Pressurized Irrigation Techniques 6.

CHAPTER 6:
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation scheduling is one of the factors that influence the agronomic
and economic viability of small farms. It is important for both water
savings and improved crop yields. The irrigation water is applied to the
cultivation according to predetermined schedules based upon the
monitoring of:

• the soil water status;

• the crop water requirements.

The type of soil and climatic conditions have a significant effect on

the main practical aspects of irrigation, which are the determination of
how much water should be applied and when it should be applied to a
given crop.

In addition to the basic factors relevant to the preparation of irrigation

schedules examined below, other important elements should also be
considered, such as crop tolerance and sensitivity to water deficit at
various growth stages, and optimum water use.

SOIL-WATER RELATIONSHIP
Table 6.1 presents a summary table of soil physical properties.
TABLE 6.1 - Soil physical properties (average values)

Light Medium Heavy (fine)

Type of soil (coarse) texture texture texture

Saturation capacity (SC) % weight 25–35% 35–45% 55–65%

Field capacity (FC) % weight 8–10% 18–26% 32–42%
Wilting point (WP) % weight 4–5% 10–14% 20–24%
SC/FC 2/1 2/1 2/1
FC/WP 2/1 1.85/1 1.75/1
Bulk density(volume weight) 1.4–1.6 g/cm3 1.2–1.4 g/cm3 1.0–1.2 g/cm3
Soil available water (moisture) by volume 6% 12% 16–20%
(FC-WP x bulk density)
Available moisture (Sa) in mm per metre soil 60 mm 120 mm 160–200 mm
depth (FC-WP x bulk density x 10)
Soil water tension in bars:
• at field capacity 0.1 0.2 0.3
• at wilting point 15.0 15.0 15.0
Time required from saturation to field capacity 18–24 h 24–36 h 36–89 h
Infiltration rate 25–75 mm/h 8–16 mm/h 2–6 mm/h
6.2 Chapter 6 – Irrigation
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Example:
The field capacity (FC) of a 45-cm layer of soil is 18 percent. How
much water in cubic metres per hectare does this layer hold?

Answer:
FC = 18 %, WP = FC ÷ 1.85 = 9.7 %, Sa = 18-9.7 = 8.3 %;
Bulk density = 1.2 g/cm3; Sa mm/m = 8.3 x 1.2 x 10 = 99.6, Sa mm/45
cm = 8.3 x 1.2 x 10 x 0.45 = 44.8 mm; m3/ha = 0.0996 ÷ 1 x 0.45 x 10 000
(1 ha) = 448.2, or m3/ha = Sa (mm/m) x depth of layer (m) x 10.

Therefore, the answer is 448.2 m3/ha.

EFFECTIVE ROOT DEPTH

This is the soil depth from which the plants take nearly 80 percent of
their water needs, mostly from the upper part where the root system is
denser. The rooting depths depend on the plant physiology, the type of soil,
and the water availability (kind of irrigation). Indicative figures are
presented in FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24, Table 39.

In general, vegetables (beans, tomatoes, potatoes, onions, peanuts,

cucumbers, etc.) are shallow rooted, about 50–60 cm; fruit trees, cotton
and some other plants have medium root depths, 80–120 cm. Alfalfa,
sorghum, and maize have deeper roots (Table 6.2). Moreover, rooting
depths vary according to age.

TABLE 6.2 - Example of rooting depth (metres) during the growing season
August September October November December January

Maize - 0.4 0.9 1.2 1.2 -

Cotton 0.4 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
Tomato - - 0.3 0.7 0.9 0.9

PERMISSIBLE DEFICIT OR DEPLETION

OF SOIL AVAILABLE WATER
The fraction of moisture in the soil which amounts to 20–70 percent of
the total available moisture (Sa) and is easily absorbed by the plants
(without any stress that results in yield reduction) is called readily available
moisture. It is a product of Sa multiplied by p, which represents the
maximum permissible depletion of available water (moisture). The p value
differs according to the kind of plant, the root depth, the climatic
conditions and the irrigation techniques. Values for p are given in FAO
Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 33, Tables 19 and 20, and vary from
 Pressurized Irrigation Techniques 6.3

0.25 in shallow rooted sensitive crops to 0.70 in deep rooted tolerant

crops. Table 23 of the same paper provides information on the sensitive
growth periods of different crops.

Field observations have shown that the lower the soil moisture
depletion (p), the better the crop development and yield. Hence, the
recommended p values are:

• 0.20–0.30 for shallow rooted seasonal crops;

• 0.40–0.60 for deep rooted field crops and mature trees.

NET IRRIGATION APPLICATION DEPTH

Irrigation takes place when the permissible percentage (p) of available
water (Sa) is depleted from the root depth, i.e. to replenish the depleted
water. Therefore:

Net depth of irrigation dose (d) (mm) = (Sa × p) D

where Sa is the available water in millimetres per metre, p is the

permissible depletion (fraction), and D is the root depth (m).

Example:
Where Sa = 99 mm/m, p = 0.5, D = 0.4 m, what is the net irrigation
dose (d) in millimetres to replenish the moisture deficit?

d = 99 x 0.5 x 0.4 = 19.8 mm

CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

The amount of water which evaporates from wet soils and plant surfaces
together with the plant transpiration is called evapotranspiration (ET). Its
value is largely determined by climate factors, such as solar radiation,
temperature, humidity and wind, and by the environment. Out of the total
evapotranspiration, evaporation accounts for about 10 percent and plant
transpiration for the remaining 90 percent. Crop water requirements
encompass the total amount of water used in evapotranspiration.

Alternative approaches for estimating the evapotranspiration, such as

the radiation, Penman and pan methods, are presented in FAO Irrigation
and Drainage Papers Nos. 24 and 33. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo)
represents the rate of evapotranspiration of green grass under ideal
conditions, 8–15 cm tall, with extensive vegetative cover completely
shading the ground. It is expressed as a mean value in millimetres per day
over a period of 10–30 d.
6.4 Chapter 6 – Irrigation
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The most practical method for determining ETo is the pan evaporation
method. This approach combines the effects of temperature, humidity,
wind speed and sunshine. The best known pans are the Class A
evaporation pan (circular) and the Colorado sunken pan (square).

The evaporation from the pan is very near to the evapotranspiration

ofgrass that is taken as an index of ETo for calculation purposes. The pan
direct readings (Epan) are related to the ETo with the aid of the pan
coefficient (kpan), which depends on the type of pan, its location
(surroundings with or without ground cover vegetation) and the climate
(humidity and wind speed) (Table 6.3). Hence, ETo = Epan x kpan.

The kpan values for both types of pans are given in FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper No. 24, Tables 18 and 19. For the Class A pan the average
kpan is 0.70 and for the Colorado sunken pan it is 0.80.

Example:

TABLE 6.3 - Estimate of ETo in millimetres per day in the Wadi Tuban Delta
Month June July August September October November December

Epan 9.0 8.8 8.8 8.2 8.0 6.5 5.7

kpan average 0.70
ETo 6.3 6.2 6.2 5.7 5.6 4.5 4.0

In order to relate ETo to crop water requirements (ETc), the specific crop
coefficient (kc) must be determined: ETc = ETo x kc.

The crop coefficient (kc) depends on the crop leaf area and its
roughness, the stage of growth, the growing season and the prevailing
weather conditions (Table 6.4). Tables 6.5 and 6.6 list the kc values for
different crops at various growth stages.

Example:
TABLE 6.4 - Cotton, growing season August-December
August September October November December

ETo mm/d 6.2 5.7 5.6 4.5 4.0

Cotton kc 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.0 0.8
Cotton ET cmm/d 2.5 4.0 6.2 4.5 3.2
Cotton ET cmm/month 78 120 192 135 99

Total net water requirement approximately 580 mm

(December taken as half)
 Pressurized Irrigation Techniques 6.5

TABLE 6.5 - Crop factor (kc) for seasonal crops (average figures)
Crop Initial Crop development Mid-season Late and harvest

Bean (green) 0.35 0.70 1.0 0.9

Bean (dry) 0.35 0.75 1.1 0.5
Cabbage 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.9
Carrot 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.9
Cotton 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.75
Cucumber 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.75
Eggplant 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.80
Groundnut 0.45 0.75 1.0 0.75
Lettuce 0.45 0.60 1.0 0.90
Maize (sweet) 0.40 0.80 1.15 1.0
Maize (grain) 0.40 0.75 1.15 0.70
Melon 0.45 0.75 1.0 0.75
Onion (green) 0.50 0.70 1.0 1.0
Onion (dry) 0.50 0.75 1.05 0.85
Pea (fresh) 0.45 0.80 1.15 1.05
Pepper 0.35 0.75 1.05 0.90
Potato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.75
Spinach 0.45 0.60 1.0 0.90
Squash 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.75
Sorghum 0.35 0.75 1.10 0.65
Sugar beet 0.45 0.80 1.15 0.80
Sugar cane 0.45 0.85 1.15 0.65
Sunflower 0.35 0.75 1.15 0.55
Tomato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.80

TABLE 6.6 - Crop factor (kc) for permanent crops

Crop Young Mature

Banana 0.50 1.10

Citrus 0.30 0.65
Apple, cherry, walnut 0.45 0.85
Almond, apricot, pear, peach, pecan, plum 0.40 0.75
Grape, palm tree 0.70 0.70
Kiwi 0.90 0.90
Olive 0.55 0.55
Alfalfa 0.35 1.1

EFFECTIVE RAINFALL
In many areas, seasonal rain precipitation (P) might provide part of the
water requirements during the irrigation season. The amount of rainwater
retained in the root zone is called effective rainfall (Pe) and should be
deducted from the total irrigation water requirements calculated. It can be
roughly estimated as:

Pe = 0.8 P where P > 75 mm/month;

Pe = 0.6 P where P < 75 mm/month.
6.6 Chapter 6 – Irrigation
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GROUND COVER
Another element to consider when estimating crop water requirements
is the percentage of the field area (ground) covered by the cultivation. A
reduction factor, expressed as kr, is applied to the conventional ET crop
calculations. This factor is slightly higher, by about 15 percent, than the
actual ground covered by the crop. For example, if the actual ground
cover is 70 percent, kr = 0.70 x 1.15 = 0.80.

IRRIGATION INTERVAL OR FREQUENCY

This is the number of days between two consecutive irrigations, i = d ÷
ETc, where d is the net depth of irrigation application (dose) in millimeters
and ETc is the daily crop evapotranspiration in millimetres per day.

Example:
Where d is 19.8 mm, and ETc is 2.5 mm/d, then i = 19.8 ÷ 2.5 = 8 days.

IRRIGATION APPLICATION EFFICIENCY

The amount of water to be stored in the root zone is estimated as the
net irrigation dose (d). However, during the irrigation process, considerable
water loss occurs through evaporation, seepage, deep percolation, etc. The
amount lost depends on the efficiency of the system (Table 6.7). Irrigation
field application efficiency is expressed as:

d
Ea = × 100
Water Applied (gross)

where, d is water stored in the rootzone and Water Applied (gross) is

the irrigation water.

Example:
The net irrigation dose (d) for an area of 1 ha is 19.8 mm, i.e. 198 m3.
The water delivered during irrigation is 280 m3. What is the application
efficiency?

Answer:
Ea = 198 x 100 ÷ 280 = 70.7 percent, or expressed as a fraction, 0.70.
The remaining 30 percent of water applied is lost.
 Pressurized Irrigation Techniques 6.7

TABLE 6.7 - Approximate application efficiency

of various on-farm irrigation systems and methods
System/method Ea %

Earth canal network surface methods 40–50

Lined canal network surface methods 50–60
Pressure piped network surface methods 65–75
Hose irrigation systems 70–80
Low-medium pressure sprinkler systems 75
Microsprinklers, micro-jets, minisprinklers 75–85
Drip irrigation 80–90

GROSS IRRIGATION APPLICATION DEPTH

Given the irrigation efficiency as a fraction, i.e. Ea = 0.60 (60 percent),
the gross depth of irrigation application or gross irrigation dose (dg) is
calculated as follows:

d
dg =
Ea (fraction)

LEACHING REQUIREMENTS
The salinity level in the root zone is related directly to the water quality,
the amount of fertilizers and the irrigation application depth. A high salt
content in the soil is controlled by leaching (see Chapter 7 Water Quality).
An excess amount of water, 10–15 percent, is applied during the irrigation
where necessary for leaching purposes. In this way a portion of the water
percolates through and below the root zone carrying with it a portion of
the accumulated soluble salts. The leaching requirements (LR) are
considered for the calculation of the gross irrigation application (d).

SYSTEM FLOW (SYSTEM CAPACITY)

The minimum flow capacity of any irrigation system should be the one
that can meet the water requirements of the area under irrigation at peak
demand:

dg
minimumQ = 10 A
it

where Q is the system flow in cubic metres per hour, A is the area in
hectares, dg is the gross irrigation application depth (irrigation dose) in
6.8 Chapter 6 – Irrigation
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millimetres, i is the interval in days between two irrigations at peak

demand, t is the operating hours per day, and 10 is a constant for hectares.
However, the minimum flow of the system should be the one that enables
the completion of irrigation at least two days before the next irrigation. This
allows time to repair any damage to the system or pumping unit. Therefore,
the value of i in the above formula should be reduced by two days.

The duration of application per irrigation is determined as:

dg
T = 10 A
Q

where T is the total operating hours of the system.

GENERAL EXAMPLE
In the following example (Table 6.8) the effective rainfall (Pe), the ground
cover (kr) and the leaching requirements (LR) are not considered. However,
these elements are important in localized micro-irrigation systems.

• Crop: Cotton
• Area: 1.5 ha.
• Location: Tuban Delta.
• Growing season: August-December.
• Irrigation method: Pressure piped surface method.
• Irrigation efficiency: 70 percent.
• Soil of medium texture, Sa = 99 mm/m.

TABLE 6.8 - Cotton example

August September October November December

Soil available water Sa mm/m 99 99 99 99 99

Depletion of available water p 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Cotton root depth D m 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.0
Net irrigation application d mm 19.8 41.6 59.4 59.4 59.4
Epan mm/d 8.8 8.2 8.0 6.5 5.7
kpan 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
ETo mm/d 6.2 5.7 5.6 4.5 4.0
Cotton kc 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.0 0.8
Cotton ETc mm/d 2.5 4.0 6.2 4.5 3.2
Irrigation interval i days 8 10.5 9.6 13 18.5
Gross irrigation dose dg mm 28.3 59.4 85.0 85.0 85.0
Gross irrigation dose dg m3/h 425 891 1 275 1 275 1 275

The peak demand is in October when ETc is 6.2 mm/d and the
irrigation frequency (interval) is 8 days. If the number of operating hours
per day is seven, the system flow should be:
 Pressurized Irrigation Techniques 6.9

1.5ha × 85mm
minimumQ = 10 = 26m3/hr
(9days – 2days) × 7hrs/day

The duration of application per irrigation would be as follows (Table 6.9):

• August: T = 10 x 1.5 x 28.3 ÷ 26 = 16.3 hours, i.e. 2 days;

• September: T = 10 x 1.5 x 59.4 ÷ 26 = 34.3 hours, i.e. 5 days;
• October: T = 10 x 1.5 x 85.0 ÷ 26 = 49.0 hours, i.e. 7 days;
• November: T = 10 x 1.5 x 85.0 ÷ 26 = 49.0 hours, i.e. 7 days;
• December: T = 10 x 1.5 x 85.0 ÷ 26 = 49.0 hours, i.e. 7 days.

TABLE 6.9 - Irrigation programme

End of July pre-sowing irrigation to wet 0.6 m soil depth 1 273 m3

Beginning of August crop establishment

8 August irrigation 425 m3
16 August irrigation 425 m3
24 August irrigation 425 m3
1 September irrigation 891 m3
11 September irrigation 891 m3
22 September irrigation 891 m3
2 October irrigation 1 275 m3
11 October irrigation 1 275 m3
21 October irrigation 1 275 m3
31 October irrigation 1 275 m3
13 November irrigation 1 275 m3
26 November irrigation 1 275 m3

The last irrigation on 26 November can last up to 9 December, i.e. until

harvest. The total amount of water that must be applied to this crop on an
area of 1.5 ha is: 11 598 m3 plus 1 273 m3 as the minimum amount for
pre-irrigation, for a total of 12 871 m3.