Old English Orthography

Here is a list of the letters of the OE alphabet with a brief indication of the pronunciation. Some letters in
OE represented more than one sound, but pronunciation and spelling were much closer in OE than in
MnE. OE spelling did not distinguish long and short vowels; however, modern editors sometimes place a
macron (e.g. Õ) over long vowels to help students.

OE Spelling OE Word and OE Sound MnE Word with

MnE Translation (IPA Symbol) Similar Sound to OE

Vowels
<i> bringan bring /i/ bring
biddan bid /ȏ/ bid
rídan ride /i:/ machine
<y> hyll hill /y/ French tu
hǴf hive /y:/ French lune
<e> Dene Danes /e/ date
elm elm /Ȁ/ elm
fÕdan feed /e:/ wade
brocen broken /Ǿ/ broken
<æ> æsc ash /æ/ cat
clƥne clean /æ:/ bad
<a> sacc sack /a/ American English sock
gÃt goat /a:/ American English cod
<o> ofer over /o/ goat
fox fox /ǹ/ for
gďs goose /o:/ goad
<u> duguþ retainers /u/ hoop
ful full /ȯ/ full
fĭl foul /u:/ fool
<ea> earnian earn /ȀǾ/ no equivalent
east east /ȀǾ:/ no equivalent
<eo> eorþ earth /eǾ/ no equivalent
prÕost priest /eǾ:/ no equivalent

Notes:
1. The short vowels i, u, e, and o probably varied between tense and lax pronunciations depending upon the
surrounding consonants, just as they do in MnE. Since we don’t know precisely what the rules were, it is
safe to follow MnE principles most of the time, as indicated in the examples.
2. In unaccented syllables <e> was pronounced /Ǿ/.
 Consonants
<c> col coal /k/ coal, king
or
ÍiriÍe church /tȨ/ church
<f> fisÍ, ãif /f/ fishm if
or
<f> heofon /v/ heaven
<g> gat goat /g/ goat
or
ãeong young /j/ young
or
bog bough /Ȉ/ no equivalent
<cg> heÍã hedge /dȷ/ hedge
<þ> and <ð> þæc or ðæc thatch /Ț/ thatch
or
feþer or feðer feather /ð/ feather
<s> sendan send always /s, never /z/ send
<sc> sÍip ship /Ȩ/ ship
<h> her here /h/ here
or (before dental sounds)
sihþ sight /x/ Scottish loch, German Bach

The letter <f> was pronounced /f/ at the beginnings and ends of words; elsewhere it was pronounced /v/.
The letters <b, d, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, t, w, x, z> have the same values as MnE. <k, q, z> were rarely used.
Modern editions sometimes use <Í> and <ã> to indicate the palatal pronunciations /tȨ/ and /dȷ/ which in
OE occur when the letters come before and after <i, e, æ>.
Old English Grammar

We have already seen that OE was more heavily inflected than MnE. Grammatical function was signalled by
endings. For nouns, pronouns, and adjectives these endings conformed to four categories called cases. The
main functions of the four cases are demonstrated below. Translations are word for word, rather than MnE
word order.

Nominative Case:
Subject: SÕo stďw is ãehÃten ‘Heofenfeld’ on Englisc.
That place is called ‘Heavenfield’ in English.

Subject Complement: BÕowulf is mín nama.

Beowulf is my name.

Direct Address: Cedmon, sing mÕ hwætwugu.

Cædmon, sing me something.

Accusative Case:
Direct Object: HÕ þone fÕond ofercwďm.
He that enemy overcame.

Object of a Preposition: Ða mec sƥ oþbær on Finna land.

(Indicating Motion) Then me (the) sea bore into (the) Finns’ land.

Genitive Case:
Possessive: Godes mildheornys us forestæpð.
God’s mercy us precedes.

Genitive of Measure: Þƥr wearþ Círus ofslæãen ond twà þĭsend monna mid him.
Then was Cyrus slain and two thousand men with him.

Dative Case:
Object of a Preposition: Críst was on rďde.
Christ was on cross.

Indirect Object: Se kyng þa ãÕaf gryð ĎlÃfe.

The king then gave truce [to] Olaf.

The cases have other uses, but they are less common than the ones listed above. As the Old English period
progressed, the distinction between the use of the accusative and the dative after prepositions began to break
down, and the forms were increasingly confused.
Exercise 1
The passage on the next page is a fairly literal translation from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, about half the
entry for the year 894. The noun phrases and pronouns that appear in parentheses are listed below the text
with the cases used in the original OE text. Explain the choice of case for each by naming the function of
the noun or pronoun of the sentence as listed above.

894. And then immediately after that, in this year, the Viking army (se here) marched from Wirral in on
the Welsh, because they were not able to stay there: that was because they were deprived of both cattle
(þæs Íeapes) and the grain (þæs cornes) which they [the English] had captured. When they (híe) turned
back out from the Welsh with the plunder (þũre herehƲðe) which they had seized there, they then
marched over the Northumbrians’ (Norðhymbra) land (lond) and also the East Anglians’, so that the
[English] army (sÕo fird) could not reach them (híe) – until they came on the eastern part of the East
Saxons’ land onto an island (an íãland) that is out on the sea (þũre sũ), which (þæt) is called Mersea.

1. se here nominative subject

2. þæs Íeapes genitive
3. þæs cornes genitive
4. híe nominative
5. þƥre herehǴðe dative
6. Norðhymbra genitive
7. lond accusative
8. sÕo fird nominative
9. híe accusative
10. an íãland accusative
11. þƥre sƥ dative
12. þæt nominative

The form of every noun can be parsed (interpreted) according to three criteria: case, number (singular or
plural), and gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter). In MnE we have to select the correct pronoun, he, she,
or it according to the sex, or lack of sex of the referent. This is called natural gender. In OE, nouns for
things that today are all neuter, and nouns for a male or female person, might be masculine, feminine, or
neuter. For example, sunne (sun) was feminine, mona (moon) was masculine, and wif (woman) and Íild
(child) were neuter. This is called grammatical gender. The importance of gender can be seen if we place
the nominative singular form of the word for ‘the’ before these nouns: se mona, sÕo sunne, þæt wif, þæt Íild.
Definite articles (‘the’, in Modern English) and adjectives agree in gender, as well as case and number, with
the nouns to which they refer.
Nouns

The different forms of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives can be organised into paradigms called
declensions. There are two main categories of nouns, strong and weak. There are several declensions of
strong nouns (some with sub-declensions). Theoretically, you should be able to identify which declension a
noun belongs to by its endings. But in OE many declensions have some of the same endings, so, if you were
to try and learn OE, you would just have to memorise which nouns belong to which declensions. In fact,
linguistic reconstruction reveals that membership is determined by what the stem of the word in PrGmc,
although the stem has often disappeared before the beginning of the OE period. Declensions are named
after the original stem. Some declensions do not contain nouns of all three genders.

Strong Nouns

a-stems
Masculine Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nom. dæã ‘day’ dagas stÃn ‘stone’ stÃnas
Acc. dæã dagas stÃn stÃnas
Gen. dæães daga stÃnes stÃna
Dat. dæãe dagum stÃne stÃnum

Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural

Nom. scip ‘ship’ scipu scÕap ‘sheep’ scÕap
Acc. scip scipu scÕap scÕap
Gen. scipes scipa scÕapes scÕapa
Dat. scipe scipum scÕape scÕapum

When a word is inflected, the length of its root-syllable can often affect the final form by causing the loss of
an unstressed vowel (known as syncope or apocope). This can be spectacular in cases, such as the nom.pl. of
scÕap, which is the same as the nom.sg. form. Disyllabic words with long root-syllables, often lose the
middle vowel: e.g. engel ‘angel’, gen.sg. engles, etc. Disyllabic neuter nouns with short root-syllables lose the
final ending: werod ‘troop’, nom.pl. werod, etc. This change affects many declensions, not just the a-stems.
Many a-stem nouns had a -j- or a -w- in between the root and the stem. These are so-called ja- and
wa-stem nouns. wa-stems take the same endings, preceded by -w-, except in the nom. and acc. sg., which
end in -u: bearu ‘barrow, grave’, bearu, bearwes, bearwe, etc. ja-stem nouns vary depending on whether the
root is long or short:
ja-stems
Masculine Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nom. here ‘army’ herãas ende endas
Acc. here herãas ende endas
Gen. herães herãa endes enda
Dat. herãe herãum ende endum

Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural

Nom. cynn ‘kin’ cynn wíte ‘torture’ wítu
Acc. cynn cynn wíte wítu
Gen. cynnes cynna wítes wíta
Dat. cynne cynnum wíte wítum

ď-stems
Feminine Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nom. ãiefu ‘gift’ ãiefa, -e (nonWest Saxon) lÃr ‘lore’ lÃra, -e (nonWS)
Acc. ãiefe ãiefa, -e (nonWS) lÃre lÃra, -e (nonWS)
Gen. ãiefe ãiefa, -ena (nonWS) lÃre lÃra
Dat. ãiefe ãiefum lÃre lÃrum

jď- and wď-stem forms also existed; e.g. synn ‘sin’, synne, synne, synne, synna (-e), synna (-e), synna, synnum
and sinu ‘muscle’, sinwe, sinwe, sinwe, sinwa (-e), sinwa (-e), sinwa, sinwum.

i-stems
Masculine Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nom. wine ‘friend’ wine, -as ãiest ‘guest’ ãiestas
Acc. wine wine, -as ãiest ãiestas
Gen. wines wina ãiestes ãiesta
Dat. wine winum ãieste ãiestum

Feminine Singular Plural

Nom. dƥd ‘deed’ dƥda, -e (nonWS)
Acc. dƥd, dƥde dƥda, -e (nonWS)
Gen. dƥde dƥda
Dat. dƥde dƥdum

Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural

Nom. spere ‘spear’ speru ãeswinÍ ‘toil’ ãeswinÍ
Acc. spere speru ãeswinÍ ãeswinÍ
Gen. speres spera ãeswinÍes ãeswinca
Dat. spere sperum ãeswinÍe ãeswincum
u-stems
Masculine Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nom. sunu ‘son’ suna feld ‘field’ felda
Acc. sunu suna feld felda
Gen. suna suna felda felda
Dat. suna sunum felda feldum

Feminine Singular Plural Singular Plural

Nom. duru ‘door’ dura hand handa
Acc. duru dura hand handa
Gen. dura dura handa handa
Dat. dura durum handa handum

Athematic Nouns are characterised by a change in the root vowel by i-mutation. Most athematic nouns are
masculine. The feminine athematic nouns sometimes have the same forms as the masculine nouns, but they
often have endings from the ď-stem declension.

Masculine Singular Plural Singular Plural

Nom. bďc ‘book’ bÕÍ mann menn
Acc. bďc bÕÍ mann menn
Gen. bďÍes bďca mannes manna
Dat. bÕÍ bďcum menn mannum

-ru Plurals follow the a-stem declension, but note their distinctive plural forms.

Masculine Singular Plural Singular Plural

Nom. ƥã ‘egg’ ƥã(e)ru Íild Íildru
Acc. ƥã ƥã(e)ru Íild Íildru
Gen. ƥães ƥã(e)ra Íildes Íildra
Dat. ƥãe ƥã(e)ru m Íilde Íildrum

Weak Nouns

There is only one declension of weak nouns, although there is a slight variation according to gender.
Weak nouns are distinguished by the fact that most of their forms end in -an. Masculine nouns end in -a in
the nominative singular; feminine and neuter nouns end in -e in the nominative singular.
Masculine Singular Plural Neuter Singular Plural
Nom. nama ‘name’ naman Nom. Õaãe ‘eye’ Õagan
Acc. naman naman Acc. Õagan Õagan
Gen. naman namena Gen. Õagan Õagena
Dat. naman namum Dat. Õagan Õagum

Feminine Singular Plural

Nom. sunne ‘sun’ sunnan
Acc. sunnan sunnan
Gen. sunnan sunna
Dat. sunnan sunnum

Exercise
Examine the italicised OE nouns for case, number, and function.

1. Ond þÃ ãefeaht sÕ cyning ÆþerÕd wiþ þÃra cyninga ãetruman.

And then fought the king Æthelred against the kings’ troops.
sÕ cyning: Case__N___ Number__Sg___ Function_Subject_
þÃra cyninga: Case_______ Number______ Function________

2. Norþhymbre ond Ôastengle hæfdon ÆlfrÕde cyninge Ãþas ãeseald.

Northumbrians and East-Angles had Alfred king oaths given.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

3. HÕ mid gÃre stang wlancne wíÍing þe him þà wunde forãeaf.

He with spear stabbed bold viking who him the wound gave.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

4. Wíãend crungon wundum wÕrãe.

Warriors fell (by) wounds exhausted.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

5. IÍ bďhte Ãn ãetǴme oxena.

I bought a team (of) oxen.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

6. ÐÃ ãenam Abimelech oxan and scÕp.
Then took Abimelech oxen and sheep.

oxan: Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

scep (= sceap): Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

7. And þÃ scÕap ãehǴrað his stefne.

And the sheep hear his voice.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

8. âÕ ne synt of mínum scÕapum.

You not are among my sheep.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

9. HwylÍ man is of Õow þe hæfð hund scÕapa?

Which one is among you who has a hundred sheep?

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

10. And on scyp stígende hí fďron onsundran on wÕste stďwe.

And on ship moving they went privately to barren place.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

11. þÃ men of Lundenbyriã ãefetodon þÃ scipu.

The men of London-town fetched the ships.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

12. Ond þƥr forwearþ cxx scipa æt SwÃnawíÍ.

And there perished 120 ships at Swanage.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

13. Ìealde ãeþrungen wƥron míne fÕt.

(By) cold pinched were my feet.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

14. Stincende Ãttor singÃllíÍe of ðÃm tďswollenum fďtum flÕow.

Stinking poison continuously from the swollen feet flowed.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

15. Oððe ãyf hÕ bit ũã, segst þĭ rƥcð hÕ him scorpionem?
Or if he requests egg, say’st thou he gives him scorpion?

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

16. Selle mon uuÕãe cƥsa, ond fisces, ond butran, ond ũãera.
Give one (a) weight (of) cheeses, and fish, and butter, and eggs.

Case_______________ Number_______________ Function_______________

Adjectives

Adjectives may also be strong or weak. The weak forms are the same as the endings of weak nouns,
characterised by -an. They only occur immediately following the definite article or a demonstrative pronoun
(e.g. se ‘the, that’ or þes ‘this’) and immediately after possessives such as mín ‘mine’: se ealda mann ‘the old
man, that old man’, mín ealda frÕond ‘my old friend’. Elsewhere the strong forms occur: se mann is eald ‘the
man is old’, ealde menn ‘old men’. The strong declension is given below:

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. blind blind blind
Acc. blindne blinde blind
Gen. blindes blindre blindes
Dat. blindum blindre blindum

Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. blinde blinde, -a blind
Acc. blinde blinde, -a blind
Gen. blindra blindra blindra
Dat. blindum blindum blindum

Adjectives with short roots end in -u in the fem.nom.sg., the neut.nom.pl., and the acc.nom.pl., e.g. tilu
‘good’ (compare the a-stem and ď-stem noun endings).

Demonstrative Pronouns and the Definite Article

‘The, That’ ‘Those’

Masculine Feminine Neuter All Genders
Nom. se sÕo, sío þæt þÃ
Acc. þone þÃ þæt þÃ
Gen. þæs þƥre þæs þÃra, þƥra
Dat. þƥm, þÃm þƥre þƥm, þÃm þƥm, þÃm
 ‘This’ ‘These’
Masculine Feminine Neuter All Genders
Nom. þes þÕos þis þÃs
Acc. þisne þÃs þis þÃs
Gen. þisses þisse þisses þissa
Dat. þissum þisse þissum þissum

Personal Pronouns

First Person Singular (‘I’) Plural (‘We’)

Nom. iÍ wÕ
Acc. mÕ ĭs
Gen. mín ĭre
Dat. mÕ ĭs

Second Person Singular (‘Thou’) Plural (‘You’)

Nom. þĭ ãÕ
Acc. þÕ Õow
Gen. þín Õower
Dat. þÕ Õow

Third Person Singular Plural

Masc. (‘He’) Fem. (‘She’) Neut. (‘It’) All Genders (‘They’)
Nom. hÕ hÕo, hío hit hí(e)
Acc. hine hí(e) hit hí(e)
Gen. his hire his hi(e)ra, heora, hiora
Dat. him hire him him

Verbs

Verbs in Old English have infinitive and finite forms. The infinitive forms end in -an and can be translated
‘to go’, ‘to do’, ‘to speak’, etc. The finite forms indicated the tense of the verb (past, present, future). Verb
inflexions have first person (‘I, we’) second person
(‘thou, you’), and third person (‘he, she, it, they’) forms, both singular and plural. The paradigm for these
personal inflexions is called a conjugation. Do not forget that verbs have conjugations (are conjugated) whilst
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have declensions are declined.
Verbs have both strong and weak categories, although the basis for these terms is not the same as for
nouns and adjectives. Strong Verbs can be identified by their principal parts: infinitive, preterite (past)
singular, preterite plural, and past participle. For instance, the principal parts of a Modern English verb are:
to write, (he) wrote, (they) wrote, written. In Old English, each of the principal parts has a different root
vowel: the origin of Modern English sing, sang, sung.
Strong verbs come in seven classes based on the changes in the root vowel and the form of the
infinitive. Here are some examples of each class.

Class Infinitive Pret. Sg. Pret. Pl. Past Participle

I scínan ‘to shine’ scÃn scinon scinen
wrÕon ‘to cover’ wrÃh wrigon wrigen
II crÕopan ‘to creep’ crÕap crupon cropen
brĭcan ‘to use’ brÕac brucon brocen
ÍÕosan ‘to choose’ ÍÕas curon coren
III breãdan ‘to weave’ bræãd brugdon brogden
drincan ‘to drink’ dranc druncon droncen
IV beran ‘to bear’ bær bƥron boren
V tredan ‘to tread’ træd trƥdon treden
sÕon ‘to see’ seah sÃwon sewen
VI faran ‘to go’ fďr fďron faren
VII healdan ‘to hold’ hÕold hÕoldon healden
hÃtan ‘to command’ hÕt hÕton hÃten

The failure of Grimm’s Law as a result of Verner’s Law resulted in consonant alternations in some strong
verbs, e.g. ÍÕosan, wrÕon, and sÕon.
Strong verbs are conjugated as follows:

Present Preterite
1st sg. iÍ singe sang
2nd sg. þu singest sunge
3rd sg. hÕ, hÕo, hit singeþ sang
3rd pl. híe singaþ sungon

There are three classes of weak verbs, which are characterised by a dental sound, normally -t- or -d- in the
preterite tense. Weak verbs come in three classes.

Class I: fremman ‘to perform’, nerian ‘to approach’, híeran ‘to hear’
Present Tense
1st sg. iÍ fremme nerie híere
2nd sg. þu fremest nerest híerst
3rd sg. hÕ, hÕo, hit fremmaþ neriaþ híeraþ
3rd pl. híe fremmaþ neriaþ híeraþ

Preterite
1st sg. iÍ fremede nerede híerde
2nd sg. þu fremedest neredest híerdest
3rd sg. hÕ, hÕo, hit fremede nerede híerde
3rd pl. híe fremedon neredon híerdon

Some weak verbs of Class I have different vowels in their past tense forms, just as they do in Modern
English. Examples are sÕÍan ‘to seek’, sďhte ‘sought’, sellan ‘to give’, solde ‘given’, þenÍan ‘to think’, þďhte,
brengan ‘to bring’, brďhte ‘brought’.

Class II: lufian ‘to love’, lďcian ‘to look’

Present Preterite
1st sg. iÍ lufie lufode
2nd sg. þu lufiast lufode
3rd sg. hÕ, hÕo, hit lufiaþ lufode
3rd pl. híe lufiaþ lufode

Present Preterite
1st sg. iÍ lďcie lďcode
2nd sg. þu lďciast lďcode
3rd sg. hÕ, hÕo, hit lďciaþ lďcode
3rd pl. híe lďciaþ lďcode
Class III: habban ‘to have’
Present Preterite
1st sg. iÍ hæbbe hæfde
2nd sg. þu hæfst, hafast hæfde
3rd sg. hÕ, hÕo, hit hæfþ, hafaþ hæfde
3rd pl. híe habbaþ hæfdon

There are some anamolous verbs, such as dďn ‘to do’ (preterite dyde) and willan ‘to wish, to will’ (preterite
wolde). There were two forms of the verb meaning ‘to be’. The forms in the second column are only used
for the future ‘will be’ and for statements of eternal truth (e.g. wyrd biþ ful aræd ‘fate is fully determined’).

BÕon ‘to be’

Present Present Preterite
1st sg. iÍ eom bÕo wæs
2nd sg. þu eart bist wƥre
3rd sg. hÕ, hÕo, hit is biþ wæs
3rd pl. híe sind(on), sint bÕoþ wƥron

Exercise
1. From the table of strong verbs, write the vowels and diphthongs that occur in the roots.

Class Infinitive Pret. Sg. Pret. Pl. Past Participle

I í Ã i i

II

III

IV

VI

VII
2. Complete the principal parts of the following strong verbs. The infinitive ending is -an, as given; the
preterite singular has no ending; the preterite plural ending is -on; and the past participle ending is -en.
Below the Old English forms give the Modern English past tense and past participle forms.

Class Infinitive Pret. Sg. Pret. Pl. Past Participle

I bítan ‘bite’ bÃt biton biten
bit bitten or bit
VII healdan ‘hold’

IV teran ‘tear’

III meltan ‘melt’

IV stelan ‘steal’

V tredan ‘tread’

I rídan ‘ride’

VI dragan ‘draw’

II scÕotan ‘shoot’

III swellan ‘swell’

V wefan ‘weave’
Foreign Influences on Old English

Latin

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for AD 595

Transcription Word-for-Word Translation

d.xcv. Hoc tempore monasterium sancti bene. 595. At-this time monastery of-Saint Bene-
dicti a longobardis destructum est. Her Gregorius pa- dict by Langobards destroyed was. Here Gregory po-
pa sende to brytene augustinum mid wel manengum pe sent to Britain Augustine with very many
munucum. þe godes word engla þeoda godspellodon. monks who God’s word to-English nation preached.
(The first sentence is in Latin)

Translation
595. At this time the monastery of St Benedict was destroyed by the Lombards. In this year Pope Gregory
sent Augustine to Britain with very many monks who preached God’s word to the English nation.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for AD 601

Transcription Word-for-Word Translation

dci. Her sende gregorius papa augu- 601. Here sent Gregory pope Augu-
stine arcebiscope pallium on brytene. Ԩ wel manege stine archbishop pallium in Britain. & very-many
godcunde larewas him to fultume. Ԩ paulinus biscop ge- reIigious teachers him for help. & Paulinus bishop
hwirfede eadwine norðhymbra cining to fulluhte. converted Edwin Northumbrians’ king to baptism.

Translation
601. In this year Pope Gregory sent the pallium (= bishop’s mantle) to archbishop Augustine in Britain and
very many reIigious teachers to help him; and bishop Paulinus converted Edwin King of Northumbria and
baptised him.
Parker Chronicle Version
dci. Her sende gregorius papa Augustino. ærce biscepe pallium in bretene. Ԩ welmonige godcunde lareowas him to
fultome. Ԩ paulinus biscop gehwerfde edwine norþhymbra cyning to fulwihte.

dxcv. Her Gregorius papa sende to brytene Augustinum. mid wel manegum munecum. þe godes word engla ðeoda
godspelledon.

Three Versions of Cædmon’s Hymn

Cædmon’s Hymn occurs in a number of manuscripts, which vary in their spelling of the poem. The two
earliest manuscripts, the ‘Moore’ and the ‘Leningrad’ versions date to the eighth century and give the
poem in a Northumbrian dialect. The other versions occur in tenth-century manuscripts and give the
poem in West Saxon. In the texts below, the macrons, capitalisation, and punctuation have all been
added by modern editors. The translation is as literal as possible without violating the norms of Modern
English syntax.

Northumbrian ‘Moore’ Version Northumbrian ‘Leningrad’ Version

(CUL MS Kk 5.16, c. 737) (St Petersburg Public Library MS Q.v.I.18, c. 746)

Nĭ scylun hergan hefaenríces Uard, Nĭ scilun herga hefenrícæs Uard,

Metudæs maecti end his mďdgidanc, Metudæs mehti end his mďdgithanc,
uerc Uuldurfadur, suÕ hÕ uundra gihuaes, uerc Uuldurfadur, suÕ hÕ uundra gihuæs,
Õci dryctin, ďr Ãstelidæ. Õci Dryctin, ďr Ãstelidæ.
HÕ ÃÕrist scďp aelda barnum HÕ ƥrist scďp aeldu barnum
heben til hrďfe, hÃleg Scepen. heben tď hrďfæ, hÃlig Sceppend.
Thà middungeard moncynnæs Uard, Thà middingard moncynnæs Uard,
Õci Dryctin, æfter tíadæ Õci dryctin, æfter tíadæ
firum foldu, FrÕa allmectig. firum foldu, FrÕa allmehtig.

West Saxon Version

(Bodleian Library,Tanner MS 10, 10th century) Translation

Nĭ sculon herigean heofonríces Weard, Now we must praise the Guardian of heaven,
Meotedes meahte ond his mďdgeþanc, the Measurer’s might, and the thought of his mind
weorc Wuldorfæder, swà he wundra gihwæs, the Glory-father’s work, as he for every wonder—
Õce Drihten, ďr onstealde. the eternal Lord—established the beginning.
HÕ ƥrest sceďp eorðan bearnum He first made for the earth’s children
heofon tď hrďfe, hÃlig Scyppend. heaven as a roof, the holy Creator.
ÞÃ middangeard moncynnes Weard, Then middle-earth the Guardian of mankind—
Õce Drihten, æfter tÕode the eternal Lord—afterwards adorned,
firum foldan, FrÕa ælmihtig. the earth for men, the Lord almighty.
 The Battle of Brunanburh (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for AD 937)

Transcription Word-for-Word Translation

dccccxxxvii. Her æþelstan cyning. eorla dryhten. beorna 937. Her Athelstan king. of-earls lord. of men
beahgifa. Ԩ his broþor eac. eadmund æþeling. ealdor langne tir. ring-giver. & his brother also. Edmund prince. life long honour.
geslogon æt sæcce. sweorda ecgum. ymbe brunnanburh. won in battle. of-swords with-edges. by Brunanburh.
þær læg secg mænig. garum ageted. guma norþerna. There lay man many-a. by-spears slain. man northern
ofer scild scoten. swilce scittisch eac. werig wiges sæd. wesseaxe forð. over shield shot. also Scots too. weary of-battle sated. West
Saxons forth
ondlongne dæg. eorod cistum. on last legdun. laþum þeodum. heowan throughout day. troops in-companies. on trail pursued. loathed
people. hacked
here fleman. hindan þearle. mecum mylen scearpan. from-army fugitives. from-behind harshly. with-swords
millstones sharp.
ne wearð wæl mare. on þis not happened slaughter more. in this
eiglande. æfer gieta. folces gefylled. beforen þissum. sweordes island. ever yet. of-folk felled. before this. of-sword
ecgum. þæs þe us secgað bec. ealde uðwitan. siþþan eastan hider. with-edges. as to-us say books. ancient scholars. since from-east
hither.
engle Ԩ seaxe. up becoman. ofer brad brimu. brytene sohtan. Angles & Saxons. up came. over broad seas. Britain sought.
wlance wig smiðas. weealles ofercoman. eorlas ar hwate. eard begeatan proud war smiths. Welshmen overcame. earls for-honour eager.
country conquered

Translation
937. At this time King Athelstan, the lord of warriors, patron of heroes, and his brother too, Prince Edmund, won themselves
eternal glory in battle with the edges of swords near Brunanburh.
There many men lay slain by spears, and northern warriors shot down despite their shields, and Scotsmen too, weary, sated
with battle. The West Saxons throughout the whole long passing of the day pressed on in troops behind the hostile people,
hewed fiercely from the rear the fleeting host with swords sharpened on the mill-stone.
There had not ever been so great a slaughter on this island of fallen folk, slain by the edges of swords, before this time, as
books make known to us, as well as old and learned scholars, since the Angles and the Saxons came hither form the east, over
the wide sea, sought the land of Britain, proud war-makers, victorious warriors; [they] conquered the Welsh and so obtained
this land.
Although there are no written records of West Germanic, it is clear that contact with Romans introduced
Latin loanwords even before the Angles and Saxons came from Britain. The evidence for this early adoption
of Latin words lies in an analysis of known sound changes (see below).

Exercise
Below, only words that have survived into MnE have been listed. Use a dictionary with etymologies (word
origins) to find the original OE and Latin forms of the following words. Divide the words into sets
according to their meanings (e.g., domestic, household articles, etc.). Consider what these sets of adopted
words might suggest about the relationship between the Germanic tribes and the Romans.

belt inch pan purse

bin kettle pepper Saturday
bishop kiln pillow sickle
butter kitchen pin street
chalk line pipe (musical) tile
cheese mile pit toll
cup mill pitch (tar) -wick
dish mint plum wine
fork mule pound

Although Latin would have been spoken in Britain during the Roman occupation up to the fifth century by
educated Britons, hardly any Latin words were passed on from this source to the Anglo-Saxon invaders. An
exception was the –caster/-chester suffix for place names like Doncaster and Manchester, from Latin castra,
meaning camp. Other Latin words were adopted into the language at different periods of the Anglo-Saxon
settlement, many as a result of the conversion to Christianity and the establishment of the Church. Latin
was the language of the Bible and church services, and of learning and scholarship.
Use a dictionary to find the original OE and Latin forms of the following words. Divide the words into
sets according to their meanings (e.g. religion, education and learning, household and clothing, plants,
foods, miscellaneous, etc.).

abbot chest lily plant

alms circle lobster pope
altar cloister martyr priest
anchor cook (noun) mass (church) psalm
angel cowl master radish
apostle creed mat sabbath
ark crisp minster sack
beet disciple mussel school
box fan myrrh shrine
candle fever nun silk
cap fig organ sock
cedar font palm temple
chalice ginger pine verse
 Many OE words derived from Latin have not survived, e.g. cylle from Latin culleus (leather bottle), mese
from mensa (table), and sigel from sigillum (brooch).
It is often possible to determine when Latin loanwords entered English by phonological evidence. One
important sound change known as i-mutation (sometimes i-umlaut) can give important clues. When i-
mutation occurred (around the seventh century), a vowel in the accented syllable moved forward in the
mouth, anticipating an /i/ or /j/ sound in the following syllable. I-mutation often caused morphological
alternations in noun declensions. For instance, the primitive OE form *manni ‘men’ became menn. The
form men is not the only remnant of i-mutation in Modern English. We also say goose, geese and mouse, mice.
Many examples have disappeared due to analogies with other, non-mutating words, e.g OE bďc, bÕÍ, MnE
book, books. The following changes resulted from i-mutation:

a>e Ã>ƥ
ď>Õ ĭ>Ǵ
ea and eo > ie Õa and Õo > íe

Words borrowed from Latin before the operation of i-mutation will be affected by it. Words borrowed after
this sound change will not. Here are some examples. Were they borrowed before or after i-mutation?

balteus ‘belt’ belt

cucína ‘kitchen’ cyçene
puteus ‘pit’ pytt
strÃta ‘paved road’ strũt
uncia ‘twelfth part’ ynÍe ‘inch’

Two earlier sound changes called fronting and breaking also provide evidence. Fronting changed a > æ, and
breaking changed æ > ea before l or r + consonant, and before h. For example, West Germanic *all- >
primitive OE æll > OE eall. Which of the forms below were borrowed before breaking and which after
breaking?

altare ‘high place’ alter ‘altar’

arca ‘chest’ earc ‘ark’
cantor ‘singer’ cantere
calcem ‘lime’ Íealc ‘chalk’
falsus ‘false’ fals
martyr ‘martyr’ martyr
palma ‘palm’ palm
vallum ‘wall’ weall
Late Old English

One of the important differences between OE and MnE is that MnE has lost most of the inflexions of OE.
We can observe the beginnings of this loss of word suffixes from evidence in the manuscripts. If you
compare the spellings of the same words in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle from earlier and later manuscripts,
you will sometimes find differences in the vowel letters that mark case in nouns and tense in verbs. Here are
some examples, where the text words are followed by the standard West Saxon form.

Peterborough Parker Standard form

Chronicle Chronicle
443 nefdon næfdon næfdon = ne hæfdon
feordodan fyrdedon feordodon or fyrdedon
cininge cyningæ cyninge
bædon bædan bƥdon
449 coman comon cďmon
feohton feohtan fÕohtan (infinitive)
sendon sendan sendan (infinitive)
455 broþor broþur brďþor

Such spelling irregularities became frequent, so we can assume that the sound of these suffixes was no
longer, for example, a clear /o/ or /a/, but was ‘reduced’ to the vowel /Ǿ/. This is the commonest vowel in
Present-Day English, the one we use in most unstressed (unaccented) syllables; but we have never used a
separate letter for it. The scribes of OE therefore began to use vowel letters in these unstressed syllables at
random. Eventually, the letter <e> came to be generally used.
So although in late OE the West Saxon dialect had become a standard for writing, and therefore did not
reflect differences of pronunciation, scribes sometimes ‘mis-spelt’ because changes in pronunciation were not
matched by changes in spelling. This is, however, important evidence for us about the changes that were
taking place in OE. The reduction of vowels in unstressed syllables would prove to be extremely
consequential in Middle English.