Unit 1
Unit 1
Unit 1
ENGINES
Principle of operation:
Internal combustion engines can be classified into a large number of types based
on several criteria. The classification of IC engines is given below:
Piston:
The piston of an engine is the first part to begin movement and to transmit power to the
crankshaft as a result of the pressure and energy generated by the combustion of the
fuel. The piston is closed at one end and open on the other end to permit direct
attachment of the connecting rod and its free action. The materials used for pistons are
grey cast iron, cast steel and aluminium alloy. However, the modern trend is to use
only aluminium alloy pistons in the tractor engine.
Piston Rings:
These are made of cast iron on account of their ability to retain bearing qualities and
elasticity indefinitely. The primary function of the piston rings is to retain compression
and at the same time reduce the cylinder wall and piston wall contact area to a
minimum, thus reducing friction losses and excessive wear. The other important
functions of piston rings are the control of the lubricating oil, cylinder lubrication, and
transmission of heat away from the piston and from the cylinder walls. Piston rings are
classed as compression rings and oil rings depending on their function and location on
the piston.
Compression rings are usually plain one-piece rings and are always placed in the
grooves nearest the piston head. Oil rings are grooved or slotted and are located either
in the lowest groove above the piston pin or in a groove near the piston skirt. Their
function is to control the distribution of the lubricating oil to the cylinder and piston
surface in order to prevent unnecessary or excessive oil consumption ion.
Piston Pin:
The connecting rod is connected to the piston through the piston pin. It is made of case
hardened alloy steel with precision finish. There are three different methods to connect
the piston to the connecting rod.
Connecting Rod:
This is the connection between the piston and crankshaft. The end connecting the
piston is known as small end and the other end is known as big end. The big end has
two halves of a bearing bolted together. The connecting rod is made of drop forged
steel and the section is of the I-beam type.
Crankshaft:
This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and converts the linear
motion of the piston into the rotational motion of the flywheel. The journals of the
crankshaft are supported on main bearings, housed in the crankcase. Counter-weights
and the flywheel bolted to the crankshaft help in the smooth running of the engine.
Engine Bearings:
The crankshaft and camshaft are supported on anti-friction bearings. These bearings
must be capable of withstanding high speed, heavy load and high temperatures.
Normally, cadmium, silver or copper lead is coated on a steel back to give the above
characteristics. For single cylinder vertical/horizontal engines, the present trend is to
use ball bearings in place of main bearings of the thin shell type.
Valves:
To allow the air to enter into the cylinder or the exhaust, gases to escape from the
cylinder, valves are provided, known as inlet and exhaust valves respectively. The
valves are mounted either on the cylinder head or on the cylinder block.
Camshaft:
The valves are operated by the action of the camshaft, which has separate cams for the
inlet, and exhaust valves. The cam lifts the valve against the pressure of the spring and
as soon as it changes position the spring closes the valve. The cam gets drive through
either the gear or sprocket and chain system from the crankshaft. It rotates at half the
speed of the camshaft.
Flywheel
This is usually made of cast iron and its primary function is to maintain uniform engine
speed by carrying the crankshaft through the intervals when it is not receiving power
from a piston.
The size of the flywheel varies with the number of cylinders and the type and size of
the engine. It also helps in balancing rotating masses.
Working of a Two Stroke Engine
In small engines, the exhaust and inlet ports are made in the cylinder block.
When a piston comes down from the Top Dead Center (TDC) to the Bottom Dead
Center (BDC) during a power stroke, it opens the exhaust port. Due to this uncovering
of the port, exhaust gases are allowed to escape. As the piston travels down a little
more, it also uncovers the inlet port which is usually located opposite the exhaust port.
Due to uncovering of the inlet port by the piston, a fresh charge comes into the
cylinder.
When a piston travels up from the BDC to TDC, it covers both, the inlet and
exhaust ports and so the charge gets trapped and compressed. This is the
commencement of a compression stroke. When a piston reaches the TDC, a spark is
triggered from the spark plug and the charge (the mixture of air and fuel) ignites. The
charge gets expanded due to rapid combustion caused by the explosion and it causes
the piston to move down with force. This is known as a power stroke.
At the same time, when the piston is at the TDC, the piston skirt uncovers the
port in the cylinder block from where a fresh charge goes into the crank case due to a
partial vacuum created by the crank shaft and its weight. Thereafter, when the piston
starts moving down in a power stroke, the charge which has come in to the crank case
is pressed by crank weights to the inlet port side, ready to be taken to the cylinder. In
this way, a whole cycle is completed.
Two stroke engines can be applied for both diesel and petrol fuels - though a
Diesel engine does not use a spark plug for ignition, but uses the heat generated from
compression itself.
2. Only a light weight flywheel is necessary as the engine has more uniform load.
3. These engines do not have valve mechanisms and are simply designed.
Disadvantages:
2. These engines are mostly air-cooled and noise from them is more than that of
four stroke engines.
3. Due to less time available for burning of charges, some leftover charge escapes
through exhaust gases, which also causes less efficiency.
4. Lubrication oil is mixed in fuel and gases burnt during combustion. This leads to
higher emissions.
Working of a Four Stroke Engine
Intake Stroke: The intake stroke is where the intake valves are open and the air is
drawn into the cylinder. The fuel injector sprays the fuel into the cylinder to achieve
the perfect air-fuel ratio. The downward movement of the piston causes the air and fuel
to be sucked into the cylinder.
Compression Stroke: The next is the compression cycle where both the intake and
exhaust valves are closed. The upward movement of the piston causes the air-fuel
mixture to be compressed upwards towards the spark plug. The compression makes the
air-fuel combination volatile for easier ignition.
Combustion/Power Stroke: During the power/combustion stroke, both the intake and
exhaust valves are still closed. The spark plug produces a spark to ignite the
compressed air-fuel mixture. The resulting energy of the combustion forcefully pushes
the piston downward.
Exhaust Stroke: The last cycle is the exhaust stroke, when the exhaust valves open
and the exhaust gases are forced up by the returning piston.
Cycles :
The engines in which combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine are called
as internal combustion engines or IC engines. The IC engines comprises of the piston
and cylinder arrangement with suction and exhaust valves.
In the beginning of the internal combustion cycle, the air-fuel mixture is
inducted inside the cylinder. When the fuel is combusted lot of heat is released which
makes the engine cylinder very hot. To avoid the deterioration of the engine, it is very
important to cool the engine either with water or with external air. After combustion of
fuel the pressure of gases becomes very high which pushes the piston producing the
work. Thereafter the burnt gases are released to the atmosphere as exhaust gases and
the fresh air-fuel mixture is inducted inside the cylinder. Since the burnt air-fuel
mixture does not moves into the cycle again and fresh air-fuel mixture is inducted at
the beginning of each cycle, the internal combustion engines are said to be working in
non-cyclic process.
The internal combustion engines are considered to be working on the principle of air
standard cycles. The two most commonly used air standard cycles are Otto cycle and
Diesel cycle. The Otto cycle corresponds to four stroke gasoline or petrol engines also
called Spark Ignition (SI) engines. The Diesel cycle corresponds to four stroke Diesel
engines also called as Compression Ignition (CI) engines.
Thereafter the exhaust valve closes, the piston starts moving in downward direction,
the inlet valve opens and fresh air-fuel mixture is inducted. The whole cycle is
completed in four strokes of engine, hence it is called four-stroke engine.
Efficiency of Otto Cycle
The efficiency of Otto cycle is given as: 1- (T4-T1)/(T3-T2)
Where T1, T2, T3, T4 are the absolute temperatures measured in degree Kelvin
Diesel Cycle - Introduction
Apart from Otto cycle, thermodynamic Diesel cycle is one of the most popularly used
cycles. The internal combustion diesel engines that are fitted in your cars and others
machines run on the principle of Diesel cycle. Like petrol engine running on the
principle of Otto cycle, the Diesel engines also comprise of four strokes: suction of
fuel, compression of fuel, combustion and expansion of fuel and exhaust of burnt fuel.
The four stroke engine has been described in details in article: How Four-Stroke
Compression Ignition Engines Work
In diesel engine initially only air is inducted inside the cylinder and it is compresses to
very high pressures. Thereafter the diesel fuel is injected inside the cylinder and its
combustion takes place to high temperature of the compressed air. Since the
combustion of fuel takes place due to compression of air, the diesel engine is also
called Compression Ignition (CI) engine.
Four stroke Diesel cycle was invented by Rudolf Diesel in the year 1897. The
principle of Diesel cycle is used in the compression ignition (CI) type of internal
combustion engines using diesel as the fuel. Originally when Rudolf Diesel discovered
this engine, it was meant to run on the coal dust.
Diesel Cycle
Processes of Ideal Diesel Cycle
The ideal Otto cycle comprises of two isentropic, one constant volume, and one
constant pressure processes. The Diesel cycle is an open cycle or non-cyclic process
since the fresh air and fuel is inducted inside the engine during each cycle and the
burnt mixture is released to the atmosphere To understand these processes let us
consider piston and cylinder engine with air and diesel as the working fluid.
1) Air intake process 1-2: During this process the inlet valve of the engine is open, the
piston moves towards the bottom position inducting air at constant pressure.
2) Isentropic compression process 2-3: During this process the inlet and exhaust
valves of the engine remain close and the air, which has been inducted inside the
cylinder, is compressed to the minimum volume. The compression ratio of air is
between15 to 20. High compression ratios are very important in the Diesel cycle as we
it increases the efficiency of the cycle also allows uniform burning of fuel.
3) Injection of fuel and its combustion at constant pressure 3-4: During this process
the fuel valve opens and fuel is injected inside the cylinder consisting of hot air at high
pressure. After injection the combustion of fuel takes place instantly. Since the
combustion of fuel occurs due to high pressure, the diesel engine is also called
Compression Ignition engine. Due to combustion fuel high pressure and temperature is
generated.
4) Isentropic expansion process 4-5: Due to extremely high pressure, the piston is
pushed again towards the bottommost position of the cylinder. It is during this process
that the actual work is produced from the engine.
5) Constant volume heat rejection process 5-6: During this process the exhaust valve
opens and all the exhaust gases are ready to be released to the atmosphere. The
pressure inside the cylinder falls drastically.
6) Exhaust process 6-1: During this process the exhaust valve is open and the piston
moves upwards and removes all the exhaust gases inside the cylinder at constant
pressure.
Thereafter the exhaust valve closes, the piston starts moving in downward direction,
the inlet valve opens and fresh air-fuel mixture is inducted. The whole cycle is
completed in four strokes of engine, hence it is called four-stroke engine.
Fuel-Air Cycle
The theoretical cycle based on the actual properties of the cylinder contents is called
the fuel – air cycle. The fuel – air cycle take into consideration the following:
1. The actual composition of the cylinder contents.
2. The variation in the specific heat of the gases in the cylinder.
3. The dissociation effect.
4. The variation in the number of moles present in the cylinder as the pressure and
temperature change.
5. Compression & expansion processes are frictionless
6. No chemical changes in either fuel or air prior to combustion.
7. Combustion takes place instantaneously at top dead center.
8. All processes are adiabatic.
9. The fuel is mixed well with air.
10. Subsequent to combustion, the change is always in chemical equilibrium.
The actual cycle experienced by internal combustion engines is an open cycle with
changing composition, actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air standard
efficiency due to various losses occurring in the actual engine. These losses are as
follows:
3- time losses:
In order that the maximum pressure is not reached too late in the expansion stroke,
the time at which burning starts is varied by varying the spark timing (spark advance).
Fuel vapour, air, and residual gas are present in the cylinder, this makes it
impossible to obtain perfect homogeneous mixture.. Therefore some fuel does not burn
to CO2 or partially burns to CO, and O 2 will appear in the exhaust. Energy release in
actual engine is about 90 to 93% of fuel energy input.
During combustion process and subsequent expansion stroke, the heat flows from
cylinder gases through cylinder walls and cylinder head into the water jacket or cooling
fins. Some heat enters the piston head and flows through piston rings into the walls of
the cylinder or carried away by the engine oil.
The heat loss during combustion and expansion does not represent a complete heat
loss; a part of the heat loss would be rejected in the exhaust at the end of the expansion
stroke.
The opening of the exhaust value before B.D.C. reducing cylinder pressure, causing
the roundness of the end of the P-V diagram, this means a reduction in the work done
per cycle.
7- pumping losses:
8- Friction losses:
Effect of throttle
opening:
Figure 4: Effect of throttle opening
on the indicator diagram
2
When a four- stroke SI engine is run at partially closed throttle, (throttle is a
butterfly valve in the intake system), fuel supplied to the engine is reduced, and
this would lead to less power output at part throttle opening as shown in figure (5-
4). The upper loop represent positive work output (A) while the lower loop
consisting of the exhaust and intake strokes is negative work (B). The more closed
the throttle position, the lower will be the pressure during the intake stroke and the
greater the negative pumping work.
Actual Indicator diagram for four stroke and two stroke engines
The internal combustion engine is a heat engine. It’s working principle is based on
the variation of pressure and volume inside the engine’s cylinders. All heat engines
are characterized by a pressure-volume diagram, also known as pV diagram, which
basically shows the variation of the pressure in the cylinder function of its volume,
for a complete engine cycle.
Also, the work produced by the internal combustion engine is directly dependent
on the variation of the pressure and volume inside the cylinder.
when the intake and exhaust valves are actuated during the engine cycle
where:
S – piston stroke
Vc – clearance volume
Vd – displaced (swept) volume
p0 – atmospheric pressure
W – work
TDC – top dead center
BDC – bottom dead center
IV – inlet valve
EV – exhaust valve
IVO – inlet valve opening
IVC – inlet valve closing
EVO – exhaust valve opening
EVC – exhaust valve closing
IGN (INJ) – ignition (injection)
The pressure-volume (pV) diagram is drawn by measuring the pressure inside the
cylinder, and plotting its value against the angle of the crankshaft, over a complete
engine cycle (720°).
Let’s see what’s happening in the cylinder during each piston stroke, how the
pressure and volume are changing inside the cylinder.
Notice that the timing of the intake and exhaust valves have advance and delay,
relative to the position of the piston. For example, the intake valve it’s opening
during the exhaust stroke of the piston and it is closing during the compression
stroke. In the same time, when the intake stroke is starting, the exhaust valve is still
open for a short while. The opening of the exhaust valve is done before the power
stroke has finished.
INTAKE (a-b)
The engine cycle starts in point a. The intake valve is already open and
the piston moves from TDC towards BDC. The volume increases constantly as the
piston travels the stroke length. The maximum volume is reached when the piston
is at BDC. The pressure is below atmospheric pressure, during the whole stroke,
because the piston movement is creating volume and the air is drawn inside the
cylinder due to the vacuum effect.
COMPRESSION (b-c)
After the piston has passed BDC, the compression stroke begins. In this phase the
volume starts to decrease and the pressure to increase. It takes a while until the
pressure in the cylinder exceeds the atmospheric pressure so the intake valve is still
open also after the piston passes BDC. As the piston goes towards TDC, the
pressure increases gradually. Around 25° before TDC, the ignition is triggered and
the pressure rises rapidly towards maximum pressure.
POWER (c-e)
After the ignition / injection event, the pressure in the cylinder rises sharply, until it
hits the maximum values pmax. The value of the maximum pressure depends on
the type of the engine, what fuel it’s used. For a typical passenger vehicle engine,
the maximum cylinder pressure can be around 120 bar (gasoline) or 180 bar
(diesel). The power stroke starts when the piston moves from TDC towards BDC.
The high pressure in the cylinder is pushing the piston, therefore the volume
rises and the pressure starts to drop gradually.
EXHAUST (e-a)
After the power stroke, the piston is again at the BDC. The volume in the cylinder
is again at maximum value and the pressure around minimum (atmospheric
pressure). The piston starts to move towards TDC and it’s pushing the burnt gases
out of the cylinder.
Fuels are any material that store potential energy in forms, which upon burning in
oxygen liberates heat energy.
Calorific value of fuel is the total quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass or
volume of fuel is completely burnt.
Higher or gross calorific value (HCV) in the total amount of heat produced when a
unit mass/volume of fuel has been burnt completely and the products of
combustion have been cooled to room temperature (15°C or 60°F).
Lower or net calorific value (LCV) is the heat produced when unit mass (volume)
of the fuel is burnt completely and the products are permitted to escape.
Natural or primary fuels are found in nature such as wood, peat, coal, natural gas,
petroleum.
Artificial or secondary fuels are prepared from primary fuels charcoal, coal gas,
coke, kerosene oil, diesel oil, petrol, etc.
Solid Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Gaseous Fuels
An ideal fuel should have the following properties:
Low cost
Easy to transport
No spontaneous combustion
The definition of octane is the fuel’s ability to resist combustion from pressure or
heat and wait for the arcing of the spark plug. The higher the octane, the better the
ability of the fuel to resist auto-combustion. A low-octane fuel will be prone to
auto-combust via heat or pressure. When gasoline auto-combusts, there are
multiple flames expanding in the bore instead of the intended one. This is a flame
that was the result of auto-combustion along with the proper event created by the
arcing of the spark plug.
The octane rating of gasoline has nothing to do with its energy content. Often the
components used to raise the octane steal some of the potential energy when
measured in Btu. If an engine makes more power on higher octane fuel, it is due to
the ability to enjoy a normal combustion event and not a greater energy density.
Cetane number is the exact opposite. It is the fuel’s eagerness to ignite from the
heat created in the bore from the compression of the air. The higher the cetane
number, the shorter the ignition delay and the better the ignition quality.
As with octane, higher cetane fuel will create a quieter combustion event that
enjoys less diesel knock than a fuel with a low number. As an aside, the engine will
also run smoother, be more responsive, and usually return better fuel economy.
When designing a gas engine, the goal is for it to be octane-tolerant, meaning it can
have a normal combustion event on low-octane fuel.
The edict for a diesel engine is to not be cetane-sensitive. The engine design should
promote a short amount of ignition delay even with low-cetane fuel.
To get the most life from any engine, it is important to understand the difference
between the two fuel components and the way they’re rated.