Technical Sheet Reference: 05/15

Status: Final
Publication Date July 2006

Evapotranspiration Bed Designs

for Inland Areas
Dr Robert A. Patterson
Lanfax Laboratories, Armidale

Introduction Crop factor (Cf) is the coefficient

expressing the proportion of open-water evaporation
The use of an evapotranspiration bed (ET) transpired by a crop under the same energy gradient,
for the return of the water component of domestic varying with stage of growth, plant type, plant
wastewater to the hydrologic cycle has an density, sunlight, wind and soil conditions. For
advantage because of its low profile, and is vigorously growing well-watered plants a
suitable for effluent disposal in shallow soils or coefficient of 0.7 to 0.9 may be used.
areas of high water table. Essentially, an ET bed Capillary water exists as a continuous
is a large constructed sponge of sand and gravel,
film around soil particles, held by surface tension,
sealed from the surrounding soil, with an inbuilt
that drives the water through very small pores.
water storage capacity and a vegetated surface
Movement of water laterally (sideways) and
from which evapotranspiration is maximised.
upwards works like a wick and is of interest in ET
When the base of the bed is used for soil
bed design. The sponge effect allows water to move
absorption (percolation) of effluent in addition to
in all directions by capillary flow.
the evaporative demand of the surface, the system
Evaporation (E) is the movement of water
is called an evapotranspiration/absorption bed
from the surface of a body (water, soil, plant) into
(ETA). The term ET/A is used to describe both an
the atmosphere in response to a lower humidity
ET bed and an ETA bed.
gradient.
The success of any wastewater system is
Evapotranspiration (Et) is the total loss of
dependent upon not only the appropriate design
water from the surface of the soil and the
and siting of the system, but upon continued
transpiration losses from plants, increasing with
vigilance of wastewater quantity and quality in the
increasing air temperature, sunshine intensity and
house and regular inspections and maintenance of
wind speed and decreasing humidity.
the operating in-field system. This paper addresses
the simple design factors of evapotranspiration Field capacity (FC) is the soil moisture
systems and considers the appropriate actions status when a saturated soil is allowed to freely
required for system maintenance. drain and is the upper limit of available water
storage capacity.
Definitions Gravitational water is the water stored in
The design and operation of evaporative type the soil between field capacity and saturation when
systems are dependent upon the appropriate all the soil pores are filled with water.This water
choice of design criteria and materials. However, drains away under normal circumstances but cannot
before we start it is necessary to understand the drain from a sealed ET bed.
terminology used in describing these criteria.

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 Humidity gradient, or vapour pressure the soil moisture status. The water pressure
gradient, indicates the direction and intensity of gradient within the plant causes the extraction of
evaporation, moving from the higher to the lower moisture from the soil around the root mass. More
humidity. This gradient is influenced by tempera- water evaporates from the leaves when water at the
ture, solar radiation, wind and surface conditions. roots is not limiting.
Infiltration is the downward movement of Available water storage capacity (AWSC)
water from the surface into the soil with a is the volume of water able to be stored in a given
reduction in the soil’s storage capacity. Infiltration volume of soil and varies with porosity (soil
is influenced by rate of precipitation, surface soil texture, soil structure, organic matter content),
condition, vegetation cover and amount of water thickness of the horizon and the amount of water
already in the soil. The infiltration rate, measured already present. Water storage capacity may often
in mm/h, is higher when the soil is dry and be reported as depth of water for each metre depth
decreases with increasing soil moisture. of soil. Clay loams may store 185 mm/m while light
Pan evaporation (Eo) from a Class A Pan is clays may store 140 mm/m.
the index used to measure loss of water from an
open water surface. Units of measure are mm/day.
Percolation (hydraulic conductivity) is the
Application of Principles
The basic principle of ET bed design is to pass
movement of water downwards through the soil
the effluent from a septic tank system through a
profile in response to gravity and is a function of
distribution network in a specially prepared mass of
soil permeability.
suitable sand and gravel layers and that by capillary
Precipitation (P) is rainfall. A proportion of
action and shallow rooting perennial plants water is
rainfall may be intercepted by plants and never
lost by evapotranspiration. The bed allows for
reach the soil, a proportion may fall at a rate
storage of excess effluent during periods of low
greater than infiltration capacity and run-off from
evapotranspiration, acting like a large sponge,
the land, the remaining proportion infiltrates the
while the convex surface encourages the shedding
soil and contributes to a change in soil moisture
a proportion of the rainfall.
status.
By the same actions, solids, salts and other
Void ratio (e) is the ratio of volume of voids
chemicals are retained in the bed and in a sealed
to volume of solids in a given mass of soil. The
system will eventually reach critical levels.
voids may be filled with air or water.
It will be seen during the discussion of the
Porosity (n) is the ratio of volume of voids to
various aspects of the design criteria that it is
the total volume of a given mass of soil, sand or
critical to locate the bed to maximise solar radiation
gravel. The voids may be filled with air or water.
and wind eddies over the bed.
Run-off coefficient (Cr) is the proportion of
rainfall which is lost as run-off and occurs when
Figure 1 is a typical cross-section of an ET bed.
the precipitation rate exceeds infiltration rate. High
intensity storms lead to high proportion of runoff.
The rainfall retained is P x (1 - Cr) Collection of Data
Soil absorption (D) is the drainage of water Most of the design criteria for an ET/A bed
through the soil profile, usually downwards can be sourced from local records and performed as
towards the water table and relates to the water a desk top study. Soil permeability must be
moving through the profile and the maintenance of assessed for the actual site of an ETA bed.
a high stored water content. Rainfall and Class A Pan Eo rates are
Soil hydraulic conductivity (K) is a measure available from the NSW Climatic and Consultancy
of the rate of downward movement of water Section of the Bureau of Meteorology. Climate
through the soil and depends upon soil moisture, averages data for many Australian stations are
soil texture, soil structure, effective diameter of the av ailab le at http:// www.bom.gov.au
soil pores, and connectivity of soil pores. The /climate/averages/tables/ ca_nsw_names.shtml .
highest soil K is when the soil is saturated (Ksat) Only selected localities have pan evaporation
and declines with decreasing soil moisture. data (usually the research stations) and the nearest
Soil water storage (S) is the amount of water station may not provide you with appropriate data.
that can be stored in the pore spaces of the Beck (1979) stated that when water was high in the
confined ET bed and is made up of both the bed, the Et rate increased and in some instances can
AWSC and the gravitational water. be up to 10 times Eo rates. This has not been
Transpiration is the process of water vapour proved to occur in Australia, but Et rates up to 2.0
passing into the atmosphere through the tissues of are common in reed bed systems.
living plants, driven by the humidity gradient and

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 Surface slopes towards edges to enhance runoff

100
quality loam

fine sand (0.1 mm)

600 max

300
Fine gravel (5-10 mm) OR Geotextile sheet

150
hard aggregate (<20 mm)
1000 geotextile
2 000 90 mm slotted pipe
R.A.Patterson Cross section of ET bed (lined) or ETA bed (unlined)

quality loam

100
fine sand (0.1 mm)

300
Fine gravel (5-10 mm) OR Geotextile sheet

150
Inlet from distribution box and septic tank 1000
90 mm slotted pipe
Longitudinal Section of ET/A bed Not to scale

Figure 1. Typical cross-section of an ET bed

While it is inevitable that some months will household can be determined from data published
have higher than average rainfall, a water balance in AS/NZS 1547:2000 (Standards Australia and
for each month over a whole year will often provide Standards New Zealand, 2000) or from a
adequate in-bed storage of water for those higher knowledge of typical local values for similar
events into the drier months. Crites and households. There is no advantage in understating
Tchobanoglous (1998) recommend a 15-20% the daily production rate as the integrity of the
increase in area to account for variations in rainfall design of the ET bed depends on accurate inputs.
and effluent flows.
There are several models available for a more Water Balance
accurate determination of evaporation however, for The basic function of the ET/A bed is to
the purposes of ET bed design such calculations are return all the water from the on-site system to the
unwarranted. hydrologic cycle through evapotranspiration or the
The void ratio (e) of the sand and gravel combined evapotranspiration/absorption. This
media used in ET/A beds can be obtained from objective requires that the daily volume of effluent
published data. The following void ratios are from the septic tank (Qe) and the rainwater
suitable: 0.45 for dense uniform sand, 0.3 for infiltrating the surface of the bed (rainfall minus
gravels and 0.6 for light clays 0.6 (Das, 1985). interception and runoff) must always be less than
The crop factor (Cf) and the interception the actual loss of water from the bed. A sealed ET
component of the rainfall can be taken from bed of this size would be prohibitively large.
theoretic values for the vegetation. It is usual to use Hence, the bed must provide a storage capacity
a Cf value between 0.75 and 0.85. within the matrix of the sand and gravel to
The runoff coefficient (Cr) can be related to accommodate excesses for evaporation during drier
the proposed shape and surface compactness of the periods.
ET bed for which a value of 0.35 is acceptable. The output, therefore, is the loss by evapo-
Beck (1979) suggests the top of the bed has a cross transpiration and the change in storage of excess
fall of at least 13 mm/m from the centre to shed effluent within the bed. The variable D is zero for
rain. an ET bed and will depend upon soil permeability
The effluent quantity (Qe) produced by the for an ETA bed.

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 Input # Output Equation 1
Effluent + rainfall retained # Et + D + change storage
Qe + { Px (1-Cr)} # (Ε o x Cf) + D +ΔS
(the Greek symbol delta (Δ) is used to denote “change”)

A suitable model for the water balance is reason, the bed depth should not exceed 600 mm.
given in Appendix G of AS 1547-1994 (Standards In Table 1, the iterative process was used to
Australia, 1994). It is valuable to construct a find the most appropriate area for a stored water
computer spreadsheet for this model so that depth of not more than 450 mm. Because of the
iterative (trial and error) calculations can be void ratio, the actual amount of water is the water
worked to determine an appropriate area of the ET stored in the pores.
or ETA bed based upon storage depth within the
bed.
Selection of suitable material
Typical ET/A bed design areas for a The gravel for the base of the bed should be
household of five persons producing wastewater at a hard clean material of about 20 mm average
the rate of 700 L per day have been calculated diameter. The volume of gravel, in cubic metres, is
using the AS 1547 model for several inland towns. 0.15 x area of the ET/A bed .
The values indicated in Table 1 use average rainfall The fine sand of 0.1 mm diameter is desirable
and evaporation data. as it provides a large void ratio and a high
It can be seen in Table 1 that the higher capillarity (50% by weight smaller than or equal to
evaporation deficits (P - Eo) do not necessarily 0.1 mm) (USEPA, 1980). The volume of sand
translate to smaller areas for ET beds. In each of required, in cubic metres is 0.35 x area of bed. A
the budgets the constraint of low winter layer of geotextile laid over the gravel will prevent
evaporation rates with winter rainfall meant that the sand moving into the larger spaces in the
significant storage of effluent was required within gravel, or a layer of finer gravel may be used.
the bed during the months of June to October. If no The surface soil should be a loam to provide
carry-over storage was available the areas would be a suitable supporting medium for the vegetation.
prohibitively large. Even an ET bed of 2000 m2 in The volume of top soil required, in cubic metres is
Bathurst would still result in a storage of 86 mm of 0.1 x area of bed.
saturated bed in June to August each year. Membranes for lining ET beds should be at
least 200 µm thick and the joins overlapped and
Design criteria from water sealed with a high quality waterproof tape to ensure
balance water tightness over many years. Ideally, a 50 mm
The water balance provides not only the layer of sand should be laid on the floor of the
design surface area of the bed but also the excavation to prevent puncturing the membrane
constructed depth. By manipulating the proposed during construction.
area of the bed, the depth of stored effluent will Distribution System
either increase or decrease. For a bed with a depth
of 600 mm, the depth of stored water should not A distribution box provides a mechanism for
develop to within about 150 mm of the surface so evenly dosing each of the pipes in the base of the
that at no time may the saturation be detrimental to bed. The inverts (bottom of the pipe) of the outlets
the roots of the plants. However, the reverse should must be higher than the designed stored water
also be considered that the water in the bed is depth in the bed otherwise the system will not
within capillary reach of the surface. For the latter gravity feed.

Table 1 Variations in design criteria for ET/A beds in inland towns of NSW.
Town Annual Annual Eo Area for Max. depth Area for Max depth
Rainfall (P) (mm) ET bed of storage ETA bed of storage
(mm) (m2) (mm) (m2 ) (mm)
Armidale 790.9 1331.7 500 375 75 346
Bathurst 634.4 1325.6 600 416 77 384
Cowra 640 1352.1 700 436 79 366
Inverell 807.1 1602.9 375 420 72 361
The long term absorption rate was set at 8mm per day for the ETA bed.

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 The pipe system at the base of the bed needs the grass at least 50 mm long. Bare spots within the
to distribute the effluent evenly over the whole grassed surface must be repaired because the grass
area. Pipe diameters of at least 90 mm slotted PVC transpires more water than a bare earth surface.
(normal stormwater pipe) are firstly laid on 50 mm During very dry periods it may be necessary
depth of gravel and the gravel filled to a total depth to irrigate the surface to keep the grasses in prime
of 150 mm. The lateral spacing of the pipes should condition. Only small amounts of clean water
not exceed 2.0 m. should be used.
Location of Bed Conclusion
The ET/A beds need to be positioned so that The area of a lined ET bed is significantly
the effluent from the septic tank can gravity flow to larger than the area for an ETA bed, because the
the distribution box then to the ET/A bed. Where latter has the additional benefit of absorption of
gravity flow cannot be achieved, a pumped system effluent into the surrounding soil. The relative cost
is appropriate. of the ET bed will be higher by up to six times that
Either a single bed, or a number of beds of the ETA bed. However, there are instances such
totalling the design area, are to be constructed. The as sites with very shallow subsoils, high water
bed is formed in an excavation of the appropriate tables, close to permanent water that the ET bed
area and to the design depth. The floor of the bed is provides an environmentally acceptable means of
to be level in all directions. Figure 1 shows the disposing of domestic effluent on-site.
cross-section of a typical ET bed. Where the
landscape is more than 5% slope, it may be
necessary to step several narrow beds, each parallel References
to the contour, down the slope. Beck, A.F. (1979) Evapotranspiration Bed
All opportunity should be taken to maximise Design J. Envir. Engineering Div. Proceedings of
solar radiation falling on the surface of the bed for A.S.C.E. Vol 105 No EE2, April 1979. pp 411-415.
long periods each day. As evaporation is dependent Crites, R. and Tchobanoglous, G., 1998. Small
upon a negative humidity gradient over the surface and Decentralised Wastewater Management
of the bed, ensuring that air flows freely over the Systems. McGraw-Hill. Boston
surface and that trees or shrubs do not reduce wind Das, B.M. (1985) Principles of Geotechnical
velocity over the bed are important local Engineering. PWS-Kent Publishing Company.
considerations. Boston. Ma.
Standards Australia. 1994. Australian
Management Standard AS1547-1994 Disposal systems for
Longevity of the ET/A beds is dependent effluent from domestic premises. Standards
upon the salinity tolerance of the vegetation unless Australia. Sydney.
households minimise high salinity and highly sodic Standards Australia and Standards New
chemicals. The ET bed will slowly accumulate salts Zealand (2000) AS/NZS 1547:2000 On-site
and other nutrients as there is no mechanism for domesticwastewater management. Standards
flushing these salts from the system. ETA beds do Australia and Standards New Zealand
benefit from salts being flushed from the system USEPA (1980). Design Manual for on-Site
during periods of high rainfall. Wastewater Treatment and Disposal Systems. R.J.
The grassed surface of the ET/A bed must be Otis, W.C. Boyle, E.V. Clements and C.J. Schmidt.
maintained to maximise evapotranspiration and Report No. EPA-625/1-80-012.
encourage rainfall runoff. Some additional
interception of rainfall is accomplished by leaving

For More Information

Author Contact Details Septic Safe Program
Dr Robert A.Patterson
Department of LocalGovernment
Lanfax Laboratories
Locked Bag 3015
PO Box W90
Nowra NSW 2541
Armidale NSW 2350
Phone: 02 4428 4179
Phone: 02 6775 1157
Fax: 02 4428 4199
Fax: 02 6775 1043
Email: [email protected]
Email: [email protected]
Website www.dlg.nsw.gov.au

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