
"^tSfS) (an irregular Aorist of ~$&&>L>) I cannot 2 "^tf 3 3 ^tfab,
7§tfs& i "iSes&ca, 3 l3ec6.
The Sanscrit Interjection (peculiar to poems) w^T'* Listen !
give ear! is generally considered defective, (see the Chintamani,
Chapter 86.)
ON THE FORM USED IN PRAYER.

[" Oh bestow this ?"] is much used in entreaty. Thus DRB.
277. Deign to reveal this ! S(SsSc*$ M. 1. 5. 220. Deign to
hear me : also in the introductory prayer to the Sadguru Bodha.
T^- | Jfoo-c? $£x[B | "B^SSîiiîS) I -r»ss"3«d*i& I
-^S^sS^d&e) I ra^zS^cSâ The feminine forms O Madam, &c
are "v**^, s>i«s>^, &c. and the plural s>iW<*>$, T'Stfctfg. CBP.
4. 154.]
276 ON CEETAIN VERBS USED AS AUXILIAEIES.
BOOK TENTH.
ON CERTAIN VERBS USED AS AUXILIARIES.

The verbs a&afck to fall "^cs&ij to cast to strike
to go, and a few more are used as Auxiliaries, being added to the
Moot in A of other verba ; or else, they are added to Participles :
thus &>j&i> or equally mean. To start or to be startled,
to joy or be overjoyed. Some alter the meaning, others do not.
Thus fcssbti to cut, by adding "acifij&j to the Past Participle
forms r*5"3cs&t) to cut off. This is equivalent tbdalnato '' cast"
in Hindustani. Thus mama is to strike or kill ; and mardalna to
kill. Likhna and Likh-dalna equally mean to write and bear
nearly similar senses. In translating into English we generally
omit such auxiliaries.
s**î4i To go, as an Auxiliary generally denotes completeness :
or alters the sense otherwise. Thus t3S(S8 it is spoilt or ruined.
■3ai!r6a»isa it is spoilt or injured. to fall AZ^te to fall
down. oSa^dâ«-pr»6o they are already come. Thus tyfi^TJT0^ or
iJS^£r*aMfyoi£> he died. " The phantom's sex was chang'd and
gone" Lady of the Lake.
Added to the Inf. in A it denotes attempt : thus ^^dâajSo
tr* when I was going to tell you. &l£€r*Qp I was just falling.
(This may be called the Inchoative. See Adam Clarke on Luke.
V. 6. which would be expressed s^Sfcr-sslS.) Thus Wto^âT^sS
do not attempt to say so. "tpaS^So Do not think of coming u«a«
oaj;So#errS just as I was thinking of coming': as I was about
to come.
s5i&^4j To come U<D8;SS or "3 9cessans it became known.
e9-sSj*4je»3jS55£^(S& or SiSwfia the words were heard or became
audible.
ON CERTAIN VERBS USED AS AUXILIARIES. 277
Su&Aj ia an Auxiliary used impersonally. Thus rfeîSfi is
must, ought, shall, and the negative (irregular) is sSasfc contracted
into sg> must not, shall not. Or else ~&°8b (the negative of 3*S>Â>
to come) is used. Examples w^°^csfis5"3fSi you (&c.) must do so.
ts^TôSSsSsjîSa the same; (you, he, &c.) must, shall, slialt do so.
W&r»^§<sfi-cr'sj> (you, &c.) must not, cannot do so. Thus fi"o?rSoi5
-cr*s& Thou, (&c.) shalt not steal.
-^Cfisfck v. n. To be able tsQ^^"êflo I am unable to do it.
It answers to can (anciently ken or know) tt°~$g fi> I cannot
come "^8S"^^>S0 I did it unintentionally. "33d&"ô J)6 (Vem.)
if they cannot understand this. Cun I endure
to behold it ?
L^J)4j To be able, to be possible. sb"8"^*^ I cannot go. w&
O33£_&$>oi&-Sfcr'&i& it cannot be here.
Scr*s&4j v. n. To be fit, be possible. 8\SSr»Sff& This is out of
the question: it is unfit. S(aSr*fi&o"ij If this is impracticable.
wgy»T§cs6So-»S«S> (Tara. 3. 75.) you must not do so. I hope (you)
will not. do so. Sjoefie^S^Sn-tf aS> Fail not of doing this. Lit:
herein failure will not do. t9^_agT^&-»Sg' as I could not go there.
Sjo^poSoS" a"? pr>Scr»«So7T» was such a thing ever known ?
These are added even to nouns. Thus S»Of»£x> is 1 a gleam,
a flash.' By adding S~i*4j is formed a verb X»8S»/b?S~,S>4i « To be
dazzled.' Pl« sleep piasrîJ to sleep # cK>sS» fear ^dfiâoij
to fear s£r»fS» a tree s£r*ffci£&oi> to be stunned.
This liberty however has its limits. Thus ^^jt> To go is used
in many various senses as an Auxiliary. And yet the verbs
13 or »>Xo*J which mean ' To go' can never be used as auxiliaries.
In hasty talking they often drop the verb and merely use the
auxiliary. For sSw-»5"3ox> they merely say as &<uo^y"3o»g
for de»^)j&r«^>"3cx»g Shut the door.
It would be easy to extend this list of Auxiliary verbs : but
these will suffice : the rest will be found in the Dictionary.
278 ON THE FORMATION OF VERBS FROM NOUNS, ETC.
ON THE FORMATION OF VERBS FROM NOUNS.
Many verbs are directly borrowed from nouns. Thus from &&
°& n. s. form BaaSbCfitj v- n. To form, and causally SS86oi£>£> v. a.
To form.
Others are derived from Sanscrit. Thus from l*"^^«S» En
trance (2. W. 580) by adding incu (j6"3eo»i> v. n. To enter. And
hence the causal ^■^-f-'SksiJ pravesa + pettuta, to admit or
introduce. The affix MU being omitted.

So from i>o&*6.six> pleasure C2W) ia formed. tfoSôtSej to
feel pleasure, to joy, and "do® S>.ofcoiS>ii Santos-impincu or $Q
£i&.'vkx>ii Santosha + pettuta to please, delight, charm, v. a.
MISCELLANEOUS RULES.
The Rules contained in the following pages govern all parts
of speech.
They originate in principles which may at first appear anoma
lous : but pervade all the languages of India.
ON REITERATION.
The principle of reiterating a word is found in every part of
Telugu Grammar and calls for particular explanation, because in
translating it is requisite to convey the intended import without
using a repetition which varies from English idiom.*
When a noun is reiterated, the words are in the nominative
though a dative affix is added. Thus 6j*»S5oc»e»» room by room,
house for house: every house : not ssio43looao43§, AewSSabejo every
tooth, not 8&o«3§6o*38.
* The principle of reiteration often occurs in Hebrew. So in Gen. XXXII.

16. oder oder, "drove by drove" In VII. 2. sabaa sabaa "by sevens" In
Psalm LXXVII. 9. ledor wedor " for ever and ever" " to generation and gene
ration, in Deut. XXVI. 3. eben we eben, a stone and a stone : i. e. different
•weights. Thus in St.Mark. VI. 39. avfiirvaut ov/maino, irpaatai irpaauu,
companies (and) companies; ranks (by) ranks. So in Psalm 40, Waiting,
I waited. And in Luke XXII. 15. Desiring I have desired. So in Sanscrit
^)"^»X\"^r» in every house.
ON REITERATION. 279
Reiteration of a noun sometimes denotes Every. Thus a
village 6*St»8§ to every village. ■po%i>otS*>&. q. v- to every fair.
Reiteration is frequently used in poetry as also in daily conver
sation and writing. [But in Telugu the Sanscrit words are not
often reiterated.]
I. Reiteration of an Article gives a distributive sense. Thus
es-cs£r"cx»oSjeyr* in those different houses : in every house : lit : in
those and those houses &&\5re£>t^T$r°S>-fF'd^s wherever they
searched, Lit : in which and which places they looked, kr^ttabdSj
sSsajSoaSb at various times 2-"S"°"?«^ "3~°e)sS»jSo4£> at one hour, at some
one time.
II. Reiteration of an Adjective gives it a superlative sense.
The noun is invariably plural.
Thus s£oSsSjo&i£os& very fine fruit: the finest fruit. (Lit.
Good good fruits.) Or it denotes some, a few, as î^Jp^" *»
some {several, or very) little children "SiBXSêwew several royal
tigers, or very large tigers.
III. When a pronoun is reiterated the second is rendered
respective : as S9-5S-ax>oa& the respective houses iîS^^ in which
and which places. s£r>s£r»^§i& our various names: (Lit: our and
our names.) ■5r°8o3-«8'~g« To all of them. ■sn'O^ciT'OSbssa^s&êSo
when the different people came. (Lit : when they and they came.)
«!)^8£5j't) ^tfc^&NSoSfSa Let each speak for himself: (Lit:
whose speech they must say.) oisstfca&jSto^sfi^r'pr^y'* £>5e"3tu
&>"fr° Do you know what particular articles each of them took.
(Lit : who what took ; knowest thou ?) ^"ô^SsSxes-êier* BlDo
tS»2sO their wages per month were duly paid.
The pronoun is self : and if doubled thus, (first Dative
then nominative) SjS&S^'^sSe^Ty&a it implies, He came of his
own accord : of himself. So in the plural «$s&S&«rBl5a and in the
neuter plural
IV. The word One, takes a different sense when reiterated.
280 ON REITERATION.
a.r43*-»!Se)£3)oa £$lir43 &f6or*jD5SOyjT»g i wanted one and
you have brought another. (Lit s One was wanted ; thou one hast
brought.) z.ZsS?*p-£& DSTsSr.^ $8* w^r*jD the roots of each
tree were twisted into those of another. &>$6 p^fssSM-cSr" ^©.6
c&r»?CsS»a?f_"e55£1 we had no opportunity of seeing each other
©oS"7r»'§)S'«3v°3oSi6a it was one thing and he took it for an
other: it was entirely different from what he supposed. ^f6p^)f
ts s£»-E£r»£jS^jSSo when we met • (Lit : when we, one and one saw.)
z>T"£ ^sSfS in one place or another 8>9T,tf «£> one man here and
there. 8»Sf_«Jrja&a;*fS> "^>|L ^«oSi6«^> at one time he will listen ;
and at another he will not.
V. The word ' where' is repeated (as happens in Sanscrit,
in Hindustani, &c.) to denote wide difference, or contempt (so in
Psalm 42, where is now thy God.) as jb"3!f_<5e£5-cs&iS5&3|fj2 where art
thou and where is he : i. e. what comparison can there be between
you and him. Compare H. D. I. 257 and I. 1023. A learned man
speaking to me on the vast inferiority of Telugu to Sanscrit ex
claimed £>£^£_£ where is the cat, where is the tiger !
VI. The doubling a question implies Or: as ^t^&ts* He ?
or he ? i. e. This man ? or that man ? And also if the sign of doubt
is used, as £><2*v&* whether it was this or that man. In such
places what, may be used, as £>&^S»F»sooksx> whether to
thee or to me. Both to thee and to me.
VII. If Adverbs are reiterated, the sense changes. ^%J* there,
but wjf£ jf_S here and there ; fo&^So then, but «3<6^S^y*6 now
and then, tsj&^tj (6j*3i the same at times, occasionally ;
or, o" o-o quicker and quicker.
"When the second adverb ends in it denotes safety or entire-
uess : as Jî^f^'sto The property is untouched or safe
eS-SoSa-SbT^ôcoiSa the entire leaf is missing ■srpoxzx sr*f)ocwto
7rT6'ti? n0 one uas meddled with his house.
ON EEITERATION. 281
The Locative Case is generally considered an adverb. s\c43o4j
frp^sy&zu the wells in the different houses.
2, VIII. A Nominative case is reiterated to denote pre-eminence
whether the first one has or has not the intensive E'.*
Thus'0'l9!&o»tfo'#c»atf«S» 0r TT»(S"rfo»&"&ô«tftf» The even
ing rite is the rite ! i. o. is most worth beholding or the finest
part of the festival is what takes place at night. l6ax'sS»as> |«&*
pJoôôifcB Verna. 2.202. to grow old together is the boon of
boons! sr>sS> &o£> «-<b, ->&o£>->4j He plays the play, he
sings the tune : i. e. All he does is right, all he says is law ! (a
taunting proverb) ft3-fe5~i*5 (Herein the first word has tho inten-
eive E'.) That is indeed a tica, or commentary.
The following instances occur in a page of the Bhagavat VII,
194 (printed) being an extasy in applause of the god Vishnu by
Plahlada.
lr- <>— — Ir-

a^sfr»sô-t& SrSjooSpSitU &lfc>13dlSS>IQfi 5&p«S»3sS5tSsS»
A nominative case used adverbially is reiterated to denote con

tinued action. Thus srâsiyAMTT0 drop by drop.
IX. Elsewhere a Nominative is repeated to denote distinction.
Thus wa^jS'S't? om&^jS'S'Z? That is one story and this is one
story i. e. That'story (or account) is quite different from this one
[* As in Othello, though that his joy be joy. i. e. be supreme,

Again, in Hamlet, and say to all mankind This teas a ««».]
G. JP. Brown's Telugu Grammar. m m
282 ON REITERATION.
w«-?)5«> -&ss»-^rc£. They are certain persons and we are cer
tain persons. That is, we are quite separate from them.
X. The reiteration of a number implies difference. Thus "ô
43§"3o3fc:Stf i&»s» The two have two colours i. e. each of them is
of a different colour sSv>K)S§ zSyr°&-iitx>e- The three have three
names i. e. each of the three bears a different name. (Sex>KoOb-jT»eo
xo-sfCfieosaôMa The four men went four ways : i. e. each of the
four went a different way.
XI. Sometimes the first noun is Locative plural. Thus
•Ekoej^sSS-Ek (Vema. 647.) She is the girl of girls (this is an
allegorical description of wisdom as a female.)
XII. Sometimes the last vowel of the first noun is made long;
as &™rr°&*i5tx>t kings of kings, rulers of rulers.
A verb may be reiterated, using the Boot in A, or G-A twice.
Thus (A. D. C. 484.) \«r*<s£> (jsr*c«& 0r L?-dSo7r> \jr>&f>-r^ as
he continued to write tJs3 ■CbsS or fJjs sStt" tfcsssiv as he went
on reading.
The second verb with an emphasis denotes assurance : thus
efr,oMfSsr»s& dâiJi6iT'"3 he is assuredly gone forever: (Lit. He
who is gone is really he who is gone.) I as
suredly said so.
But with an emphasis preceding it, the particle denotes
as it was. Thus Sr»^^«r««b .^tf;^^t5fi^r>«£> sitting as he
was, he died.
The Past Relative Participle with the same particle preceding
a past pll denotes pretence. Thus 3"*a»jS "i>&*o» pretending that
he was going 3îS~fj pretending that he was giving
something.
Or the radical form of the verb may be combined with a Tense :
thus &o&ii unda-ne-unnadi, 'it assuredly (or already) is
there' or, Not at all. a?Sfai*^*,
OaS-osSoSo Hearing ye shall hear and seeing ye shall see, tp»<*>7§
ON HEITEEATION. 283
Lp**""'* I will certainly write tt*"^3 he is positively coming.
Negatively, tp'^-cpoo they are positively not come : they certainly
will not come.
Eeiteration of a participle denotes continued action : thus
L55*^" Lp*5r* as ê continued to write Z>ps>p continually hearing.
Lila. XIV. 9. Parama Yogi, page 411. cs&jKs&d ^^|> Anirud.
4. 20. continually waging war. **i*«os&«txoo43§ :5i&r»:Sa^-pr*«Sb he
came often, or was in the habit of coming £"*om sJr*ow going again
and again. There are now no points left unexplained.
A verb or p|| used first affirmatively and then negatively denotes
uncertainty, iê^rrsr* he may perhaps come: lit. he comes
or comes not. &SpS>&ox>$(S^~s~°&i I do not know whether it is
his or not. &j£>5Si> v. n. To boil ^Sg&sS'p boiling and not
boiling, i. e. half boiled. sSfcjjSfi T7»pa whether arrived or not.
*bj!>&8 SsS^jSâ the work is and is not finished: is as good as
finished fcg fcAJ^SSprôo they are and are not at enmity. &o~&8>
^j5£>££L'PT'Sol??)cirt4S> I do not know whether (he, they, it, &c.)
be there or not &rtSics&>i$r'!&!Sx>S~ (Ticc UE. 5. 69.) the seeing
and not seeing USÛOcSiS' *3^-Fr°«£> he did it unwittingly, or
aware and unaware ^*°^>55^ ~&>&oi£&$^p the child's teeth
are incomplete : lit. have come and have not come tSt°£> cSr»&&3ojfc
he pretends not to see him. Vera. 1. 39.
Occasionally two verbs are contrasted instead of a negative.
Thus •OO^SlF'iSx) we were half dead: Lit. having died we
have lived W-A|BAo«aafo#r»e«M&r>^j6ja that affair is half settled :
lit. it sinks and it floats.
Sometimes the negative noun (in MI see page) is used: as
?>ÂâSM--xi"A^^Tr^L& They are hardly on good terms (fc*fS» being
the neg. noun of ) —UScs&Aj To be known wpiftfsSxicU
€)|)"33d!fi^to©i6â He may be said to know Tamil. Lit. It is and
is not known to him &os&t>To be &ob&o&#bx>'&jp>i}& their
being there is of no use vrewk To suffice, v. n. r>&f 3 vPejsk.aw
284 ON PARTICLES.
-jv&fap There is hardly water enough. £&?<>tJ v. n. To go on
ts5f_8B9fcBS?CSJS»e>3e$ As I was hardly able to live there. Lit.
by thriving and not thriving.
The Aor. P|| may be prefixed to the verb. Thus j^Tr°, or, sS %
ôîy, come, if you like ^3i>^"6 3^, Tell him, if you choose s^"S
s3*o& Go, if you like. r>S&2)o~i>$0(SsSef>5Sa stay if you choose, or
if you think fit. "^^Js$^5$'*7i<> perhaps I shall come to-morrow,
"^ffc"^^^^^ "gS'tf* "3^ If I awake, well, otherwise do
not awake me.
ON PAETICLES.
A few words are used which may be considered adverbs or

auxiliaries. These will be arranged alphabetically.
1. «o*j—is a contraction for sso&rstfb, or any other portion of
the verb to say : and is equivalent to They say : it is said.
It may also drop N becoming It sometimes has a taunting
sense : as tôw fr'jSo&r» I tell you he is gone.
2. fc?o"fj This is merely the conditional of the same verb.
s&o-fj ' That is'—' id est.' s53yiSr-a©& o"f, If you will only come
and see.
3. t?oS This is a plural vocative " Sirs" or Sir : as "^Co^ No sir
esTj^tfoa They are here, Sir. [4. «&>_See on Woaj.]
4. (the past p]| of OftAj to say) Having said. This is often
used in combination with ^îb, *6e>j8o±j, &c. meaning the same.
Thus S^fJ^tijrX'J^ he desired [me] to come. Lit. Come thou
saying he said. Other remarks on this verb are placed under the
syntax of the past and aor. participles. The past rel. p|| is
rendered " called" : as ~3e&$iS£3w<>* Veman'anna yogi, " Yem»
the philosopher."
5. «i6j43§&. Even when. This is the dative of wa6v>Bb then.
Added to a Eel P|| it implies Although. Thus ôftjS^sSi^L Even
ON PAETICLES. 285
though he was there "eSfS^Sg?)^ Though he was not there.
£^*38?>3l Happen as it may.
6. 6S-fc3-a3-( or B6* Aje, aye—These are conversational
interjections.
7. £3-er°^ Jus.t so. Very well. Be it so.
8- &fiij By, At the rate of -F°o3hotufo&Qxbl) to multiply by
four.
9. «io431 At the rate of tfes"3»r43o4cigô5 at how much per
yard êwJoMOdssSaâ about forty men came.
10. 3!&> Here, hither. Added to numerals, this changes them
into adverbs. ftS-8fc> Sixthly, in the sixth place.
11. <^ The affix ' fill* as a cupful, a bagful; but it is generally
untranslated. Thus S^T'Jfe a coss-ful: i.e. the distance of two
miles r>*3s£> a seerful: i. e. the quantity of two pounds. sfccn>~Ss&
a cubit's length. ?foT.£o a basketful.
12. «>?> At, at the rate of F°e»'^?> at four, four at once. Xo^^
by basketfulls.
13. (or less correctly «o) Just, exactly ^fi>X'o<be>S'er* Just
at ten o'clock. s&iS&>sS&î6~|5 ej Just as he pleased tsSââSw
Even when he asked w&T?sT-Kep<s~&&# (Luke XI. 10 ) He
that seeketh shall ' even' find.
14. or £>s» Though ? What? 3©y3 p even though they come.
pîsa What, wont you believe me.
15. XTzr Contracted from ~s~°ts* ' is it not so ?' îjF'*Xt3>
He is come you know. t9g^~5",><5fcx"CT° I tell you it is not so. ■sr><£>
(SôXXts* 1 fear, he is a rogue -<£r-& Kss<*£>£ pray look, Sir. afcooSS^
$£02rX-cy Vasu 2. 103. You see that what I said is true.
Sê» An affix, like able, fit ■si<X§riw fit to be given <S^»
6^<yj procurable wS&fêx) violent, forcible Sjafc^w in heaps,
bountifully—an affix likeness. The plural is ; i^tS^g-'eu
acceptation ^&y£)fS^r*!k Giving in marriage and taking in
marriage.
286 ON (ANUCARANAMU) ADVERBIAL PAETICLES.
5Sj6sS» An affix like nesa. &>ot>tip<&x> goodness. This is with
Telugu nouns equivalent to ^&>3 in Sanscrit nouns : as j3 :S8£tf».
j&S, sfc8^; c&Qa&, But, yet, also, besides. "S, "Soi, "So-Be»
(Derived from "î£)t> to rise) Get out of the way ! rise! also
" Of course, or You see." $8 Well, right.
SsSfsr", or sr»85^8 Exclamations like Oh mon dieu ! generally
denoting horror.
ON (ANUCARANAMU) ADVERBIAL PARTICLES.

Simple adverbs call for few rules and have been already noticed
(pages 131, 132, 167.) Of these, some are Sanscrit: as ^ss^S~
On a sudden, ff^ctfc^s through Justice, i.e. Justly. fe^^SS
ignorantly. But Anukaranams or Adverbial Particles call for
separate notice. They are used in Sanscrit, in Hindustani, and in
all the modern languages of India. Being purely idiomatical, they
are not easily translated. They may generally be considered as
interjections.
Dr. Johnson calls such words (in his remark, in the dictionary,
on Milton's use of Sheer, adv.) " Cant terms or proverbial expres
sions, not now in use except in low language." His coadjutor
Steevens in a note on Shakespear's Richard III. (Act I. Sc. 4.)
designates them as '• words of mere enforcement with different
shades of meaning, subject to no obvious principle yet certain
in their import." These allow of much latitude in translation,
and we are often obliged to omit them ; because like some Greek
particles, they have no definable meaning.
Some precede : others follow the words to which they belong.
Some are used as nouns and have plural forms : others appear as
adjectives or adverbs.
Some are altered at pleasure in spelling, to suit the metre or to
give emphasis. This is generally done by lengthening the second
vowel. Thus Sâ? becomes a-eâr, and AS"*? becomes * ~3~°&f.
The various words "trww-^Twd'ir', ^^re>jSt %rb$,
and some others mean Violently : being equivalent with the
English words Bang! all at once, slapdash, &c. SS-TfiPTy, tsUaS,
ON (ANUCARANAMU) ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. 287
•BsSfisS all mean helter, skelter x'iSx'tf, when connected
•with the verbs To tremble merely mean violently, excessively.
And to Tinkle is expressed £&e$>&>, £>£3e)r&*j, x'rsx'res&piAj.
The words X's&K'iS), £asfc£i3sSo, mean finely, sweetly, nicely,
prettily, fragrantly. The phrase Bejau {a melodiously, audibly,
aloud. —The word StfStJ, or St>6;5 means round and round:
spinningly. ~^\S^^>^[S^ or * cSkt.^^^* aloud (of howling).
oeiSxy fiercely o»o«^>a^8 They wept bitterly ^jC^Sx" aloud,
roaringly *$<6# glitteringly. Vv-^pSir' Vastly, hugely,
terribly.
Some nouns admit at pleasure a second word. Thus "3;^. butter
W- & leaf a tree water "Com a stone butter oil
(ghee) are often called "SjSj^r"^,—<iS-5o &otSx>,— 3£» âo;_£)&
PS,— tt»=>*> tf *j,— "âzT' <g>—in all which, the second word has
no meaning and nearly answers to etcetera ; §'"f&r>i&X"e6g millions
upon millions.
Tôssb a boil %>)ot&%ot£>&>Sxi-$i& there was no boil or anything
of the sort. "i^S^wA&jeo q. v. Art and cunning &>\rr*£u>,\jT''eo
horses, Ac. So in English, wear and tear, odds and ends, house and
home. So in Lila XIX. 139. «&**6fccs6, Ajtfgfc^tfge denoting
scorn-
Sometimes the anucaranam like bag and baggage, wear and tear,
house and home, has a meaning, but must not be literally translated .
Thus a house ***SE) a door. But siex>icr>§8 means House and
home. W8p8oo3«>"^«Sssr»l8'^JSi he has neither house nor home.
S*to£T& merely means "A garden, &c."
Some precede the word. Thus "3* s>» is speed es-K^JfsSM"^ very
speedily a pilgrim *3ts~&® a&8"^§ a rover and rambler «c*fi
tw the outside "^>uo&ew the very outside s^csfi delusion
c* strong delusion sfcer^tj and asg* £*a Lila 19. £36 to struggle
violently. s$»g> nice, pleasant. or delightful.
288 ON (ANUOABANAMTJ) ADVEEBIAL PAETICLES.
All such imitative phrases are called aV^JtoJtf if>>j&"#«6sS»i»j or
Fabrications. Thus in English, piping hot, spick and span new.
Many such phrases, now considered inelegant are found in the
most popular English poets.
Some add the verb w?6*o with an adverbial force. Thus ^^<S
Gbummana (sweetly) Khanill-ana shrilly "^>?"t>
Phela-phelam-anuta to explode with a loud sound ; the expressions
&-qp>S~ or Xtfe^, $<&p are merely words for violently
or suddenly.
Others add Thus aa&esfe sharply »sS>OsS>r*p smarting.—
Or s\s5>*j To give or to put : as &ox£j£>*-> or S5cxog-3i»Aj
to give a shriek.—Or ^g343 Thus S1 55 a sound imitative of
lowing or bellowing &TZ~'bvk> To low—Some colloquial phrases
or interjections, as go to ! come ! ~$ up ! are equally
untranslateable expletives, such as occur in all languages.
Some few phrases are used in poetry (as happens in Greek and
Persian) merely to fill up the metre ; accordingly they are called
■ir'is^p sS'sfcoeu pada-purnaca or pegs to " fill the line" : such are
Lf), $K, r£r, iSxs-, Sje>, ss^sr, s&a, sfclr- some of these
have indeed a meaning, as in the earth, in the world, well, fitly, &c.
But, as used in verse, they are mere pegs. Some similar words
are borrowed from verbs ; as tUvK, ~3voK, &>ty, 2>&^G~ &c. and are
often interpreted as meaning ^Joîv shining ; But in truth,
they mean nothing.
Ordinary bramin tutors are content to use (j^"5"0^ brightness
for any noun and ^"s^f oxX>i> or 2-^f*-> To shine, for any verb,
the meaning for which they cannot precisely express. They also
use iSsfc-SptfsSM (see T. E. D. in -3o3'-ra>eu) to explain any noun
unknown to them.
Many similar phrases will be found in the Dictionary. In
Anirud IV. 58 is a curious string of these phrases. Indeed such
will be found in Hindustani and in every language of India, as also
in French and English.
ON SOME WOKDS TJSED IDIOMATICALLY. 289
Though so fond of imitative sounds, the poets have never
adopted the (onomatopoeia) method of letting the sound correspond
with the sense : a rhetorical device which is equally used in
Sanscrit and in Latin.
Under this class of indistinct expressions may he placed the
indistinct sounds like hum, humph, ah, aha, &c. which in Telugu
conversation denote that what is said has been understood.
ON SOME WOEDS USED IDIOMATICALLY.

In translating from Telugu into English, we are constrained
to omit particular words, the meaning of which is purely
idiomatical.
The word "ôXS sangati, affair, or pani, work, denote 1 thing'
and here the English uses the pronoun alone. Thus -ÎBoxopto
6o£> regarding ' this' Lit. 'regarding this affair or circumstance'
•^s£j?>f)«oSoO has the same import •ôc&tiîioXdXr'fy it is
certain that they will come f#JSotr»;Sejf>fS*p§ regarding the neces
sity of his coming.
The word ô^g hand is omitted. Thus w#jt>l303©M %p I gave
it to him. Lit : to his hand.
The word word, news, matter, affair is like 1>oXd omitted.
Thus -&sfr»ti"3DS> or -tZpoXSH^ when I heard of this wSaa
"2? j6:«j**j jt>»£j It is ascertained that he went "&s&i odTrfr
e)jS»^°^^,T»4j"S8^ as he knew (or when he learned) that we
were not guilty. This is equivalent to '&>:S»w*)T7*i£e)JS>o-ff-»;64»
In English, we say A dozen or a score or a hundred, meaning

an indefinite number. The Telugus generally use the word four.
Thus (StM*>!fr3;S^GX8 a matter known to half a dozen people
■pr'tuifoSiJ on au 8ide8 : lit ; on four sides £|| r>wXs& ?r°tvfoSi&> o,
«t>"38j?i£r»Ji Vish. Puran VI. 56. Tour people on four sides
lifted up their heads, That is, all persons around her. In similar
manner *® ten may be used instead of <Swjko& or Têwô four.
C. P. Broicn's Telugu Grammar. n n
290 ON SOME WOBDS USED IDIOMATICALLY
The wrong uses of '' body" and " belly" have been already
noticed in page 121-122. The learner will also meet with a few
expressions, wherein Hindu simplicity sees no harm 'whatever,
while to our notions they are, however harmless, very disgusting.
But we, on the other hand, unintentionally offend the Hindus
(who warily conceal their annoyance) by many trivial acts or ex
pressions wherein we perceive no impropriety.
"Words of relationship are often applied in a manner at variance
with the notions of Europeans.
The words chiefly used are &o\% father mother elder
brother &a younger brother wjf. elder sister jounget
sister mother- in-law &r>& father-in-law.
But some idioms exist regarding these, great is used for
Senior : thus ^Si^^&i. the eldest among my elder brothers : It is
also contracted. Thus "SPOoia, "w^tf 0 become ^_ô[S father's
elder brother "5>JJ® father's elder brother's wife.
little, is used for Junior. Thus tof^r^ thejunior among
my elder brothers.
My father's brothers and their wives are styled my fathers
and mothers.
The respectful affix """"OS " They" somewhat like "his honour"
is used regarding all my seniors. Thus 0£^Co my honoured :
my reverend mother.
Uncles and their wives with fathers are perpetually through
affection styled fathers and mothers : nephews and nieces are
styled sons and daughters : while cousins are called brothers and
sisters : the marriage prohibitions among Hindus being very
extensive. In the Palnati Charitra page 322, the Lady says to
her son " Tour seven fathers are gone to this war." This pecu
liarity of idiom sometimes misleads us in reading the evidence
given by witnesses who when desired to specify which, they mean
call one î*^0l* the father by blood as opposed to £&"6&o\Z
the father by affinity. The feeling of oneness in a family goes
bo far that a man will depose that he was alone, whereas, it soon
after appears that his wife, children and perhaps other relations
ON KULES FOR FINDING WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY. 291
were present. In such cases, we should be in error, were we to
condemn his statement as false.
The rules here given may facilitate the translation of Telugu
into English, but let us not imagine that translating English into
Telugu will be an easy undertaking.
EULES FOE FINDING WORDS IN THE DICTIONARY.

In the Telugu Dictionary, Sanscrit words we easily found as
they retain one uniform mode of spelling. Telugu words admit
many changes. First as to vowels.—The compound vowels ai
and au are at pleasure written as one or as two syllables. Thus
31 paior <6t») payi kaugili or ^$>ftO cavugili an embrace.
In the Dictionary, the monosyllabic form, 2- is retained and
^)o», 5"$. are excluded. Each form is equally good: but the
monosyllabic form is preferable because used in all words whether
Sanscrit or Telugu : while the other form is not so generally used.
The remainder is given under Alphabet.
END OF THE GRAMMAR.

BOOK XI
ON PEOSODY.
o £5 s&> , or o CS jSo^ . )
" Thou art arriv'd where of itself, my ken

' No further reaches. I with skill and art
' Thus far have drawn thee. Now thy pleasure take
' For guide. Thou hast o'ercome the steeper way
' O'er come the straiter. Lo ! the sun that darts
' His beam upon thy forehead."
DANTE, PUEGATOEY CANTO XXVII.
Telugu literature being principally in verse, a knowledge of pro-

eody is requisite as a guide in enunciation : the natives rarely
study this art because they are in childhood taught the traditionally
proper mode of reading. But those who study the language at a
later period of life will find a knowledge of (tJoss^, chhandamu,
tfoisty chhandas) prosody profitable as a guide in accent.
I acknowledge that I was reluctant to study the art, and was per
suaded to do so only because I was shewn it's utility in under
standing the proper stops : and in reading so as to be intelligible
to others. To use the words of Pope.
"What will a child learn sooner than a song ?
What better teach a foreigner the tongue f
What's long or short, each accent where to place.
And speak in public with some sort ofgrace ?
But the literature of a foreign country furnishes the means of
attaining a higher object : for it gives us an insight into the minds
294 ON PROSODY.
and feelings of the people. We live among them, to uae their

own metaphor, like oil on water: we have little confidential
intercourse with them and after a residence of many years in
India, few of our countrymen can answer easy questions regarding
the Hindus. Missionaries enjoy, because they seek greater faci
lities : and those Christian teachers who have resided among the
Hindus (chiefly Roman Catholic priests though a few Pro
testants have done the same) confess that they have derived
much benefit from such studies. I for my part can avow that
when I commenced the study of Telugu authors, I was already
acquainted with what was already printed on Hinduism, both
in English and French : and yet I was progressively taught
notions entertained by the Hindus or customs observed among
them which were entirely novel to me. This experience has
shewn me that we cannot understand the peculiarities of any
nation unless we not only live among them (and as a magistrate,
I had much intercourse with all classes) but also study a few
volumes of the literature they cultivate. Such study however has
its inconveniencies : natives who make much progress in English
are looked upon as almost Heretics : and equally mild is the
epithet bestowed on those who have devoted some attention to
Hindu literature.
In other languages, we may safely neglect prosody : but in Telu
gu almost every thing is taught in verse : indeed grammars, vo
cabularies, school books, rules of arithmetic and mensuration,
all are in rhyme.
But the prosody may fairly be discriminated as Common,
Rare, and Fantastic : the first class is short and easy : the second
is still more concise : and the third (which I exclude) forma the
bulk of the vernacular treatises on the art.
Even in the first class, I have omitted about three quarters
of the rules : retaining only what a learner requires : thus much
may easily be learnt in a few days : the remainder embraced a
variety of precepts intended to guide (in reality to shackle) ver
sifiers : for were we to believe these pedants, it is almost impos
sible to compose a truly correct line : or a stanza free from ill
omened letters.
ON THE DRAWLING STYLE OF BEADING. 295
Even in the simplest chapters, every difficulty is conjured up :
we are assured that there are fifty species of feet, forty five modes
of rhyme, aud more than a thousand sorts of metre : besides the
art of composing verses in fanciful shapes (as that of a chess
board, a sword or a serpent) and writing so that a stanza may be
scanned two different ways. I mention these follies because native
assistants are fond of pressing them on our notice to magnify the
difficulty of their favourite art. Xet the mode of suiting the sound
to the sense, so common in other languages has been totally
neglected.
The few rules that are requisite may be easily acquired as soon
as we have learnt the alphabet : and the beginner should accord
ingly devote some attention to prosody.
The first part of the Prosody is borrowed from Sanscrit : tne
second (on changing metres) is entirely foreign to that language.
ON THE DRAWLING STYLE OF EEADING.

It is the custom to read verse in a loud tone with strong into
nation : and regardless of the subject : for every thing is read
aliUe. This is also the custom in Italy. Made, de Stael, in Corinna
chap III. says regarding Improvisation. ' In reading verse, most
Italians use a monotonous chant called cantilena which destroys
every emotion. No matter how different the words are, the ac
cent never changes.'
Suiting sound to sense so fondly described in Eambler 92 is
unkuown.
SECTION FIRST. ON FEET.
Every syllable is distinctly either long or short as it appears to

the eye : none are doubtful : every vowel is pronounced as it is in
the alphabet. s$, 3, I, u, &c. being short, and -e\ s*
a, I, u, &c. being invariably long.
A vowel that is short becomes long, if followed by two conso
nants (just as in Latin): thus accada, there, has the first
vowel long by position though short by nature.
295 ON FEET.
Even if the double letter begins another word. But, as in
llukmang 5. 63 taniidwijudu, if one word is Telugu, this is need
less, also Naish 5. 8. nalupra.
If a consonant is silent, it lengthens the preceding vowel. Thus
in the words S&S~ir- paliken, or chetul, the final syllable
becomes long.
A short vowel is called laghu or IxH^jJoSm hraswamu
(meaning Tight) while a long syllable is called !fo&-3 (meaning
heavy) whether it be s~si» long by nature or long by position.*
The quantity being always visible to the eye, marks are seldom
used : and we may conveniently retain—for long and w for short :
but in the native treatises, the semi circle \j which we use for short
denotes long : while an upright line I denotes short. Thus the
dactyl (instead of— u u ) is written " w I I " I shall endeavour to
dispense with these marks.
Poets sometimes insert the circle (sunna) to lengthen the pre
ceding syllable. Thus t9#£o atadu becomes fcs«*o£fc atandu ; b"&&
vlrudu becomes £>3c>o4£> vlrundu ; elsewhere they write "B^Si *j for
t3^*j and S"?S> for inserting or dropping a double conso
nant when the metre requires a change.
The letter $ chh is always considered to be double : thus in
the word ok (more correctly ^'"ôis) the first syllable is
lengthened, thus swa-chhand. The letter m> as in L*^)s pracriti
is considered a vowel : and does not lengthen the preceding syllable.
The letter g always lengthens the preceding short vowel.
T hus 'f'i88 is swatah : but prosidially the second short is reckoned
long. Colloquially this is pronounced ^Ssi* swa-ta-ha : but
this is wrong.
In verse a word is often divided : part being in one line and
pal-t in the next.
(* In the Eambler, No. 90. regarding English Prosody, Johnson

instead of longs, and shorts uses the better words strong and weak
syllables. And I should prefer these expressions were they in
general use.)
ON FEET. 206
A line is called ^S^padamu or tf charan'amu, meaning
a foot: of which each &es§£xi padyamu or stanza has four. A foot
(as it is called in Latin) is x"r»s&> ganamu, and consists of two,
three or four syllables. A syllable is called wJktf Ao axaramu, i. e.
letter. Thus (J^^B^^try-axara-sabdamu means a word of three
syllables, like ~&c>'$Lj%'&0 Sam-scru-tamu, the Sanscrit language.
Prose, called £TS$£x> vachanamu, is in most of the poems, in
terspersed among the stanzas: it is harmoniously modulated
(somewhat like that in Lalla Rookh) or Terentian iambics but
is not under any law of scansion. The letter (meaning vacha
namu) is placed at the beginning of each passage of prose:
which is entirely duTerent from the prose of every day life.
The Feet are denoted by letters, Ma, Ta, Ea, Sa, Ta, Ja, Bha,
Na : which were selected by the ancient grammarians and are
invariably retained in every Hindu language that uses the Sans
crit alphabet.
To facilitate recollection, I have in the following table placed
opposite each ganam a Sanscrit and a Latin word containing the
requisite syllables and beginning with the letter that denotes the
foot. The ancient prosodians have so arranged this table that
the first column contains alternately a long and a short : the
second has two : and the third has four of each.
This table is called Xn^-fr^rstixi or Basis of numbers : Ganam
and Rhythmus have the same meaning, Number (Zeunius in
Anabas. Index : and Cleveland de Rhythmo. p. 95. 96.)
Sanscrit Name Memorial Words. Latin marks

and Marks. , ^ and Name.
M www Mcecenas — Molossua.
Y I ww 'Ymetto w •— — Bacchic.
R w|w D"<£>.cBSr» Reddidi — w — Cretic.
S M w Similes ww — Anapoest.
T ww I Tentare — — w Antibacchic.
J 1 w I saw* Juvabit w— w Amphibrach.
B w M Bucula w w Dactyl.
N III Nivea w w w Tribrach.
C. P. Brown's Telugu, Grammar. 0 0
297 ON THE UNIFORM METEES.
FEET HAVING TWO SYLLABLES IN EACH.

X, or K u w Xoiv Xenes Spondee.
LL || e>£» Liber u \j Pyrrhic.
GLorHvl KoK Hoesifc — w Trochee.
LGorVlv./ eitfo Vagans \j — Iambus.
(* Native writers on prosody often express the *X by TP and
the by «r«. Thus also w Ja would denote " two amphibrachs."
Syllables being used to denote feet as ut, re, mi, &c. in the gamut
signify notes.)
SECTION II. ON THE UNIFORM METRES.
The learned assert that there are many thousand uniform me
tres: but in fact only ten or twelve are in common use.
The Regular or uniform metres have the four lines of the
stanza alike ; in the following instance, as in some English
verses, there is a long and a short syllable alternately : the
star denotes the yate or pause (cmsura) in each line.
Ramabhyud. V. 213. Again, in the novel of Bhanumanta

(5. 112.)
sfcO&-Kr»6(T»iS8o£) * s£r»;S"3ooOti-«8er*
eo ej «
This metre, called Hamsa-yana is the same as the Greek Te
trameter Catalectic or the common ballad metre.
What though silent is my anguish
Or breath'd only to the air
ON THE UNIFORM METEES. 298
In all these stanzas, it is evident that the line is divided at the

Yati into two unequal parts : of which the initials rhyme to
gether. There is also the prasa rhyme, which connects all four
lines. The prasa is " the consonant or consonants standing be
tween the two first vowels in a line of verse." Accordingly in
the first verse now cited, "&>tu, &c. L is the prasa: in the second,
*>°«, Ac. the letters NCH: in the third &c. E is the
prasa being alike in all the lines. The vowel is of importance in
the Yati rhyme but not in the prasa.
It may be thought that N is a consonant, but this is Sunna
which is regarded merely as an adjunct to a vowel.
It is evident that some of these Uniform metres may be scan
ned with feet of two syllables : but the native custom is to scan
every fixed line with feet of three syllables disregarding the
harmony : this strictness renders many metres intricate : which
otherwise would present no difficulty.
In the uniform metres, each line must end with a long
gyllable. There is no liberty whatever should it be short by
nature (as 6 p§ at the end of the 2d line in the last verse exhi
bited) it is long by position : because the next line begins with
a double consonant.
As exemplified in the same word, it is often convenient to
divide a word, between two lines.
The above metres are placed first because particularly easy: but
they are not in common use : the four most used are the following :
and will be found to be in truth but two : from which, the other
two deviate only in the first syllable.
The utpala-mala or " chain of violets" runs thus : yati falling
on the tenth syllable.
B E N B B B LG
That is
— UU!-U-|UUU|*-UU|-UU|-U-|U-
And the Champaca-mala or Tulip-wreath is the same, excepting
299 ON THE UNIFORM METRES.
that the first syllable of one metre is long and in the other is di
vided into two shorts. Thus yati falls on the eleventh syllable.
NL R N B B R LG
That is
UUUU|-U-|UUU|*-UU|-UU|-U-|U —
Herein the first foot, consisting of four short syllables is
marked NL denoting N the tribrach to which is added L, being
one short syllable. Such a foot of four shorts, (in Greek called
proceleusmatic) is in Sanscrit and Telugu called jse>a» Nalamu,
If the Champacamala is according to native custom, scanned
by feet of three syllables, the names of the feet will of course be
different :— thus,
N J B J J J R
but the metre never varies and we may divide it in either manner
at pleasure.
The following verses are written in these metres.
TJTPALAMALA.
" Can acquired honours remain permanent in bloom, as in

trinsic merit ? They may endure for a while but soon perish. The
hire of gold remains bright for ever : a piece of iron may be polish
ed and flash for a while : but how long will that brilliancy last ?
Oh Bhascara!"
CHAMPACAMALA METRE.
Xi&ir'jSlioS' •Û^jpSS) * TV-g'jS-cr'$!S»eJâ&"Bo5SKJr-

"3i«o"3JSj"3oa^g558 * ^^^•ôiSoir'^^&S^
\
ON THE UNIFORM METEES. 300
" If a distinguished man fall into difficulties, lie may indeed be
raised by a potent protector, but can the insignificant, however
numerous, aid him ? when a lake is dried up, a cloud may re
plenish it, but what would avail a million drops of dew ? Oh
Bhascara."*
In these verses, the star points out the yati rhymes : some of
these are obvious, thus in the second line VE answers to VE.
But in the first line, HA answers to tiram * AIna. Thus we find
the same vowel in each.: for ai is a compound of two vowels. The
prasa is obvious. In the first verse, it falls on L, in the second on
N ; which letters stand second in each of the four lines.
In the third line L is doubled : this is considered somewhat
irregular : as the prasa consonant ought to be the same in each line.
The four syllables preceding the four prasas are required to be
alike : all long or all short : each of the six stanzas already pro
duced exemplifies this principle. Each line ends with a long syllable.
These remarks apply equally to all metres and the reader will
therefore revert to them though in the following pages I shall not
weary him by reiterating them.
The next pair of metres is of Sanscrit origin. The Sardula
runs thus
ifotfojr V£P&* 2-3% sSoxt' MS JS
* -wtin-a sja «r° TIG
having yati on the thirteenth syllable : and by dividing the initial,
the Mattebha i3 formed : having yati on the fourteenth.
s5oK£fc»g-o§J ^Sof^ S GSJ S
* t&'ttf '»lla «r>. TT G
The yati and prasa rhymes are placed as usual ; whenever a
stanza is written, it is the custom to prefix the initial that denotes
the metre.
The following description of a Hindu beauty is given in the
Cala Purno dayam : it is in the Sardula metre : I have divided
each line at the yati rhyme.
* The Bhascara Satacam which furnishes the two last verses is

a common school book and is admired as displaying much genius.
SOI ON THE CANDA PADYAM.
EPXoM^ -^.9og"5o
5J° S3oj 3&j "3 ifr* 0 jS r"

Tsr>«o uXbT^-a So"B£ «BS
This verse is cited by Appa Cavi 3,377 to show that in the 4th
line, the prasa sometimes is slightly changed. Though quoted from
the Kala Purno dayam, it does not appear in that poem.
Here every line, or couplet, contains the feet m, s,j, s, t, t,g.
The Mattebha is exemplified in the following verse, in the
(Bhagavat) Gajendra Moxam.
a&^0*TS°
CO re3s-"Er»o
The four fixed metres now described are in constant use : others
which more rarely occur will be placed in a future page. It is
evident that the Fixed or Uniform Metres are (like the first ode
of Horace) alike in every line. The variable metres proceed on a
different principle. The first of these is the Canda padyam.
SECTION III. THE CANDA PADYAM.

The 5"otfi6<s£:S.» Canda Padyamu (for which the sign is
admits those feet which are equal to four short syllables. These
are (K, B, J, S, and NL) the Spondee, Dactyl, amphibrach, ana
ON THE CANDA PADTAM. 302
pcest, and proceleusmatic : this last consisting of four short syl
lables : as honnnlbus, or fSpg, *
THE FOLLOWING IS AN INSTANCE.
1 2 3
raw* r jsgss rst»&& sbnl
4 5 6 7 8
r»8;S So<3o2f *g-5T»a # x-raoQo «6ott< N L, S J S K
1 2 3
^ssss nl.nl.nl
4 5 6 7 8
eBbS-3 £»ok» * S S J S S
Thus each stanza has sixteen feet : three in the uneven lines
and five in those which are (second and fourth) even. Eight feet
form the half verse. The feet are shewn in the margin.
The prasa as usual connects" the four lines : and in this in
stance, the prasa is the consonant V. In the first and third (the
odd) lines, there is no yati. In the even lines the yati, as shewn
by the star falls on the fourth foot : which is the seventh foot
of the couplet.
The sixth foot of each couplet must be either J or NL. In the
following verses, these feet are specified.
The foot J is inadmissible in the uneven seats: being the 1st,
3d, 5th and 7th.
The last syllable ofeach half must be long : accordingly S and
K are the only feet admissible in the eighth place.
The following popular stanzas written in this metre are taken
from the Sumati Satacam, a common school book. Each stanza
ends with the word Sumati, or Oh wise man ! (Sixth foot.)
* When I commenced the study of prosody thirty years ago,

to aid memory I framed the rules in Latin : with these five words
to exemplify'the feet. SylvTs opaca colur dulcta tacStagne. Citing
as instances the Iliad, B. 39. ®rj<Ttw c/ieXXev aXyea, ororaâs
adding ircpi<£p<uns.
303 ON THE CANDA PADTAM.
no fcl? Ij^TT i^CisSn
Ttw"3 tS"6$d &;£ojS * fS>&$e> ~3« e~ J
OS_ iSr»Aj53 ^rasS» (C'Sî&D

r*fc>S5 ^mrto imAiÂj * r'sSas ooa6r- NL
OiT W£^p> Sf&sSn <S'^§

$^"ôo "Soft _eS3»o"S * SHovr- ^)oô J
)(e>2r»o i6SSsS * ?»^3a»o a&So&r.

re>ro SS'o&3
S^DSji £>8o»o kr&o£ * "jboeJfc f5os&§. J
sasô 8rs&!<o iiTT-g" * s&,(Si5 "Sâsbo j
rss>"S ^Sifcs csfcajs * "s^tJgo aso"^
■âire tift'&v * ^SSoCo ôaci. J
( * This line shews that a final syllable of a telugu word may

remain short though the next word begins with a double con
sonant.)
TEANSLATION.
10. All living beings are sustained by water alone ; out of the
mouth alone come words expressive of all feelings : woman is the
one masterpiece of the human race ; and her chief ornament is
her veil.
ON THE CANDA PADTAM. 304
16. Truth is the soul of speech. The soul of a fort is the host
of stout soldiers. The soul of a woman is modesty : and the
signature is the soul of a letter.
18. Listen 0 holy one ! To him who is vested with office, will
accrue wealth and glory, but likewise death. And he who is out
of employment gains neither wealth nor fame ;—yet death is
equally certain!
31. Never quarrel with your honorable wife, nor lay empty
faults on her ; if tears gush from the eyes of a sweet-voiced
woman, fortune shall never remain in that house.
42. If a Carnam (or attorney) were to trust a carnam, he might
look upon his days as ended ; he never could survive it : a car
nam can only live by excluding from his confidence his brother
carnam.
If you will not bear delay nor put up with expense, but burst
out hastily in impatience, can the work prosper ? If you will
allow time and afford the cost, any undertaking, though ruined,
may be accomplished.
The Canda verse is a variety of the Sanscrit Arya a very
melodious metre constantly used in poems and plays : it is the
metre employed by Nannaya Bhatta in his Chintamani, or
treatise on Telugu grammar : for instance, in the Introduction
that author says—
1 2 3
*S$* ^ V*** K J K
4 5 6 7 8
-ôS" ef\& eu«$ tj*g S K J B G-
1 2 3
er*"! »6tuj& <s,jj°^j KS K
4 5 6 7 8
TT°?r>s S*5^ <*> BKJSL
Swa stha—na vesha—bhasha
Bhimatas—santo—rasapra—lubdhadhi—yah
L5ke—bahuman—yante
Vaicrita— cavya— nich anyad apaha ya
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. pp
305 ON THE TELUGTJ CHANGING METRES.
The wise love the abode, the dress, and the polished language
which appertain to their own nation : such take pleasure in the
poetry of their own land, rather than in that which is foreign.
It will be perceived that the Arya in one of its varieties is the
harmonious rhythm used by Horace.
Misera— rum est neque a—mori SBK
Dare lu— dum neque— dul —ci mala-vino S B G BK
lavere aut—exani—mari SBK
Metuen—tes patru— ae— verbera—lingua? SBQBK
Because in the sixth foot, the Sanscrit uses a single syllable,
either long or short : a liberty not known in Telugu.
SECTION IV. ON THE TELUGU CHANGING METRES.

The Changing or Upajati metres ÂafOsSj tfsJKtu originate in
the Kannadi language. These were at first regulated by harmony
alone but were afterwards limited by certain rules.
It would seem that before the introduction of Sanscrit learning,
the oldest Telugu metres were mere VK&eu Harmonies, or
melodies, such as will be described in a future page. In the
course of time, prosodians observed that in these songs the dactyl,
cretic and antibacchic (BET, remembered by the word $"83 Bha-
rata) were prevalent feet : and that, to vary the rhythm, the
initial long syllable of each foot was divided into two shorts : this
principle has already been noticed, with regard to the Champa-
camala and Mattebha metres. Hereby B the dactyl became TfL
the procelleusmatic : while E became NG, the cretic being con
verted into the pceon quartus : and T the antibacchic became SL
the pceon tertius.
Thus three feet were changed so as to furnish a larger number:
and the poet was left at liberty to use whichever was most con
venient : having the choice of six varieties. These metres thus
being particularly easy to compose, the greater part of Telugu
literature is written in upajatis.
Arranged on the original plan, these feet stand thus. The first
pair, M and Y are rejected as in harmonious.
ON THE TELUGU CHANGING- METEES. 306
Indian Notation. Latin Notation.
Marks. Same. Name. Marks.
E Cx-rssfas Cretic \J
NG 1 1 |W Pceon 4tu3 \J \J \J
T WW | Anti bacchic W
SL INI Poeon 3tius \J u — u
B « 1 1 Dactyl —ow
NL 1 1 1 1 Proceleu8maticu3
Here a short syllable being prefixed to each foot that had a
short initial, makes that foot equal to the one above it.
At first sight, this ancient mode of arrangement may appear
fanciful : but is convenient as fixing the feet in the recollection.
The six feet thus formed are denominated ssioêJX'rss&citaj Indra
feet ; Indra being a name of Jupiter : which we may conveniently
call the greater feet. The Greek would call them Dactylic.
If we take the first couple of these,
E v | w and NG | ] | w, and drop the last syllable, we have two
"lesser" feet which are called Ar»e§x'c8«Sx>eu or Apollonian.
Accordingly the Surya feet (or Trochaicks) are
GL or H u | or the Trochee — \j
N III the Tribrach w ^ <j
The Indra and surya feet, (or, greater and lesser feet) are used
in all the Telugu Changing Metres. The Chandra feet are found
only in a few metres which will be afterwards noticed.
The Uniform metres, as already shewn, require particular feet
in particular places ; but the changing metres admit any Indra foot
in the Indra seats and any Surya foot in the Surya places.
[Every line in the Changing metres ends with a Surya foot :
and as the Surya feet end in shorts, every changing metre has the
final syllable short : whereas the fixed metres have it long.f
* Foot note.—And if we add a syllable to any Indra foot, this is
called, a Ho[aXnâ or Adonian. That is Choriambic. The
syllable thus added is, as far as I have observed, always short :
but this is not stated in the treatises on prosody.
f But in all manuscripts of poems, the final short syllables are
wrongly written long : because in reading, it is usual to draw out
the final vowel in a sort of whire or drawling tone.
307 ON THE TELUGTJ CHANGING METEES.
There are also peculiarities in the rhyme. The Dwipada uses
both yati and prasa : as do also the Eagada, Taruvaja, Utsaha
and Accara. But in the simpler metres (Giti and Sisa) the yati
rhyme is requisite but prasa is needless.
But sometimes instead of yati, prasa is used in the same line :
this will be afterwards explained.
Thus some of the Changing metres have a fixed prasa and
others an optional prasa No metre that uses thefixed
ought to use the other kind : but many poets break this rule.
Thefixed prasa is always used in combination with yati : the op
tional prasa is used instead of yati.]
These remarks will be understood better when we have examined
the verses now to be cited.
To aid the memory, we may observe that some of the Indra feet
have four syllables and others three : and one Surya foot having
three syllables and the other two :—the longer foot of each kind
has a short initial. In other words, if any Indra foot begins with
a long syllable, it has three syllables : but four if the initial is
short : a Surya that begins with a long has two syllables : the
one beginning with a short has three.
The commonest upajati Metres are called Giti, Sisa, and
Dwipada. The Giti Metres ft 8s5j Two metres are known
by this name: the Ataveladi W-t>"3«>a and the Tetagiti 1}fc>&0
both of which are denoted by the initial ft||.
The Ataveladi has, both in the first and third lines, three
Suryas and two Indras: the second and fourth lines have five
Suryas in each. In all four lines, the yati rhyme falls on the fourth
foot, denoted by the asterisk. The following Ataveladi is in the
Vishnu Puran. VII. 227.
hnh * it
CHT*^ -j&OMO # jigif OM"3
en hhh * nh
hhh * ngt
hhh *hh
In stainless glory shone

ON THE TELUGU CHANGING METRES. 308
Like souls that idol—homage fly
And worship God alone.
The other Giti metre, Tetagiti has in each line one
Surya, two Indras and lastly two Suryas : having five feet in a line.
In the following instances prasa yati occurs and is denoted
by P.
Hi I arsf o^r A3 S^Tr-p * -pte So^ss, hbt * nn
a-jfcs -po&is ^T>o<S^ P ao nbt, P, nh
»e!»- MS^Tr-jt) £t5e32*aa? K^>e» nslng * nn
$o$S 4<Sx>-£r»ots * -ô<$ •£$ hslb * hh
Sunanda Parinayam. 4. 22.

" In spring, the earth is adorned with every flower—save the
''jasmine: spring rejoices the heart of all living creatures—save
" the lovelorn maid."
■$11 i~«b8S rffcjei sr'ss.jS&tT P «® nbr P nh
«tfsS» s&r°6pP ÂAj * E&>«b nbb * hh
^&*> ^jSS5r& r^^) * <r°e«S5 i&oS nnlr*nh
j68p S'Vg tft^S5 * dftHaifc jSPSj nth * nn
VISHNU PUEAN II. 16 (LEGEND OP DHRUVA.)

" His mother wiped away the boy's tears and putting her face
" to his head as she embraced him, she calmed his grief, while her
" own eyes brimmed with tears : and in a voice broken with sobs
" she exclaimed, &c."
In all these verses there is no regular prasa, but where prasa
yati occurs, the poet has found it more convenient to use prasa
instead of yati.
The Sisa metre consists of four lines : of eight feet
in each : but each may be conveniently divided into a couplet,
of which the first half has four Indra feet with two Indras and
two Suryas in the second. Six varieties of the Sisa are defined
by Telugu prosodians but it is needless to describe them as the
fundamental rule explains them all.
Each of the eight half lines has a separate yati : or else a prasa :
dividing it in the middle : and the third foot rhymes to the initial.
309 ON THE TELUGTJ CHANGING METRES.
The following instance occurs in the legend of Bharata in the

Vishnu Puran book 3, verse 290.
|>|| ^fli) «XS^ * sSâwlS konS&oKo rsl*rsl
6*>eu;S [X^tS * &0% tStt^ niD # nh
•£r."B^ "85S«-gp> » (jfj&iC^ <&o*mjS rng * ngb
•S«_S^ tfoSoew * |^c«& CboSS rb * hh
jS-.ecS&nS) tfa^r6 * jScejôK tXSoXôsa nlr # a](;
■Stt.-^-^ tfcsujS p 5r>ôj, jfxi*.oa tb *rsl

■^ô^j .ra^ p ^ §o«i tng p th
If grazing on the distant plain

The fawn a tiger spied
All timid she would turn again
And near the hermit hide
She frolic danc'd about his bower,
And, at the stilly vesper hour,
"While mute he sat and pray'd,
Approaching close, with gesture bland
In his soft lap beneath his hand
Her forehead fair she laid.
But a Sisa verse is not complete without the addition of a Giti
verse, in either of the metres already described : such a chorus
is called .1**© and that attached to the verse now cited is in the
Ataveladi metre.
*g ire, ^b, * £&$*» -^ hhh * nlb
^8 g=tf igpS * •&>« -&d&) hhh«hh
w*s *c™ p*„ * ^x ^MoaM nhh # bfc
*»£= «fr>^) *D0fi& # &DJDSS o&jSSS hhh * nn
On dewy buds she still would graze
His hermitage around
And woo'd her fostering master's gaze
"With high elastic bound.
The closing foot of the giti verse being always a Surya is of
course short : but in reading or reciting, it is customary to draw
OH THE DWIPADA. 310
out the final in a monotonous drawl or whine : and hence tran
scribers ignorant of prosody usually make all these syllables long.
ON THE DWIPADA.
The Dwipada or Common Metre is written in couplets, each of
which is connected by prasa. The learned despise couplets be
cause the poems thus written are in a flowing easy style which
uneducated persons read with enjoyment. They resemble the
Latin iambic of Terence, using colloquial expressions (sermoni
propriora.) such as Horace found most suitable to his satires. Sir
Samuel Eomilly (in a letter dated 13th October, 1810,) speaking
of the Lady of the Lake, observes that it hardly can be viewed
as a poem. All this I notice that we may not be led to despise
a class of literature which though unpretending is peculiarly
profitable to a student. Natives admire pendantry of all sorts :
but to a taste formed on English authors, the couplet style of
Telugu verse is more agreeable than compositions of more
pretence.
The dwipada has in each line three Indra feet and one Surya,
with yati in the middle. Some ancient poets, as the author of
the Basava Puran, use prasa yati at pleasure : but in more correct
compositions of modern date, prasa yati is forbidden in all verse
that uses the regular prasa.
In the Lila (^^Soxfie), canto XI. the poet describes a beauti
ful garden the retreat of a hermit, and then 'proceeds thus —
S(6fc»ew SJjJoX' •fT'SÂj er*jS

311 ON SOME UNUSUAL METEES.
xT°;5a>*Jo?("3 •^BKjbsSx'a
fi?ftyojyôcod5T» t$J6^3=n.e>pei©> &c. &c.

The prasa rhyme duly connects every couplet : thus in the first
it falls on the letter V. in the next, st, in the third, N. &c. Oc
casionally we find three lines rhyming together : and elsewhere
poets indulge in rhyming terminations : thus in the Dwipada
llamayan, Yuddha, P. 2178.
9
« xr- eo u—
so » ' > v—
Prasa yati is used in some Dwipada poems of ancient date, but
is considered inelegant.
By adding these, the poet has employed eight rhymes in each
couplet.
If Prasa is not used, the metre is denominated sfcoeS Man-
jari. In this metre is written that entertaining historical romance
the <6«rjji8StfC6jJJ or Legends of Palnaud.
SECTION V. ON SOME UNUSUAL METEES.

There are a few uniform metres which call for explanation
because they occasionally occur : and the reader may revert to
them after acquiring a little familiarity with the prosody. These
are chiefly borrowed from Sanscrit.
The Sragdhara : which divides the line of twenty-one syllables
into three parts : and the yati comes thrice. Prasa as usual. The
following, in the Sura Bhand Eswaram, is evidently translated
from a verse in the Amrugam which is in the metre. But the
Sanscrit metre commences with a long syllable which the Telugu
divides into two shorts.
a£)oosSj»8og~iSr»Si<^r- 1 8tgg
ON SOME UNUSUAL METEES. 312
* v-^cx&iôo&r- rrg
ausir'dSxjrâ^-Efaî- 2 stgg
aâ-^s'd* nng
^pêôa^M^r- rrg
gejcB3cr»Ek)r"2i5^"SxiOJS)i- 3 st &C. &C.
2 8S 55x5 L8^ s OT* * F~

CoejdiSur'xs'KwSoiSii- 4 st &c.
sfc sSb 9iS~tS to tSS-
jSt» jD "5"° sSj* SoBo o"3 .
Each line consists of the feet ERG * STGG * NNG * REG.
Maha Srag. E. 6. 81.
Another metre is the Matta cokila: the following occurs in
the Bamabhyudayam VI. 79.
"&> -isr0^ 5"ocuof5l5§'(j^ * &>oa£)"A"lBsS>-£r*&x>1j
Herein each line may be scanned, either in the ancient mode,

ES JJBR or, more harmoniously thus, hb, Jib, Jibr, with trochees
and dactyls alternately.
The name of this metre may be recollected by the following
line.
:Sj-43:<>43?ir'>SigSo5x'sSo j*r*Se>304Ssr» and if the first syllable
is divided into two shorts, the metre is called # 5 ? Tarala, of which
the memorial line is
aee> tHtfjS S^tj eHsbo NBHB
* -&*oi£ aoajS 6stv- HBE
M. I. VIII. 10G. E. 6. 80.
The following instance occurs in the Vira Bhadra Vijayam
■written by Potu Eaju I, 41.
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. q q

313 ON SOME UNUSUAL METRES.
See Yayati 3. 73.

But in Vasu 5. 148 it is a little different. It is called in the
margin Tarala but appears in no treatise on prosody either Sans
crit or Telugu.
There are a few other uniform metres which occasionally occur
in poems, but do not require explanation, the ear always furnishing
a sufficient guide : in fact these are in general mere choruses full
of pedantic phrases.
MahaSragd. Swa. 4. 134. xStfJJir** ps<$ « Z^pftr*
Prithwi. Swa. IV. 139. K-cr-^Sliy^ IToS? 6Sa80ya*
Pancha Chamaram. Swa. 4 137. *er-§T3*^> -cps»8J"0 a£)^_-^r-8
Layavibhati. Swa. 4. 169. &pxpKf>g>oeS1i>4)
Layagrahi. Swa. 5. 37. w^tfstores ST a&^x" at & -Âjo
The Manini a dactylic metre runs thus
■zr,tSsSxt>G~&t}-fr>v<S-tr>v£ * COfiSfS-A^ tie;
Nelluri Harisch. 3. 87.

This evidently resembles the song
" Come to the cliff where the beacon is blazing
Come with the buckler the lance and the bow.
Another instance of the Manini in M. 1. IV. 24.
4xr-Oj6s&o©di6'S"*S'ri»eF"fktf £r ;Sje>s!P ê; "3 « Xo «r-

ON SOME UNUSUAL METRES. 314
This is nearly the metre of the English ballad : — Pity kind

gentle folks, friends of humanity.
The Pancha Ckamara metre is purely Iambic, having a short
and long syllable alternately.
Surya Tanaya 2. 53.

" O ladies, when you went hence last night, I lay down in my
bed without a single anxious thought, and fell asleep : but in the
morning watch, I saw a portentous vision— I will describe it.
All metre in Telugu except Dwip requires rhyme: the
terminations of the lines do not rhyme together as in English
(unless by chance or caprice) but the rhyme falls on the
initials. The first syllable, or vowel, of a line rhymes to some one
syllable (not always the beginning cf a word) in that line : which
rhyme is called yati. Again if the second syllable (more strictly, the
consonant that is between the two first vowels) rhymes to the
second of the next line, this is called prasa. Such rhymes
were used in Saxon and our oldest English poet Spenser says
FQ 1. XII. 23.
' The blazing brightness of her beauty's beam
And glorious light of her sunshining face
To tell, were as to strive against the stream
My ragged rhymes are all too rude and base.
And see also 2. VI. 16. The lilly, &c.
Prior uses quadruple rhymes : in " an English Padlock" —
Be to her virtues very kind
Be to her faults a little blind
Let all her ways be unconfin'd
And clap your padlock on her mind.
See also Penny Cyclop, on Alliteration and Quarterly Review
1826, vol. 34, p. 14. Such alliteration is used in Icelandic and in
deed throughout the Gothic languages. See account of versifica
tion in Tymwhitt's Introduction to Chancer. Gray uses it.
Kuin seize thee ruthless king, &c. And Byron So darkly deeply
315 ON MUSICAL METKES.
beautifully blue. The yati " Asonancia" is used in Spanish verse.

See Penny Cyclop, in " Spain" p. 302.
Scott uses quadruple rhymes
O in that day that dreadful day
"When man to judgment wakes from clay
What power shall bo the siners stay
When heaven and earth shall pass away.
Shakespeare uses quadruple rhymes (prasa) in Merchant of
Venice, Act 5.
But here the same word is reiterated as is the Persian custom :
whereas in Telugu this is not allowed.
The following, in Paidimarri 3. 8. gives a clear view of yati
and prasa.
SECTION VI. ON MUSICAL METRES-

All the more useful part of Telugu prosody has now been
described : a few metres remain to be noticed which use four and
even five syllables in a foot. Some of these are melodious and
all are very easy. Being derived from certain tunes (laya) some
retain that word in tho denomination, as Layagrahi, Layahari,
Layavibhati, &c.
An instance of the Laya-grahi occurs in the Tale of Tara
(Book V. 137.) in the description of the battle of the gods.
Ramabhyu. V. 19. 28, Radha Samagamam. 3. 112.
Parijata 2. 122 wox^r, &c. or Vasu. 2. 38. K P. 6. 263. or
Sarang Pad. I. 85.
** "?ss5£ eoo£«&>£> * * r^8s5sS> sH#&c.

Herein the line of thirty syllables is divided into eight feet ; of
which seven contain each (BL) a dactyl and short syllable.
The rhyme as here shewn falls in four places in the line: and
this is a prasa not a yati. Thus each line has four rhymes : the
last foot is a spondee.
ON THE EAGADA METEE. 316
There are many varieties of this chiming metre. If the foot

BL is used six times, with the yati after every eight syllables, it
is called the âTisftSsSx Q&o If all the longs except the two last
of the Laya-grahi are resolved into two Bhorts each (like a-chime
of 4 bells) the metre is named Layavibhati, of which there is
an instance at the close of the Ehanumad Vijayam, one line run
ning thus : —
The Laya-vibhati would be thus arranged.
UUU UU-UUUIUUU UU-UUUIUUU UU-UUUIUUU UU--

having 34 syllables in the line, divided into four portions, and the
second syllable of each portion being prasa— here denoted by
a, star. It is a smooth melodious chiming metre —Take the
following example Vizaia Vil. 3. 88.
1st line 3oo351tf£ -Rg-^S^ Xz<x>£cX>
2d line r*e»9xe ■sr-SoiHS' ~3t>&&v im-t^S"

ku3o;5-»k TôL^f S"e.0oi<>3a 8 3jr
3d line Se>ra>a
In the Telugu Pancha Tantram, and the Eama Stava Eajam,
several other varieties occur. But in principle these are per
fectly easy, for the rhythm is evident to the ear ; and whenever
an unusual metre is used, the name is appended. Vencat Arya
page 177. Sragdhara KP. 6. 280. Manigana nicaram KP. C. 283.
ON THE EAGADA METEE.
The Eagada is a melody, similar to the descants or tirades (as

they are termed) in French poetry. (See New Monthly Magazine
1827, page 78.) Prosodians have laboured to reduce these harmonies
to metrical rule, and have invented many names for various species :
calling some, the " Amble, the Elephant pace, the Swan," <fec.
but these are superfluous : the Eagada usually is mentioned in
poems without any such epithet.
317 ON THE RAGADA METRE.
It is a " carol" ditty* or harmouy that occurs in most poema
or romances, in the passages that describe rural scenes and plea
sures. It uses both the yati, the prasa, and the (wcf^po&s&sSij)
rhyming terminations. The feet are very irregular, and some
erroneously imagine they may be measured by the " Chandra"
feet (see page 234.) The fact is that the composer's ear is the
only criterion, and the sense is not always clear. For, as their
own criticks remark, a Ragada or melody, is as independant of
sense as a bird's song is of words. In fact this is in verse what
the capriccio is in music : though wild, it is the result of premedi
tation. The following are instances.
Tale of Tara. 11. 135.

But the favourite sort is the following: —
erêjtc^cStiSo * j&oX &cvtx>oXt&x.o
0<u"S 8iSr-c£ir>o * «r^sS»£>t5n'e)si»t> &c &c.

Bhanumati Parinayam 11. 92.
The ear will easily perceive the prosody of these verses : in the
first instance the lines may be measured by dactyls : or by four
feet of four short syllables (proceleusraa) which are equivalent to
dactyls : in the second each line has four feet and each foot is
equal to five short syllables, That is, a dactyl with a short ^dded :
or, five breves.
Different sorts of Ragadas are marked with various fanciful
names : of which nine are given in books of prosody, such as the
*" Ditty" see Paradise Lost XI. 584. and 1.449 Caroll" ib
XII. 367. A llelody. — See Midsummer Nights Dream.
ON THE EAGADA METEE. 318
s&$>tSX83Xd, the fi^KSSX-SCJx'S &c. &c. i. e. the sweet-pacer, the
elephant pace, the horse pace, &c. &c. which I omit because they
are not in use even among good scholars : every poet uses any
name he thinks suitable.
The &cs$x> or carol appears in several of those poems which are
written in #cAdss» musical measures. Thus in the *jBj^^8«csfi
tsx>, <s6i&"K"'jSsS» page 35.
sSw-'SSeHelf J> &8bv~Sw£~$p :Stf<yi&>Soe):Sg6<>r-«i5&' K™a \K>£>e>
js-aa-crs^tf JTo er*a^^8<5x»8|| It is evident that each of these

lines consists of four surya feet and eight such feet form a couplet :
with Yati and prasa as usual. Such metres are regulated by the
ear alone and have no well known name : though various prosodi-
ans have attempted to discriminate one as the horse's amble «&S<
and other the lions pace, &c. borrowed from a fancied
analogy to the tread of various animals.
The Eagada appears to have originated in the Kosô^tJto 0r
jrâosjAassSjaeu ballads which on particular feasts are sung by
choruses of children in the streets. These antiquated ditties have a
loose rhythm which generally may be scanned with four Indra
feet in a line : they use or neglect alliteration at pleasure. See TT
(paper) 497 page 32 where are these lines in the tsaoTrtfai^)^
S5?Jfc8 er*§8 8ioif-4$tix><M
So^tf tTJTgtu tSsS^êupi &c, &c.

It will be observed that the last couplet is regularly formed of
four Indra feet, with prasa, and with yati (as in Dwipada) in the
middle. These rude ballads which often use fescennine expressions,
appear to be remnants of the primitive Telugu: and the Eagada
319 ON THE DANDACAM.
metre appears to be the modernized form : while the same basis
(as Greek prosodians term it) with an abbreviation of the fourth
foot formed the Dwipada. Thus some metres which at first sight
appear refined and intricate prove to be merely musical melodies
reduced to rule.
Other verses denominated i 8 $ hymn, "Aôif t$£ chant, c&>S>."7e^
sS^-Odes chorus, &c. appertain toô^jS'y^stomusi-
cal composition and deviate widely from the laws of prosody. For
they pay no regard to quantity : the word Krishna becomes an iam
bus, (LG) and the word K~*aoe GovTnda (T) becomes (S) Govinda
oi^rfc becomes -iî ;&r» ekkenu w^© B=« P^&=M Rama, Rama.
Some attempts have been made to write Christian Hymns in
Telugu metre : not the metres already known in the language
but new ones moulded to English tunes. These will I hope suc
ceed ultimately though we must look for a few failures before
the work is well executed. The plan has succeeded in other
languages.
Suiting the sound to the senses so fondly described in Rambler
92 is unknown.
ON THE DANDACAM.
The Dandacam or chant or blank verse is a measured prose,
consisting of one short and two long syllables alternately. It may
therefore be looked upon as a Series of bacchicks (Y) or (T) anti-
bacchicks. At the close of the paragraph, one or two long syllables
are added. Sometimes the first six syllables are short. This
metre is conveniently transcribed in lines, of which each
contains four or five feet. The following instance occurs in the
Bhagavat.
—O ' —0 a
?er^ jSifcjS £tf> jesses.

ON THE TARUVAJA, UTSAHA AND ACCARA. 320
But a more free style of blank verse is used in poems, under
the denomination of Scfcssa prose. In this, feet are not scanned,
but the whole is constructed with a certain melodious flow ut
terly different from common verse. In English, we have in
stances of this in Lalla Rookh. To write it well is considered
more difficult than composing verse. Grammarians remark that
in Vachanam the semicircle (arddha bindu) is inadmissible. But
in ignorance of this rule, we may observe its use in nearly all the
modern printed Telugu prose. This is certainly erroneous.
SECT. VII. ON THE TARUVAJA, UTSAHA AND ACCARA.
A few metres imitated from those in the Cannadi language

have been introduced but have never become popular or common.
One of these is the Taruvaja : the Dwipada has three
Indras and one Surya in each line : but two such lines form one
Taruvaja line : four of which form one stanza, governed as usual
by prasa. The Taruvaja may otherwise be defined as having
eight Dwipada lines, of which prasa governs the irregular (1st,
3d, 5th and 7th) lines : while each line has yati four times repeat
ed : this as usual will be pointed out by a star. Though so hard
to define the verse is easy to read and the harmony is easily per
ceived. The following occurs in the first book of the Mahabha-
rat, (canto 2, verse 152, of the printed edition.)
* jSSSj^saXiiXij^ * c*fioX'OK0;6oe&
# «e>:S"o5kSbiS>oSo * ^t^sScdo
Herein we may observe that the lines (here placed as alternate

lines) have N as prasa and the poet has thought fit to use the
same yati rhyme throughout.
C. JP. Brown's Telugu Grammar. er
321 ON THE TARUVAJA, UTSAHA AND ACCARA.
The Utsaha is merely a variety of the Hamsa-yana already
described : it is composed of seven Surya feet and a long syllable :
whereas most of the Changing metres end in a short syllable : the
yati falls on the fifth foot and the prasa is as usual. The following
instance is in the Vishnu Puran. 2. 58.
cBcrjfc Xra-j& c"Ss& * cSfioao 8*& &
TSSodSuai"336 OKIES' • <£-V BdSS sJâfesS" )ft)0
See a better instance in Kala Purnodayam 3. 238.
And in the same poem. s—oo>t.
COT*
■3j6rêS!er-^|S> 3 jS?C«r'e>;Sf55*X'§~.
Also Padma 8. 118.
The last changing Metre to be described is the t'^_* Accara
which is used only by Nannaya Bhatt, and one or two imitators.
The poet himself uses only two varieties ; which he calls by the
one name Accara : but the prosodians not only have given sepa
rate names to these two, but have named four others : of which
I have met no instances. In all probability, these were mere Melo
dies like the Ragada ; or like some songs in Moore and Byron ; they
were experiments in metre which have not attained popularity.
These metres use the Chandra feet : that is, an Indra foot to
which a syllable (usually short) is added. The first is called the
^"^.Sl^tf Madhy'accara ; wherein the line consists of two equal
portions ; or, we may consider it as eight lines ; each containing
ON THE TAKUVAJA, UTSAHA AND ACCAEA. 322
two Indras and one Surya. Yati falls on the fourth foot, as
shewn by the asterisk. The prasa is as usual.
Or else ; as occurs in these instances, the poet has capriciously
made the yati fall on the fifth foot.
INSTANCES OP sS>^r_tf.
Adi Parvam. Book VI. 303.
Book VII. 162.

The Accara is in truth a kannadi metre and has been natura
lized in very few Telugu poems.
The other species, called Madhur-accara is defined as contain
ing one Surya foot, four Indras, and an additional syllable : or, in
the usual phrase, one Surya, three Indras, and one Chandra.
The prasa as usual : the yati falls on the initial of the third
Indra. Instances—
SSfSSioaSb r>1&\& * -CT»e$cS&> ffc^dtfê*
cSfioi&fS $Xpo&> e)S:5&:^ # 6"~*A;Scx» eXoSS^jeu
jSfSîi dS3u;6jSoc» eScSSoi&p * UO^TT' Tp£ & SS OSSo
Adi Parvam, IV. 49.
Aranya Parram, VI. 377.

323 ON EHTME.
. SECTION VIII. ON EHTME.

In rhyme, the Telugu rules are precise and simple. As to Prasa,
entire uniformity of the consonant is the principal requisite.
But occasionally a slight license occurs.
In the yati rhyme, it is necessary for the vowels* to correspond,
as well as the consonants. The prasa allows K (for instance)
to rhyme to no other letter : Tati will allow it to rhyme to Kha,
Ga, and Gha. For a perfect uniformity is needless and it is
enough if a consonant rhymes to any letter in the same line (or
class) of the alphabet. Thus 5", 4>, X, and are alike ; ^, «
and are alike and & $ ts $ are alike. The letter f, V not
only rhyme to each other, but also to ft e, &c. The letter
rhymes both to 8" and also to & and also to ff\ chha.
The sunna rhymes to a, The sunna also preceding any
letter of a class, is allowed to rhyme to the nasal of that class.
Thus wo8 may rhyme to £ because this is the nasal of the class
to which tS belongs.
The letters R, viz. and *» are in the older writers not suffered
to rhyme ; because the » was harsher in sound than 8 and there
fore was discordant. But the later poets for three centuries past
have dropped the » wholly and to revive this letter is absurd.
Regarding "Welsh rhymes, see the treatise in Newcastle Maga-
rinefor 1822, penes me and Penny Cycl. in Welsh, p. 218—219.
Christian hymns generally deviate from the prosody of the
secular poets. Thus Prudentius uses metres suited to tunes and
disregards quantity.
In his song on Beatrice, Benedick calls scorn and horn a hard
rhyme (Much Ado. 5. 2.) but in modern days, we see the ear
perceives no difference.
The rules regarding vowels are equally easy. The short and
long sounds of each vowel correspond. Thus u rhymes to u &c.
* Similar to the Spanish rhymes called Assonants : See that

article in the Penny Cyclopoedia, Or Icelandic Rhyme, See Edinb.
Kev. 1805. p. 384.
ON EHTME. 324
Compound vowels (ai, au, the diphthongs) rhyme to either of
the letters with which they are compounded.
The vowels ai» Eu nxr° rii and "2 lu are often considered as
consonants : but being rarely used, merely as a feat, they are not
worth notice. When they are used in prasa, they are disregarded
because reckoned as vowels, and the prasa requires uniformity of
consonants alone. Thus in prasa, $ and ^) would rhyme, but 5"
or 5\ would not rhyme with because E is a consonant, and
if one prasa line uses ^ or Uf , the other must use the same letter.
These rules are obvious. Others can only be acquired by
practice. Of these, the most remarkable is regarding initial
vowels. In the word ir*r>S to him, and the word §°e under,
the same consonant and vowel § occur, nor is it any objection
that one is at the beginning and the other at the end of a word.
Tet these two can never rhyme.
This and similar points are mere matters of taste, interesting
to learned natives who write in verse and are experienced in its
principles : but unprofitable to a foreigner, as he will never be
expected to compose in Telugu metre.
The rules for rhyme furnish a valuable criterion in orthography.
Thus the word ^&55iJ To live is also spelt \_«JfcSSt> a peculiarity
which the prasa rhyme demonstrates : because it answers to
another word which uses D. Many quotations in the Telugu
dictionary now ready for printing are marked " yati" or "prasa"
denoting that the passage so noted proves the spelling. For
instance— the words and \w«£SS now adduced. Also
sS» (Tadbhavam of "S^*55") which some erroneously write
-tP°K<6& ehhagamu : also ^tr^tf sS» q. y.
Some verses occur with Antya niyamam theottghoot as
Kanyaca VIII. 316 and Manu 3. 30 &c.
Though accuracy of rhyme is studied, the most celebrated poems
furnish instances of careless rhymes. Thus in the Vasu Charitra
3. 152. tJ|| The second line has chi rhyming to za—thus
*jSS5 jfes5cr<;S;>lTT"î£a» * Kg^jB^3o(S^55, &c. Both the ancient com
mentators insist much on matters of prosody and rhyme : Tet
on this remarkable deviation both are silent.
325 ON ETYMOLOGY.
CIIAPTEK XII. ON ETYMOLOGY.
Motto— Woodhouses Trigonometry, page 216.

The exact formulce with which the foreign treatises abound are
formulce of curiosity. They are tools liner than is required for
the work to be done.
Some points remain to be considered, which are interesting
only to those learned natives who write in the poetical dialect.
These rules are of small advantage to foreigners. In modern
days even poets, as already noticed have relaxed in regard to
them : but they will now be given entire without regarding
whether some have already been explained or otherwise.
The ancient Telugu grammarians place these abstruse subjects
immediately after remarks on the Alphabet. For they wrote only
on a few disputed points to aid the judgment of poets already
familiar with Sanscrit and Telugu. And as these topics can
be understood only after we know every part of the grammar, and
have made some progress in reading the Poems, it seems reason
able to place this chapter merely as a supplement to the
Grammar.
Among living native grammarians many rely confidently on the
brief rules regarding Cala and Druta, framed by Nannaya Bhatt.
More learned men are less confident. Indeed Appa Cavi the
Aristarchus of the language says (Book 5, 43.) " To determine
regarding some words whether they are Druta or not, is an
arduous task : if indeed it be at all possible (Literally, arduous
even to Brauiha). In the Cavi Siro Bhushanam (see printed
Essays on Telugu Literature) the critic remarks that " deviations
from the rules of Cala are allowable only if poetical authority be
discovered." Let this form an apology for any obscurity that
may rest on the subject.
This discussion is restricted to poets alone : even those natives
who read and enjoy the poems, safely neglect the abstruse rules
of Cala and Druta " Andhra— Sandhi" and saral-adesam. Few
will own their ignorance of these superfluous matters, but still
fewer can prove their acquaintance with the principles now to be
described.
ON DRUTA WORDS. 320
It is particularly to be borne in mind that tlie rules for alter
ation of initials, for elision and for permutation though indispen-
sible in poetry are inapplicable in common life and ought not to
be used. The dialect used in talking, in common writing,
and in ordinary books of morals or education, excludes these
poetical customs ; unless in a few obvious words established by
custom. Native critics teach the poetical dialect alone : and our
native assistants inconsiderately reject the common dialect.
They insist on poetical spelling, and yet will not themselves use
it in common talking or writing. Thus the words «S\oos!»wjS"7v
Chhandamu anaga emi ? (what is Prosody) would according
to the poetical method be written t? oooWjSox"^x» Chhandamb'
anangan'emi : a form which in common life is unintelligible.
Mere plaoe tho Lists of Verbals which were printed in,
See page 139, 144,
Although I have used a new mode of expressing these principles,
I have in the chapter on elision and permutation followed Mr.
Campbell's grammar ; having found, on comparison that it cor
rectly stated all the more important rules given in the ancient
philological treatises.
ON DEUTA WORDS.
The name Drutam is given to the letter N when used to prevent

elision. This is used frequently in verse, as M. Dro. 2. 141.
^nQ^&â manaku-N-ela sôr^^ inka-N-epudo ; at some
other time ; but in common talking and writing, the N is omitted,
thus s)oS'sj^)5^ or ôlA^s^6 is the usual mode of spelling.
The following instances may suffice, seer6;* fj>^6)tu«jeu
M. 12. 3. 308. Valalona-N-unna wtfp^S ?SSxoa8 ata-nicheta-
N-adiginchiri. M. 8. 2. 272. K^-cs'-4jo^^ Garu-
dastram besina N-acceruvuga. In talking, in common letters
or ordinary papers, we drop the N and say t^pî* e&*o
327 ON DETJTA WORDS.
si*5sSe #o&:fr«aasjS iy& itivala-n-undi, &c. the late king. ££K
fS>o"S?S> cadaga-n-undenu, he stood aloof. o&p^j&K^ ataniche-n-
ichi giving it to him. "jSpkoMftâ £>â~i"7br» r>#sSv}£) ^5s"f"?xr»
cheteke-n-o. I gave it either to you or to your brother.
&fr°§c&£x>r>& w'fSaw anyayamunaku lo-n-ai ; having come into
the plot. Br^sfcojS in his life. zs^sSaoîa™ janmamuna-n-a in his
life ? The sign of question (A'see page) being added, N is insert
ed. The root of the verb, which ends in U being Druta,
may become Thus 5»£>£'<ii663=r»J$o ghanud-agu-n-atti
vadu, (Bhascara Satacam. 99.) one who is noble.
IN THE TISH P. VIII. 141.
p * ^fS> Here the letter N is inserted where the star is placed,

viz. Emiyu Nanaka nagufu N iiracunde vara-la to-N-itlanu.
The same words in common life would not use N being written
thus ^JSodSSi W^jS^Cfc ;£r,tS33o'3«r'tfe)(§"< o»£"j3i&.
The classical or poetical usage differs so far from the spoken
dialect (as it does in English) that what is right in one would be
wrong, or in bad taste in the other. In the common dialect, druta
is almost entirely excluded, and even in verse it is avoided.
There are some portions of the verb to which N (either NI or
NTJ) may be added. All these are Druta. Thus, in the Past Tense
&*B*p I went. s^Sj*^ fle, she, it, they (neuter) went. In the
Future dâsjg«»ffi I shall go. 2r»a>§a*p he, she, it, they (neut.)
will go. In the Aorist i& I may go. d*-5f?& he, she, it, they
(neut.) may go. In the Negative Aorist sfr*:5*i5> I shall not go.
In the infinitive the form which ends in A as xScKS, -c, T*f
£r*£ to which N may be added. Thus -ty^>T> 4 8> ra-n-opadu.
Also the forms ending in EDI and EDU (see page 137, 180)
as s&asfr-, &-3&fg-.
Also the Eoot, &c. when used instead of a participle
(see page 135.) Thus ofr^jJeSiSS povu-n-atadu for sfr^gsrxSb he
who goes.
ON CALA WORDS. 328
Also the Root, in A viz. or &o&ir 0r ô^tt-s-.
These forms are peculiar to poetry.
ON CALA WORDS.
The Druta words heing those to which N can be added to pre
vent elision, the Cala words are those to which the letter N can
not be added tor this pukfose : as has been remarked in
page 180.
All Nominative cases except I and ^"i* Self, [the rule is
■^■^^-i^xr^^ l^ssj.oe^g rV-fy^TT-S.] are cala. Thus
—t
fc5&8o-j- &oS»ir»e£> he was there, may become Sc£>aajp>i£> atad'
undi-nadu. But not o& -pro ifc atadu-n-undi-nadu. ^JsS" a
bed & i^ft there is, becomes there is a bed; never
jfjjSS" + rfc^S padaca-n-unnadi.
If the N were thus inserted, it would be the sign of conjunc
tion (See page 180.)
Should it be requisite to prevent elision in some places, the
letter Y may be used: or else Vulgarly V. Thus &r's&iG&oo~&r&
my uncle was or r£r>s&$)o'3rS>.
The Second person singular or plural of any verb or the verbs
of any person ending in 8 or are Cala. Thus (b-ôaaa or ^-sfô
■OS8 Thou or you protected him. The verbs ending in tf, «^*S*-o
^■^Fî* or tfôfia They protect or protected him, in s&, £r*
h.oiSmajy^&a or d*h.o£>&sx> We protect or protected him.
The Genitive sign S» Sf_ is Cala (This is stated in page 198.)
Thus ^poJ»if_fcSJSc>?<btM his footsteps, may by inserting Y become
sr»p61»^cJ6J£>Kie» vani-yocca-Y-adugulu : but never (by insert
ing n) •5J-"?>c3»sr_;Sfio«jto.
The Infinitive forms in UTA, EDI, and ADAM (page 136,
138) and all the verbals (139) are considered to be nouns : and
therefore when they are in the Nominative case, they are cala.
Accordingly 13 &ôifc4jcsS>o«i> (not U^ciifcfScifc) in bringing.
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. s s
329 ON CALA WORDS.
a^yaâo (not $ ^®?â*) when will you come TT»SS"5ae>
(not •ar,!S£*»'ê>) why do you come.
The words then s^j«fc now <^^2£> when, are always
specified to be cala.
The Past Participle is Cala. Thus "3$, &*°x>, &c. may add
If when connected into the Relative participle, but never can use
N to prevent elision. Thus ^^©F^^ can never become x3f>?6
The same rule applies to the affixes i&ofi, or ?S>°& from,

or ?<>9o*> concerning or a&kaoS through, from, all of which
are in truth the past participles of certain verbs meaning &o€tok>
to leave JfcSot&Aj to concern to hold ^dSkAj to make. Thus
*3tJE|^xo8oB<sss&ftp"« f& can never become ?&8oOj6&?,r3"opfc.
It has already been pointed out (page 216.) that some portions
of the verb have borrowed the terminations of the nominative case
of pronouns. Now these terminations being borrowed from No
minatives, are included under the first rule of Cala, whereby all
nominatives are Cala. Thus dsfr^ssb+tsp may become &jr^£ip
never
All indeclinable words are Cala : such as the particles wt>, wo*j,
JfS, Xts*, sfeS, SjoOaS', t»oS &c. with all interjections and vocative
cases. Such as ! £T»i6fS well, well done ! S"*jS"4j, ! Alas !
Ah, Aha ! êwSiJS 0 my friend ! For, all these are
considered equivalent to Nominatives- Thus sHowpâS-f-wtj may
become jb"eo»'jT<,£o*j never sô^fy j£;S4o,
The Negative participle in KA (see page 175) is also a Cala
word: but in particular passages is Druta: that is, the N is
inserted when requisite : thus ~u°£+ &o43p may become ~u*&o£P
or -wXibotSp I did not come. &£Zfrot3p I did not fall.
But other words ending in KA, which are nouns derived from
verbs are often in the nominative case and therefore, being
Cala cannot add N. Thus "c5" coming ox»TT>S"tx»gS not a^tr
rjDtSS. going £xn>&*S'a»fc»tuo'B not S*r>£r*S'p4»e»o'3.
ON SOFTENING INITIAL CONSONANTS IN POETEY. 330
[Concluding remark on Cala and Druta] The learned assert

that the rules of Cala and Druta must be followed in all compo
sitions. But experience may lead us to dissent from this doctrine.
And that for the following reasons. These rules were strictly
observed by some (not all) poets in the earliest ages. Several of
the most popular Telugu poets of the last and present century
deviate from these rules at pleasure : even that rule is neglected
which requires the final vowel U to be elided in metre : and they
unscrupulously insert N to prevent elision in several places where
in rule would forbid such a convenience.
The rule regarding Cala goes on a principle that may be under
stood if we consider what has happened in the English language.
Saxon made much use of the letter N as a termination. This is
sufficiently shewn in any page of Saxon : as for instance what is
given in Johnson's Dictionary.
ON SOFTENING INITIAL CONSONANTS IN POETRY.

In a few compound nouns, initial consonants are softened. Thus
K becomes G as fc98Jr"ooeu the share both of the government and
of the inhabitants. T becomes D as «^^& a brother fcêsSM «ii
brothers # o\& father. Hence 3S«o(££>e» mother and father. Cha
becomes ja. Thus ^"jS*" a young sister «|L'3ô^> akka-jellendlu,
more properly « S" "T^0^. sisters. T*§ IsSiMi hands and feet
more properly T»fc"fi*oo, P. becomes B. Thus "^»S?S I said. P.
becomes V. Thus StoosSTgau villages and hamlets.
In all these places, we perceive the change though the reason
is not obvious.* The following rules are intended to convey the
[* Native tutors are fond of insisting greatly on these changes :

but so little are these rules regarded that in common MSS. of
poems, the spelling is devoid of rule. E. g. in M. XV. 2. 7. 8 the
word xStfT^ is spelt in these ways in various MSS. ^'7^f
331 ON SOFTENING INITIAL CONSONANTS IN POETRY.
principles of this alteration. They are of avail to poets but are
wholly superfluous to those who are not called upon to write
Telugu poetry.
These rules are very rarely applied to Sanscrit words. Indeed
some learned men disapprove of softening the initial in any Sans
crit word whatever. In modern Telugu poetry, they are frequently
neglected even as regards Telugu words. Sanscrit Grammarians
have arranged the alphabet in two classes as follows.
Hard a&OS&ew Soft i>ts%<n
Guttural tf K »
Palatals C a
jSwrf iSgsfcouo Cerebrals to £ n
Dentals ts a n
00 Labials A * a
Sibilants & *
The remaining letters are not classed and may belong to either
species.
The letters 5" tS i> & 16 which in the alphabet form the first
column, are designated (by Grammarians alone) as ^SSsS. parusha
hard ; and when any of these happens to be the initial of a Telugu
word in poetry ; and is not the initial of a Sanscrit word but fol
lows another Telugu word, these letters are liable to change.
That is they are dropped, and the letters in the third column
!f a S 8 a (which are called soft) are substituted. If a
druta word is followed by a hard letter, this must be softened : but
this is peculiar to poetry ; thus $ fîir'a seeing me becomes
sa^S or ^ftôzj"©, or ]5f*>F"8J"€). ■s^S'jStp'oa becomes
s5^?CtStb°*, sS:3ôX'j5'5_0oA, sS^r-x^-sôa 0r d^frxZs^Q'K
the damsel came.
The sunna W-TSV A>i£l thus inserted is contracted for Nu, thus
<S"tfe>?S> acc. plu. of <S"tf a master and (S"Se)i&+6~8:3 he served
the rulers, may by softening become a-°Se>;fcfr°S^3 dorala-nu-goli-
chehor, by dropping the vowel. snsvwTTQ^ or <S^»e>oir'S3
doralan-golicheh or by dropping If ^ôS"®^ dorala-gojicheh :
ON CONTENTION IN POETRY. 332
in which last form some grammarians wish to use-the semicircle
<S™6vcK~*Q^ a refinement that never has become popular.
The hard initials 5" C fc> 3 * following the Nominative are sub
stituted by the softening initials X & O 3. Thus S&^t&TâbS'
ad becomes ^ffi&'PîifBO the robber is going. ^StJi&'So'B be
comes 55^8 $ fk"G3o^3 Hari is gone sii^)iSb"%rSji*he is gone noWV*&>
■ê^tffjSB becomes "csSa'S'woS'sio we wholly depend upon Rama.
If two Tadbhavam words come together, as Sjsfc>«£> + Jf{&e3o*3
(for 5"ooe3o^) softening is requisite: but if the first word is
Telugu, as po\%±Z&&oâ Such a change does not take place :
as go(S-ff|jf:S_8 father is a king, not ^^^s&o'-^'J&ao
he is Vishnu, not ■ct°«S>S-(4+<£s>!6 Such refinements are worth the
attention of poets alone : a foreigner should never use the softened
initial in such places.
These rules have little claim to a place in Grammar ; for they
more properly belong to a treatise on versification ; a subject with
which we, as foreigners have no concern. It has however hitherto
been the custom not only to describe them in native Grammars,
but to give them a very prominent place. I would willingly omit
them, were it not that the student requires to be warned that
many words which occur in poems have the initial altered. Thus
the word B^jt) chepputa to say, is often spelt "S^4-> jepputa
and even "7>*;y*J and even Sepputa.
It is obvious that these niceties though important to poets are
of no use to men who study a language only with a view to public
business. Even among the poets themselves, there is some discre
pancy of opinion. For these changes are regulated rather by taste
than by any fixed rule. (See page 41.)
ON CONTRACTION IN POETRY.
Some Sanscrit mahat nouns (see page 31, 221) as tt»6»jSo
Ramudu (a well known proper name) can in poetry form the ac
cusative by dropping or else by substituting P. Thus "o^£»
r'Saa or ms»p§^Qt>d they honoured Rama. And though "O'sfco
ends in TJ, the form x^sSx^ is not admissible.
333 ON ELISION AND CHANGE OF VOWELS.
This mode flf contraction is peculiar to poetry : wherein it fre
quently occurs. It is only applicable to Tatsaina Sanscrit words.
(DiJaSciQ -3&$t> jSo«o« p0^3
Here the words S'okSs and are in the accusative singular.

Nouns ending in iyamu as sS»J*cs5!S», muttiyamu, a pearl, may
contract this into sSx>j|:S» muttemu, or into sS»45gsio muttyamu.
And nouns in iya as x5%<ss (a poetical name for damsel) may
contract this into
Some Sanscrit and some Telugu words may drop the final
even when compounded with Telugu words. Thus ?jr<sss&> fear
zp'oSiîxiAj to frighten or p)X"5&> half •£x"3cxugs^tfc> mid
night : or the hour of half night.
In poetry, the phrase Sfr^sb by dropping the vowel U, be
comes S
•ON ELISION AND CHANGE OP TOWELS.
Few of the following rules are used unless by those who have
occasion to write in Telugu verse. For this reason, I have placed
them at the end of the grammar.
When an open vowel occurs, that is when a short final vowel
is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, either the final
vowel is dropped, or some consonant is inserted to prevent
such a change. In regard to (Sandhi,) elision, the Sanscrit vowels
»» Eu, and »xr» Ru are considered as consonants : but require
no notice.
The words already described as druta require the insertion of
N (as happens in Greek, or an for the article in English :) but
other words insert Y in certain places. Either elision is required
or else the insertion of a specified letter to prevent elision is
prescribed : there is very little room for option.
The final short U, as ^sfc, «,'4)&> &c. being always subject to
elision, it is not allowed to insert N, or Y, to prevent this.
ON ELISION AND CHANGE OF VOWELS. 334
Sanscrit words either neuter as e&S^ o pain, or masculine
as \x"o$ g a book TStfS a country or L?""s&g a village, equally become
es>g43ss») (Xo$s£o, TS*- ljv;&5Sx) in Telugu. Herein the sylla
ble MTJ is an affix, and may be dropt if another word follows, as
[Xo £ s + W o6 tf sS» = \l<o if o & 8 six-), 5" g + tso«$ ts sSc =t§ T°o& « s£o(
Ij^s&s + wo#Ss&= = lj,r,sJi*otftfss», But this happens only if both
words are Sanscrit. Por instance [KotftSx> + ^^_H (where is the
book ?) may become \ Xo$ but never can become
as the word [Koif sS» is become a Telugu word ending in ; for
in such places MU is radical. Thus 7fo(B:$»+ <^s$£88 gurramu-
evvaridi (whose is the horse) can become "a>:5£8Q gurram'
evvaridi, but never Holj3s$£8a gurr'evvaridi. In common talking
and writing, the more easy form Xo|JJo63jsS£8£i gurram-yevvaridi
is often used though Xoyy3j!$£6£) is owned to be best. It ia
particularly to be observed that such Sanscrit words sometimes
form the inflection in PTJ as efcg4)^), \Xo$-£) according to the
second Telugu declension, but more usually use no inflection and
therefore fall under the third declension. Thus &-\j<o$ sS»"wo5
the name of that book, likewise in the Dative; L>fo£oS»;5So (ac
cording to the 2d Declension) or l>Co$sS»S> (according to the 3d)
being equally admissible in common prose : while in verse such
words are considered to belong to the 2d Declension alone.
The three first short vowels A, I, IJ are generally liable to eli
sion. The others rarely are elided. Long vowels are never elided.
If Druta, they insert N : if kala, they insert T.
The vowel ** A is elided at pleasure ; that is we may either
drop it or insert a letter to prevent elision. Thus "Socs&Aj to graze
forms the past rel. P|| to which, if we add 69-$ the words
+ 69-S mesina-a'vu, the cow that grazed, may by dropping
A, become "â^"^® mesin'avu ; or, by inserting T, may become
"SaîicJ&'sS) mesina-y-avu. The letter N cannot be inserted ; be
cause the past reL P|| is one of the Cala words.
But druta words that end in A, never lose it by elision. Ex-
335 ON ELISION AND CHANGE OE VOWELS.
cepting the word ssjoS" inca more ; which may drop the A in 3°
inc'emi, or retain it, inserting N, thus sjoS""^&>,
Vocative cases that end in short A, particularly certain Telugu
poetical words for woman, and a Se^sfc word i. e. a Sanscrit word
with a termination altered, may lose that letter by elision. As
these are Gala words, they can insert Y. Thus + si^* The
damsel bestowed it, may become "êffow^ffc nelata-y-icchenu,
but cannot, by elision become "ê>8:3î<>. The vocative ^)^^
O Krishna! and t^^S^ come here, make (by inserting T)
Sô^tfoMSâtfsSxij but do not by elision take the form ^fj^^-
SSss&j Krishnud'iccadici-rammu. :5-»ol6+ 5>S where is the swan,
may become ^-»of;5&>& but not st»o^j£. ests^ + ka where is the
grass, may become ats^ôS not &°&+ S""5Sr& Vishnu went,
may become o5-»8^d"5;i& not ^*"^"Si*.
"Words ending in 3) do not in general admit of elision. Thus
a knife, combined with where, may become S' Sâj^TS
catti-y-eccada, where is the knife ? but cannot, by elision become
katt'eccada. Because the word being in the Nomina
tive case is a Cala word.
But some parts of the Past tense which end in ^ as s^Q or ^
©£> thou wentest. s^Se you went, always elide the final °! : thus
■S3-"^3 -j-ts may become sfr* _$ ^ F^l custiv'anna, do you see,
brother ?
But in this tense the first and last words, viz. A^Qp I went,
and &sox>Q they went, retain or drop the final vowel at pleasure.
Thus c6"*ao + fc»?f_fS> I saw his sister, may become T*r>©S|f_i& or
else -avaSii^fk cbuchiti-n-accanu. So in the 3d person plural
Uffiâ + «>iS}j6» they brought the dinner, may become Ua^tf ji^sSc
or SS^Scss^^) In the former instance N is inserted because the
first person ending in N belongs to the Druta class. In the second
instance Y is inserted (tecchiri-y annamunu) because the 3d
person is a Cala word.
ON ELISION AND CHANGE OF VOWELS. 336
Pronouns which end in 3), as «©, £6, as, sja, &3 also
the words what, and again, and the dative affix § have or
neglect elision at pleasure. Thus «S + or w^So what is that ?
If elision is not used, Yis inserted. Thus »©^>&>.
But if a word ending in s? is followed by ôtf enta how much ?
the elision is used : or prevented (by inserting Y) at pleasure.
Thus Sioft + oloeJ becomes fco"3oS or SjoSSaotf.
Final ^ ought (in poetry) to be elided Thus &p*&p + wsesoaw
=xitfciS8«oa» M. 7. 4, 52. ^°*S + e3-&=«r°to*S3a palm leaf,
s$S + e?i6"7r»=~3~*sfcss« rSTV* But inmost manuscripts, there are
erroneously written ^*"fi>&, vtfi^jBtf tp Or ever ^fci^gSS, "r»sa
Final TJ, is almost invariably elided. Thus «tf«S + oisS^sSS be

comes «&'3s;£Jfc. In common talking and writing, however the
Y is often inserted. Thus waefc + Kb:^* who is he ?
Such is the rule as regards a nominative word ending in U, but
such elision is optional as regards words which are not nominative.
Thus the accusative me, pf%L thee, 8ffc^ himself, them,
sfcsS^ us, StoskSj you; also the affixes êSS far, & to, as well
as the words fcfoefc, sôes^ <ôSd (see page 65, No, 16. and page
58 :) also the present participle ending in t& (page 163.) All
these when followed by a vowel may at option use the elision,
or substitute N to prevent it. Thus me, followed by £>e«4j
to rule, may become r'^û^nann-elum'a. Eule thou me ; or i*
"ê»sSr» nannu-n-elum'a. Likewise speaking, + 3j&)|66fc> thus
he said, may become. 65 PkSjupas anuc'itl-aniye* he said (literally,
saying he said) or ef&ikj&<bpa>. Again :— ^3*^«£>+ &ft^«S he is
saying, may become (in common Telugu) r3s)g&tfî& but in the
* Not anuchitla. The letter ch when followed by I would be

pronounced chi, but when followed by U the sound would be soft ;
viz. anucu and though the final U is elided, the same sound is
retained.
0. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. i t
337 ON ELISION AND CHANGE OF VOWELS,
poetical style, if the metre requires it ~3&g&>rbi?°£!£> The N is thus
inserted because the preceding words belong to the Druta class.
See a remarkable instance inM. Asw. I. 191.
•fa, | Here Kuttuka-ku N adda padi and in Vish. P. 2.
308. «SiT»&T3A3§ adinaku Netiki (entered in T E D in 0L433.)
It has been shewn (page 235) that the Sisa, Gita and Dwipada
metres end each line with a short syllable : (the last foot being a
SuryaJ If the final vowel is liable to elision —that is if the next
line begins with a vowel, poets often neglect such elision. But
this depends upon the sense of the passage, and rarely occurs.
The following words never admit of elision although they end in
U. Accordingly N is inserted.
Examples :— ;S«&-i-g*je6 I will come now, may become
ij^Ko Also sStS^-j-ss^^JSb he will come now, may become >>t&\
pjâo. SjeuiS) or te^So calling. &8f> him (Acc. of Iswara, God:)
and ■s&*a'fr°fSj I saw, will in a compound phrase, become fcw«S>
ê5e3>L-cSr'a-(X»fS) or t>e;^J^^ê3>L-c$P'apr»i& I saw him who called.
In the same manner, the word sevacu assuming the accusative
form "fisSSo and having no druta affix, if combined with a word
commencing with a vowel, as -&&-o^3i& he saw, may become ~i>$
&5jboLo3?£> he beheld the servant.
Words which end in the short vowels A, I, U drop these vowels
if followed by certain words. These are &o&} and
words denoting kinsfolk, as w]T_,
&c. Thus Efff a fathom 5Ptf + â£==J5j»"3sKafathom's length,
^tf the palm, ^tf + J«fe=^S"3efe a hand full. **S" a nut £*Sog
as large as a nut. oips»a eight, ^p&^f) at the rate of eight.
, &c. are names of women and adding «^ (equiva
lent to Mrs. or Miss,) the words are spelt $>*^*& &c. To the
word tj'jSs (mentioned above) by adding brother, (a word
equivalent to Mr.) forms "wsfc;^ In some common expressions,
the Sanscrit mode is wrongfully used. Thus £> 5 + 5*" ^ 3» should
be Stt»S*jsS».
ON SOME CONTRACTIONS. 338
All words ending with vowels except U have no elision ; but
the letter Y is inserted. Thus tfsSer- -j-SiS becomes iSêr-auS
this is a woman + becomes 55^8c*6â6 he is Vishnu
+ becomes (Joas^ fortune favoured him &"» + tg3 be
comes Sjôm'S he yelled s$?jL+a'i§ becomes ss~^53»5"g a coloured
cloth ~ci -I- °ôJ» becomes ~&c&>o{& moonlight ^J + k&igJ becomes ^
5S»'8i^) the beauty of the person.
The words °8 or t>a when followed by some other words, the
letter A is elided and the letter T is inserted. Thus JTa^+SSa
or «» becomes Jf^S or r**ysJ&, iTâ or fr**j«OS a large
one or large ones. p> + wa or "a becomes p>S or £>d*a, £>3 or r>c«&
a yours. iy + t>a becomes fr^d&a mine. "B^^ + tsa becomes T*
&£> or a farmer's wife.
Cala words that end in U when used in forming compounds,
may insert N. Thus Tr°&y> + Aei>&>=Tr>!Sx>~$&b> fronting Rama,
or in his presence. Also a snake + ^4^,yj;=^r°sS:,3'?:^4a>
a snake's bones.
The words ending in TJ when preceded with a word beginning
with a vowel, admit the letter T. Thus £>*o&> + 63- Si ex> becomes
£>Xo8odT<>§3tLo the young leaves sb^& + -^X' becomes s^Sc>4§< a
male fly. Sc3& + e>sS» cm becomes S'Oo&^sSw e» sharp arrows,
"^tu^-i-es-^ becomes "&»^«y»^ the cow of plenty.
Usually the last short vowel in a line of verse must be elided :
but even the best poets sometimes neglect this : and that it is
optional, is stated in the Chintamani.
ON SOME CONTRACTIONS.
Verbs in fct as Wjffcto to say, afkej to hear, may in the present
participle change into sunna. That is the two last vowels
being alike the first of thein maybe dropped. Accordingly fcfj&iSi
anucu, saying, becomes wod an'eu, Of&'& vinucu hearing,
becomes ao-iSa vin'cu. And as shewn above, this is sometime3
(in poetry) written Bf^, This is a mere nicety apper
taining to a rhyme : wherein some proaodians attempt to draw*
339 ON SANSCEIT ELISION AND PEKMUTATION.
distinctions between the sounds of s~, o ; all of which are

merely modes of writing the letter N.
Some of the third conjugation which have U in the two last
syllables of the Infinitive in U, as educu, to weep, ^>r£*S>
to plait, may be contracted into ed'cu, pen'cu. Other
verbs, as *fcaoiS>i> to wipe i$4fc-E&«-> to walk, cannot be thus con
tracted in poetry : but in common writing, such words are often
written in the contract form (see page 39,) though pronounced
without any contraction.
The words s^«So now fc5^!)&S then oii^jsfc when, can (in poetry
alone) drop the penultimate U when the metre requires it. Thus
ts^ysb apudu may become ap'du.
Nouns of three syllables which have TJ as the second vowel,
can in poetry drop this. Thus OtuS" becomes a parrot. "S"*
becomes a watercourse.
And in some compound words, the final U of the first, is dropped
even though the second begins with a consonant. Thus "5~°cS
black a male buffalo, forms "5ê^«a a wild buffalo, "^"rj^tf
M. 1. 8. 271.
Those who wish to extend their enquiries in Etymology further
after perusing the poets will be amply satisfied in the learned
treatises written by Appa Cavi and Ahobala Pandit. Observing
that these rules were framed for the guidance of poets alone, I
would willingly have omitted them in this volume which is intend
ed solely to assist beginners in the study of Telugu.
ON SANSCEIT ELISION AND PEKMUTATION.
Sanscrit words used in Telugu sometimes adhere to Sanscrit
principles and elsewhere deviate. No Telugu grammarian has
specified the instances wherein the phrase adheres to Sanscrit
rule or those wherein it adopts a new course.
Sanscrit words, if two occur together, may be united in the
Sanscrit manner : thus maha+unnata may become «&"W»fS^<f
mahonnata ; but in common life, elision is not allowed : thua
aSso^+^fi^x-As "the office of minister of state" is always
written ô^$<s^tf!to never ôli^'S^K'to which is the proper
Sanscrit form.
PERMUTATION OF VOWELS. 340
The Sanscrit comparative and superlative forms are sometimes
used (as in English inferior, or superior:) thus S"jjj^Sô;S very
hard. 5»(5ds^f6 very noble. The word frtf low, may use the
superlative £ttd«* which is thus used with a masculine termina
tion. M. 3. 5. 138.
A bramin whose acts are sinful is lower than a Sudra.

In this passage the poet has used the superlative form whereas
grammarians would prefer the comparative. The poet however is
Nannaya himself.
It may be useful here to give a short abstract of the Sanscrit
rules (borrowed from AVilkins's Grammar) with a view to point
ing out the variations that exist between the two languages.
PERMUTATION OE VOWELS.
When any simple vowel opens upon another simple vowel
similar to itself, the two shall be resolved into one long. Thus if
& opens upon ** or 69-, or 69- upon 69- or & the two coalesce and
form one long vowel ; namely 69- . The same rule serves for &, and
-&, & and &* each pair being considered one power, differing only
in duration of sound.
The final M dropped, if a Sanscrit word follows, is retained, if
a Telugu word follows. Thus tts&>+<&ogtS£x>=-$;r'o&ti&) but
tSS'sSw+oêa may become t53"^:S£ea never "t§1rf£a& Thus
4)^*o4-SSlkX'jSo=4)'i^*(jCsto but <V SsS»+**Sp® would become
4>£sfceS|0S and this contraction, used in poetry is inadmissible in
common prose, wherein we must write "^tfsSx^âs and *J#sS»
fcj&j&a.
Thus «o£sfe> a stick and «UfsSx> the end, form eSoT3"(5j&a the
end of a stick. t*oo" charioteer of the sun 6«<sfijSo rising, forms
&&c5îsss>£x> the dawn of the day.
[In Telugu only those Sanscrit compounds are used, which have
a noun or adjective as component parts. Those wherein a Sans
crit verb is united with a noun are not used : and I accordingly
omit such examples. Thus *&£ + 69-J> our property, may in poems
341 EXCEPTIONS AND ANOMALIES.
become <*fr\?j, or colloquially remains unaltered ; being written
s»;S5S- It can never become ^>r*\S>.]
Any simple vowel excepting 65 and 45- opening upon any dissi
milar vowel, simple or compound is (in Sanscrit) changed to a
semivowel congenial to itself. Thus 3, are changed into T. ^>
into V. Thus ^ 8 + becomes sr-SgtjS ; *fc(S> + wo3tfs&>
becomes s&>;S£oS0sfo.\
The simple vowels a and a coming in a state to unite with any
dissimilar vowel, simple or compound, undergo the following
changes.
Xo"7T* + &«5'o=x'oir*K3'o Grange's water.
asS + S7,fi8£o=:8-ir,asrgo Thy rectitude.
The Kur 1. 175 actually spells -o*aL.r- thus -o-erfilx. with «i
and writes £-*oo&.o for eS^^-ô.
[But supposing the first word is Telugu, no such change takes
place. Thus + w"^sSj»*j " The word navala" may become
(in poetry) ^sSer'c^'^sSn'Aj but no other change is allowable.
Colloquially even this Y is excluded and the words are written, as
above. cSê^fc»^^^'.] But the phrase i>î&»o which all use
clearly breaks this rule. Ex-obverse "#8^yg)£ex> q. v. and s&ew^Si.
EXCEPTIONS AND ANOMALIES.

" K"6, an ox, requires the introduction of a £ before an
ej'e, &c. thus forming the compound terms + &&.Z = i<-sr°&*S a
bull's eye (a small window) ir*+Bp(«g=>c:"3o(_«8 a lord of kine.
i. e. a bull K* + <&£<io=K?r'22$o an oxhide."
" t* and 53- being in a state to form a compound with i&S lip,
may be dropped.—Thus forming £>o2r*|x. Cherry-lipped : for £>o"
+ But if the word be of a nature not to admit of their form
ing a compound, the union is different. Thus L«s.o=8"3"°
|o thy lip."
[The Telugu poets sometimes deviate from rule even in pure
Sanscrit words thus. Custom sanctions that we should say 35l
a host, not **<.!x£r»eS. They however prefer the latter
spelling.]
COALITION OF CONSONANTS, &c. 342
COALITION OF CONSONANTS.
[The following few rules borrowed from the same Grammar
have their use in Telugu where Sanscrit compounds occur.]
Each of the consonants called ¥ W t> S £ has a soft sound, viz.
X 23 S « w and the first letter changes into the soft before any
sonant letter whether vowel or consonant as in these examples
sr»»£$ns8 eloquence; for ^-Fa^g ; tssogg "ending in ach"
for ach-antah, «6sS.e^tfsthe passions, for «eis.45~ + SBS.
£>S he who aids in distress, for 69- £§~ f w0^s.
" S" &> 3 may not only change to their respective sonants before
a nasal, by the preceding rule, but also to their proper nasals ;
that is, K, to g or ng ; 4) to S or n ; & to « or $ : as âsûo
deposition, for ■sr»S&êio ; sSniff^^b Magha, the merchant for sSri
+ 3 for s^&Ts&iS ; 6<&.tp8, or &fc~rr°8 for 6<S~sJx>
xr>a That Murari." The preceding rule ; as, fc^cSSo intelligent,
rational, for sfccBSo.
The fourth or dental class of consonants 8 J? s # ^ besides
being subject to the above general rules are changeable to palatals
before palatals and to cerebrals before cerebrals. The palatals are
$5 a &p and the cerebrals $n; (the letter being
excepted.) Examples ; SQ^^do tnat wonder, for &\po} fS^y^
o f0p«5~^'^)o that art. Again, 3|a3o that liveth, for &<5~ +
MUTATIONS OE SIBILANTS.
The letter 5" preceded by 5" C *j 8 afr may be changed into tf\
or not. Thus, for ^r>IH+tfr»eg they also write ■5r>l-'«ST^\8g) sr»
oSsrotfc and for + 5fr»Bg that hero, they write «Sife-^!5S.
MUTATION OE 8 VISAEGAH.
The S of the word WsS-»g, day, being the final of that word is
changed into E before the initial of any word excepting
(and a few others beginning with ~R) when the change is as
follows.
343 ON COMPOUND WORDS.
e^8j9s for ws^8<6&§ the god of day, the sun,
wsêres for wx^sx-reg the days.
Exceptions w-^pm'TP'ISo for fe?s^gTr'(3o Day and night.
The visarga " 2" preceded by a and followed by a, h!i, or any
sonant, changes into U ; and a and u make (as in the French
language) 6. Thus «&>iSo8 ?S becomes ss>"r>3"< e #d>.\ The word so
jantnh becomes &o&!&jantuvu a beast. Kodanda XV.
sS*jt> for f'es^S6*p.
The above short abstract is intended to assist such learners as
may not have read the Sanscrit Grammar from which these parti
culars are transcribed.
The rules regarding Samasa in Sanscrit Grammar being those
regarding compound words, should bo carefully studied, as
many of them, (nearly one-half) are commonly required with
regard to the Sanscrit words used in Telugu.
ON COMPOUND WOEDS.
If Sanscrit words are compounded with Sanscrit words, the
Sanscrit rules are observed : as [Koifii o But to say (tfo^r*
$ would be wrong. And though a common phrase is
not right.—Unless it be an Exception.
The tract on Samasas, called tfo^SS" has been printed in
Sanscrit in the Grandha character by Harkness and should be
reprinted in the Telugu character.
Grammarians require a very strict observance of these rules,
but they are often broken by poets. Thus in the popular tale or
comedy of Garudachalam, which is a common school book, we find
the phrase 5TsrfofSi5'^5'+ "ôSew+ JT^SsSosao which is condemned
also, in the next page S'oefcsSsfcoSSOKoto ^So sSoogpa. +. "33ex> this
is a similar false compound : the first word being Sanscrit and
the second Telugu.
The rules of Sanscrit elision are clearly defined in the grammars
of that language and therefore present no difficulties. Those
Telugu rules which are in this grammar placed with the alphabet,
are easy, and in common use. The remaining Telugu rules now
exhibited would change iisSSb'Si into "r»:55S«fc are obsolete ac
cording to some learned men, but maintained by others. A de
ON COMPOUND WORDS. 344
cision on these matters can interest those learned bramins alone
who write Telugn poetry. To a foreigner, they are useless and
I hare therefore compressed into five or six pages all that is of
any avail in the old grammarians, who have multiplied rules
and exceptions in such profusion that according to them, no author
is entirely correct.
CHAOS, UMPIRE SITS.

And by decision more embroils the fray.
The principle of altering initials according to certain rules of
syntax is found in all the languages of the Celtic family. Owen
states in his Welsh Grammar that the mutable consonants are
thus classed.
Radical, K, P, B, D ; (The Telugu hard)
Light, G,B, V, Z; (The Telugu soft)
Aspirate, ngh, nh, m, n;
Soft 9, th-
The principal rules for the assumption of the soft sound are
these. 1. After all verbs except those in the infinitive mood.
After interjections, &c. 2. After personal pronouns ; after thy,
mine, thine ; after ei when it denotes his and its, but not when it
denotes her. 3. The participial sign yu makes the initial of the
object light, &c.
Such are the rules in Welsh, and the similarity to the Telugu
rules is remarkable. In both languages, these rules are intended
for the guidance of poets alone. We even find in Welsh as in
Telugu, the initial sound of J changes into S. Thus George be
comes Seorus. In Gaelic also James becomes Shemus.
It will be observed that the letters PKT which Greek grammar
calls soft, are in Sanscrit called hard ; and the Greek middle
letters BGD take the name sarala, soft. Thus what is in one
language called hardening a lettej is in the other called
softening it.
The initial rhyme, already described (page 227,) as Tati, —
which is sometimes called Alliteration, is found in Icelandic ; in
Finnish (see "Eastern Europe" 1846, vol. 2. p. 170.) and indeed
throughout the Gothic languages, and in our oldest English
ft P. BroimCt Telugu Grammar. v u
ON COMPOUND WOBDS.
poets, coeval with the first Telugu authors. The proofs will bo
found in the account of English versification given in the Intro
duction to Chaucer.
On both Tati and prasa in Saxon, the reader is referred to the
Gentleman's Magazine for 1822, page 396. And on Dryden's use
of both, see Quarterly Eeview 1826, vol. 34, p. 14.
The principle of softening initials is used in Cannadi likewise.
Also in Italy where Wolf and "Waiblingen were changed into
Guelf and Ghibelline. See Campbell's Petrarch, p. 19.
Not only does primitive English occasionally soften initials,
(as also German does) but it even inserts E, and thus resembles
Telugu in a most remarkable peculiarity. Thus Tail and Droil
are in Johnson shewn from Spenser and Milton to be the same
word. In our dictionaries and in the ancient English Bible
(as Crudens Concordance and an ancient Ainsworth will shew)
a gin or snare was spelt grin. Eor curl, thorpe (i. e. village) thirst
birds, third, Chaucer writes crull, thrope, briddes, thrist, thriddle.
The words Couch and crouch are the same word ; Cave and grave,
Cove and grove each mean a hollow : Johnson and Ainsworth
shew thrill and thirl, crud and curd to be the same word.
APPENDIX.
ON ARITHMETICAL MARKS.
The Hindus use the number sixteen as a general divider : a

sixteenth of a pagoda (eight shillings, nearly) and of various mea
sures, is called S>$s&> a viss : a sixteenth of the Rupee (which
coin the Mahomedans introduced) is called by the Hindustani
name ana, or anna. Thus " &—" denotes one anna (or
viss, one sixteenth, or 6i per cent.) and " 08—" denotes One
and a sixteenth. "Sx°o8—" is one rupee and one anna.
One-eighth, or two annas " =" is written S2— called sStflf.
Three annas (or three viss) are a 5- called sS»: four of these
make the quarter (four annas) named ~B~°zx> which is noted by an
upright line (I). This being doubled, forms M called ** tf, half.
Three such lines u\ are «S»T7ew -three quarters (twelve annas).
Thus the table of annas runs as follows :
One anna is called : for which the mark is i*n>8 "—" a
single line.
2 annas are called 8 2-
3 ji 9) 8 i_
4 ti a êw{£-»-£r*ooo or ir»s5cr» a quarter. >) 8 1
5 »i „ 91 Jl 8 1—
6 >] 99 91 )) 8 12-
7 ii 99 99 11 8 IS-
8 >i ;> 99 Half. II 8 M
9 >j 99 99 II 8 U—
10 ti . »i 99 91 8 qs-
11 99 >i 91 11 8 Mi_
12 91 ti >1 ^5?^, Three quarters. 91 8 W(
347 ON ARITHMETICAL MARKS.
13 annas are called 6x>in^(i-r'g>-4sSx>. tin 8 "f-
14 „ „ „ Zx^Qs^&ts?. „ 8 "12-
15 „ „ „ sSo-^QB-'iJxii^^sio. „ 8 u\Z-
16 annas form the Rupee.
The Anna or sixteenth part is divided by four-, and the one
sixty-fourth is called ~s~°P marked " T» I." Of this, one quarter
is called a (_8>csfi Thus the following fractions are not now in use.
1—256th part is a priya marked U> —
Twice which is wenr-p do. [}> 2-
Three times is% sS»lS>dfi do. L?> i-
Four priyas thus form one Cani - - "*"* —
The priya again is divided by four : thus.
One 1024th part of unity is &>S marked |
Two of these are (one, 512th) "Bojfo^tsew M
Three - -- 3foT»«o;&)ffew £,u^
Four suras form the - - - - [pd& [}> [
And the sura being divided into quarters;—
One of these, i. e. l-4096th is one r*iST'p marked K"6—
Two of these are written thus Bosoms' j&e» do. f^z-
Three of these do. .•fo^.JSo^S'ts'î&exi do. 5T*£-
Four forms one sura - - - - $>[
The sura-Cani merely means a farthing—cent, a millionth of
a half penny.
Money accounts formerly were kept in gold Pagodas, of four
Rupees each. The present gold Pagoda is three Rupees and a
half: but the pagoda reckoning is now laid aside by the Eng
lish though retained by Hindus. The Pagoda is called £5 6*,
"the boar" which was the armorial bearing of the ancient Kings,
but is usually called hunn, 6™;^ which appears to be the same
as "?j-w>?SyL honnu or ponnu :* meaning gold : for several
* Honnu is the ancient Cannadi word for gold : the old Telugn word is ponnn.
Varaha is said to be the name of a district near Surat. See Kelly's Cambist and
Major Jcivis's Ancient Records, page 42. Houghton Bengali Diet. p. 2752
supposes honu to be corrupted from Hiranya,
ON ARITHMETICAL MARKS. 348
ancient Canada (or Canarese) words have been introduced into
Telugu, changing the initial H into P. This word hunn however
is usually supposed to be Hindustani.
But in accounts, as we use £ to denote pounds, so * a con
traction for Ko«£> a coin, is used for Pagoda. The plural is
marked x X.
And the sign halli shaped like the English numeral 8,
is used to separate between the integer and the fraction. Thus
^yl^S— denotes, Eupees 55-2-0. This mark answers to the
cypher in the column of annas, and a cypher in the column of
pice, is, as in English accounts, a circle or sunna.
The silver Rupee 8r'-ir>ox> [s written or tfr», co^; and the
Fanam or fraction of the Pagoda is called and written <5~.
The Current Rupee is at present worth nearly two shillings.
But the Rupee is divided into 16 Annas and the Anna into
twelve pice. The pagoda of three Rupees and a half is reckoned
as forty-five fanams, and the Rupee as twelve fanams and sixty
"B~° fSoexi cash : of which eighty are reckoned to the ruca or fanam.
The copper coin called ten cash is a half penny and the coin of
twenty cash was about a penny. For these, the pice is now
substituted and is of a different value. The gold rupee is called
■Bt»5t»8 and is =15 silver rupees.
The fanam is now a mere nominal coin (like the crown in
England) and in accounts of Rupees is never retained for honest
purposes. In South Malabar, the fanam reckoning is still used :
but that bears a very different value : one thousand fanams of
Cochin (Malabar) being but Eupees 77-12-6.
Thus the calculation of Eupees, annas and pice is quite at vari
ance with that of Pagodas, fanams and cash ; which Go
vernment have abolished. The natives generally adhere to the anci
ent routine, wherein the pagoda equalled four rupees : but instead
of annas, they usually rate the rupee at so many doods or
pence. This mode reckons about three ^•*jS:^J doods to the anna.
■
349 ON ARITHMETICAL MARKS.
(The dood or farthing is in many parts of the country a mere
hammered bit of copper, and these copper bits are generally called
Khoordh, i. e. crumbs.)
At Madras, the rupee usually is worth one hundred doods ;
fifteen pice make one fanam : and twelve fanams and a make one
rupee. Three rupees and a half make one pagoda, which is worth
5G Annas: and this forms the basis of all native reckoning.
The sixteenth part of a pagoda is called a e&JfosSo and mark
ed JfoS—wherein the X denotes that this reckoning is regarding
thjs varaha.
equal to
i One dugalam * 08— is called t&XvzSx. Rs. 0 3 6
2 or one eighth XoSS- do. tfsSeisfao. „ 0 7 0
3 „ 0 10 6
4 qr quarter „ 0 14 0
8 or half „ 1 12 0
12 or three quarters „ 2 10 0
And the mada or half pagoda denotes fifty per cent. Thus
^Se^So^-pr' i& denotes, I paid fifty per cent. The word cT5
T£-gs° dokada is used for a cent or hundredth part Gr*$'TZ°v\3)
"S""tJsfio per cent ^CSSô&s^^-zs'ex) is eleven-hundredth or, eleven
centesimal parts.
Interest is calculated per mensem. Thus one per cent in India
denotes twelve per cent per annum.
The word "ÔS" or ^Q"? signifies a quarter: and often de
notes 25 as a quarter of a hundred. Elsewhere it is a colloquial
phrase, like half a dozen. " He is one patica" denotes, he is
twenty-five years old. The fraction named patica is thus denoted,
when it is regarding a pagoda >C°8o|. The subdivisions are
marked and named thus.
The is written X080 8° |
Twice which is the WS&^sfe, Xo&o 80 H
Twice which is the &^sS» or viss, X080 8 —
Twice which is one rfuftf' or x"o8o 8 2—
ON DIVISIONS OF MEASUEES. 350
The or three-fourth of a fanam is marked i5~uj
One quarter of a fanam being marked. <5~ I
The annas or sixteenths of a Rupee are thus marked.
One anna is &rr marked &° 8—
Two 85° 82-
Three Oio
Eour **:£>er\ tfio |
Eight tsS{6-"^>ooj. Coo M
Twelve *S»-£r^$tr». &o tq
The quarter of a £fr*5* or fanam is called ■Sr°83' and marked 5~ I
which seems to be a contraction for the letter E with the silent
mark.
Two of these are wgsX" <T ^
Three quarters of a fanam ska-ir^SS" 6~ m
A single fanam is called fi^Sr-S" a double famam is ^g^S".
eir»0 A nominal money used in Canarese accounts. One gold
ehacrum or Mahti ruca is four chinna rucalu : and four such ruca*
(40 fanams) make one rdhiti hoon. Eahti seems to mean kontamy
There is another reckoning by Tancams. The AjoS"ss» ia an an

cient coin, not now found, and used only in accounts :—it was
worth 16 dubs or four Bingle silver fanams. The half Tancam is
called <?BresS». The quarter Tancam is called a OS'S. The eighth
part is one The sixteenth is one The thirty-second part
is one <s&»Tr*e3. The sixty-fourth part is one Three tfsSj^w
dammams make one dabbu. The gold fanam is also called the
gold tancam, but is not now current in the Telugu country.
DIVISIONS OF MEASUEES.
The *0 * or candy is a measure answering to the ton of which
one-twentieth is called t£r°3» toom or chaldron. In speaking, it
is called but in writing * is used as the sign. Thus *o is
one putti or candy. The actual bulk of the putti varies in various
351 '~ ON DIVISIONS OF MEASURES.
places or in regard to various goods, as does also the English
stone. At Masulipatam, the candy of tobacco is 480ft : that of
metals and hard ware is 5001b. (which is the Madras rate) : that
of sugar, dates, and other soft articles 560, Applied to land,
the phrase ^)"fcâ^F°e)!6to"ê) denotes that extent of land
which will be sown by that quantity of grain. The putty ranges
from 800 to 960 seers ; for the seer also is a variable measure.
The is divided into eighty SSoffsfooew ; thus a cuncam is
the fourth part of a toom. The sSxuS^Jg 0r Malacca ton is
from 200 to 240 cuncams. The toom is denoted in accounts by £
(the letter N) at Masulipatam ; the reason of which I have not
learnt. At Madras it is marked thus.
1 ta
2 tS-a
3 * i '
4 jgcutita **
5 £>4£>sSm 4>o|o
6 a 4>olo
7 £>(*>:&)
a
8 diSsSbosSbsSo
9
10 16 OSSbsSxi 430 qo
11 4>ono
12 «&)&}_ gbs&a 4>oq_»
13 4>oq3
14
15 430140
16 4301^0
a
17 4>oi*|_s>
a
18 4)0Oj 3
19 T —t
2Q 4)§ 4>o
ON DIVISIONS OF MEASUEES. 352
Or the following arrangement may be more clear : it is the
native method wherein each line contains a different fraction of
one putty. Thus.
4>o One putty.
Aoi&sSa 4joqo Half a putty.
£><£>sS» 4>c lo A quarter do.
Slgi&tflfi 4>o8-®Mo or (5 -»qo an8th do.
&r>-&>;£> SSoô 4Jc8nlo or £ ol° one 16th do.
Sjai^W'SiSbS^JSrorSlS )
, a > 4>c8o4_sqo or ?Som_9Mo one 32d do.
5oo^3«So s£r»"^SS ÛsSa]

L 4jc8o1o|o or £o|o|o one 64th do.
or »SSs£r»p3'e> p~s'SJ&. J
tf:^sfc5ST*p-Safc50^'saSbjpo8o8582- or £o8382- one 128th do.
sSw&sStea'S&b ^jo8=8r^—or i$o8oq—one 256th do.
55xH>ScjHe>e>Mtf A"64SS 4108080^4 or j5o8oiôq one 512th do.
:S>T'S5^ve)o'S-°ex:j,"Sss& 4>o8o8o|2_|o or i*o8°l^-|o one 1024th do.
There is another reckoning by *S>tf»>fo or Maund's weight, viz.
Three quarters of thesSoc*>*>is called "3 ®jt>- and markeds&oiqo.
Half of the ^sbe»«o is called and marked sfccno.
One quarter of the sfcraafo is called l&oio-
One 8th of do. (five seers) Soor"^
One 16th of do. ii_sqo
One 32d of do.
One 40th of do. is a seer ios io
One 64th of do.
One 80th of do. is a half seer "s§oqo
<?
One 160th of do. is a quarter seer "ôlo
One 320th of the same "lo82-
One 640th of the same ô8_
Eight maunds are called -^-"Xtf &o.
The calculation of 3oof5x>»ex> ia as follows. The Sbotfsfe is
marked cSo 1 at Masulipatam. Elsewhere the mark j\ is thus
O. P. Brown's Telngu Grammar. w w
853 ON MEASURES OF LENGTH.
used. Two cuncams form the oajtf'fl which is marked £0 11 or,
at Madras J M. Three form the <S»*J written J1*!. The division
of the &otfsS» (one quarter) is sometimes rated as follows.
The quarter of the cuncam is a manika sSr-PS", written s&"Ot
The half of this is an " adda" **g which is written s&*_s or $ c-8 s.
The three quarters (sfoy*«c>sST*p~3ex.) is written thus &° 1 or £083
and the S3ofjs&» is marked £ o 1 o.
The &offs£» of the ^fo^g is divided into five manikas : but
that of the "%gig)*3 is divided into six manikas. The greater
toom is divided into 24 manikas and the smaller toom is divided
into 20 manikas. If the manika is divided into four parts, these
are called êiew : of which one sola is marked?^"5 1°. Two solas are
ODe #*>£ tavva marked (^*ol|o. The three quarter manika is called
sS>r-:£jHeew and marked {Hoiqo.
Again the P"*e is divided into quarters called ft«ex>. One *§ is
marked * — Two form the fBô marked ft = Three are called
sfor<>a£>?,|<a; and written thus ft £-.
The Tola &>esSs> or weight of one Rupee (one hundred and-
eighty grains) is used regarding the post office, and in weighing
medicines. The pagoda weight £$&*&*& is used regarding the
gold, silver and medicines and is (52. 56) nearly 53 grains. The
xe# or garce used regarding corn and rice is 320R. Five
putties make one X'OS'.
MEASURES OF LENGTH.
The fathom or ^S contains two tfas&ew or yards. The yard
being two sfer'Sew or cubits. Three wsfcxotw or feet form the yard.
This however is not a customary mode of reckoning. The inch is
called Woxbtfifca. The sSwtf or cubit is divided into two ^£e»
or spans- The * "so^js Xtz&a or great yard is equal to 90 square
feet being 30 feet in length and 3 in width. The "3^2^ or
handbreadth is the third of a span.
The English yard and foot have come into use as well as the
English acre, which foreign phrase the natives spell thus csfiS'treu.
ON POINTS OP THE COMPASS. 354
The measures of length depend upon the a5tfi«o, or ^f&j coss-
(parugu literally means one run) which is a variable measure,
on a plain country ; it varies two miles or two miles and half: and
4 coss make one £9-«&S or gow, which under the English Govern
ment is about 10 miles.
In square measurement, the &ci> or Gunta (Literally, one
well) forms the basis : it is a square measure of land, of which
there are two, the greater and the less. One K~ {& contains fifty
"Se&ot>eu or one hundred and twenty-five S^Sofco), Then,
sixty four guntas make one *:3^°. These measures vary in vari
ous parts of the country as the " field" is the land which one
well can irrigate. At Bombay, it is a square chain of 1089 square
feet and 40 Guntas are one acre.
A book printed at Madras some years ago, and lately republish-
ed^called the Commercial Eeady Assistant, reduces the Indian
to the English arithmetical procers.
POINTS OF THE COMPASS.

Sixteen points of the compass are reckoned and are universally
known by the names of the Genii supposed to rule them.
North or
N. East >'
East S\0|J5fi& .
W-T^dtGatt S. East »
South diS>«fc£go
Tr-..
S. West ii
West >i Tr-
oT*dSo:5g*S» N. West »
The name *S^>t$West,forms in the Genitive 43Western, and
Locative in the west. Plural East and West.
The name Nairruti is wrongly written "S|mjoS orl^[&&. The
error is of no consequence.
What we call the Northern Division, the people themselves
call &r°5^"f§^ sS» the East. In fact, the shore runs in a N. E.
direction.
ON ETYMOLOGY.
TATSAMAMF, TADBHAVAMU, DE'SYAMTJ, AND
GEAMYAMU.
Telugu Grammarians have discussed at great length some

points of Etymology which more property appertain to a Dictionary
or separate philological treatise. The native mode of treating this
subject may be seen in the learned Mr. Ellis's note appended to
the Introduction to Mr. Campbell's Grammar. But the defi
nitions there extracted from Mamadi Vencaya and others, may I
believe, be rendered clear by another mode of statement.
These topics are allowed to retain a place in the grammar, be
cause learned natives are so much addicted to talking on etymo
logy : of which in general, they have no clear notions : I will
merely state enough to solve the riddle : while on the native mode,
this one theme would occupy a whole volume : I recommend
the reader to pass over the subject entirely, until he has read
some volumes of the poems so as to acquire correct notions on
the matter.
ON TATSAMAMU.
Those Sanscrit words (including proper names) introduced into

Telugu are either unaltered or slightly changed : these are called
e$3^s&j&>e» Tatsamamulu : wherein the termination alone
alters. Thus ljfr*<s6#8 usually, $£SS personally, (for
a woman, @, (for ^S) fortune. Thus in English we use odium,
ratio, momentum, Cicero, Venus &o. which are unaltered from a
Latin original.
The termination is considerably altered in many words. Thus
tfv* becomes Trsy, and ^tf 8 becomes s50&4£>, and $ c$S2 becomes
ON TADBIIAVAMU. 35G
tfosjiotS. So from traditio, ratio, are formed the English words
tradition, ration.
Feminine nouns ending in long a or T, as f>^, «>& make
those vowels short : thus |>«5, Thus in Latin fania and scena
have short terminations though derived from Greek words ending
in long vowels.
But if these words occur in a Sanscrit compound, the long final
is unchanged. 59-^ becomes 69- ? but in a compound phrase,
the long final remains unaltered. Thus V$fjo*e«S» Panch.
2. 151.
ON TADBHAVAMU.
Words which are much altered are called Tadbhava Sjsîfgs&o
eu. Thus * Js, &S~S, a&>e, become w°&, -r^Jfc. So from
the Latin traditio, ratio, we form treason, reason.
Some of the Tadbhava words are derived through other lan
guages juat as we derive reason, treason &c. from French words
(raison, trahison &c ) originally taken from Latin. So some
Banscrit words are alleged to be derived through the medium of
the Canada (S^SsSn Canarese or Carnatic) or the Tamil. The
ulterior refinements denominated Sauraseni, Magadhi, Paisachiea,
&c. learnedly discussed by Appa Cavi and others seem to be un
known and convey no definite information.
Several instances of the Paisachiea &c. with the names of the
dialects specified are given in the preface to the "3oS'&r>iJe>s£r»6«
g^gjfca and in the Parvata Puranam as also in the note in Camp-
bell's Grammar taken from Dipica.
Learned Telugus are fond of tracing every word in their lan
guage to a Sanscrit root. Thus our older etymologists (as stated
in the Preface to Johnson's Dictionary) attempted to trace every
English word to a Latin root. The Telugu grammarians like
them.
" —Delight to chase.
" A panting syllable through time and space—"
Considering the meaning of the word unimportant provided any
resemblance can be found in the spelling.
357 ON DE^SYAMU, CKRAMYAMU.
ON DE'SYAMU.
Desyamu:— Bueh words as X>L?sS», 5>£, a horse,

dog. cat, town &c. being aboriginal, like the corresponding words
in English are called the Desya, country dialect, or language of
the land.
One class of these is denominated «^^§]gss» anya-desyamu or
Dialect being local expressions peculiar to the foreign countries.
The following are instances. ^r»S>, "&>?*>, êu, "^.Sbjfo, -sr^,
■zjr"*, ©"Sty, ~f& Lip, body, milk, curd, place, inroad, a clever
woman, fineness.
Agca Telugu «*tf^"3t»«o is " Pure Telugu" the name given to
a dialect used more or less in all poems, wherein the author shuns
Sanscrit words : or, if obliged to use them, softens the sound,
changing Vishnu into "S^ssb Yennudu, &c.
ON GKAMYAMU.
Another class is called {J^&^&z Gramyamu, or Eustic being
the colloquial dialect embracing several words of Hindustani and
English origin : such as "^€100, Natives! This is often used in
the Telugu newspaper with some (as riJJS'sko, ;Sj-55'6g5fej
sto, eêF^srin.) Such vulgarisms occur, as in Eng
lish, in the most highly admired poems : for instance £fi^5*>
occurs in the Vasu Charitra. 3. 1C5.
Appa Cavi and other grammarians delight in such questions : thus
he changes the author of the Telugu naishadham with a rusticisni
in the exordium of that poem. But Livy sallust and Virgil (as
Quintition remarks) have fallen under the same censure : and
we even find Longinus (Chap. XXXI.) blaming Herodotus for
using low language.
Some forms of the noun are held to be rustic, and inadmissible
in verse. Thus «S» a country, forms "^9"sfciSSS, sSx^fi, tS^
too:, which in the other mode "^VpS. c^fS, ~&T°ex arc held
ON SOME ABBREVIATIONS. 358
to be inelegant : yet these " barbarisms" are in daily use and
occur in the best poems.
Some other words (styled 'fr*[lsSr,tfe») are coarse and indeli
cate : yet we often hear them used by men of education.
Another class of words is called ISS^^s-ex) Vaidica, or Clerkly,
scholarlike expressions being affected by the Vaidica bramins : these
are chiefly peculiar in an affected or effeminate lisping pronuncia
tion, wherein !&*©«> pr^rfc, I go, becomes s^î* or £*?r't&. These
pretenders to learning are fond of talking about the arddha bindu,
the Sacata Repha and some other refinements, while they are
unable to scan or explain (correctly) a common passage of verse.
But men of sound learning have no such niceness of style and often
indulge in a simplicity or rudeness of dialect such as we meet in
the conversations of Johnson, Burke, or Milner.
ON SOME ABBREVIATIONS.
Though obliged to omit the greater part of the quotations,
I had collected in illustration of this Grammar I have retained
a few which are referred to as follows.
M denotes the Mahabharat: wherein M. 1. 1. 200, is verse
200 of the first aswasam or Canto of the " Adi Parvam" or First
Book. Elsewhere the names are given, in the native mode.
Thus M. Aranya 1. 200 is a reference to Canto 1 of the Aranya
Parvam or Third Book and M Santi 1. 200 or M. XII. 1. 200
refers to the Twelfth Book.
The Mahabharat, the Bhagavat, and the Ramayan are not in
general referred to, among natives, by name. Thus " This occurs
in the Santi Farvam" denotes " This occurs in the twelfth book
of the Mahabharat" or " In the Aranya Parvam" denotes " In
the Third book of the Mahabharat.
Thus of the Ramayan : which is divided into portions called
Candas. " The Aranya Canda" denotes " The Third Book of
the Ramayan."
The Bhagavat is divided into books called by numerical names :
a volume superscribed S^sfc&o " Dasamam" would in English
style be, The Tenth book of the Bhagavat : and " Uttara
Dasamam" denotes, "The second part of the Tenth Book." The
359 ON EXAMINATION QUESTIONS.
Tenth Book, containing the Life of Krishna is perhaps the most
popular volume in the language. In these titles, the word
" Bhagavat" is omitted.
The eighteen books of the Mahabharat are named 1. Adi Par-
vain, 2. Sabha Parvam, 3. Aranya Parvam or Vana, P. 4. Virata P.
5. Udyoga, P. 6. Bhishma, P. 7. Drona, P. 8. Carna, P. 9. Salya, P.
10. Sauptica, P. 11. Stri P. 12- Santi P. 13. Anusasanica, P. 14.
Aswamedha, P. 15. Asramavasa, P. 16. Mosala, P. 17. MahaPrastha-
nica, P. and 18. Swarga Eohana, P.—In the Telugu version, the
translators have greatly abridged the story, and setting aside the
original division into tStjy^csfiaioeM (adhyayams) have divided
the whole into sixty-three SS-^^jsweu Cantos.
The six books of the Eamayan are called the 1. Bala Canda.
2. Ayodhya Canda, 3. Aranya, C. 4. Kishkindha, C. 5- Sundara C.
6. Yuddha C. This sixth book is in extent equal to the preceding
five. The Uttara Eamayan is a separate poem.
The following Abbreviations are also used.
E being the mark for the Eamayan.
DR is the Dwipada Eamayan.
BR the Bhascara Eamayan.
TJE the Uttara Eamayan.
DE Y the Yuddha Canda or Sixth book of the Dwipada Eamayan.
BEB the Bala Canda or first book of the Bhascara Ramayan.
SKETCH OF EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
IN TELUGU GEAMMAR.
CHAPTER I.
Translate the following Pages of Reader 1, 10, 20, 25, 30.

I put no questions regarding the Telugu alphabet, spelling,
etymology, sandhi, saral-adesam, Kala, or Druta. Natives when
they examine, delight in distressing students with such matters :
under native tutors some learners have proved expert in these
things : but remained ignorant of all that is useful.
I therefore put few questions regarding the first book. . '
ON EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 3G9
BOOK n.
Describe the declensions.
To which declension do these belong? a son-in-law ~&°t£>
a cord (_Jfo$tfx> a book "wOTjpsio a wife £tf»*S» a clerk sSbfS jSid
the mind f^j. an elder brother the eye «*> fSsSxiTPew a grand
daughter f^fA)© a belle; state the Genitive and the Plural
of each ?
Specify the various classes of the third Declension.
What is the rule regarding Hindustani and other foreign words?
BOOK III.
State the usual pronouns mentioning the Genitive and Plural
forms. Specify the peculiarities of &^&y>.
State any remarks on Adjectives ?
Describe the Adverbs and the words thence derived.
Give a few remarks on the semicircle.
BOOK IV.
State the conjugations of verbs with an instance of each : both
regular and irregular.
Can verbs change out of one conjugation into another? give
instances.
State the leading tenses (only 3d person singular) of &*&k>
to go and &<3&>i> to take out, and S-^*-> to come.
State the infinitive forms of tô^)k>! s^*Q*j, and viz. :
the forms in A, in Adamu, in UTA, in EDI.
Define the causal voice. How do you translate J6^tfd»r^tjO
S)00-?r°s£> ?
How are Compound tenses formed ?
Define the Aorist, both affirmative, and negative?
Explain "^s£> and t<&.
Translate these phrases into Telugu.
This is my horse.
This is not his horse.
C. P. Brown's Telugu Grammar. xx
My horse is here.
His carriage is not here.
He is here. >
He is not here.
She is my elder sister.
She is not my younger sister.
He is my elder brother.
He is not my younger brother.
They are our relations.
They are not merchants.
How do you reconcile the phrases fyifsSxi^ s~,i&>1 sr»o!fi>~5"»
BOOK V.
SYNTAX.
Give short explanation of softening initial consonants.
Explain Conjunctions.
Explain the affixes A' E' 0'
Explain the prefixes A' I' E'
BOOK VI.
Describe Telugu iind Sanscrit Adjectives?
Explain the Comparative and Superlatives.
State briefly any observations on plurals?
State the plural form of water?
Is the Nominative ever used for other cases ? For which :
with all nouns?
Can pronouns do this?
Is the Genitive ever like the Nominative ?
How are nouns and pronouns compounded ? as, I am his
brother, &c.
State the various senses of the Dative?
Can the nominative be used for the accusative?
How would you say bring the horses ?
Can the nominative be used for the Vocative?
ON EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 362
Describe the Instrumental and Local Ablatives ?

State a few of the rules regarding Proper names?
BOOK VII.
Which verb governs an Accusative, which not ?
Which verbs understand to or from?
By what Telugu verbs, is the verb to have supplied? give
instances ?
What does the Passive voice add to the root in A?
With what verbs, is the Passive voice used with an active
sense ?
What does the verb "5"°«& deny?
What does the verb ~$&> deny?
Translate the following phrases into Telugu.
There is no road.
He is not my brother.
It was not he who called.
If you bend it thus, is there not pain ?
Decline the infinitive ending in EDI.
What are the plural forms of the middle verbs in KONU
What are the negative forms of the words tt'sSSbSo, &ot&Si
What are the verbs that admit *& or i& at pleasure?

From what verb are the words rr>tt &*£", Bo? derived?
By adding what, is the middle voice formed?
BOOK VIII.
By adding what verb to the root in A of another verb, are
the passive verb and participles formed?
How do you form the Present, Past, and Negative participles
of the verb r*|»fc> ?
With what letter does the Eelative Aorist participle terminate?
give some instances.
By adding what to the root in A, is the Negative participle
formed ? give some instances.
By adding what to the root, is the Negative Relative Parti
ciple formed?
Can you give some instances?
How do you form the Conditional Aorist of the verb S"°£fi
So*o to bite?
Give the Singular and Plural forms of the Imperative of the
verb ^<3k>tj.
BOOK rx.
What would be the third person singular Aorist of the verbs
(feoj&i^ «iS^fc>?
What is the third person singular present tense of the verb
What is the first person singular future tense of the verbs
BOOK X.
Add the auxiliary verb SSSbij, "SciSoto, 0r r°taoii, to the root
of some other verbs.
Could you reiterate the adjectives sfcos, Qi^, or "wg with a
noun at the end?
The Questions may easily be extended.
THE END.
■
*v
;
>,

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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

LEFT READY FOR PUBLICATION.

CHARLES PHILIP BROWN,

Late of the Madras Civil Service, Teluou Translator, to Government

PRINTED AT THE CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY'S PRESS,

The English Government of Madras extends over various Hindu

* Huet, Preface to his Delphin edition of Virgil.

" The prince but studies his companions

Unless we read their books, and have daily communications with

Second Declension 53. Jfo^sfe.

Initial Consonants 169. Conjunctions 169. On the Emphatic affixes

OF TELUGU WORDS NOTICED.

tJoiJ page 284. ;^s£<koco 305.

sST5fS«Saa 296, 320.

END OF TELUGU INDEX.

A (the article) how expressed,7, 8. Belly, Body, 216, 290.

Declensions, 49, 51, First, 51, Have, 224.

Page 57. The nouns ^o^jSss a wife, S"tfra5S» a clerk, srvfsSw

184. 1. 15 read "W-ew forms the." line 27 read, "Sot or

BOOK FIEST—On Obthogbaphy.

The Telttgu language written from left to right, like English :

S3ai a,o £o c au.

S0il3 jbu d>D tu J5h thu du dhu fSo nu $0 tu

or Itf rra (also e*9 rra) O 11a # 11a sS<y vva

The letter R is a fruitful source of idle disputation among the

Saaeu car- sr-rXSmSxitr* &-&T?*X£)a<3'* (jp-odSSS" WoS^'^X'sSwer'

cSjSjftjijKSS j6?CC?g5S»"^5So. In reading any manuscript with a learned Bra-

nour" the common salutation at

9 The light fortnight.

On other Contractions used in Writing.

On Majors and Minors.

Minors. Majors. Ordinals.

6, s- 65-JS> 63-co«ot5o or 6th e3-<5"*

7, a 6&j«6 ^>«6«i5oor 7th oixg*

Seven is often called e9-c6"^gL5'43 arunnokati or ^>&> yellu, to

9, F~ ^T^oaSo«ico or 9th (T^^

10, no a6a a&s&rtiCo or 10th &<s*

On Lengthening Final Vowels.

Telugu, as regards Sanscrit words alone, they will be placed at the

On Changes in the last Syllable.

On Terminations in NT, and NU.

"^Hoeu, "^sSoSo, "^sSjoi*, aSpS*, ifiojfcx-, XjiS", X" f£>5\

Other words use I or U at pleasure ; thus; jr>QS3 p^euS", ~^63$£>,

So those nouns which, having no inflexion, retain the nominative

Ancient grammarians describe the nouns in three Declensions.

V. SJsSjdS or t$sS»T«' V. tfsfcer'o', or Ss^er-TP.

G. sSboa^f), iS)0Shr»& G. sfcoO^oS, sSbc35j-»8

V. s&oSrsF'T** V. sS>oCsr»OT3^ or s£>oa«j-»"!T,>

The noun a son-in-law is declined in the same manner.

«r>So, ^r°0o. In poetry the final vowel is sometimes dropt : thus

L. Xo|Jfsfe>i5ofi>b, Hi(8oS»i5, L. XoltfsS»e><3So«b or Xo|rr°e»

D. tir^SsfcojSSS or sfr*sS-T3°jS3o D. or ^ST^wSi

The Sanscrit nouns which take the Telugu termination »/jS»

L. 8$sx»54, 8"!jr»i6)8?!S»ere or L. 8$sS»e)ersi tf-q5-»oeH, SJpsSc

Saaeu car- sr-rXSmSxitr* &-&T?X£)a<3' (jp-odSSS" WoS^'^X'sSwer'

"^Hoeu, "^sSoSo, "^sSjoi, aSpS, ifiojfcx-, XjiS", X" f£>5\

L. ■CJ'l&eJ", (Ty°o45") ©jOe)**, (SoW"*)

3 m./ a&oi^r^ ««■>§, o^jr»)b8S»eg?3»§, a6o^>r*^(fe§

Plu. 1 o^)rojssS», a6o^jr°oT3'sS», ai)o^)r,'f£)BjS»§)

2 (J3- a&o^)roS, 83" o^r*oa, a6o^)§-'oBb§)