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POWERGRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED

Project Report

on

“Transmission Technologies in Telecom”

By

G Bala Janardhan

Emp.No:60003825

AET-Telecom

Under the Guidance of

N.G.Sarkar

GM-Telecom

And

Amjad Iqbal

Manager-Telecom

ERTCC-Kolkata
POWERGRID CORPORATION OF INDIA LIMITED

Certificate
This to certify that the project report titled “Transmission Technologies in Telecom” is bonafide work of G Bala Janardhan, AET (Telecom).

Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Final Appraisal of Assistant Engineer Trainees 2018 Batch.

Project Guide

N.G. SARKAR

GM (telecom), ERTCC

2
Table of Contents

Page no.:

Technology:

1. Introduction .................................................................................... 04
2. Time Division Multiplexing ........................................................... 05
3. Frequency Division Multiplexing .................................................. 05
4. Wavelength Division Multiplexing ............................................... 05
5. Synchronous Digital Hierarchy .................................................... 09
6. ROADM .......................................................................................... 12
7. Advantage of WDM System .......................................................... 13
8. FIBERHOME & ZTE CWDM Cards ......................................... 14
9. FIBERHOME & ZTE DWDM Cards ......................................... 15
10. FIBERHOME & ZTE Transponder Cards ............................... 16
11. Communication Media ................................................................. 17

Projects:

12. Introduction……………………………………………………… 24
13. Project characteristics ………………………………………….. 24
14. Project Life cycle………………………………………………… 24
15. Areas I involved in the Projects ………………………………... 24

16. References ...................................................................................... 29

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1. INTRODUCTION
In the ever evolving world of telecommunications, the technologies that make it possible also keep changing rapidly. This
report concentrates on the various technologies and technical specifications of various equipment and Optical fiber used in
POWERGRID. The technologies that are used in telecom can be broadly classified into two based on the equipment and various
techniques used for transmission and the medium used for transmission.
Currently, POWERGRID uses various technologies like SDH, CWDM, DWDM, Ethernet for transmission using equipment
of various makes such as Tellabs, Tejas, ZTE, Fiberhome etc., POWERGRID is able to maintain a good customer reputation and foresee
a exponential growth in telecom sector owing to tenacious workforce and OPGW Backbone network which was built using the existing
power transmission network. In regions where the transmission network of POWERGRID did not penetrate completely, it has enter ed
into contracts with the local transmission utilities such as E&PD (Sikkim), WBSETCL(West Bengal) etc., leasing OPGW from them.
Even on the toughest terrains, POWERGRID is able to maintain 99.99% availability on it’s links because of its strong and redundant
OPGW network.

POWERGRID’s Telecom Strength:


• Highly reliable
• Sturdy and secure
• Free from cuts, rodent menace and vandalism
• All India Broadband Telecom Networks of 41,000 Kms.
• Expansion in progress for more Kms
• Covers over 300 cities & towns
• Reliability of 99.99%
• Multiple self-resilient rings of complete redundancy in backbone as well as intra-city access networks.

Licenses with POWERTEL:

• 2001: Obtained Infrastructure Provider category II (IP-II) License by which one can lease / rent out /sell end to end
bandwidth to Telecom Service providers only.
• 2002: Registered as Infrastructure Provider category I (IP-I) to provide dark fiber, leasing of infrastructure assets such as
Right of Way, Duct space, Tower etc.
• 2003: Obtained Internet Service Provider (ISP) Category “A” License to provide internet services across the country.
• 2006: Migrated from IP-II to National Long Distance Operator (NLDO) to increase its business horizon to provide Voice,
bandwidth and value added services to Govt. Departments, Corporate clients & telecom service providers. With this license
one will have the right to carry inter circle traffic excluding intra -circle traffic except where such carriage is with mutual
agreement with originating service provider.

Technological Efficiency:

• OPGW (Optical Ground Wire) - Overhead, free from fiber cuts, sabotage, vandalism.
• DWDM Equipment.
• Scalable to Terabit capacity.
• Capable of both Layer 1-DWDM/SDH, Layer 2-Layer Switching.
• Supports Ethernet over SDH.
• Deploys Multi- vendor equipment.

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2. Time-Division Multiplexing

Time-Division Multiplex (TDM) is a technique of transmitting multiple digitized data simultaneously over one communication
medium, such as wires, by interleaving pulses representing bits from different time slots. Thus, combining a set of low-bit-rate streams,
each with a fixed and pre-defined bit rate, into a single high-speed bit stream that can be transmitted over a single channel and then
separating them through demultiplexers, summarizes the process of TDM. TDM comes in two basic forms. The first form is synchronous
time division multiplexing, and the second form is asynchronous time division multiplexing.
The multiplexer in the Synchronous TDM accepts input from attached devices in a round-robin fashion and transmit the data
in a never ending pattern. T-1 and ISDN telephone lines as well as SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) are common examples of
synchronous TDM. On the other hand, an asynchronous multiplexer accepts the incoming data streams and creates a frame containing
only the data to be transmitted. Also, an asynchronous multiplexer transmits only the data from active workstations. Thus, if a workstation
is not active, no space is wasted on the multiplexed stream. Being good for low bandwidth lines, asynchronous multiplexers are used for
LANs applications.
Time-Division Multiplexing is considered to be flexible compared to other multiplexing methods as well as they support
relatively large number of users. However, they require careful engineering and implementation.

3. Frequency-Division Multiplexing

Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is very different from TDM in that signals are no longer delayed in relation to each

other, but instead all sent simultaneously. This is made possible through the use of modulation. Each signal is assigned its own carrier

frequency sometimes referred to as a “channel”. That is each signal is centered on a given frequency so to not interfere with the other

signals. This is widely used in communication systems because it has high spectral efficiency i.e. the bandwidth is better utilized because

the signals are each assigned their own “channel” or frequency.

4. Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) is very similar to that of FDM because they are inversely proportional. Frequency-

Division Multiplexing is generally used to refer to radio waves, where WDM is used to refer to optical signals. WDM is the act of

combining light by using different wavelengths. Like FDM signals are assigned a given frequency, WDM signals are assigned a

wavelength. That way the signals can be retrieved upon reception.

One way to accomplish WDM is through the use of a grating multiplexer. A lens is used to focus all the lights from a fiber

array onto a grating. Because gratings are defined by the equation d(sinθi + sinθo) = mλ, the reflection off the grating is dependent on

the incident angle, the order, and the wavelength.

5
Fiber attenuation characteristic

6
Optical Spectrum
UV IR 125 GHz/nm
l
Visible

• Light 850 nm
– Ultraviolet (UV) 980 nm
– Visible 1,310 nm
– Infrared (IR) 1,480 nm
1,550 nm
• Communication wavelengths
– 850 nm Multimode 1,625 nm
–1310 nm Singlemode
–1550 nm DWDM & CWDM c = l

• Specialty wavelengths Wavelength: l (nanometres)


– 980, 1480, 1625 nm (e.g. Pump Lasers)
Frequency:  (Terahertz)

ITU Wavelength Grid


• The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has divided the telecom
wavelengths into a grid; the grid is divided into bands;
the C and L bands are typically used for DWDM
• ITU Bands :

O E S C L U
l(nm)
1675
1460

1625
1260

1360

1530

1565

l0 l1 ln

l
1530.33 nm 1553.86 nm
0.80 nm
193.0 THz 
195.9 THz
CWDM vs. DWDM Spacing
CWDM systems have channels at wavelengths spaced 20 (nm) apart, compared with 0.4
nm spacing for DWDM

CWDM uses maximum 18 channel.

TRANSMISSION IMPAIREMENT

Attenuation -> signal degrade with distance (generally 0.3db/km)

Bend sensitive

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Chromatic dispersion -> Distortion of pulses

Limits transmission distance

Proportional to bit rate

Polarization mode dispersion ->

Optical Signal to Noise Ratio (OSNR) ->

– Effect of noise in transmission

– Caused by amplifier

– Limits number of amplifier

Basic WDM Component Terminology

• Multiplexer/Demultiplexer
– Combines/Separates all wavelengths on the fiber
– ‘Terminates’ the fiber link – all circuits end here
– Typically exists in 8 channel increments
– Mux/Demux are often combined into one physical part
• Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (OADM)
– Drops a fixed number of channels while others
pass through
– Typically used in ring configurations
• Optical Amplifier (EDFA)
– Boosts DWDM signals for extended distance
• Dispersion Compensation Unit (DCU)
– DCUs provide compensation for the accumulated
chromatic dispersion

8
Multiplex many
services of different
wavelength into a
single path
For Intermediate
amplificatio station to boost
n of signal the signal
OTU1 λ1 λ1, λ1, λ1 OTU1
λ1
λ2... λn λ2... λn

ODU
OMU

OTU2 λ2 OLA λ2 OTU2

O
A
O
A

λn λn
OTUn λnm λnm OTUn

OSC OSC OSC

This convert the


input signal to ITU This one is used for
standard freq management purpose
without need of
amplification

5. Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)


SDH is a multiplexing protocol that transfers multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers or light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). The method was developed to replace the Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) system for transporting larger amounts of
telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber wire without synchronization problems. Synchronous networking differs from PDH
in that the exact rates that are used to transport the data are tightly synchronized across the entire network, using atomic clocks. This
synchronization system allows entire inter-country networks to operate synchronously, greatly reducing the amount of buffering required
between elements in the network. The basic format of an SDH signal allows it to carry many different services in its virtual container
(VC) because it is bandwidth-flexible.

Synchronous Transport Module (STM)

The STM frame is the basic transmission format for SDH. A STM-1 signal has a byte-oriented structure with 9 rows and
270 columns of bytes with a total of 2430 bytes (9 rows * 270 columns = 2430 bytes). Each byte corresponds to a 64kbit/s
channel.

9
The STM-1 base frame is structured with the following characteristics:
o Length : 270 column x 9 row = 2430 bytes
o Duration (Frame repetition time): 125 μs i.e. 8000 frames/s
o Rate (Frame capacity): 2430 x 8 x 8000 = 155.520 Mbit/s
o Payload = 2340 bytes i.e. 149.760 Mbit/s
o 1 byte which is a sample which is taken at a rate of 8k samples/s (e.g. speech channel)

SDH Generalised Multiplexing Structure

Container

o Input signals are placed into the containers


o It adds stuffing bytes for PDH signals,which compensates for the permitted frequency deviation between the SDH
system and the PDH signal

ALIGNMENT: It is a process of adopting the incoming PDH signals into containers i.e. PCM 30 or 2Mbps to C12.

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Mapping

• Mapping is a process used when tributaries are adapted into VCs by adding justification bits and Path overhead
information
• The 2 Mbps signals are not synchronized to the SDH signal. It imposes no signal structure requirements, so 2 Mbps
signals using this mapping do not need to be framed. This allows easy interface with existing PDH systems as variable
bit justification occurs as part of this type of 2Mbps mapping.

Virtual Container

• It adds overheads to a container or groups of tributary units, that provides facilities for supervision and maintenance of
the end to end paths.
• VCs carry information end to end between two path access points through the SDH system.
• VCs are designed for transport and switching sub-SDH payloads.
• VC12 (C12 + POH) • VC3 (C3 + POH)
• VC11 (C11 + POH) • VC4 (C4 + POH)
• VC2 (C2 + POH)

• The AU pointer locates a higher-order VC, and the TU pointer locates a lower-order VC. For example, an AU–3 contains
a VC–3 plus a pointer, and a TU–2 contains a VC–2 plus a pointer.

• A VC is the payload entity that travels across the network, being created and dismantled at or near the service
termination point.

Tributary Unit

• It adds pointers to the VCs

• This pointer permits the SDH system to compensate for phase differences within the SDH network and also for the
frequency deviations between the SDH networks

• TUs acts as a bridge between the lower order path layer and higher order path layer

• TU12 (VC12 + pointer)


• TU2 (VC2 + pointer)
• TU3 (VC3 + pointer)

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Tributary Unit Group

• It defines a group of tributary units that are multiplexed together

• As a result, a TU group could contain one of the following combinations

Administrative Unit

• It adds pointer to the HO Virtual containers (similar to the tributary unit)

• AU - 3 (VC-3 + pointer)

• AU - 4 (VC-4 + pointer)

Administrative Unit Group

• It defines a group of administrative units that are multiplexed together to form higher order STM signal

6. ROADM (Reconfigurable optical add drop multiplexer)

As the bandwidth requirements grow rapidly, optical network operators face continued challenges of modifying the current
optical networks to meet this growing demand. In WDM networks, this modification mainly means adding new WLs, and sometimes
changing the WL distribution within the network.

12
The WDM solutions have scaled up in recent years from typically 8-16 Wavelengths to 44-88 Wavelengths solution, with
different routes per each wavelengths and mesh connectivity between sites across the ring.
Network managers face the challenge to keep track of all the wavelengths, monitor their correct operation and deploy new
wavelengths easily while reducing the operation cost of the network.
In non ROADM networks, if not already pre-assigned, adding new services requires redesign or major network change which
takes time, resources and poses risks of traffic disruptions.
Another major issue that usually requires manual handling in non-ROADM networks is the power balancing of the bypass
wavelengths as opposed to locally added wavelengths on any particular node.
It is necessary to balance the optical power of these WLs at the input point to an EDFA (Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier).
Otherwise, in a link with many EDFAs and multiple channels, some channels might be lost due to a lack of optical power if not balanced
along the path.
The Reconfigurable Optical Add Drop Multiplexer (ROADM) adds the required flexibility so that adding WLs or changing
the WL destination becomes easy and remotely managed process providing full control and monitoring over the entire high capacity
infrastructure.
The basic element of the ROADM is the Wavelength Selective Switch (WSS). The WSS is an active component that performs
the actual WL switching and monitoring.

7. Advantage of WDM system


• Large capacity transmission
• Saving fibre resources
• smooth upgrade
• Network Transparency: Independence of data rate, format & protocols.
• Flexibility: Optical Add/Drop Multiplexing (OADM), Optical Cross connect (OXC)
• Scalability: The possibility to add new nodes to the network.
• Future scope: expandable (400G)

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Working wavelength
DWDM → 192.1(1561.68) TO 196(1530.61) THZ

CWDM

CHANNEL WAVELWNGTH(nm)

1 1471

2 1491

3 1511

4 1531

5 1551

6 1571

7 1591

8 1611

8. FIBERHOME & ZTE CWDM CARDS

FIBERHOME ZTE

EMU PW

MDU8 SCOMD4-5U

IOSC SCOMD4-US

OA

OTU2S TD2C/TD2

14
FCUP

OCP NCP

MST2(8) MQA2(4)

➢ EMU CARD is used for rack management.

➢ PW is power card of ZTE usually its dual sourced

➢ MDU8 & SCOMD4-5U card mux demux cards within same card multiplexing and demultiplexing performed. MDU8 is 8 channel
card but SCOMD4-5U is 4 channel card to use up to 8 channel it requires additional card SCOMD4-1US.

➢ OA is used for optical amplification

➢ OTU2S is transponder card of Fiberhome with 1 line and 1 client side card with 10G capacity.

➢ Similarly, TD2C/TD2 is transponder card for ZTE with 2line and 2 client side.

➢ MST2 is muxponder card of Fiberhome with 8 client port with 1.25G each capacity.

➢ Similarly, MQA2 card of ZTE has 4 port with 2.5G each port capacity

➢ IOSC card has inbuilt feature of EOSC and OSCAD car

9. FIBERHOME & ZTE DWDM CARDS

FIBER FIBERHOME HOME ZTE ZTE

EOSC SOSC

OSCAD

VMU OMU40C

ODU ODU40C

OCP OLP

OLP SOP2

EMU

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OPM DCM

HRAU SEOBA,

MSA EONAD

➢ OSCAD card is used to separate the actual channel to management channel wavelength. For each direction it requires one card, while
EOSC card require per 2 directions.
➢ EOSC card is Fiberhome company while SOSC is for ZTE
➢ VMU & OMU40C is multiplexer card of 40 channel
➢ ODU & ODU40C is demultiplexer card of 40 channel.
➢ OCP card is channel protection card used in ZTE in it we can protect max 2 channel
➢ OLP is protection against line.
➢ OPM card is use to see the spectral performance of each channel.
➢ MSA card is amplifier card similar to this HRAU card is also amplifier card but it has high capacity.
➢ SEOBA is booster amplifier card before transmission of signal while EONAD card is preamplifier card before receiving of signal.
➢ DCM is used for dispersion compensator i.e. to remove the effect of chromatic dispersion.

10. FIBERHOME & ZTE TRANSPONDER CARD

FIBERHOFIBERHOME ZTE

4OTU2S

2OTU2S EOTU10G

10TN2

OTU4E

SRM41
OTU4S

OTU4F

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➢ 4OTU2S is 10g card with 4 client side
➢ 2OTU2S is 10G system with 2 client side
➢ 10 TN2 has 10 client port and 1line side
➢ SRM41 is ZTE muxponder card
➢ OTU4E is Fiberhome muxponder with 10 client side
➢ OTU 4S is 100G card with 1 line and 1 client side
➢ OTU 4F card is regenerator card.

11. Communication Media

Optical Fibers

An Optical Fiber is a flexible thin filament of glass. Optical Communication system accepts electrical signals as inputs, conver t them
into optical signals, carry them over fiber optic cables and revert them into electrical signals at the destination. There are various types of OFCs
Underground, Aerial, OPGWetc.

OPGW UGOFC

Fibre optic cable construction

17
Core

This is the physical medium that transports optical data signals from an attached light source to a receiving device. The core is a single continuous
strand of glass or plastic that’s measured in microns (µ) by the size of its outer diameter. The larger the core, the more li ght the cable can carry.
All fibre optic cable is sized according to its core’s outer diameter. The three multimode sizes most commonly available are 50, 62.5, and 100
microns. Single-mode cores are generally less than 9 microns.

Cladding

This is the thin layer that surrounds the fibre core and serves as a boundary that contains the light waves and causes the refraction, enabling data
to travel throughout the length of the fibre segment.

Coating

This is a layer of plastic that surrounds the core and cladding to reinforce and protect the fibre core. Coatings are measured in microns and can
range from 250 to 900 microns.

Strengthening fibres

These components help protect the core against crushing forces and excessive tension during installation. The materials can range from Kevlar®
to wire strands to gel-filled sleeves.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Immune to electromagnetic interference and Immune to • Subject to breakage and water ingress.
ground potential rise. • Limited bend radius (about30mm). So, if they are bent more,
• Optical Fiber Cables can run long distances. it might lead to some signal loss

• High channel capacity.


• High RoW Cost in case of underground fibers.
• Do not have speed limits or bandwidth limitations.
• High CAPEX interms of cost of Fibers, end equipments and
• They can support any speed/bandwidth depending only on
installation
the type of active components used at either end.

• High Security.
• Vulnerable to fibercuts due to Road Expansions,
• Not easy to intercept Can be laid both within the buildings
Development activities like Metro Projects, maintenance
and outside the buildings. Generally they are buried under
activities etc.,
the ground using a Trench and protective materials

18
OPGW

➢ Suitable for Transmission lines of 132KV and above. Acts as earthwire–cum-OFC.


➢ Right of Way (ROW) readily available on transmission lines
➢ No forest Clearance et care required
➢ Transmission infrastructure is sturdy, stable and free from vandalism and rodent menace.
➢ Telecom Network over Transmission system ensures very high availability for Telecom Network
➢ Faster Roll-out. Mostly Live line installation without disrupting powerflow
➢ Longer Life of OPGW

Single Mode Fiber Comparison: G.652 vs G.655

Single mode fiber is designed as a carrier for the transmission of a single mode of light to propagate at a time. Its specifications are divided into
two categories, One is the ITU-T G.65x series, and the other is IEC 60793-2-50 (published as BS EN 60793-2-50). Rather than referring to both
ITU-T and IEC terminologies, we’ ll only focus on the simpler ITU-T G.65x in this article. There are 6 different single mode fiber types defined
by the ITU-T: G.652, G.653, G.654, G.655, G.656, and G.657, among which G.652 and G.655 are two options commonly used.

19
G.652 a Single Mode Fiber

G.652 single mode fiber, also known as standard single fiber, is the most commonly deployed single mode fiber. It has G.652A, B, C and D four
variants. The G.652.A and G.652.B are designed to have a zero-dispersion wavelength near 1310 nm, therefore they are optimized for operation
in the 1310nm band. However, they are not suitable for applications in Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) due to water peak. The more
advanced variants G.652.C and G.652.D fibers are optimized with a reduced water peak for spectrum operation, which allows them to be utilized
in the wavelength region between 1310 nm and 1550 nm to support Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexed (CWDM) transmission.

G.655 a Single Mode Fiber

G.655 single mode fiber is also called non zero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZDSF) , because the dispersion at the wavelength of 1550 nm is close
to zero but not zero. It contains 655 A, B and C three variants. G.655 fiber optic cable has a small, controlled amount of chromatic dispersion in
the C-band (1530-1560 nm), where amplifiers work best, and has a larger core area than G.652 fiber. Besides, there are two types of NZDSF: (-
D)NZDSF and (+D)NZDSF. They have respectively a negative and positive slope versus wavelength. The positive dispersion of G.655 can
suppress four-wave mixing and other nonlinear effects. Hence G.655 single mode fiber distance is long and transmission capacity is high, it is
suitable for DWDM transmission.

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G.652 vs G.655 Single Mode Fiber

G.652 and G.655 differ in several specifications, for example, wavelength, dispersion, the parameter of attenuation and PMD, division and so on.
Unlike G.652 which has a zero-dispersion wavelength at 1310 nm and reduced water peak to support CWDM, G.655 fiber is a non-zero dispersion-
shifted fiber with the characteristics of elimination of FWM and low dispersion value, applied to DWDM. When it comes to the fiber optic cable
price, G.652 is lower than G.655. Besides, there are other detailed differences between G.652 and G.655 in the following table.

Conclusion

This article gave an explanation of two categories of single mode fiber types and made a comparison between G.652 and G.655. If you need the
transmission with not very high rate and long distance, G.652. D is recommended. If you need the DWDM system required much higher capacity
and long distance, G655 can be the best choice regardless of much higher cost. For more detailed information about single mode fiber, you can
contact fs.com.

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➢ POWERGRID initially laid Optical Ground Wire (OPGW) on its transmission lines for collecting real time data for Grid
Monitoring.
➢ Diversified into Telecom, to utilize spare capacity of OPGW installed for Grid Monitoring & with an incremental investment
➢ All equipment & Fibres are international standards compliant (ITU-T).
➢ Regional & National level NOCs with dedicated NMS for monitoring of the network on 24X7 basis.
➢ Over 93,000 C.kms of transmission network and 150 sub-stations across the Country
➢ Operates Fiber Optic Backbone Network of about 25,000 Kms connecting more than 200 Cities & towns. Expansion by about
33,000Kms under various schemes inprogress.
➢ Backbone links are mainly on overhead Optical Ground Wire(OPGW)
➢ Adding value by implementing attest state-of-the-art MPLS network
➢ Right-of-Way (ROW) and infrastructure readily available to develop OPGW backbone
➢ Faster Roll-out–60-75 km/gang/month
➢ Installation & Maintenance on live powerlines without disturbing the powersystem.
➢ Dedicated team of professionals developed through extensive training and have acquired skills in planning, design, installation
and O&M of telecom networks
➢ Impeccable experience in timely building of very large Infrastructure projects
➢ Capable to undertake large scale projects in the rural areas and difficult terrain

POWER Transmission Network & Telecom Network

23
12. Introduction To the Projects
A project is an activity to meet the creation of a unique product or service and thus activities that are undertaken to accomplish routine activities
cannot be considered projects. For instance, if your project is less than three months old and has fewer than 20 people working on it, you may not
be working in what is called a project according to the definition of the term.

It has to be remembered that the term temporary does not apply to the result or service that is generated by the project. The project may be finite
but not the result. For instance, a project to build a monument would be of fixed duration whereas the result that is the monument may be for an
indefinite period in time.

A project is an activity to create something unique. Of course, many of the office buildings that are built are similar in many respects but each
individual facility is unique in its own way.

Finally, a project must be progressively elaborated. This means that the project progresses in steps and continues by increments. This also means
that the definition of the project is refined at each step and ultimately the purpose of the progress is enunciated. This means that a project is first
defined initially and then as the project progresses, the definition is revisited and more clarity is added to the scope of the project as well as the
underlying assumptions about the project.

A project in any organization is collaboration across departments to achieve a single well defined objective. The process of planning, organizing
and managing resources to achieve the organizational objective is called project management.

Project management is very important in production of goods and services. Idea generation to final production of product or service, each step
can be categorized as individual projects. Any project requires a project manager, who leads the project to its logical concl usion. Project manager
is responsible for appointing team members with different background but essential in completion of the project.

13. Project Characteristics


A project is not normal day to day activity undertaken by organization rather it is specific, non-routine activity of varying time frame and impact
viability of the business in the long run. A typical project has following characteristics:

▪ Timeline: A project has a definite timeline with measurable starting and end point.
▪ Resources: A project has limited resource of capital and manpower.
▪ Tools: Special type of tools and techniques are used for project management (Gantt Charts, etc.)
▪ Team: Project management requires diverse team stretching across departments and functions.

14. Project Life Cycle


A typical project is divided into following phases. Each phase of the project has its own importance and impact on overall success of the project.

▪ Initiation Phase: In this phase of the project, feedback received from customers is analyzed and brainstorming is done as to develop
new product or modify existing product to meet the new demands.
▪ Project Definition Phase: In this phase of the project efforts are made to define the solution for the problem posed by customers.
▪ Feasibility Study: In this phase, planning of the project is made and definite milestones are established.
▪ Project Execution: In this phase all activities and milestones established in the earlier phase are executed in a timely and orderly
manner. This phase utilizes maximum of all resources.
▪ Project Conclusion: This is the last phase of the project. In this phase, final product or service is handed over to the operations team
for commercial production.

15. Areas I involved in the projects


Mainly I involved in the SAP related work of the Projects. That is issuing Good Receipt certificate, Service Entry Sheet and parking these
documents and sending to finance. Other than SAP I prepared the proposals for Time Extension and Liquidation Delays. While doing this I learnt
why are we doing these things.

Creation of Goods Receipt Certificate:

1.Prior to performing tcode-MIGO, check for authorization of roles

2 Enter tcode - MIGO, screen opens up

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3 Select from dropdown option as Goods Receive and Purchase Order & enter purchase order no in the text box and click enter

4 It would display line item wise material as entered in PO

5 For each line item, Enter qty in Item detail section under Quantity tab in "Qty in Unit of Entry" i.e amount of goods received

6 Click OK for the selected line item

7 Enter Sloc (storage location) for the selected line item

8 Perform the step from 3 to 5 for items you want to receive goods

9 On perfroming the above task, click check button

10 In case no error displayed, click POST button else rectify the errors and then press POST button

Creation of Service Entry Sheet

1 Prior to performing tcode-ML81N, check for authorization of roles

2 Enter tcode - ML81N, screen opens up

3 Click Other Purchase Order button, enter PO no and click enter

4 Select the line item of PO and click create entry sheet button

5 Enter Short text for services which has been executed Service Loc where services executed Period start and end date Person Internal (from
Powergrid) Person External (from vendor side)

6 Click Service Sel, it open service selection popup, select "From Purchase Order" and enter

7 Select sub activity and click adopt service

8 Enter appropriate qty and click save button

9 Pop up appears, with TC1 and TC2

10 Enter TC1 and TC2 (employee no starting with 600)

11 Log in with TC1 user and enter tcode - SBWP, Goto Inbox and then click workflow

12 Select the appropriate service entry sheet no and doucble click to open

13 Enter TC1 value i.e for example 8 service TC1 seen 2 services, so TC1 value would be 1

14 Click Save button, screen pop up. Click Complete Work Item button, service entry sheet released by TC1 and gone to TC2

15 Log in with TC2 user and enter tcode - SBWP, Goto Inbox and then click workflow

16 Select the appropriate service entry sheet no and doucble click to open

17 Enter TC2 value i.e for example 8 service TC2 seen 4 services, so TC2 value would be 4

18 Click Save button, screen pop up. Click Complete Work Item button, service entry sheet released by TC2

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19 Service Entry sheet released from TC1 as well as TC2

20 To check status of TC1 & TC2 approval against service entry sheet, enter tcode - ZMM_TC and enter PO no & Service entry sheet no, click
F8 to view the status

Invoice Parking

1 Prior to performing tcode-MIR7, check for authorization of roles

2 Enter tcode - MIR7, Park Incoming Invoice screen opens up

3 Enter Invoice date in "Invoice Date" text box

4 Enter Invoice no in "Reference"text box

5 Under PO Reference tab, select option from dropdown either Service Entry sheet or Purchase Order no and enter releavant in the adjacent text
box & click enter

6 Line item displayed as per the service entry sheet/ good receiving done

7 Tick the "Calculate" check box in case taxes applicable and entered in the PO, else leave it blank 7 Tick the check box against the line item for
which invoice to be booked and click enter

8 Copy the amount in the "Balance" text box at the top and put in the "Amount" text box and click enter

9 Now "Balance" text box would be as 0 value and with green indicator

10 Click "Save" button at the top of the screen and Park Invoice no generated

Time Extension & Liquidation Delay

The time remains the essence of all major contracts awarded by POWERGRID and all works / supply under a contract needs to be completed
within the stipulated time schedule. Therefore, a provision has been kept in the contract that in case of delay in completion, for the reasons
attributable to the contractor, he is required to pay to the owner, a sum, as LD, calculated at a specified rate generally for each week of delay but
limited to the ceiling mentioned in the Contract. The ceiling limit in the contract is generally 5% or 10% of the contract price.

Notwithstanding the fact that time is the essence of the contract, a number of cases of delay in completion of projects are encountered. Though
the reasons for delay are diverse, the contracts finally get completed beyond the contract completion period. In order to keep the contract alive, it
is also necessary that extension of time is granted to the contractor for the extended period of completion. While communicating the approval of
extension of time, a decision on imposition/waiver of LD, fully or partly, on account of delay in completion of work is also required to be
indicated. Since the reasons for delay are generally mixed up i.e., attributable to both POWERGRID & contractor, the issue of time extension
with imposition/ waiver of LD needs to be dealt with meticulously and delicately taking into account all the relevant aspects. The relevant
aspects to be considered include the reasons for delay, the period of delay attributable to either parties and the loss or damages, if any, suffered
by POWERGRID.

Since the above exercise can normally be taken up only after physical completion of works, Provisional time extension will be granted with the
approval of competent authority as per DOP so that the contract is alive and delayed supplies/works can be accepted by POWERGRID.A written
communication in this regard, the standardized proforma for which will be finalized by P&S group of Corporate Contracts and circulated to all
regions, will be issued by concerned contracts. Such Provisional time extension will be without prejudice to all the obligations of the contractor
under the contract and further without prejudice to POWERGRID’s right to levy LD and other rights under the Contract. Above facts will be
clearly indicated in the proforma of provisional time extension letter, finalized by P&S group of Corporate Contracts.

In normal course, the proposal for Provisional/Interim time extension or Final extension of time along with settlement of LD shall be initiated
upon receipt of request from the Contractor to that effect.

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In case of Interim / Provisional time extension, the recommendation shall be put up by the concerned execution site to the competent authority
through contracts and finance. This exercise will be started atleast 01 month before the expiry of scheduled completion period so that provisional
extension letter is issued before expiry of the contract period.

While finalizing final time extension, if LD is levied in each and every contract undergoing delay in completion period, without examining the
merit of the case and the taking relevant aspects into account, such a decision will not only be against the spirit of the contract but may not
ultimately be in the interest of POWERGRID also. At the same time, cases involving loss/ damages to POWERGRID due to delays by
Contractor should not be dealt with leniently. Hence, in order to safeguard the long term and larger interest of POWERGRID, the cases for
imposition of LD need to be dealt with logically and rationally, maintaining consistency in approach. Accordingly, in the normal course, the
cases of time extension/LD will be dealt with as per guidelines given hereunder.

The loss/ damages suffered by POWERGRID due to delays by the contractor is the basic criteria for deciding a case for imposition of LD.
Damages, with reference to a contract, in the context of LD, can be defined as the amount adjudged to be paid by Contractor to the Owner as
compensation for the loss sustained by the latter in consequence of the breach of contractual obligations pertaining to time schedule. The
fundamental principle underlying the theory of damages is not punishment but compensation.

Our Contracts have a provision for recovering compensation as LD from the Contractor for delays attributable to him in performance of the
Contract, in form of a predetermined sum for each unit of time delay subject to an overall limit. In fact, the spirit of LD clause is that recovery
towards loss, if any, suffered by POWERGRID, on account of reasons attributable to the contractor, can be effected from the contractor upto the
extent of actual loss or upto the limit of the predetermined sum as mentioned in the contract, whichever is lower. In this connection, it may be
relevant to point out that Indian Courts have, in some cases, insisted upon for the evidence / estimate of the loss / damages incurred / suffered, as
a prerequisite for implementing this clause. Therefore, recovery towardscompensation under the clause should take place when loss/ damage has
actually taken place on account of delay caused by the Contractor. Even if there is a delay in execution of the contract and reasons for delay are
attributable to the contractor but POWERGID has not suffered any loss specifically due to delay in performance of the contract, no sum as LD is
recoverable from the contractor. However, in such cases, a token LD, the amount of which will be determined in the manner as elaborated in
subsequent paras, will be recovered. In Contracts awarded by POWERGRID, delay in performance of the Contract may be on account of one or
more of the following:

(i) Reasons attributable to the owner viz., delay in providing the work front, approval of drawings/ sub-vendors, issue of owner
supplied material and/or fulfillment of POWERGRID’s other obligations as provided in the Contract, etc.

(ii) Reasons attributable to “Force Majeure” conditions as defined in the Contract.

(iii) Reasons attributable to the Contractor viz, delay in mobilization, submission of drawings, finalisation of sub-vendors, supply of material/
equipment, fulfillment of the Contractor’s other obligations under the Contract, etc.

Based on the analysis, the period of delay due to ‘Force Majeure’ and for reasons attributable to POWERGRID shall be identified. The idea of
the exercise is to find out the net delay, which is attributable to the contractor. Experience of LD cases dealt with in the past tells that all the three
types of delay mentioned above are so much mixed up/intermingled, with one running concurrently with another, at intermittent stages, that it
becomes extremely difficult to directly identify the delay attributable to the contractor. As such, a practicable approach for working out the net
delay attributable to the contractor, as described below, shall be adopted:

(i) Total delay that has occurred in a Contract =A

(ii) Cumulative period of delay on account of “Force Majeure” =B

(iii) Cumulative period of delay on account of POWERGRID = C

(iv) Concurrent cumulative period in( ii) &( iii) = X

(v) Cumulative period of delay on account of “Force Majeure” and POWERGRID

= B+C-X

(vi) Net period of delay attributable to the contractor, Z= A-(B+C-X)

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Taking Over Certificate

Immediately upon receipt of a written communication from the Contractor intimating that the works have been physically completed as per
technical specifications or are nearing completion (within a period not exceeding 15 days), the execution site shall take further necessary action,
depending upon the nature of ‘works’ under a particular Contract, towards taking over. The actions, required to be taken by execution site, have
been broadly described in subsequent paras. For this purpose, the ‘Works’ have been categorized as follows:

Within 15(fifteen) days of intimation from the contractor regarding completion of ‘Works’, the execution site shall inspect the ‘Works’ to verify
the completion status, in presence of the contractor’s representative. If the ‘works’ are found to be completed and acceptable in all respects
(except for minor defects and deficiencies, if any), Completion Certificate/ Taking Over Certificate (TOC) shall be issued by the execution site,
at a level not below Chief manager, within 30 (days) of Contractor’s intimation. The completion certificate shall generally contain the following
details: (a) Date of completion; (b) Defects to be rectified; (c) Items not conforming to specification but can be accepted at a reduced rate.

If, on inspection, ‘works’ are not found to be completed or rectification of major nature is required, the execution site (not below the level of
Manager) shall, within 21 days of Contractor’s intimation, inform the incomplete works/ defects and deficiencies to the Contractor in writing
advising him to take necessary action and to inform POWERGRID after completion/ rectification. However, if the contract specifies separate
completion period for different parts of works for the purpose of taking over also, completion certificate/TOC shall be issued in respect of
portion of works that are completed and are acceptable.

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16. References:

1. Horak, Ray (2007). Telecommunications and Data Communications Handbook. Wiley-Interscience.


2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDH
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength-Division_Multiplexing

4. https://www.managementstudyguide.com/what-is-project.htm

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