Pakistan & United States:

Although Pakistan's foreign policy has been dominated by problems with India as well as by efforts to maximize its own
external support, its relationship with the West, particularly Britain and the United States, was of major importance. At
independence in 1947, Pakistan became a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations. After independence
Pakistan retained Britons in high administrative and military positions. Britain also was the primary source of military
supplies and officer training. Many of Pakistan's key policy makers, including the nation's founding father, Mohammad
Ali Jinnah, had studied in Britain and had great faith in the British sense of justice. Over the years, however, there was
disillusionment at what Pakistanis perceived as Britain's indifference toward Pakistan and its failure to treat Pakistan
fairly in dealings where India was involved. Nevertheless, Pakistan remained in the Commonwealth even after the
country became a republic under the constitution of 1956. Pakistan withdrew its membership in the Commonwealth in
1972 to protest the recognition of Bangladesh by Britain, Australia, and New Zealand but rejoined in October 1989 under
Benazir's first government.

Pakistan's relations with the United States developed against the backdrop of the Cold War. Pakistan's strategic
geographic position made it a valuable partner in Western alliance systems to contain the spread of communism. In
1954 Pakistan signed a Mutual Defense Agreement with the United States and subsequently became a member of the
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) and CENTO. These agreements placed Pakistan in the United States sphere
of influence. Pakistan was also used as a base for United States military reconnaissance flights over Soviet territory.
During the Cold War years, Pakistan was considered one of Washington's closest allies in Asia.
Pakistan, in return, received large amounts of economic and military assistance. The program of military assistance
continued until the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War when President Lyndon B. Johnson placed an embargo on arms shipments
to Pakistan and India. The United States embargo on arms shipments to Pakistan remained in place during the Indo-
Pakistani War of 1971 and was not lifted until 1975, during the administration of President Gerald R. Ford.
United States-Pakistani relations preceding the 1971 war were characterized by poor communication and much
confusion. The administration of President Richard M. Nixon was forced to formulate a public stance on the brutal
crackdown on East Pakistanis by West Pakistani troops that began in March 25, 1971, and it maintained that the
crackdown was essentially an internal affair of Pakistan in which direct intervention of outside powers was to be
avoided. The Nixon administration expressed its concern about human rights violations to Pakistan and restricted the
flow of assistance--yet it stopped short of an open condemnation.

Despite the United States widely publicized "tilt" toward Pakistan during the 1971 war, Pakistan's new leader, Zulfiqar
Ali Bhutto, felt betrayed. In his opinion, the United States could have prevented India from intervening in Pakistan's civil
war, thereby saving his country the trauma of defeat and dismemberment. Bhutto now strove to lessen Pakistan's
dependence on the United States.

The foreign policy Bhutto envisioned would place Pakistan at the forefront of Islamic nations. Issues central to the
developing world would take precedence in foreign affairs over those of the superpowers. Bhutto called this policy
"bilateralism," which implied neutrality in the Cold War with equal treatment accorded both superpowers. Bhutto's
distancing of Islamabad from Washington and other Western links was accompanied by Pakistan's renewed bid for
leadership in the developing world.

Following the loss of the East Wing, Pakistan withdrew from SEATO. Pakistan's military links with the West continued to
decline throughout Bhutto's tenure in power and into the first years of the Zia regime. CENTO was disbanded following
the fall of the shah of Iran in March 1979, and Pakistan then joined the Nonaligned Movement. Zia also continued
Bhutto's policy of developing Pakistan's nuclear capability. This policy had originated as a defensive measure in reaction
to India's explosion of a nuclear device in 1974. In April 1979, President Jimmy Carter cut off economic assistance to
Pakistan, except for food assistance, as required under the Symington Amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act of
1961. This amendment called for ceasing economic assistance to nonnuclear weapon countries that imported uranium-
enrichment technology. Relations between the United States and Pakistan were further strained in November 1979
when protesters sacked the United States embassy in Islamabad, resulting in the death of four persons. The violence had
been sparked by a false report that the United States was involved in a fire at the Grand Mosque in Mecca.
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 revived the close relationship between Pakistan and the United
States. Initially, however, the Carter administration's offer the following month of US$400 million in economic and
military aid to Pakistan was spurned by Zia, who termed it "peanuts." Under President Ronald Reagan, the United States
agreed in 1981 to provide US$3.2 billion to Pakistan over a period of six years, equally divided between economic and
military assistance. However, although the Symington Amendment was waived, the amount was subject to the annual
appropriation process. A second economic and military assistance program was announced in 1986, this time for over
US$4.0 billion, with 57 percent for economic assistance. The continuation of the war in Afghanistan led to waivers--in
the case of Pakistan--of legislative restrictions on providing aid to countries with nuclear programs. The Pressler
Amendment of 1985 required that if the United States president could not certify to Congress on an annual basis that
Pakistan did not possess a nuclear weapon, United States assistance to that country would be cut off. For several years,
the United States president, with Pakistan's assurances that its nuclear program was for peaceful uses, was able to make
this certification. However, with the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989 and the end of the Cold War, the
United States took a harder position on the nuclear weapons issue. In 1990 President George Bush refused to make the
certification required under the Pressler Amendment, and assistance to Pakistan was subsequently terminated.
After 1990 Pakistan's retention of the nuclear option became a defining issue in its relations with the United States.
Pakistan, like India, considered the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons to be discriminatory--allowing
the five acknowledged nuclear states to keep their weapons while banning others from joining the club. Pakistan
declared that it would sign the treaty only in the unlikely event that India did so first. India refused to join any regional
accord as long as China possessed nuclear weapons. Although the United States government continued to push both
India and Pakistan for a regional solution to the threat of nuclear weapons proliferation, Pakistan complained that it
bore the brunt of United States anti proliferation policies.

The underpinnings of the long and close security relationship between the United States and Pakistan existed as of early
1994, although the 1954 Mutual Defense Agreement on which the relationship rested was increasingly regarded by
some in the United States government as outdated--and thus less pertinent to the post-Cold War period. Moreover,
despite Pakistan's differences with the position of the United States on nuclear and other issues, both countries were
determined to maintain friendly relations.

Initial Times of Pakistan

PREFACE
The emergence of Pakistan, after a long and arduous freedom movement, was in fact a great victory of the democratic
idea of life. The Indian Muslims happily and valiantly laid down their lives and properties to achieve a destination in
which they saw the fulfillment of their dreams of living an independent life free from Hindu or British dominance. Quaid-
e-Azam on 15th August, 1947 said:
“My thoughts are with those valiant fighters in our cause who readily sacrificed all they had, including their lives, to
make Pakistan possible.”

INITIAL DIFFICULTIES OF PAKISTAN

From its very inception, Pakistan faced a large number of problems. Some of the initial difficulties were:

1. Choice of Capital and Establishment of Government

The first problem that Pakistan had to face was to choose a capital to form a Government and to establish a secretariat,
Karachi was chosen as the capital of Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam took the office of the Governor General, Liaquat Ali Khan
was appointed as Prime Minister and a Cabinet of experienced persons was selected. Arrangements were to be made to
bring the officials who had opted for Pakistan from Delhi to Karachi.

2. Unfair Boundary Distribution

A boundary commission was set up under a British Chairman, Sir Cyril Redcliff. He misused his powers and handed over
Muslim majority areas like Gurdaspur, Ferozpur, Jullander to India hence providing them a gateway to Kashmir. Quaid-e-
Azam called it: "An unjust, incomprehensible and even perverse award.”

3. The Massacre of Muslim Refugees in India

On the birth of Pakistan, Hindus and Sikhs became more furious. In a planned move, Muslim properties were set on fire
and they were compelled to leave Bharat for Pakistan with nothing but their lives. Millions of refugees were killed
before they reached Pakistan. Many migrants were looted and had to be provided boarding immediately as they
reached Pakistan.

4. Division of Military and Financial Assets

In order to embarrass Pakistan financially, India did a lot of dishonesty in the matters of Pakistan which were concerned
with its benefits. Pakistan was promised to get Rs.750 million but the Bharat Government refused to give. Pakistan
received only 200 million. Pakistan also did not receive the due share of the military assets. This dishonest attitude put
Pakistan into great difficulties.

5. Canal Water Dispute

Most of the river flowing in Pakistan has their origin in India. In 1948, India stopped water supply to Pakistani canals to
damage the Pakistani agriculture. However on 9th September, 1960 on agreement called “Indus Basin Treaty” was
signed between the two countries.

6. Kashmir Dispute
Kashmir dispute is the most important and unsolved problem. Kashmir is the natural part of Pakistan because at the
time of partition 85% of the Kashmir’s total population was Muslim. The Hindu dogra rule, which was secretly with the
Government of India declared Kashmir as a part of India. Pakistan has continuously insisted that Kashmir must get their
right of self determination but due to non-cooperation of India, Kashmir issue still remain unsolved.

7. Constitutional Problem
The constituent assembly failed to frame a constitution even in eight years. Lack of a permanent constitution created,
chances of unscrupulous interference in democratic progress of Pakistan.

8. Annexation of Princely States

All Indian princely states were given the right to link up with either of dominions. However, the fate of following states
remained undecided.
Junagadh
The Muslim Nawab governing junagadh favored in acceding to Pakistan. But Indian Government sent Army troops
towards Junagadh and occupied the state by force in November, 1947.
Hyderabad Deccan
Hyderabad Deccan was the largest and richest state ruled by Muslim ruler Nizam who decided to remain independent.
But pressure tactics began to be applied by Indian Government and Mount Batten .India attacked Hyderabad on 13th
September 1948 and forcibly annexed this state to India.

9. Electrcity Problem
Due to transfer of Muslim majority areas to Bharat and unfair demarcation, electricity system of West Punjab was
disrupted, because all power stations were at Mundi, a predominantly Muslim majority area, gifted to Bharat but Quaid-
e-Azam said: “If we are to exist as a nation, we will have to face the problems with determination and force.”

CONCLUSION
Pakistan came into being as a free Muslim state in quite unfavorable circumstances .It had no resources, it had no
resources, it had to build up its administrative machinery from a scratch. But Supreme efforts were made by the Quaid-
e-Azam and his colleagues to grapple with the situation .His golden principles “Unity” “Faith” and “Discipline” gave way
to Pakistan for a bright future of a strong and well developed country .In his last message to the nation on 14th August
1948, he told the nation:“The foundation of your state has been laid and it is now for you to build and build as quickly
and as you can.”

Pakistan’s Gemstones: An Overview

Pakistan is home to many varieties of minerals, some of which make it prominent in the mineral world, such as peridot,
aquamarine, topaz (various colors: violet and pink, golden and champagne), ruby, emerald, rare-earth minerals
bastnaesite and xenotime, sphere, tourmaline, and many varieties and types of quartz.

Pakistan shares a long and porous border (2430 km) with Afghanistan. This has effectively resulted in a full influx of all
types of Afghan minerals into Pakistan, from which they are traded. Pakistan’s northwestern city of Peshawar serves as
the first, direct, and only market for all minerals found in both these countries since 1979, after the Soviet Union invaded
Afghanistan. Before the invasion, Pakistan’s only port city of Karachi held the bigger market of gem minerals (only facet
rough and gems) in Pakistan. Following Peshawar’s rise in prominence, Karachi’s significance and role in gem minerals
was reduced to those of little significance.

A Brief History of the Mining and Business of Gemstones in Pakistan

Pakistan came into existence in 1947 after partition of the subcontinent. A review of its history before the British rule
reveals that its people and kings cherished gemstones highly. The relics of the Gandhara and Indus civilizations are a
testimony to this fact. After its founding, Pakistan has given little, if not negligent, attention to this sector.

Gemstones Corporation of Pakistan was established in 1979 to effectively explore Pakistan’s own share of wealth in
minerals and to facilitate gemstone mining and business in Pakistan. It had some valuable influence but ultimately was
liquidated in 1997 and hence abandoned. There are two bodies now working for the welfare and growth of this industry
in Pakistan: Trade Development Authority of Pakistan (formerly Export Promotion Bureau) and All Pakistan Commercial
Exporters Association of Rough & Un-Polished Precious & Semi Precious Stones (APCEA). Since 1994, the annual Pakistan
Gems and Mineral Show has been held in Peshawar with their joint collaboration, during four days in October. It has not
as yet, however, attracted any potential buyers from abroad. Its few stalls on display cannot fulfill any of the requisite
needs of experienced buyers from abroad, especially the USA and Europe.

The northern and northwestern parts of Pakistan are shrouded by the three world-famous ranges called Hindukush,
Himalaya, and Karakorum. In these mountains have been found nearly all the minerals Pakistan currently offers to the
world market, including aquamarine, topaz, peridot, ruby, emerald, amethyst, morganite, zoisite, spinel, sphere, and
tourmaline.

The question arises as to how these were explored: by the very people living in and beside the hills and not as a result of
any government involvement or support, a fact that the government of Pakistan cannot refute. In the industrial minerals
sector, of course, the government-owned mining corporation is effective and has been of great help to local investors.
Pakistan, through its one body, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources, has always recruited foreign
investment in mining precious and semi-precious stones in Pakistan. But the rhetoric of the ministry is so inadequate
and ineffective that no influential mining venture by any foreign institutes or individuals has taken place. One significant
reason is the reputation for unreliability in the survey/analysis reports conducted by any government-sponsored
institute in Pakistan.

Moving Forward
Pakistan must look into this situation very seriously. It can conduct such surveys by any reputable/foreign-based
institutes to attract foreign investors in this sector. But the locals who have ever ventured into such activity have only
stories of failure to tell.
In industrial mining, lease by provincial/local government exists, and in the case of precious/semi-precious stones it has
been observed in emerald (Swat, Frontier Province), ruby (Pakistan’s Kashmir), and topaz (Katlung, Mardan District,
Frontier Province), but has resulted in loss and/or failure for venturers.

It is important to stress here that the non-professional residents of mining areas are actually the ones who mine these
jewels of earth in their hazardous, traditional way of mining. They usually form groups that initiate diggings and
blastings, distributing the costs that may incur during the mining period. This process is something that the Government
of Pakistan has failed to control or investigate. The resulting product is compromised in terms of quality and quantity.
Mining ventures in precious and semi-precious stones are uncontrollable in Pakistan because they are undertaken by its
people without any permission, support, or guidance from the government.

Pakistan, based on its potential in mineral wealth, can become a great hub of the gemstone industry, on a scale
comparable to that of Brazil, provided it takes a few essential, locally effective steps that can enhance the exploration of
resources and growth of business. The most useful step: full and supportive involvement of the government with its own
people as well as the foreigners involved in this industry. The establishment by Pakistan of the Gems and Gemological
Institute, in Peshawar in 2001, is an investment that ultimately will bear fruit.

Mining Areas
The few potential/major gemstone mining areas in Pakistan are: (only major gemstones yielded are mentioned)
Northwest Frontier Province
 Swat (Malakand division) – Emerald, various types of quartz, and epidote
 Dir (Malakand division) – Corundum and quartz
 Mansehra (Hazara division) – Corundum and smoky quartz
 Kohistan (Hazara division) – Peridot
 Peshawar district (Frontier province) – Quartz with astrophyllite/reibeckite fiber inclusions, xenotime, and
bastnaesite
Federally Administered Tribal Areas
 Mohmand Agency – Emerald, clinozoisite, sphene, and epidote
 Bajaur Agency – Emerald, garnet, and orange-colour scapolite
 Khyber Agency – Quartz with astrophyllite/reibeckite fibers inclusions, xenotime, and bastnaesite
 North and South Waziristan Agencies – Faden quartz, diamond quartz, phantom quartz, chlorite-included quartz,
and window quartz
Northern Areas
 Chilas (Diamer district) – Alluvial diopside, zircon, rutile quartz, aquamarine, and tourmaline
 Gilgi , Hunza, and Shigar (Gilgit district) – Aquamarine, topaz (golden and white), emerald (new find), ruby,
pollucite, rutile quartz, morganite, apatite, spinel, and pargasite
 Shengus, Stak Nala, and Tormiq Nala (Baltistan Skardu Road, Baltistan district) – Aquamarine, topaz, tourmaline,
apatite, sphene, morganite, and quartz
 Shigar Proper (near Skardu, Baltistan district) – Apatite, zoisite, rutile quartz, epidote, and morganite
 Childee, Kashmal, and Yuno (Shigar area, near Skardu, Baltistan district) – Aquamarine, emerald-colour
tourmaline, apatite, morganite, topaz, and quartz
 Hyderabad, Testun, Dassu, Net Tahirabad, and Goyungo (Shigar area, Baltistan district) – Topaz (best golden
colour here), aquamarine, tourmaline, morganite, rare earth minerals, apatite, quartz, and new find emerald
 Appu Aligund, Fuljo, Braldu, Bashu, and Karma (Baltistan district) – Tourmaline, aquamarine, garnets,diopside,
ruby, pargasite, emerald, topaz, amethyst, scheelite, and quartz
 Khappalu and near Siachin area (Gaanshai area, Baltistan district) – Aquamarine, amethyst, and fine golden
rutile quartz
Baluchistan Province
 Kharan district – Brookite, anatase, and quartz
 Chaman (near Quetta) – Diamond quartz, window quartz, quartz on prehnite-base, and faden quartz included by
chlorite
Foreign Policy
Pakistan is no doubt a strategically located country at the mouth of the most frequented trade and oil route of Persian
Gulf and opening to the Indian Ocean, surrounded by some of the front line and most talked about countries like China
in the north, India in the east, Iran and Afghanistan in west and north-west. The sea and land component thus add to the
importance of Pakistan not only in the region, but in international relations and trade as well. Recently, Pakistan's role in
the war against terror has brought it in the forefronts of world politics. Since its independence, however, its relations
with its neighbors, especially India on the core issue of Jammu and Kashmir has brought Pakistan and India to war a
number of times, while relations with Afghanistan always remain sore, because of Russian and Indian influence on
Afghan foreign policy. Iran, though a Muslim country, also has lukewarm relations with Pakistan. This leaves China to be
the only trusted ally of Pakistan in the region since its independence.
The Foreign Policy of Pakistan strives for the promotion of peace and security at the regional and global levels. It also
aims at accelerating the country's socio-economic progress. In keeping with its international obligations and in
conformity with the United Nations Charter, Pakistan consistently seeks friendship and cooperation in its foreign
relations on the basis of sovereign equality, mutual respect and benefit, non-interference and peaceful settlement of
disputes. 

Pakistan’s foreign policy is guided by its history, geographical location and the aspiration of its people. It is also
responsive to regional and international imperatives. Given the persistent challenges, Pakistan has opted for a proactive
foreign policy. While there are elements of continuity in the foreign policy, as they should be, there is also a change of
emphasis and nuance. The essence of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy is:-
 Develop friendly relations with all countries particularly the Muslim world, major powers and immediate neighbors;
 Safeguard vital security and geo-strategic interests of Pakistan ;
 Resolve the core issue of Jammu and Kashmir in accordance with the resolutions of the UN Security Council and
wishes of the Kashmiri people;
 Promote the image of Pakistan as a strong, dynamic, progressive, moderate and democratic Islamic country;
 Augment economic and commercial interests abroad; and
 Protect the interests of Pakistan’s expatriate community abroad.

Ask anyone in the streets of Pakistan as to which country is Pakistan's best ally, and the unanimous answer would be in
the favor of China. Pakistan was one of the first groups of countries that recognized China on May 21, 1951. Since then,
China and Pakistan have witnessed smooth development of friendly and neighborly relations as well as mutually
beneficial cooperation.  Although, initially the relations were not very warm due Pakistan's alienation towards West, it
was during the Bandung Conference in 1955 that the prime ministers of both countries (Premier Zhou Enlai and Prime
Minister M. Ali) decided to further strengthen their relations. In October 1956, at the invitation of the Chinese
Government, Pakistani Prime Minister Suherwardi paid an official visit to China, reciprocated by China the same year
when Premier Zhou Enlai visited Pakistan in December. This successful exchange of visits within one year greatly
promoted the development of friendly relations and cooperation between the two countries and strengthened the
friendship between the two peoples.  In 1961, by voting for the bill concerning the restoration of China's legitimate
rights in the UN put to the vote the UN General Assembly, the Pakistani Government took a step forward in the course
of improving the Sino-Pakistani relations. In 1962, the two countries, through friendly talks, reached an agreement in
principle on the position and alignment of Sino-Pakistani boundary. In March 1963, the two countries signed a boundary
agreement on China's Xinjiang and the adjacent areas whose defense was under the actual control of Pakistan. In
February 1964, Premier Zhou Enlai visited Pakistan. The hallmark visit of President Ayub Khan to China in December
1964 opened a new era of friendship and long term partnership between the two countries. President Ayub was so
warmly received by the Chinese that people still remember that warmth even today. In March 1966, President Liu
Shaoqi visited Pakistan. These two visits paved way for an everlasting friendship between these two great countries,
which remains as strong and time tested even today. China fully supported Pakistan against India on Kashmir issue and
backed Pakistan morally, militarily and economically whenever Pakistan called for help. Pakistan also played an
important part in breaking the thaw in Sino-US relations in 1971 when President Nixon went to China through Pakistan.
Since 1990s, great changes have taken place in the international situation. Instead of being affected by the changing
situation, the time-tested friendship and cooperation between China and Pakistan has further developed. China
provided all manner of diplomatic and political support, including accepting Pakistan’s position of plebiscite over
Kashmir. In April 1971 Zhou Enlai expressed steadfast commitment to Pakistan’s territorial integrity and expressed the
view that the situation in East Pakistan was an internal matter for Pakistan. 2001 marked the 50th anniversary of the
establishment of Sino-Pakistani diplomatic relations and colorful celebrations were held in the two countries.
Since the early 1950, China and Pakistan have established trade relations. In January 1963, they signed their first trade
agreement. In October 1982, China-Pakistan Joint Committee of Economy, Trade and Technology was set up. With the
joint efforts from sides, Sino-Pakistani economic and trade cooperation has seen good progress. Especially since the
1990s, their bilateral trade volume has witnessed relatively fast growth. In 2002 alone, Sino-Pakistani trade volume
reached US$ 1.8 billion, a new record in terms of their trade relations. China is the major contributor of defense
equipment to Pakistan. The recent joint venture of JF-17 Thunder multi-role jet aircraft has further cemented the ties
between the two countries. Recently, the Chinese President paid a four days official visit to Pakistan (23-26 November
2006), in which China and Pakistan signed 18 MOUs/agreements, including a five-year pact of economic cooperation,
agreement for free trade, provision of AWAC aircraft, sponsoring establishment of a complex which will manufacture
defense related electronics. The Chinese president was accorded very warm welcome both at Islamabad and Lahore
airports - which reflects strong friendly ties between the two great countries and the love that Pakistani people have for
their Chinese brethren.

Pakistan's relations with Turkey are of special significance since support of the Muslims of Indian sub continent to their
Turk brethren in its war against the Allies during and after the WW-I and later due Pakistan's support to Turkey on the
issue of Cyprus. Even today, upon hearing the name of Pakistan, the faces of Turks glitter with deep love and affection.
And this is equally reciprocated in Pakistan as well. A fine example of this traditional love and bondage is the
demonstration of thousands of Turk students in Ankara on 11 September 1965 when Pakistan was in war with India,
chanting slogans against India and reiterating their desire to go and fight with their Pakistan brothers. Pakistan, Turkey
and Iran have been the members of RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development) since 1964 till overthrow of Shah of
Iran's regime in Iran. Now the same organization, renamed as ECO in 1984 has more members of the regions, and Turkey
continues to support Pakistan in ECO on all matters of economic cooperation and development.

Pakistan's relations with the kingdom of Saudi Arabia are very special for two reasons: one for the presence of the two
holiest Muslims places at Makkah and Medina, and secondly Saudi Arabia's unequivocal support, both diplomatic and
economic, to Pakistan since its independence. The ties were at their zenith during the late Shah Faisal's regime, who
viewed Pakistan as his second home. People in Pakistan still revere the late Shah and his photographs can still be seen
on the backs of artfully decorated trucks and buses. Even today, The Saudi-Pak relations are very warm and cordial, and
are time tested.

Iran was the first country that recognized Pakistan on 22 August 1947. Pakistan's relations with Iran have since been
friendly, if not very friendly - mainly due to differences of Islamic beliefs. However, Iran has always supported Pakistan in
troubled times and was in forefronts to provide all possible assistance to Pakistan with its disputes with India, especially
in the 1965 Indo-Pak war. Since the institution of Islamists government in Iran, the relations between the two countries
remain just cordial and lukewarm. Pakistan on its part is always on the lookout to support Iran on all international foras,
specially these days on its nuclear issue. The proposed gas pipeline between Iran - Pakistan and India may further
improve the relations between Iran and Pakistan.

Relations with Other Muslim Countries: Pakistan attaches a special value to its relations with Islamic countries and is
committed unreservedly to all Muslim causes and the strengthening of cooperation among Islamic countries. This has
been an unshakeable pillar of our foreign policy. Pakistan has earned the esteem of the Islamic world for its consistent
and effective advocacy of Muslim causes, specially at the United Nations. The Islamic world stretches from the Far East
Morocco in the West and provides Pakistan with special bonds that stretch half way across the globe and across
cultures. The support of the "Ummah" has contributed to our success in having our resolutions adopted at the UN, and
in elections to various UN bodies.

Pakistan enjoys very warm and cordial relations with all Muslim countries, specially Indonesia, Malaysia, Jordan and
Morocco. Indonesia was among those countries who not only recognized Pakistan soon after the partition, but its
president Sukarno also paid an official visit to Pakistan as early as 1950. Indonesia also supported and helped Pakistan
during 1965 Indo-Pak war against India. Jordan has all along been a strong ally of Pakistan. Prince Hasan bin Talal,
brother of late King Hussain married from Pakistan, which further cemented the relations between the two countries. 

Of late, Pakistan has also developed strong economic ties with Malaysia and under ex prime minister Mr. Mahatir
Muhammad, the relations between the two countries grew more strong and lasting.  The Middle East region is a major
trading partner accounting for annual exports of around US$ 1.4 billion, and is host to 1.5 million expatriate workers
from Pakistan who send substantial home remittances.

Pakistan's relations with India are well known to the entire world and are even source of concern and conflict in the
region, especially since the two countries have gone nuclear recently. Since the independence from the British in August
1947, the relations have two countries have been anything than satisfactory - the reason is the Kashmir dispute and the
Indians' heartburn over the creation of Pakistan that divided the united Hindustan. Pakistan and India have gone to war
as early as 1948, twice in 1965, 1971, the Kargil and the eye ball to eyeball contact in 2002. India has always tried to
downplay Pakistan in the region since it cannot swallow a much smaller country to challenge its dominance over all
other countries of South East Asia. Even the matters of SAARC are badly mauled as India does not want any bilateral
issues such as Kashmir to be discussed in the SAARC. Moreover, India has always tried to woo Pakistan through building
up its military might and increasing its defence budget almost every year and acquiring the latest weapons that have
always been used against Pakistan. Although, there is a thaw in the relations of the two country recently, and the two
countries are progressing forward, though at a snail speed, many doubt the sincerity of India to work with Pakistan to
find a solution to Kashmir dispute. But no such solutions seems in sight, since India considers Kashmir as part of its
federation and has not budged an inch from its stated stance ever since 1947 and Simla Agreement after 1971 Indo-Paki
war. Although president of Pakistan has recently suggested to India to mutually pull back forces from Kashmir and give
administration of Kashmir under a joint control, India has not moved forward. India has also started building of dams on
rivers that were to exclusively used by Pakistan as per the 1969 Indus Basin Water Treaty. India has also been found
involved in conspiring against Pakistan and worsening the Pakistan and Afghanistan relations, since such a situation
would tie down over 100,000 troops of Pakistan Army on Pak-Afghan border, much to the strategic advantage to India.

Shah Waliullah
Hazrat Shah Waliullah was born in Delhi on the 21 st of February 1703 A.D. His father, Shah Abdur Rahman was a great
scholar and a mystic. He took special pain in the education and the training of his son.
At the special age of 15, Hazrat Shah Waliullah had completed his education and then became a disciple (mureed) of his
father who gave him spiritual training. When he was 17, his father died, for 12 years he taught in the fashion of his
father. Twice he performed the Hajj pilgrimage. He attained a certificate of Proficiency in Hadith from the famous
scholar, Shaikh Abu Tahir Bin Ibrahim of Madina, when he was in Arabia, the marhatta turmoid was at its height and his
friends advised Hazrat Shah Waliullah to stay in Arabia. As such he left Arabia in 1145 AH and reached Delhi on 14 Rajab
1145 AH.

On reaching Delhi, he devoted most of his time in writing books and to preaching in public meetings. The teaching
activity was limited to the lessons of Hadith. The political and the moral degeneration of the Muslims had tremendous
effects on the sensitive thinking mind of Hazrat Shah Waliullah. His famous book “Al-Tafheematul llahia” minutely pen
points all the various defects, shortcomings and vices, which had taken roots in various sections of the Muslims. His aim,
metaphorically speaking, was to destroy the rotten moral buildings and to reconstruct a new mansion over it. He bluntly
wrote in one of his writings “I have arrived to destroy every old in region at present.
The most monumental task he performed was to translate the Quran from Arabic to Persian which was the language
spoken by the Muslims at that time in India. His aim was that educated Muslims may have access to the Quran without
depending on the scholars who had opposed his reformatory measures. The short sighted ullama gathered and wanted
to kill him for his sin of translating the Quran from Arabic to Persian but he continued with his task till he completed it.
This task was appreciated by Allah so much so that the Quran is translated to many languages.
Apart from the Holy Quran, Shah Waliullah also wrote authentic books on Hadith, the principles of Hadith, Tafseer and
on mystical subjects. But the most popular book of “Hujatul Baligah”. This book explains how Islam was found suitable
for all races, cultures and people of the world and how successfully it solves social, moral, economic and political
problems of human beings. He died in Delhi on the year 1176 AH corresponding to 1762 AD, behind the central jail.
There is a vast ground and a graveyard known popularly as “Mehindin Kakhitta” which contains in it the grave of Shah
Waliullah and his progeny.

Hazrat Shah Waliullah was fortunate of having children who were great scholars and god-fearing men like himself. His
eldest son Shah Abdul Aziz was born in 1159 AH and died in 1238 AH corresponding to 1823 AD. At the age of 17 he had
become an accomplished scholar and began teaching like his father. For 60 years, he continued teaching and preaching
Islam. The blessing of his knowledge reached every corner of the Indian sub-continent. Because of his versatile genius he
was giving the title “Ayatullah”, a sign of God.

The second of Shah Waliullah Rafi-uddin. He was born in 1163 AH and died in 1233 AH. His scholarly qualities may well
be judged from the fact that when Shah Abdul Aziz had become to teach he passed on his responsibilities to Shah Rafi.
Among the work of Shah Rafi his urdu translation of the Holy Quran.

The third son of Shah Sahib was Shah Abdul Qadir who was born in 1162 AH and died in 1230 AH. He was also a big
scholar by his nature, he loved solitude, and he spent his whole life in a secluded room of Akbar Badi mosque. He did not
much attend to literary writings, however, his urdu translation under the title of “Mozih ul Quran” was his monumental
achievement which is recognised by scholarly circles.

His fourth son was Abdul Ghani. He was a saintly person. His son Shah Ismail Shaheed was a unique personality who had
combined in himself all virtues of scholarly and mystical personalities.

In short, due to sincere and dedicated efforts of Shah Waliullah and his family the illustrious banner of Islam kept flying
over the Indian sub continent despite the decline and fall of the Mughal empire. In Spain, the faith of Islam disappeared
with disappearance of the Muslim rule. Many Muslims were killed and many were converted to Christianity. In India
however the intention of the British Government did not realize and Muslim India did not convert to the faith of the
ruling people despite missionary efforts of the British Government who spent millions of pounds on missionary activities
and arranged lectures, debates and seminars to propagate their faith. The failure of the British Government in
converting Muslim India was due to the dedicated efforts of Hazrat Shah Waliullah and his noble family. 

Aligarh Movement
The Aligarh Movement was founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, the greatest Muslim educationist of the 19th century.
After the war of Independence of 1857 the British did not trust the Muslims. As a result they adopted a policy of
oppression and repression towards the Muslims. They arrested and punished leading Muslims irrespective of the fact
whether they were involved in the events of 1857 or not. As a result many innocent Muslims became victim of British
highhandedness. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan has observed these atrocities in these words.

There was no calamity in these days which was not attributed to the Muslims and there is no doubt that any
calamity which fell from the firmament might not have come straight to some Muhammadan houses bringing
ruin and destruction.

The sufferings of the Muslims multiplied when they refused to adopt the system of education introduced by the British.
The Muslims refused to send their children to the European and Government schools because they hated English
language. The result was that the Muslims could not acquire modern education and were kept away from reasonable
government jobs. The British Government excluded the Muslims from the civil and military honors with the stigma of
disdainful unfitness.

According to Dr. Hunter there was scarcely a Government office in Calcutta in which a Muhammadan could hope for any
post above the rank of a porter, messenger, and filler of ink-pots and mender of posts. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the
first Muslim leader who diagnosed the causes of gradual decline of the status of Muslim Community. He decided to take
necessary steps to better the lot of Muslims in the educational, political and economic spheres. His works for the
educational development for Muslims are as follows.

1. Farsi Maddarsa Muradabad

He established a Farsi Maddarsa at Muradabad in 1859. It was the starting point of Sir Syed’s Educational struggle. In this
Maddarsa, English is also taught besides English.

2. Victoria School Ghazipur

Sir Syed established first modern Victoria School at Ghazipur (1864). In this school, besides Modern Education five
languages (English, Urdu, Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit) were also taught.

3. Establishment of Scientific Society

A more ambitious undertaking was the foundation of the Scientific Society in 1863 at Ghazipur, which published
translations of many educational texts and issued a bilingual journal – in Urdu and English. The basic purpose of this
society was translation of English, Persian and Arabic writings into Urdu language.

4. Aligarh Institute Gazette

During his stay at Aligarh he issued a weekly Gazette called Aligarh Institute Gazette. The imparted information on
history; ancient and modern science of agriculture, natural and physical sciences and advanced mathematics.

5. Tehzib-ul-Ikhlaq
on 24th December 1876 he issued his famous magazine named Tehzib-ul-Ikhlaq from Benares in order to apprise the
Muslims of their social evils and moral short comings. This journal contained articles from influential Muslims who
agreed with Sir Syed that there was a need for a new approach to education. This magazine also promoted Urdu
language immensely. Although some ulema attacked the journal, it played a major part in bringing about an intellectual
revolution amongst Muslim thinkers.

6. Muhammadan Anglo Oriental College, Aligarh

For the educational and social uplift of the Muslims Sir Syed Ahmed Khan decided to open Muslim educational
institutions. Earlier after his return from England he had established a Madrassah in May 1875. In January 1877 M.A.O
College was inaugurated at Aligarh by Lord Lytton the Viceroy of India. The college soon showed tremendous progress. It
became the Centre of Muslim educational and intellectual activity in the Sub Continent. It was a residential institution.
Many important Muslim figures like Maulana Shibli, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, Maulana
Muhammad Ali Jauhar etc at one time or another remained associated with this college.

7. Aligarh Muslim University

The M.A.O College Aligarh was rendering great service in imparting education to the Muslims of India. The Muslims now
wanted to get it elevated to the status of a Muslim University. In 1911 on the eve of the visit of King George – V to India
his Highness Sir Agha Khan made an appeal for funds needed to set up Aligarh University. The Muslims responded
generously and as a result a large collection was made. A draft constitution was drawn up and a consultative committee
was formed. Unfortunately the draft was not approved by the secretary of state. The Government was reluctant to grant
the right of affiliating colleges outside Aligarh to the proposed Aligarh University. But the Muslims were not willing to
accept a University with limited jurisdiction. However on 15th October 1915 Muslim University Association approved the
Muslim University as contemplated by the Government akin to other Hindu Universities. Thus the bill for the Muslim
University was introduced in the Indian Legislative Council and was passed in September 1920. Thus Aligarh University
Act came into force on 1st December 1920. In this way the Muslims of India came to have their own University after a
long struggle. The Aligarh University inculcated a vigorous spirit of nationalism in the Muslim students. It produced
thousands of graduates which carried the spirit of nationalism to every nook and comer of the Sub Continent. In 1925
sixty six percent of all the Muslim students admitted to the Indian University were given admission in Aligarh University
only. The graduates of Aligarh University were respected in all quarters. All the Aligarh students later on became the
standard bearers on Pakistan Movement. Some of them like Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar
and Maulana Shaukat Ali become dynamic leaders of the Muslims. Thus Pakistan, owes its establishment to the Aligarh
Movement, to a great extent.

Foreign Policy of Pakistan

No country today can think of a life independent of other nations. Every country has to develop relations with other
countries so as to meets its requirements in economical, industrial and technological fields. It is thus necessary for every
country to formulate a sound foreign policy. Pakistan is an important third world country in its developmental stage. It
also has formulated her foreign policy keeping in mind its geography, politics and economics.

DEFINITION OF FOREIGN POLICY

Foreign Policy can be defined as :
“Relations between sovereign states. It is reflection of domestic politics and an interaction among sovereign states. It
indicates the principles and preferences on which a country wants to establish relations with another country.”

PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN POLICY IN LIGHT OF QUAID-E-AZAM’S WORDS

The father of the nation, Quaid-e-Azam defined Foreign Policy towards other countries of the world in 1948,as follows:
” Our Foreign Policy is one of friendliness and good-will towards all the nations of the world. We do not cherish
aggressive designs against any country or nation. We believe in the policy of honesty and fair play in national and
international dealings and are prepared to make our outmost contribution to the promotion of peace and prosperity
among the nations of the world. Pakistan will never be found lacking in extending its material and moral support to the
oppressed and suppressed of the United Nations Charter.”

BASIC GOALS OF PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN POLICY

1. Maintenance of territorial integrity.
2. Maintenance of its political independence.
3. Acceleration of social and economic development.
4. Strengthening its place on the globe.
5. Keeping cordial and friendly relations with all countries.

GUIDING PRINCPLES OF PAKISTAN’S FPREIGN POLICY

Following are the principles of Pakistan’s Policy:

1. Protection of freedom and sovereignty

Pakistan came into being after great sacrifices of millions of Muslims, like any other country, she also considers with
deep regard the need for preservation of its independence and does not allow any country to harm its freedom.
Therefore, the principle of protection of independence and sovereignty is the corner stone of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy.

2. Cordial Relations with Muslim Countries

Pakistan always tries to establish cordial and friendly relations with Muslim countries. It has always moved its concern
against Israel, India and U.S.S.R capturing Palestine, Kashmir and Afghanistan respectively. She has shouldered high
responsibilities and used her influence for safeguarding the rights of the Muslims. Pakistan is also an active member of
the Islamic Conference.

3. Non Interference in Internal Affairs of Other countries

Pakistan has sought to establish normal and friendly relations with all countries especially its neighboring countries, on
the basis of universally acknowledge the principle of national sovereignty, on use of force, on-interference in the
internal affairs of state.

4. Implementation of U.N Charter

Pakistan’s policy is to act upon UN Charter and to support all moves by the UN to implement it. Pakistan has been the
member of UN since the year of its birth.

5. Promotion of World Peace

Pakistan policy is to promote peace among nations. It has no aggressive designs against any country. Neither does it
support any such action. Pakistan has always held that the international disputes should be settled through negotiations
rather than non-battlefield.

6. NON-ALIGNMENT
Pakistan follows the policy of Non-Alignment i.e. to keep away from alignment with any big power bloc and avoids
taking sides in the cold war. It has also given up its association with SEATO and CENTO and was included in NAM in 1979.

7. Support for Self-Determination and Condemnation of Racial Discrimination

Pakistan is a staunch supporter of the right of self-determination and has been in the fore front of efforts to eliminate
colonialism. It has advocated the right of self determination of Kashmir.

CONCLUSION
The guiding principles of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy are rooted in the country’s Islamic ideology, its rich cultural heritage
and historical experience. As an Islamic and non-aligned country, Pakistan supports Islamic causes and firmly upholds
the above mentioned principles, which hold out the promise of a just and equitable world order in which nations can live
in peace and security.

Pakistani Constitutional Amendments:

The Constitution is a living document which needs periodic amendment to meet ever changing social economics and
political challenges. Some of changes have been positive in nature while others have had a negative impact. it should
focus on strengthening the democratic Institutional framework of the State. During the last 37 years there have been 17
Amendments to the constitution .8 and 17th amended several articles.

It remains a sour fact that in the first five years after the introduction of the constitution on August 14, 1973, its mentor
Zulfikar Bhutto had polluted it with seven amendments. He remains the only prime minister who in his tenure
introduced such a good number of amendments in the constitution.

Nawaz Sharif made six attempts but succeeded in introducing five amendments. One was withdrawn. Mohammad Khan
Junejo succeeded in bringing two constitutional amendments out of three attempts. One of them was the notorious 8th
Amendment that enabled Gen Ziaul Haq to dissolve the National Assembly.

Benazir failed to secure the required two-thirds majority on two occasions while in power and thus could not inflict any
harm on the constitution. The National Assembly adopted the 1973 Constitution unanimously but the process to
introduce amendments in it began soon after. Six amendments were introduced in it between May 8, 1974 and Jan 4,
1977, and the seventh on May 16, 1977 in its short tenure.

On the fateful day of July 5, 1977 Gen Ziaul Haq, who suspended the constitution, also removed the Bhutto government.
The Supreme Court endorsed the action of the chief martial law administrator followed by authorisation to the CMLA to
inculcate necessary amendments in the constitution.

A number of constitutional amendments were incorporated between Feb 1979 and Jan 1985. Zia, however, issued the
order to end abrogation of the constitution on March 17, 1985, but by that time the basic ingredients of the constitution
had been altered.

Ziaul Haq organised the 1985 general elections on non-party basis. The assembly that came up after the elections had to
pass the 8th constitutional amendment that was necessary for its own survival.
Name of the Act: The Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1974
Date of enactment: May 8, 1974
Articles amended: 1, 8, 17, 61, 101, 127, 193, 199, 200, 209, 212, 259, 260,
272, and amendment of First Schedule
Nature of amendment: Most important amendments were to Article 1 where clause (2) was deleted from the
constitution. This clause referred to the representation of East Pakistan in the Federation of Pakistan. Since Bangladesh
had been recognized by Pakistan this amendment became necessary. Under these amendments, curbs were imposed on
political parties and they were barred from indulging in activities against the national interests, besides making it
mandatory on them to declare their sources of income. The power to transfer judge of a high court into another high
court was also obtained.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1974

Date of enactment: September 21, 1974
Articles amended: 106 and 260
A new clause was added after clause (2) in Article 260.
Nature of amendments: Amendment dealt with the definition of Muslim and Non-Muslim for legal purposes. Qadianis
were declares non-Muslim community and seats were reserved for them in assemblies.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Third Amendment) Act, 1975 [XXII of 1975]
Date of enactment: February 18, 1975
Articles amended: 10 and 232
- clauses (4), (5) and (7) of Article 10
amended.
- paragraph (b) of clause (7) in Article 232
Nature of amendments: – Under these amendments the executive was authorised to arrest and detain persons involved
in activities against national security for any period of time. The executive was also authorised to impose emergency in
the country through the joint session of the Parliament.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1975

Date of enactment: November 25, 1975
Articles amended: 8, 17, 19, 51, 54, 106, 199, 271, 272, 273, First schedule and Fourth Schedule
Nature of amendments: Under these amendments laws pertaining to fundamental rights were diluted and high courts
were barred from allowing bail to political detainees.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1976 [ LXII of 1976 ]
Date of enactment: September 15, 1976
Articles amended: 101, 160, 175, 179, 180, 187, 192, 195, 196, 199, 200, 204,
206, 212, 260, 280 and First Schedule.
Nature of amendments: Major amendment related to the status of the Governors, The Chief Justice and the
discretionary powers of the High Courts and Supreme Courts.Through these amendments the Bhutto government badly
impaired upon the working of an independent judiciary and the high court was stripped of the power to issue order on
fundamental rights. Among the amended articles, 10 pertained to the judiciary.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act, 1976 [ LXXXIV of 1976 ]
Date of enactment: January 4, 1977
Articles Amended: 179, 195, 246, 260
Nature of amendments: Under these amendments further curbs were imposed on the independence of judiciary and
retiring age of the Supreme Court and High Court judges was fixed at 65 and 62 years, respectively.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1977 [ XXIII of 1977 ]
Date of enactment: May 16, 1977
Articles amended: 101, 245
New Article inserted: 96 A [ceased to remain in force after September 30, 1977]
Nature of amendments: Under these amendments The prime minister was given the power of referendum to prove his
popularity and judiciary was restrained from touching issues pertaining to the armed forces.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Eight Amendment) Act, 1985 [ XVIII of 1985 ]
Date of enactment: November 11, 1985
Articles amended: 48, 51, 56, 58, 59, 60, 75, 91, 101, 105, 106, 112, 116, 130,
144, 152 A, 270 A and addition of new Schedule, the Sixth Schedule.
Nature of amendments: Under this amendment the parliamentary system of governance was tilted towards quasi-
presidential. The president was empowered to dissolve the National Assembly, appoint services chiefs of the armed
forces and governors and designate the prime minister.

Salient features of this comprehensive amendment are:

1. The president to be elected after the expiration of his term by members of electoral college consisting of

a. The members of both houses of parliament

b. Members of provincial assemblies

2. It shall be the duty of PM to communicate with the president on the decision of cabinet relations to the affinity of
the federation and proposals of legislation.

3. In exercise of his powers, President shall act in accordance with advice of PM and cabinet.

4. The president shall in the discretion in respect of any matter which he is empowered do so. If any question arises
whether any matter is or is not a matter in respect of which the president is empowered by the constitution, the
decision of the president shall be final.

5. At any line the president in his discretion or on the advice of PM can refer a matter of National importance of
referendum, in form of a question, i.e. capable of being answered by yes or no.

6. The senate shall consist of 187 members.

a. 14 shall be elected by the members of each provincial assembly.

b. 8 shall be elected from fata.

c. 3 shall be elected from federal capital

d. 5 shall be elected by members of each provincial assembly to represent ulma, technocrats and other professionals.

7. For removal of doubt it is declared that there is no limitation on the powers of parliament to amend by way of
addition, modification or repeat any of the provisions of the constitution.

Two power centers were created vast powers were vested in the president. Under these presidential powers, four
successive elected governments could not complete their constitutional terms.

The Constitution ( Ninth Amendment ) Bill, 1986

The constitution so as to provide that the injunction of islam shall be the supreme law and
to empower the Federal Shariat Court to make recommendation for bringing the fiscal laws
and collection of taxes. The ninth amendment in the constitution was presented in the National Assembly in 1986 but it
could not be approved.
Name of the Act: The Constitution (Tenth Amendment) Act, 1987 [ I of 1987 ]
Date of enactment: March 29, 1987
Articles amended: 54 and 61
Nature of amendments: Under amendment of Article 54 and 61 working days in a
year of National Assembly and the Senate were curtailed form 160 to 130.

The Constitution (Eleventh Amendment)Bill 1989

The 11th amendment was tabled in 1988 but it could not be passed. In that amendment bill, the restoration of special
seats for women was proposed.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) Act, 1991 [ XIV of 1991 ]
Date of enactment: July 28, 1991
New Article inserted: 212 B
Provisions amended: Fifth Schedule.
Nature of amendments: Amendment to constitute special courts for heinous crimes as well as increase the pay of Court
Judges.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Thirteenth Amendment) Act, 1997 [I of 1997]
Date of enactment: April 3, 1997
Article amended: 58, 101, 112, 243
Nature of amendments: The 13th constitutional amendment became effective on April 4, 1997. Through this
amendment the powers of dissolving the assemblies were taken back from the president and vested in the prime
minister. This amendment was made with mutual agreement of the government and opposition.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Fourteenth Amendment) Act, 1997

[XXIV of 1997]
Date of enactment: July 3, 1997
New Article inserted: 63A
Nature of amendments: Through this amendment the political parties were empowered to terminate the Parliament
membership of their members involved in floor crossing to strengthen the political parties.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Fifteenth Amendment) Act, 1998

Date of enactment: August 28, 1998
New Article Inserted: 2B
Nature of Amendment: Through this amendment, the Holy Quran and Sunnah were declared the guiding principles for
running government. In view of the fact that the Objectives Resolution is now substantive part of the Constitution. and
the Government is empowered to take necessary steps to enforce Shariah. Under the banner of Islamic system, Nawaz
Sharif tried to get absolute powers. This amendment was passed by the National Assembly but could not be passed in
the Senate.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Sixteenth Amendment) Act, 1999

Date of enactment: August 5, 1999
New Article Inserted: 27
Nature of Amendment: The 16th constitutional amendment became effective in 1990. Through this amendment period
of the quota system was extended up to 2013 in order to safeguard minorities and civil rights. Only the Muttahida
Qaumi Movement (MQM) voted against the move.

Name of the Act: The Constitution (Seventeenth Amendment) Act, 2002

Date of enactment: August 21, 2002
New Article Inserted: 41, 58, 112, 152A, 179, 195, 243, 268 and 270AA
Nature of Amendment Amendments made to the constitution for the perpetuation of Rule by Gen. Musharraf. These
amendments were augmented by the inclusion of the Legal Framework Order (LFO) into the constitution.
Some salient features of this comprehensive amendment are:

1. 13th amendment cancelled- 5b-2-b reinstated by president

2. Article 243 re-implemented- app. Of service chiefs

3. voters age 18 years

4. National assembly 332 – 60 women – 10 minorities

5. Senate 100 members – 6 years term

6. Bank defaulters cannot contest in elections

7. Disqualification in case of voting against party policy

8. Joint electorate

9. Musharraf as president and army chief for five years

10. National security council P, PM, Chair Senate, leader of opposition and all chief ministers, speakers, strategic issue,
defense, dams, good governance, provincial coordination.

11. Next elections under interim government to strengthen PM

12. Local governments protected through constitution

13. NAB and State Bank of Pakistan given constant protection

14. Governor can dissolve the provincial assembly

15. Reforms and restrictions on parliamentary parties elections.

16. Assembly approval not needed for this amendment (though it was taken ultimately and passed in parliament) LFO
was made a regular part of constitution through 17 th amendment. It remains so. Nowadays 18 th amendment is
awaited to bring the constitution of 1973 back to its original position.

Islamic Provisions of Constitution of 1973

On 7th April, 1972 the national assembly of Pakistan appointed a committee to prepare a draft of the permanent
constitution of Pakistan. A bill to provide a constitution was introduced by the committee in the Assembly on February 2,
1973.The Assembly passed the bill on 19th April, 1973 and at last the constitution came into force on 14th August 1973.
The present constitution (1973) provides for the protection and preservation of Islamic Concept of life. It also attempts
to propagate and implement the basic teachings of Islam.

ISLAMIC PROVISIONS OF 1973 CONSTITUTION

The following are the Islamic provisions of 1973 constitution based on the principles of Holy Quran and Sunnah.

1. Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Pakistan shall be known as “Islamic Republic of Pakistan”.

2. State Religion
Islam shall be the state religion of Pakistan.

3. Sovereignty Belongs to Allah

Sovereignty over the entire Universe belongs to Almighty Allah and the authority bestowed by him on men is a sacred
trust which the people of Pakistan will exercise with the limits prescribed by Quran and Sunnah.

4. Definition of a Muslim
The constitution also gives the definition of a Muslim.A person who believes in Tauheed or Oneness of Allah,and in the
prophet hood of Hazrat Mohammad (P.B.U.H) as the last prophet of Allah has described as aMuslim.

5. A Muslim to be a President and Prime Minister

The constitution lay down that only Muslims shall be elected president and Prime Minister of Pakistan. No non-Muslim
could hold these offices.

6. Islamic way of life

Steps shall be given to enable the Muslims of Pakistan to order their lives in accordance with the fundamental principles
and basic concepts of Islam.

7. Promotion of Social Justice and Eradication of Social Evils

The State shall take necessary steps for prosecution of social justice and eradication of social evils and shall prevent
prostitution, gambling and taking of injurious drugs, printing, publication, circulation and display of obscene literature
and advertisements.

8. Teachings of Holy Quran

The state shall try to make the teachings of Holy Quran and Islamiat compulsory to encourage and facilitate the learning
of Arabic language.

9. Strengthing Bond, with Muslim World

The state shall Endeavour to strengthen fraternal relations among Muslim countries in order to promote Islamic unity.

10. Council of Islamic Ideology

There is a council of Islamic Ideology which shall guide the government in respect of Islamic teachings, their
implementation and propagation. Its chairman and members are appointed by President. Although its advice is not
binding on the government yet it is not easy for any government to ignore or over rule its suggestion or opinion
regarding any law.

11. Error Free Publication of Quran

The government shall Endeavour to secure correct and exact printing and publishing of the Holy Quran.

12. Oath to Project and Promote Islamic Ideology

The federal and Provincial Ministers, the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the National and Provincial Assemblies, the
chairman of the Senate and the Governors and Chief Ministers of the Provinces also take oath to preserve and protect
the Islamic Ideology.

13.Ahmadi’s A Non Muslim Minority

According to the second amendment of 1973 constitution, the Qadiani group or the Lahori group who call themselves
“Ahmadi’s ” were declared as Non-Muslim minority.

CONCLUSION
The 1973 constitution enlisted the main principles of State Policy Maximum efforts were made to improve the character
of this constitution. Like other constitutions, 1973 constitution of Pakistan also provides for the protection, propagation
and enforcement of Islamic Ideology.

Cultural Heritage of Pakistan

In the development of any nation. Its cultural heritage and its glorious past plays a vital role and serves as a source of
inspiration and pride for t=its people. Our country Pakistan is accordingly proud of its cultural heritage.

DEFINITION OF CULTURE
Culture may be defined as behavior peculiar to human beings, together with material objects used. Culture consists of
language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institution, tools, techniques, works of arts, ceremonies and so on. According to
Allama Iqbal:
“Culture encompasses all the mental, spiritual and physical activities of a nation. It includes the basic beliefs and faith,
values and literature, art and architecture, music and mode of dress, manners and customs prevalent in a given society.”

PAKISTANI CULTURE IS A ISLAMIC CULTURE

Pakistan is an Ideological Islamic State. Its very existence is due to Islam, so the Pakistani culture is primarily based on
the Islamic way of life. All other ingredients of culture are inspired by Islam. Pakistani culture is highlighted by its
grandeure, simplicity, firm convictions and noble deeds and ideas.

ARCHAELOGICAL HERITAGE
Pakistan has been the cradle of civilization that dates back more than five millennium. Over the centuries, through
successive waves of migrations from the North West, as well as by internal migrations across the Sub Continent, Aryans,
Persians, Greeks, Arabs and Mughals came and settled in the region and have left behind the archaeological sites in
Pakistan which is now being preserved. A brief review of the different civilizations which flourished and then perished
with the passage of time is as under:

Moen- jo- Daro

Moen-jo-Daro is situated at a distance of some kilometers from Larkana. A civilization flourished there some 4000 years
ago. It was discovered by Sir John Marshall in 1922.Moen jo Daro stands as most spectacular of all the excavate cities of
the Indus valley civilization. It is strange that at its glory, it was a beautiful city with brick walled houses, pillared halls,
markets, baths, lanes, streets and public places. Every house had walls, drains and bathrooms inside it.

Harappa
Harappa is situated in the city o Sahiwal. Scientist and archaeologists believe that Harappa also belongs to the Indus
valley civilization. Remains of this city were excavated in the 1920.

Gandhara
It is comparatively a new civilization, the regions comprising Northern Punjab, Peshawar valley and Eastern Afghanistan
was known as Gandhara. For a long time it remained the meeting place of various ancient cultures, as it was rule by
many rulers. A distinctive art which is known as Gandhara Art took place from here and flourished during the 2nd and
3rd century of Christian era. Thousand monasteries and stupas were widely built here Buddha’s figures, shapes and
monasteries all made prominent features of Gandhara Arts.

Buddhist Remains
The Buddhist era ushered in some 500 years B.C. The Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi is in N.W.F.P .It dates 2-5 century
old. Some mounds were also found near Peshawar which represent Kanishka’s mighty Pakistan. An impressive complex
of Chapels, Stupas, quadrangles and monk’s cells are also found. The great Buddhist civilization now forming the
heritage of the present Pakistan culture.

Taxila
It was excavated in recent times near Rawalpindi. Taxila is the most popular name in history.It came into prominence
during the Persian occupation. At its zenith, the city was the nucleus of religious and cultural activities.

Thatta
The main town of Thatta is famous for specimens of Indo-Muslim architecture in the Sub Continent.Noteable among
them are the great mosque built by Shah-Jahan. The principle monuments of Thatta are located on the Makli Hill.

ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE
Lahore Fort
It is also known as Shahi Qila.It was built by Akbar. The main structure inside the fort are the Moti Masjid, Diwan-e-Aam,
Maktab Khana, the Shish Mahal and Nawlakha. The Hathi and Alamgir gates are also remarkable constructions.

Badshahi Mosque
It was built by Aurangzeb. Its architecture is similar to the Jamia Masjid Delhi. The mosque has been built with red
stones while the domes are in marble.

Jahangir Tomb
This tomb was built by Shah Jahan. It is known as a fine building of Lahore.

Shalimar Garden
It is situated on the Grand Trunk Road and is a magnificent remnant of Mughal Grandeur. The garden constitutes of
three terraces, one above the other. Besides there is an elaborate and beautiful reservoir, water channels and fountains.

Masjid Wazir Khan

It is situated in Kashmir Baazar inside the walls of the old city. It was built by Nawab Wazir Khan who was a viceroy of
Punjab under Shah Jahan.

Golden Mosque
It is situated near the Masjid Wazir Khan .It was built during the rule of Mohammad Shah and it is also a very beautiful
piece of architecture.

Mahabat Khan Mosque

This Mosque was built by a Government of Peshawar. Mahabat Khan, during Shah Jahan’s reign. It has a fine massive
structured with lofty minarets.

The Fort of Bala Hasar

This fort was built on raised platform 92 feet from the ground level. There are two gardens near the fort.

HERITAGE IN FINE ARTS

Paintings
The art of painting has developed slowly in the Muslim of South Asia. In the beginning decorative paintings and
embroidery were made on the walls and ceilings of buildings. The Mughal rulers were very fond of paintings. The
traditional art of painting occupies a prominent place in the people of Pakistan. Abdul Rehman Chughtai, Haji
Mohammad Sharif, Jamil Nagshare are the most distinguished painters.

Calligraphy
The Muslim took a keen interest in the promotion of calligraphy. Its main reason is their deep love with Holy Quran.
During this period many kinds of calligraphy progressed. The mosques constructed during early and medieval periods of
Islam were decorated with masterpieces of calligraphy.

Music
The Mughal contributed a great deal to the promotion of music and Pakistan has inherited musical traditions that go far
back in history. Ameer Khusro and Tansain are famous musicians of the historical era.

Architecture and Sculpture

The Muslim art of architecture was unique in every aspect. The architecture and all the miniature arts including carving,
sculpture, mosaic works, tile works and paintings were called upon to build new mosques and places.

CONCLUSION
In the development of Pakistan society, its cultural heritage has played a vital role. Pakistani nation is justly proud of the
historical period which brings with nearly 4th century B.C and continued with the advent of Islam in Sub Continent in 8th
century A.D.

“Our cultural heritage expresses courage, patients and hard life. They all are in connection with life which is a
fundamental part of Islamic teachings.”

Salient Features of Pakistani Culture

DEFINITION OF CULTURE
Culture may be defined as behavior peculiar to human beings, together with material objects used. Culture consists of
language, ideas, beliefs, customs, codes, institution, tools, techniques, works of arts, ceremonies and so on. According to
Allama Iqbal:“Culture encompasses all the mental, Spiritual and Physical activities of a Nation. It includes the basic
beliefs and faith, values and literature, art and architecture, music and mode of dress, manners and customs prevalent
in a given Society.”

PAKISTANI CULTURE IS A ISLAMIC CULTURE

Pakistan is an ideological Islamic State. Its very existence is due to Islam, so the Pakistani culture is primarily based on
the Islamic way of life. All other ingredients of culture are inspired by Islam. Pakistani culture is highlighted by its
grandeur, simplicity, firm convictions and noble deeds and ideas.

SALIENT FEATURES OF PAKISTANI CULTURE

The main characteristics of Pakistani culture are as follows:

1. Religious Uniformity
Pakistan came into existence to provide its people a system of life based on Islam.The people ,in spite of some
differences of languages, customs and traditions commonly follow one religion of Islam.This is the religion,which is
practiced by all people of Pakistan.

2. Language
A number of languages are spoken in Pakistan. Some of them are Punjabi, Sindhi, Pushto and Baluchi. But Urdu is spoken
and understands in all parts of Pakistan. Being the official language, it is the media of communication between all
regions of Pakistan.

3. Literatur and Poetry

Literature is an important aspect of our cultural life. Most of our poets reflect Islamic code and trend in their poetry.
They gave the message of love and brotherhood. Similarity of thoughts amongst poets and writers of all regions is an
important factor of our cultural life.

4. Dress and Diet

Dress is an important manifestation of culture. The regional dresses of Pakistan undergo changes in the light of local
traditions, economic conditions, way of living and wealth in the region. But in all provinces people generally wear
Shalwar Qameez.
Our eating habits, foods and social etiquette are strictly in conformity with Islamic principles.

5. Mixed Culture
Pakistani culture is a mixed culture although majority of people are Muslims by birth and faith .But there is great
influence of Hindu and British culture on the present Pakistani society.

6. Male Dominated Society

In Pakistani culture the male member of the family enjoys the key position.Family is headed by a male member and in
most cases, he is the soul sources of income for other members of the family.

7. Arts and Architecture

The iconoclasm of Islam has given a characteristic form and pattern in the use of elwgant designs,based on geometric
figures and floral forms borrowed from nature.The Shah Jahan Masjid,Shalimar Garden,Badshahi Masjid,Shahi Qila and
many such graceful buildings are a living proof of the exellent Mughal architecture.

8. Handicrafts
Embroidery, Leather works, glazed pottery, wood work, carpet making, metal crafts, ivory are the essential parts of our
culture. Pakistani craftsmen are considered as the best in their craftsmanship. They are known for the high quality works
which is very popular in foreign countries.

9. Recreational Activities-Sports
The recreational activities all over the Pakistan are common. The games like wrestling, hockey, cricket, football, squash,
Kabaddi etc are popular in every part of our country. These games reflect our cultural identity.

10. Education
Education contributes a great deal in developing national character. Educational system plays a vital role in the
formation of culture,unity and solidarity of a nation. It is, therefore, important that the entire syllabi right from the
lower to higher level should be placed in accordance with the ideology of Pakistan.

11. Religious Festivals

Festivals play an important part of our culture. Eid-ul-Fitr and Eid-ul-Azha are our two main religious festivals .They are
celebrated with great happiness throughout the country.

12. Ulema, Mushaikh and Sufi Poets

Ulema, Mashaikh and Sufi Poets occupy an honored place in our cultural aspect of life. Sufis like Lal Shahbaz, Data Ganj
Baksh, Shah Abdul Lateef, Sachal Sarmast, Hazrat Sultan Bahu and Waris Shah rendered meritorious services for the
spread of Islam in the Sub Continent.

CONCLUSION
Culture which includes religion, literature art, architecture, dresses, music, manners and customs has its roots in the
Islamic culture. Islam has described the rights and duties of every individual. Even in drinking, eating and dressing, we
have to observe certain rules prescribed by Islam. So it may be said that Pakistani culture represents the true picture of
Islamic culture.
 TWO NATION THEORY
Meaning of Two Nation Theory
The Two Nation Theory in its simplest way means the cultural, political, religious, economic and social dissimilarities
between the two major communities. Hindus and Muslims of the Sub Continent. These differences of outlook, in fact,
were greatly instrumental in giving rise to two distinct political ideologies which were responsible for the partition of
India into two independent states.

THE BASIS OF THE CREATION OF PAKISTAN

The Two Nation Theory was the basis of the struggle for creation of Pakistan which held that Hindus and Muslims are
two separate Nations. They in spite of living together for centuries could not forget their individual cultures and
civilization. Al-Beruni recorded his ideas in 1001 A.D in his famous book “Kitab-ul-Hind” as:
“The Hindus society maintained this peculiar character over the centuries. The two societies, Hindus and Muslims, like
two streams have sometimes touched but never merged, each following its separate course.”
There are a few factors which split the inhabitants of the Sub Continent into two Nations. Let us examine each of them
separately.

1. Religious Differences
The Hindus and Muslims belong to different religions. Islam preaches Tawheed (oneness of Allah) and believes in
equality of man before law. Muslims are the believers of God, The Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) the Holy Book Quran and hold
a cohesive approach towards life.
Hinduism, on the other hand is based on the concept of multiple Gods. Their society follows a caste system and is
divided into four classes and has a very narrow approach towards life.

2. Hindu Nationalism
A number of Hindu nationalist movements, which emerged from time to time in the Indian history, added fuel to the fire
by playing up the tension and antagonism which already existed between the two communities.
The Hindu nationalist leaders totally ignored the great contribution made by the Muslims in the Indian society by way of
promoting education and other social activities. Their writings and ideas flared up the communal discord between
Hindus and Muslims to further pollute the political condition.

3. Cultural Differences
Muslim followed the Islamic culture while Hindus inherited a self build culture. The Hindus burnt their dead bodies while
Muslims burred them. Hindus considered the ‘Mother cow’ as a sacred animal and worshiped it while Muslims
slaughtered it. They did not perform ’sati’ while Muslims abhorred this tradition .The Hindus and Muslims did not
intermarry nor they inter-dine.

4. Social Differences
The two communities of the Sub Continent differ in their social life as well. The clothes, the foods, the household
utensils, the layout of homes, the words of salutation, the gestures and everything about them was different and
immediately pointed to their distinctive origin.

5. Economics Differences
After 1857,the Muslim economic was crushed and all trade policies were framed in such a way so as to determent the
Muslim condition .They were thrown out of Government services and the their estates and properties were confiscated,
while the Hindus were provided with ample opportunities to progress economically.

6. Educational Differences
The Hindus had advanced in the educational field because they quickly and readily took the English education. While
Muslims did not receive modern education which heavily affected their economic conditions.
7. Political Differences
The political differences between the Hindus and Muslims have played an important role in the development and
evolution of Two Nation Theory.
(i) Hindi Urdu Controversy
In 1867, Hindus demanded that Urdu should be written in Hindi Script instead of Persian script. This created another gap
between Hindus and Muslims.
(ii) Congress Attitude
The Indian national Congress was founded in 1885.It claimed to represent all communities of India but oppressed all
Muslim ideas and supported the Hindus.
(iii) Partition of Bengal
In 1905, the partition of Bengal ensured a number of political benefits for the Muslims, but the Hindus launched an
agitation against the partition and partition was annulled in 1911.

8. Language
The Muslims and Hindus wrote and spoke two different languages .The language of the former was Urdu and it was
written in Arabic Script. On the other hand, the Hindi language was spoken by Hindus and it was written in Sanskrit. Urdu
and Hindi language had the difference in writing, thoughts of poetry, arts, painting and words of music. Even this small
difference lead to a stirring conflict between the two nations.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan-The Pioneer of Two Nation Theory

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, the pioneer of two nation theory, used the word ‘two nation’ for Hindus and Muslims after being
convinced of the Hindus and Congress hatred, hostility and prejudice for the Muslims.

The entire freedom movement revolved around the two nation theory which was introduced by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan.
He considered all those lived in India as one nation and was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity. Speaking at the
meeting of Indian Association he said:“I look to both Hindus and Muslims with the same eyes and consider them as my
own eyes. By the word ‘Nation’ I mean only Hindus and Muslims and nothing else, We, Hindus and Muslims live together
on the same soil under the same government. Our interests and problems are common, and therefore, I consider the
two factions as one nation.”

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan did his best to make the Muslims realize their differences with the Hindus with regard to religions,
social and language national and international identity and for this purpose he diverted attention of the Indian Muslims
towards a new idea of “Two Nation” or “Two entities.”

After Hindi-Urdu controversy Sir Syed felt that it was not possible for Hindus and Muslims to progress as a single nation.
He said:” I am convinced now that Hindus and Muslims could never become one nation as their religion and way of life
was quite distinct from each other.”

TWO NATION THEORY IN THE VIEW OF ALLAMA IQBAL

Allama Iqbal was the first important figure who propounded the idea of separate homeland on the basis of two nation
theory. He firmly believed in the separate identity of the Muslims as a nation and suggested that there would be no
possibility of peace in the country unless and until they were recognized as a nation. In the annual session of Muslim
League at Allahabad in 1930, he said:“India is a continent of human beings belonging to different languages and
professing different religions … I, therefore, demand the formation of a consolidated Muslim state in the best interests
of the Muslims of India and Islam.”

QUAID-E-AZAM’S STATEMENT ON TWO NATION THEORY

The most clear and emphatic exposition is found in Jinnah’s statement and speeches. He expounded the two nation
theory in such detail that most Muslims and even some Hindus came to believe in its truth. He declared:
” Muslims are not a minority; they are one nation by every definition of the word nation. By all canons of international
law we are a nation.”
Quaid-e-Azam reiterated that Hindus and Muslims could ever evolve a common nationality was on idle dream. They are
a totally different nation .They have an unbridgeable gulf between them and they stand miles apart in regards to their
ideals, culture and religion. In 1973, he said:“Hindustan is neither one country, nor its inhabitant’s one nation. This is Sub
Continent which consists of many nations of which the Hindus and Muslims are two major nations.”

CONCLUSION
The Muslims apprehended that they would lose their identity if they remained a part of Hindu society. They also came to
realize the above mentioned differences between them and the Hindus and hence demanded separate electorate on the
ground that they were different nation from Hindus.

Hence it is right to say that this theory i.e. two nation theory is the basis of the creation of Pakistan because without this
as a base, Pakistan would not come into being on 14th August, 1947, and we would not be breathing freely in this open
air of Pakistan.

Khilafat Movement [1919-1924]

The Lucknow pact showed that it was possible for middle-class; English educated Muslims and Hindus to arrive at an
amicable settlement on Hindu-Muslim constitutional and political problems. This unity reached its climax during the
Khilafat and the Non-Cooperation Movements. After World War I, the Ottoman Empire faced dismemberment. Under
the leadership of the Ali Brothers, Maulana Muhammad Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali, the Muslims of South Asia
launched the historic Khilafat Movement to try and save it. Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi linked the issue of Swaraj
with the Khilafat issue to associate Hindus with the movement. The ensuing movement was the first countrywide
popular movement. The Muslims of India had a strong feeling of identity with the world community of Islam. They had
seen the decline in the political fortunes of Islam as the European powers conquered the Muslim lands one after the
other. The Anglo-Russian convention of 1908 had reduced their next-door neighbor Iran to a mere dependency.
Afghanistan also suffered as it was a bone of contention between Russia and Britain, and was now under the latter’s
sphere of influence.

The general impression among the Muslims of India was that the western powers were waging a war against Islam
throughout the world in order to rob it of all its power and influence. The Ottoman Empire was the only Muslim power
that had maintained a semblance of authority and the Muslims of India wanted to save the Islamic political power from
extinction.

As an institution, the Khilafat had a checkered past. It had originally migrated from Medina to Damascus and from
Damascus to Baghdad. For some time it was located in Egypt, then it fell to the lot of Turkey, very much as a prize. The
Turkish Sultans had claimed to be the caliphs of the Muslim world. As long as the Mughal Empire had been in existence,
the Muslims of India had not recognized their claim.

At this critical juncture, when the Muslims of the Sub-continent had no sovereign ruler of their own, they began to see
the necessity of recognizing the Sultan of Turkey as their caliph. Tipu Sultan was the first Indian Muslim who, having
been frustrated in his attempts to gain recognition from the Mughals had turned to the Sultan of Turkey to establish a
legal right to his throne.

The European powers had played a leading role in reducing the might of Turkey in Europe to Eastern Thrace,
Constantinople and the straits in the Balkan Wars (1912-13). To seek revenge, the Turks decided to side with the
Germans against the Allied Forces. The Indian Muslims supported this decision. Muhammad Ali argued that for Muslims
to accept mandates over Iraq, Syria and Palestine would amount to a total disregard of the wishes of the Holy Prophet
(S. A. W.). Thus the Muslims of India launched the Tehrik-i-Khilafat. The objectives were as follows:

1. To maintain the Turkish Caliphate.

2. To protect the holy places of the Muslims.
3. To maintain the unity of the Ottoman Empire.

There was absolute unanimity among the Indian Muslims. Though separated from Turkey by thousands of miles, they
were determined to fight Turkey’s battle from India.

Rioting started in Amritsar on April 10, 1919. On April 13, 1919, a crowd assembled at the Jalianwala Bagh.

These protestors were unaware of a ban that had just been imposed by the martial law administrators on public
meetings. Sir Michael O’Duiyer opened fire on the crowd, resulting in 379 dead and 1,200 wounded. This incident is
known as the Jalianwala

Bagh Tragedy.

When the terms of the Treaty of Serves were announced in 1920, it caused deep resentment among the Muslims. They
felt betrayed. In June 1920, 90 influential Muslims wrote to Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy, informing him of their intent
to start a non-cooperation movement against the government from August, until the terms of the treaty with Turkey
were revised. General Duiyer opened fire on the crowd assembled at Jalianwala Bagh But this was to no avail as the
British Prime Minister Lloyd George was an implacable enemy of Turkey and by association, of the Indian Khilafat
Movement. When the Indian Khilafat deputation visited England in 1920 to put their views before the British
Government, he ignored them and the deputation met with failure.

A tragic offshoot of the Khilafat Movement was the Hijrat Movement proposed by Jamiyat-al- Ulema-i-Hind. When a
land is not safe for Islam, a Muslim has two options; Jihad or Hijrat. Around 925 eminent Muslims signed this fatwa.
According to one version, the idea of Hijrat was originated from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.

Another tragic event was the Moplah Uprising. In mid of August 1921, agrarian riots broke out in Nilambur. The Moplah
peasants revolted against the Hindu landlord’s oppressive policies, which are in alliance with the British. The Hindu
landlords redistributed their lands and the Moplahs, who had been suffering, rose in revolt. A pitched battle between
the British regiment and the Moplahs killed several Europeans. Four thousand Moplahs were killed in action and tens of
thousands were injured.

Then there was the notorious Moplah Train Tragedy. Around a hundred prisoners, confined in a closed and almost
airtight goods van, were transported by rail. When the door was opened, 66 Moplahs were found suffocated to death
and the remaining 34 were on the verge of collapse.

All this was followed by Hindu-Muslim communal clashes, particularly in Multan and Bengal in September 1922. The
Sanghattan and Shuddi movements were offshoots of these communal rioting, which were anti-Muslim and aimed at
Hindu revivalism.

Besides other events, the arrest of the Ali brothers in September 1921 gave a severe blow to the Khilafat Movement.
Gandhi, who was using this movement to accelerate India’s advance towards Swaraj, also withdrew his support for the
Muslim cause in the aftermath of the Chauri Chaura incident in February 1922. Using the excuse that the national
volunteers were responsible for the murder of 21 policemen, thus leading to violence, he called off the whole
movement. In 1924, Turks under Mustafa Kamal were consolidating their position in Turkey. They announced an end to
the Khilafat. It was a great blow to Indian Khilafatists who had been campaigning on behalf of Turkey and Khilafat.
Gradually the enthusiasm of the people died down and the Khilafat Conference and Committee developed new interests
and in a short time nothing but their name remained.

Although the Khilafat Movement failed to achieve its declared objectives, it carried political awakening to large masses
of Muslims. It was during the Khilafat days that representatives of Indian Muslims came into contact with eminent
personages from other Muslims countries to save the semblance of unity in the world of Islam. The Khilafat Movement
was an asset for the struggle of Pakistan. It made clear to the Indian Muslims to trust neither the British nor the Hindus,
but to look to their own strengths for self-preservation.