TRIGONOMETRy Lagi

TRIGONOMETRY - MEASURE OF AN
ANGLE
Any real number may be interpreted as the radian measure of an angle as follows: If ,
think of wrapping a length of string around the standard unit circle C in the plane, with
initial point P(1,0), and proceeding counterclockwise around the circle; do the same if
, but wrap the string clockwise around the circle. This process is described in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1
If Q(x,y) is the point on the circle where the string ends, we may think of as being an angle
by associating to it the central angle with vertex O(0,0) and sides passing through the points
P and Q. If instead of wrapping a length s of string around the unit circle, we decide to wrap
it around a circle of radius R, the angle (in radians) generated in the process will satisfy the
following relation:
Observe that the length s of string gives the measure of the angle only when R=1.
As a matter of common practice and convenience, it is useful to measure angles in degrees,
which are defined by partitioning one whole revolution into 360 equal parts, each of which is
then called one degree. In this way, one whole revolution around the unit circle measures
radians and also 360 degrees (or ), that is:
Each degree may be further subdivided into 60 parts, called minutes, and in turn each minute
may be subdivided into another 60 parts, called seconds:
EXAMPLE 1 Express the angle in Degree-Minute-Second (DMS) notation.
Solution: We use Equation 3 to convert a fraction of a degree into minutes and a fraction of a
minute into seconds:
Therefore, .
EXAMPLE 2 Express the angle in radians.
Solution: From Equation 2 we see that
EXAMPLE 3 Find the length of an arc on a circle of radius 75 inches that spans a central
angle of measure .
Solution: We use Equation 1, , with R=75 inches and
, to obtain
Here are some more exercises in the use of the rules given in Equations 1,2, and 3.
EXERCISE 1 Express the angle radians in (a) decimal form and (b) DMS form.
Solution
Express the angle radians in (a) degree form and (b) DMS form.
Solution: (a) To express radians in degree form, use the fact that
to obtain
(b) To express in DMS form, proceed as follows:
EXERCISE 2 Express the angle in radians.
Solution
Express the angle in radians.
Solution: First express in degree form, and then convert into radians. To convert into
decimal form, first observe that and 1'=60'', hence .
Now proceed as follows:
Now express in radians:
EXERCISE 3 Assume that City A and City B are located on the same meridian in the
Northern hemisphere and that the earth is a sphere of radius 4000 mi. The latitudes of City A
and City B are and , respectively.
(a)
Express the latitudes of City A and City B in decimal form.
(b)
Express the latitudes of City A and City B in radian form.
(c)
Find the distance between the two cities.
Solution
Assume that City A and City B are located on the same meridian in the Northern hemisphere
and that the earth is a sphere of radius 4000 mi. The latitudes of City A and City B are
and , respectively.
(a)
Express the latitudes of City A and City B in decimal form.
(b)
Express the latitudes of City A and City B in radian form.
(c)
Find the distance between the two cities.
Solution: For parts (a) and (b), proceed as in Exercise 2:
Similarly,
(c) We use the Equation , where s is the distance along the surface of the earth
between the two cities, R is the radius of the earth, and is the central angle between the two
cities, that is, the difference in their latitudes. The distance between the two cities is then:
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Recall that a real number can be interpreted as the measure of the angle constructed as
follows: wrap a piece of string of length units around the unit circle
(counterclockwise if , clockwise if ) with initial point P(1,0) and terminal point
Q(x,y). This gives rise to the central angle with vertex O(0,0) and sides through the points P
and Q. All six trigonometric functions of are defined in terms of the coordinates of the point
Q(x,y), as follows:
Since Q(x,y) is a point on the unit circle, we know that . This fact and the
definitions of the trigonometric functions give rise to the following fundamental identities:
This modern notation for trigonometric functions is due to L. Euler (1748).
More generally, if Q(x,y) is the point where the circle of radius R is

intersected by the angle , then it follows (from similar triangles) that
Periodic Functions
If an angle corresponds to a point Q(x,y) on the unit circle, it is not hard to see that the angle
corresponds to the same point Q(x,y), and hence that
Moreover, is the smallest positive angle for which Equations 1 are true for any angle . In
general, we have for all angles :
We call the number the period of the trigonometric functions and , and refer to these
functions as being periodic. Both and are periodic functions as well, with period ,
while and are periodic with period .
EXAMPLE 1 Find the period of the function .
Solution: The function runs through a full cycle when the angle 3x runs
from 0 to , or equivalently when x goes from 0 to . The period of f(x) is then .
EXERCISE 1 Find the period of the function .
Solution
Find the period of the function .
Solution: For the function to run through a full cycle, the angle
should run from to , and hence t should run from t=0 to t=2/7. The period
of f(t) is then 2/7.
Evaluation of Trigonometric functions
Consider the triangle with sides of length and hypotenuse c>0 as in Figure 1
below:
Figure 1
For the angle pictured in the figure, we see that

There are a few angles for which all trigonometric functions may be found using the triangles
shown in the following Figure 2.
Figure 2
This list may be extended with the use of reference angles (see Example 2 below).
EXAMPLE 1: Find the values of all trigonometric functions of the angle .
Solution: From Figure 2, we see that the angle of corresponds to the point
on the unit circle, and so
EXAMPLE 2: Find the values of all trigonometric functions of the angle .
Solution: Observe that an angle of is equivalent to 8 whole revolutions (a total of

) plus , Hence the angles and intersect the unit circle at the same point
Q(x,y), and so their trigonometric functions are the same. Furthermore, the angle of
makes an angle of with respect to the x-axis (in the second quadrant). From this we can
see that and hence that
We call the auxiliary angle of the reference angle of .
EXAMPLE 3 Find all trigonometric functions of an angle in the third quadrant for which
Solution: We first construct a point R(x,y) on the terminal side of the angle , in the third
quadrant. If R(x,y) is such a point, then and we see that we may take
x=-5 and R=6. Since we find that

(the negative signs on x and y are taken so that R(x,y) is a point on the third quadrant, see
Figure 3).
Figure 3
It follows that
Here are some Exercises on the evaluation of trigonometric functions.
EXERCISE 2
(a)
Evaluate (give the exact answer).

(b)
If and , find (give the exact answer).
Solution
(a)
Evaluate (give an exact answer).

(b)
If and , find (give an exact answer).
Solution: (a) Observe that 5 whole
revolutions . Since has period , it follows that
. The angle lies in the third quadrant and has
as reference angle, therefore is a point on the angle and on the unit circle,
from which we obtain:
(b) Observe that , from which we obtain that
EXERCISE 3 From a 200-foot observation tower on the beach, a man sights a whale in
difficulty. The angle of depression of the whale is . How far is the whale from the
shoreline?
Solution
From a 200-foot observation tower on the beach, a man sights a whale in difficulty. The angle
of depression of the whale is . How far is the whale from the shoreline?
Solution: The angle of depression from the man to the whale is the angle that an imaginary
line connecting the man and the whale makes with respect to the horizontal; since the man
has to look downwards to spot the whale, this is called the angle of depression (if, on the
other hand, he was spotting a plane in the air, he would have to look upwards and the angle
would be called the elevation angle). The correct picture showing all the data is shown in
Figure 1. From the right triangle, we see that , or ft

(to 2 decimal places).
Figure 1
Observe that one may also use the complementary angle of to obtain the relation
, and hence that ft, as before.
The magic identity
Trigonometry is the art of doing algebra over the circle. So it is a mixture of algebra and
geometry. The sine and cosine functions are just the coordinates of a point on the unit circle.
This implies the most fundamental formula in trigonometry (which we will call here the
magic identity)
where is any real number (of course measures an angle).
Example. Show that
Answer. By definitions of the trigonometric functions we have

Hence we have
Using the magic identity we get
This completes our proof.
Remark. the above formula is fundamental in many ways. For example, it is very useful in
techniques of integration.
Techniques of Integration: Trigonometric substitutions
The familiar trigonometric identities
may be used to eliminate radicals from integrals. Specially when these integrals involve
and .
For set . In this case we talk about sine-substitution.
For set . In this case we talk about tangent-substitution.
For set . In this case we talk about secant-substitution.

The expressions and should be seen as a constant plus-minus a square of a
function. In this case, x represents a function and a a constant. For example

can be seen as one of the two previous expressions. Indeed, if we complete the square we get
where . So from the above substitutions, we will set .
Quadratic Equations: Completing the Square
First recall the algebraic identities
We shall use these identities to carry out the process called Completing the Square. For
example, consider the quadratic function
What can be added to yield a perfect square? Using the previous identities, we see that if we
put 2e=8, that is e=4, it is enough to add to generate a perfect square. Indeed we
have
It is not hard to generalize this to any quadratic function of the form . In this case,
we have 2e=b which yields e=b/2. Hence
Example: Use Complete the Square Method to solve
Solution.First note that the previous ideas were developed for quadratic functions with no
coefficient in front of . Therefore, let divide the equation by 2, to get
which equivalent to
In order to generate a perfect square we add to both sides of the equation
Easy algebraic calculations give
Taking the square-roots lead to
which give the solutions to the equation
We have developed a step-by-step procedure for solving a quadratic equation; or, in other
words, an algorithm for solving a quadratic equation. This algorithm can be stated as a
formula called Quadratic Formula.
Quadratic Equations: Quadratic Formula
The Quadratic Formula. The quadratic equation
has the solutions
Consider the general quadratic equation

with . First divide both sides of the equation by a to get
which leads to
Next complete the square by adding to both sides
Finally we take the square root of both sides:
or
We call this result the Quadratic Formula and normally write it

Remark. The plus-minus sign states that you have two numbers and
Example: Use the Quadratic Formula to solve
Solution. We have a=2, b= -3, and . By the quadratic formula, the solutions are
Please go to General Conclusion to find a summary of all the cases regarding the roots of a
quadratic equation.
Roots of Quadratic Equations: Summary
First recall the quadratic formula
The expression that appears under the square root sign determines the nature of the
roots. It is called the discriminant of the equation.
If , the equation has only one root , called double root. It is not
hard to prove that in this case, we have
2
If , the equation has two distinct real roots and . In this case, we have
If you try to prove the above equation, make use of the following identities:
As a matter of fact, if two numbers and satisfy the above identities, then they are
solutions to the quadratic equation .
If , the equation has two distinct complex roots that are conjugates of each
other
The following examples illustrate how to use trigonometric substitutions :
 Example 1
Trigonometric Substitutions: Example 1
Find
Solution. It is easy to see that sine-substitution is the one to use. Set or
equivalently . Then which gives us

Easy calculations give
Technique of integration of powers of trigonometric functions give
which suggests the substitution . Hence which implies
Therefore, we have
This will not answer fully the problem because the answer should be given as a function of x.
Since , we get after easy simplifications
Integrating Powers and Product of Sines and Cosines: Example 1
Find
Solution. We have
Set . Then we have which implies

Going back to the variable x, we get
Integrating Powers and Product of Sines and Cosines
These are integrals of the following form:
We have two cases: both m and n are even or at least one of them is odd.
Case I: m or n odd
Suppose n is odd. Hence n = 2k + 1. So
hold. Therefore, we have
which suggests the substitution . Indeed, we have and hence
The latest integral is a polynomial function of u which is easy to integrate.
Remark. Note that if m is odd, then we will split and carry the same calculations. In
this case, the substitution will be .
Example 1
Case II: m and n are even
The main idea behind is to use the trigonometric identities
Example 2
Integrating Powers and Product of Sines and Cosines: Example 2
Evaluate
Solution. First let us find the antiderivative . We have
We should continue with as well and get
Therefore, we have
which implies
Remark. The following two formulas may be helpful in integrating powers of sine and
cosine.
More Examples
Integrating Powers and Product of Sines and Cosines: More Examples
 Find
Answer
 Find
Answer: .
 Evaluate
Answer: .
 Find
Answer: .
 Evaluate
Answer
 Find
by using the trigonometric substitution .
Answer
More Challenging Problems
Integrating Powers and Product of Sines and Cosines: Challenging

Problems
Stirling's Formula
An important formula in applied mathematics as well as in probability is the Stirling's

formula known as
where is used to indicate that the ratio of the two sides goes to 1 as n goes to . In other
words, we have
or
Proof of the Stirling's Formula

First take the log of n! to get
Since the log function is increasing on the interval , we get
for . Add the above inequalities, with , we get

Though the first integral is improper, it is easy to show that in fact it is convergent. Using the
antiderivative of (being ), we get
Next, set
We have
Easy algebraic manipulation gives
Using the Taylor expansion
for -1 < t < 1, we get

This implies
We recognize a geometric series. Therefore we have
From this we get
1.
the sequence is decreasing;
2.
the sequence is increasing.
This will imply that converges to a number C with
and that C > d1 - 1/12 = 1 - 1/12 = 11/12. Taking the exponential of dn, we get
The final step in the proof if to show that . This will be done via Wallis formula (and
Wallis integrals).
Integrating Powers and Product of Sines and Cosines: Challenging

Problems
The purpose of the following questions is to develop Wallis's formula which has many
applications. In particular, for the proof of the Stirling's Formula. For n=0,1,2.., define
Show that , for every n.
Show that for all , we have
Prove that
Prove that
Conclude that
6
Prove that
The Wallis's formula gives as an infinite product. Indeed, from the previous questions we get
Note also that the above product can be expressed using factorials. Try to come up with the
formula translating the above limit using factorials.
Indeed, recall the limit
Rewriting this formula, we get
Playing with the numbers, we get
Using the above formula

we get
Easy algebra gives
since we are dealing with constants, we get in fact . This completes the proof of the
Stirling's formula.
The purpose of the following questions is to develop Wallis's formula which has many
applications. In particular, for the proof of the Stirling's Formula. For n=0,1,2.., define
Show that , for every n.
Show that for all , we have
Prove that
4
Prove that
Conclude that
Prove that
The Wallis's formula gives as an infinite product. Indeed, from the previous questions we get
Note also that the above product can be expressed using factorials. Try to come up with the
formula translating the above limit using factorials.
 Example 2
 Evaluate
 Solution. First let us complete the square for . We get


 which suggests the secant-substitution . Hence we have
and . Note
that for x=0, we have which gives t=0 and for x=3, we have
which gives . Therefore, we have

 Using the trigonometric identities (you will find them at the end of this page), we get

 The technique of integration related to the powers of the secant-function gives
and

 which implies

 One would check easily that


 Useful trigonometric identities:
Other Trigonometric Powers
These are integrals of the form
In every single one of these integrals, we will develop what is commonly called a Reduction
Formula. The main idea behind is a smart use of trigonometric identities. Let us describe
how it works.
 For , set
 For , set
 For , set
 For , set
Let us show how one can generate a reduction formula for . The other once, will be
given without any proof. We have
Since the derivative of is , we get
Therefore, we have
This is the reduction formula associated to the tangent function. What it says is that in order
to find the integral of it is enough to find the integral of . This way, we

can reduce the power n all the way down to 1 or 0. Recall that
. Let us give a table for all the reduction formulas.

where a is an arbitrary constant and .
Example 1
Other Trigonometric Powers: Example 1
Evaluate
Solution. First let us find the antiderivative
The reduction formula for the secant function gives
If we use the same formula again for n=3, we get
Since , we get once everything is

combined
Finally the answer to our definite integral is
Remark. Note that for and when n is even can be handled in a

easier way. Indeed, we have
which suggests the substitution . The same idea works for the cosecant function
(in this case, the substitution will be ).
Example 2
Other Trigonometric Powers: Example 2
Find
Solution. We have
Set (hence ). We get
The answer will be complete once we replace u by . Therefore we have

More Examples
Other Trigonometric Powers: More Examples
 Find
Answer
 Find
Answer
 Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region bounded by ,
y=0, and about the x-axis.
Answer
 More Examples
Example. Simplify the expression
Answer. We have by definition of the trigonometric functions

Hence
Putting stuff together we get
This gives
Therefore we have
Example. Check that
Answer.
Example. Simplify the expression

Answer.
The following identities are very basic to the analysis of trigonometric expressions and
functions. These are called Fundamental Identities
Reciprocal identities
Pythagorean Identities
Quotient Identities
The Addition Formulas
The fundamental identities are very important for the analysis of trigonometric expressions
and functions but they are a direct result of the intimate relation between trigonometry and
geometry. The power behind the algebraic nature of trigonometry is hidden and can be
measured only with the addition formulas
and
Of course, we used the fact that
Example. verify the identity
Answer. We have
which gives
But
and since
and , we get finally
Remark. In general it is good to check whether the given formula is correct. One way to do
that is to substitute some numbers for the variables. For example, if we take a=b = 0, we get
or we may take . In this case we have
Example. Find the exact value of
Answer. We have
Hence, using the additions formulas for the cosine function we get
Since
we get
Example. Find the exact value for
Answer. We have
Since
we get
Finally we have
Remark. Using the addition formulas, we generate the following identities

More identities may be proved similar to the above ones. The bottom line is to remember the
addition formulas and use them whenever needed.
Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas
Double-Angle and Half-Angle formulas are very useful. For example, rational functions of
sine and cosine wil be very hard to integrate without these formulas. They are as follow
Example. Check the identities
Answer. We will check the first one. the second one is left to the reader as an exercise. We
have
Hence
which implies
Many functions involving powers of sine and cosine are hard to integrate. The use of Double-
Angle formulas help reduce the degree of difficulty.
Example. Write as an expression involving the trigonometric functions with their

first power.
Answer. We have
Hence
Since , we get
or
Example. Verify the identity
Answer.We have
Using the Double-Angle formulas we get
Putting stuff together we get
From the Double-Angle formulas, one may generate easily the Half-Angle formulas
In particular, we have
Example. Use the Half-Angle formulas to find
Answer. Set . Then
Using the above formulas, we get

Since , then is a positive number. Therefore, we have
Same arguments lead to
Example. Check the identities
Answer. First note that
which falls from the identity . So we need to verify only one

identity. For example, let us verify that
using the Half-Angle formulas, we get
which reduces to
Rational Expressions of Trigonometric Functions
Expressions like
are called rational expressions of sin and cos. Note that all the other trigonometric functions
are rational functions of sin and cos. The main idea behind integrating such functions is the
general substitution
In order to have better feeling how things do work, remember the trigonometric formulas
It is not hard to generate similar formulas for , , and from the
above formulas. Therefore, any rational function will be transformed into

a rational function of t via the above formulas. For example, we have
where . Note that in order to complete the substitution we need to find dx as
function of t and dt. Since , we get
Now we are ready to integrate rational functions of sin and cos or at least transform them into
integrating rational functions.
Check the following examples to see how this technique works:
 Example
 More Examples
Product and Sum Formulas
From the Addition Formulas, we derive the following trigonometric formulas (or identities)
Remark. It is clear that the third formula and the fourth are identical (use the property
to see it).
The above formulas are important whenever need rises to transform the product of sine and
cosine into a sum. This is a very useful idea in techniques of integration.
Example. Express the product as a sum of trigonometric functions.
Answer. We have
which gives
Note that the above formulas may be used to transform a sum into a product via the identities
Example. Express as a product.
Answer. We have
Note that we used .
Example. Verify the formula
Answer. We have
and
Hence
which clearly implies
Example. Find the real number x such that and
Answer. Many ways may be used to tackle this problem. Let us use the above formulas. We
have
Hence
Since , the equation gives and the equation
gives . Therefore, the solutions to the equation
are
Example. Verify the identity
Answer. We have
Using the above formulas we get
Hence
which implies
Since , we get
TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
Some equations which involve trigonometric functions of the unknown may be readily solved
by using simple algebraic ideas (as Equation 1 below), while others may be impossible to
solve exactly, only approximately (e.g., Equation 2 below):
EXAMPLE 1: Find all solutions of the equation .
Solution: We can graphically visualize all the angles u which satisfy the equation by noticing
that is the y-coordinate of the point where the terminal side of the angle u (in standard
position) intersects the unit circle (see Figure 1):
We can see that there are two angles in that satisfy the equation: and
. Since the period of the sine function is , it follows that all solutions of the
original equation are:
EXERCISE 1 Find all solutions of the equation .
Solution.
Find all solutions of the equation .
Solution: Let u=2A; the equation is then equivalent to , for which the
solutions are (see EXAMPLE 1):
Hence the solutions for A are:
EXERCISE 2 Find all solutions of the equation that lie in the
interval .
Solution.
Find all solutions of the equation that lie in the interval
Solution: The left hand side of the equation can be factored as:
hence either or . For ,
while
and
The solution set of the original equation is then

EXERCISE 3 Find all solutions of the equation in the interval .
Solution.
Find all solutions of the equation in the interval .
Solution: We first find all solutions of the related equation (see Example 1), and
find that and , , comprise all the

solutions. Hence
from which it follows that
The solution angles A which lie in the interval are therefore
EXERCISE 4 Solve the equation . Restrict solutions to the
interval .
Solution.
Solve the equation . Restrict solutions to the interval .
Solution: The substitution yields the equation , which is

quadratic in u. We use the quadratic formula to solve for :
If the calculator gives x=1.1191 as the acute solution, so we deduce that the
other solution is . The equation has no
solutions, since for all x. The solution set is therefore .

Reciprocal identities
Pythagorean Identities
Quotient Identities
Co-Function Identities
Even-Odd Identities
Sum-Difference Formulas
Double Angle Formulas

Power-Reducing/Half Angle Formulas
Sum-to-Product Formulas
Product-to-Sum Formulas
Solve for x in the following equation.
Example 1:
There are an infinite number of solutions to this problem. To solve for x, you must first
isolate the sine term.
We know that the therefore The sine function is positive in
quadrants I and II. The is also equal to Therefore, two of the
solutions to the problem are and
The period of the sin function is This means that the values will repeat every
radians in both directions. Therefore, the exact solutions are and
where n is an integer. The approximate solutions are
and where n is an
integer.
These solutions may or may not be the answers to the original problem. You much check
them, either numerically or graphically, with the original equation.
Numerical Check:
Check answer .
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
Since the left side equals the right side when you substitute for x, then is a solution.
Check answer .
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
Since the left side equals the right side when you substitute for x, then is a solution.
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation
f (x) = 2 sin(x) - 1
Note that the graph crosses the x-axis many times indicating many solutions. Note that it
crosses at . Since the period is , it crosses again at
0.5236+6.283=6.81 and at 0.5236+2(6.283)=13.09, etc. The graph crosses at .

Since the period is , it will cross again at 2.618+6.283=8.9011 and at
2.618+2(6.283)=15.18, etc.
If you would like to work another example, click on Example.
If you would like to test yourself by working some problems similar to this example,
click on Problem.

Example 2:
There are an infinite number of solutions to this problem. To solve for x, isolate the sine term.
The sine function is positive in the first and second quadrant. If the reference angle is
, the angle that terminates in the second quadrant is
The period of sin function is This means that the values will repeat every
radians. Therefore, the solutions are and
where n is an integer.
Numerical Check:
Check answer . x=0.304692654015
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
Since the left side equals the right side when you substitute 0.304692654015 for x, then
0.304692654015 is a solution.
Check answer . x=2.83689999957
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
Since the left side equals the right side when you substitute 2.83689999957for x, then
2.83689999957 is a solution.
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation
Note that the graph crosses the x-axis many times indicating many solutions.
Note that it crosses at (one of the solutions). Since the period of the function is
, the graph crosses again at 2.83689999957+6.28318530718=9.12
and again at , etc. The graph also

crosses at 0.304692654015 (another solution we found). Since the period is
, it will cross again at and
at , etc.
Example 3:
isolate the cosine function
If we restrict the domain of the cosine function to , we can use the function to
solve for x.
The cosine is positive in the first quadrant and the fourth quadrant. This means that one
solution is an angle that terminates in the first quadrant and one solution is an angle that
terminates in the fourth quadrant. The second solution is
The period of cos function is This means that the values will repeat every
radians. Therefore, the exact solutions are and
and
Numerical Check:
Check answer x=0.541099525957
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
0.541099525957 is a solution.
Check answer . x=5.74208578
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
5.74208578 is a solution.
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation

Note that the graph crosses the x-axis many times indicating many solutions. Two of the x-
intercepts are located at 0.541099525957 and 5.74208578. This means that these are two
solutions. Notice also that there is an x-intercept at 6.8244284833 which is equal to
There is also an x-intercept at 12.02527108 which is equal to
Example 4:
isolate the tangent function.
Isolate the tangent term.

If we restrict the domain of the tangent function to , we can use the arctan
function to solve for x.
The period of tan function is This means that the values will repeat every radians.
Therefore, the exact solutions are The approximate solutions
are
Numerical Check:
Check answer . x=0.750929062398
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
0.750929062398 is a solution.
Check answer .
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
3.89252171599 is a solution.
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation
Note that the graph crosses the x-axis many times indicating many solutions. One of the x-
intercepts is located at 0.750929062398. This means that this is a solution. Notice that the
distance between each x-intercepts is
Problem 9.1a:
10 cos
Solution
Problem 9.1b:
8 sin
Solution
Problem 9.1c:
Solution
Problem 9.1d:
Problem 9.1a:
10 cos
Answers: There are an infinite number of solutions: and
are the exact solutions, and and
are the approximate solutions.
Solution:
To solve for x, first isolate the cosine term.
If we restrict the domain of the cosine function to , we can use the arccos function to
solve for x.
The cosine of x is positive in the first quadrant and the fourth quadrant. This means that there
are two solutions in the first counterclockwise rotation from 0 to . One angle terminates
in the first quadrant and the second angle terminates in the fourth quadrant.
We have already determined that the radian measure of the angle that terminates in the first
quadrant is The radian measure of the angle that terminates in the fourth
quadrant is
The period of cosine function is This means that the values will repeat every radians.
Therefore, the solutions are and

Numerical Check:
Check the answer . x=0.6435011
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 8
Since the left side equals the right side when you substitute 0.6435011for x, then 0.6435011
is a solution.
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 8
Since the left side equals the right side when you substitute 5.6396841for x, then 5.639684 is
a solution.
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation
Note the graph crosses at 0.6435011 ( one of the solutions). Since the period of the function
is , the graph crosses again at
0.6435011+6.28318530718=6.926686 and again at
, etc. The graph also crosses at

5.6396841 (another solution we found). Since the period is , it will
cross again at and at
, etc.
Problem 9.1b:
8 sin
Answer: There are an infinite number of solutions: and
Solution: To solve for x, you must first isolate the sine term.
If we restrict the domain of the sine function to we can use the arcsine function
to solve for x.
The sine of x is positive in the first quadrant and the second quadrant. This means that there
in the first quadrant and the second angle terminates in the second quadrant.
quadrant is The radian measure of the angle that terminates in the
second quadrant is
The period of sine function is This means that the values will repeat every radians.
Numerical Check:
Check the answer x=0.38439677
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation
Note the graph crosses at 0.38439677 (one of the solutions). Since the period of the function
0.38439677+6.28318530718=6.66758 and again at

2.75719588 (another solution we found). Since the period is , it
will cross again at and at
, etc.
Problem 9.1c:
Answer: There are an infinite number of solutions: are the
exact solutions, and are the approximate solutions.
Solution: To solve for x, first isolate the tangent term.
If we restrict the domain of the tangent function to , we can use the arctangent
The period of tangent function is This means that the values will repeat every radians.
Therefore, the solutions are where n is an integer.
Numerical Check:
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 20
is a solution.
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation
Note the graph crosses at 1.5458015 (one of the solutions). Since the period of the function is
, the graph crosses again at 1.5458015+3.1415924.687394 and again at
, etc.
Problem 9.1d:
1.875 sin (x)-0.684=0

are the exact solutions, and
and x are the approximate solutions.
If we restrict the domain of the sine function to , we can use the arcsine function
to solve for x.
The sine function is positive in the first quadrant and the second quadrant. The angle
is a reference angle that terminates in the first quadrant. The angle that
terminates in the second quadrant that has a reference angle is
Therefore, the exact solutions are and
and
Numerical Check:

 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
Since the left side equals the right side when you substitute 2.768175 for x, then 2.768175 is
a solution.
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation
f(x)=1.875sin(x)-0.684.
Note the graph crosses at 0.37341799 (one of the solutions) and at 2.768175. Since the period
of the function is , the graph crosses again at and
again at , etc.
Example 1:
isolate the sine term.
If we restriction the domain of the sine function to
, we can use the inverse sine function to solve

for reference angle 3x and then x.
We know that the e function is positive in the first and the second quadrant. Therefore
two of the solutions are the angle 3x that terminates in the first quadrant and the angle
that terminates in the second quadrant. We have already solved for 3x.
The solutions are and
The period of the function is This means that the values will repeat every
radians in both directions. Therefore, the exact solutions are
and where n is an
integer.
The approximate solutions are and
Numerical Check:
 Left Side:
 Right Side:
 Left Side:
 Right Side:
Since the left side equals the right side when you substitute for x, then
is a solution.
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation
Note that the graph crosses the x-axis many times indicating many solutions. You can see that
the graph crosses at 0.174532925. Since the period is , it crosses again at

0.174532925+2.094395=2.2689 and at 0.174532925+2(2.094395)=4.3633, etc. The graph
crosses at 0.872665.
Since the period is , it will cross again at
and at 0.872665+2(2.094395)=5.061455, etc
Problem 9.1c:
Answer: There are an infinite number of solutions: are the
exact solutions, and are the approximate solutions.

If we restrict the domain of the tangent function to , we can use the arctangent
The period of tangent function is This means that the values will repeat every radians.
Therefore, the solutions are where n is an integer.

Numerical Check:
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 20
is a solution.
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation
Note the graph crosses at 1.5458015 (one of the solutions). Since the period of the function is
, the graph crosses again at 1.5458015+3.1415924.687394 and again at
, etc.
Problem 9.1b:
8 sin
Solution: To solve for x, you must first isolate the sine term.
If we restrict the domain of the sine function to we can use the arcsine function
to solve for x.
The sine of x is positive in the first quadrant and the second quadrant. This means that there
in the first quadrant and the second angle terminates in the second quadrant.
quadrant is The radian measure of the angle that terminates in the
second quadrant is
Numerical Check:
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
Since the left side equals the right side when you substitute 0.38439677for x, then 0.38439677 is a
solution.
 Left Side:
 Right Side: 0
Since the left side equals the right side when you substitute 2.757195881for x, then 2.75719588 is a
solution.
Graphical Check:
Graph the equation
Note the graph crosses at 0.38439677 (one of the solutions). Since the period of the function
0.38439677+6.28318530718=6.66758 and again at

2.75719588 (another solution we found). Since the period is , it
will cross again at and at
, etc.
If you would like to review the solution to problem 9.1c, click on solution.
If you would like to go back to the equation table of contents, click on contents.
This site was built to accommodate the needs of students. The topics and problems are
what students ask for. We ask students to help in the editing so that future viewers will
access a cleaner site. If you feel that some of the material in this section is ambiguous or
needs more clarification, or you find a mistake, please let us know by e-mail.

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TRIGONOMETRY - MEASURE OF AN

EXAMPLE 1 Express the angle in Degree-Minute-Second (DMS) notation.

EXAMPLE 2 Express the angle in radians.

Solution: From Equation 2 we see that

Solution: We use Equation 1, , with R=75 inches and

(b) To express in DMS form, proceed as follows:

EXERCISE 2 Express the angle in radians.

Express the angle in radians.

Now express in radians:

Solution: For parts (a) and (b), proceed as in Exercise 2:

This modern notation for trigonometric functions is due to L. Euler (1748).

More generally, if Q(x,y) is the point where the circle of radius R is

from 0 to , or equivalently when x goes from 0 to . The period of f(x) is then .

EXERCISE 1 Find the period of the function .

Find the period of the function .

Evaluation of Trigonometric functions

For the angle pictured in the figure, we see that

EXAMPLE 1: Find the values of all trigonometric functions of the angle .

on the unit circle, and so

EXAMPLE 2: Find the values of all trigonometric functions of the angle .

Solution: Observe that an angle of is equivalent to 8 whole revolutions (a total of

see that and hence that

We call the auxiliary angle of the reference angle of .

x=-5 and R=6. Since we find that

Here are some Exercises on the evaluation of trigonometric functions.

Evaluate (give the exact answer).

If and , find (give the exact answer).

Evaluate (give an exact answer).

Solution: (a) Observe that 5 whole

revolutions . Since has period , it follows that

. The angle lies in the third quadrant and has

(b) Observe that , from which we obtain that

Figure 1. From the right triangle, we see that , or ft

, and hence that ft, as before.

The magic identity

where is any real number (of course measures an angle).

Example. Show that

Answer. By definitions of the trigonometric functions we have

Using the magic identity we get

This completes our proof.

Techniques of Integration: Trigonometric substitutions

The familiar trigonometric identities

For set . In this case we talk about sine-substitution.

For set . In this case we talk about tangent-substitution.

For set . In this case we talk about secant-substitution.

function. In this case, x represents a function and a a constant. For example

where . So from the above substitutions, we will set .

Quadratic Equations: Completing the Square

First recall the algebraic identities

Example: Use Complete the Square Method to solve

In order to generate a perfect square we add to both sides of the equation

Easy algebraic calculations give

Taking the square-roots lead to

which give the solutions to the equation

Quadratic Equations: Quadratic Formula

The Quadratic Formula. The quadratic equation

has the solutions

Consider the general quadratic equation

Next complete the square by adding to both sides