RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES 1

WIND ENERGY

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Topics Covered:

1. Introduction

2. Sources and potentials

3. Horizontal and vertical axis windmills

4. Performance characteristics

5. Betz criteria
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
Wind is abundant almost in any part of the world. Wind is caused due to the heating of
earth’s surface by sun and due to the earth’s rotation. The conventional ways of generating
electricity using non-renewable resources such as coal, natural gas, oil and so on, have great
impacts on the environment as it contributes vast quantities of carbon dioxide to the earth’s
atmosphere which in turn will cause the temperature of the earth’s surface to increase, known as
the greenhouse effect. Hence, with the advances in science and technology, ways of generating
electricity using renewable energy resources such as the wind, solar, biomass are developed.
Nowadays, the cost of wind power that is connected to the grid is as cheap as the cost of
generating electricity using coal and oil. Thus, the increasing popularity of green electricity
means the demand of electricity produced by using non-renewable energy is also increased
accordingly.

4.2 Sources
The energy from the wind can be harnessed by wind turbines to generate electricity and
also windmills to pump water.
During the 1990s, wind turbines evolved dramatically to become very large and
increasingly efficient machines, as a direct result of government policies set in Denmark
enabling communities and co-ops to develop wind turbines and encouraging research and
development.

Chart: Global Annual Wind Installations (MW) 1980-2005

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4.2.1 Capturing and Using Wind

Modern wind turbines generate electricity typically around 80% of the time. The output
varies depending on wind speed, but over the course of a year, a turbine is designed and expected
to generate about 30% of its theoretical maximum output. This is known as its capacity factor,
which for conventional power plants is typically 50%.

Although the wind does not always blow, one region may be calm while another one is
windy. Therefore, overall fluctuations can be significantly reduced if wind turbines are spread
out across a country or region.

Wind turbines tend to generate more power during the day when it is needed most and
less at night, a pattern that corresponds well to electricity demand. Wind power therefore
combines well with existing power plants in Canada that can be used only when needed, such as
hydro plants, or must-run power plants like biomass that tend to have excess power at night.

The energy that is available in the wind is cubically related to the speed at which it is
moving. In other words, doubling the wind speed means there is eight times more energy. A
good wind power site therefore needs to be consistently windy. Even small differences in wind
speed can have a large impact on the performance a project.

Wind energy can also be used for mechanical work such as water pumping and small-
scale power systems for homes and small businesses. Canada has a unique expertise and
manufacturing ability for medium-scale electrical systems that are ideally suited for remote
community applications and hybrid systems such as wind-diesel.

4.2.2 Benefits

1. Large-scale wind energy is becoming cost competitive with traditional power generation.

2. Very low cradle-to-grave impacts.

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3. Wind is abundant all over the world.

4. Wind patterns tend to follow consumption patterns.

5. Turbines co-exist nicely with farms, supplying additional income with minimal impact on the
usable land.

6. Wind turbines are very quiet and are less likely to be struck by a bird than a downtown building, a
bay window or a car is.

4.2.3 Challenges

 Significant local visual impact.

 Moving parts require maintenance and upkeep.

 A consistent and considerable amount of wind is needed.

 Bats can be affected or struck by turbines.

 Power output is variable and needs overall system integration.

4.3 POTENTIAL

Global wind power has doubled over the last 3 years, which now accounts for 2% of the
world‘s electricity production, and as much as 20% in some countries. It is estimated that 13%
of the worlds land area has wind speeds greater than 6.9 m/s at commercial wind turbine heights,
this could theoretically produce 40 times the world's current electricity production. Although the
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total quantity of wind energy potentially available is considerable, there remain obstacles to the
substantial expansion of this industry.

Critics claim that wind power cannot replace conventional power sources since these still
need to be available for when the wind isn‘t blowing, and these are expensive to keep in reserve
and waiting on part load, reducing overall energy efficiency. For low contributions, wind power
can be considered largely additional, since reserves are always needed to cater for unexpected
unavailability of the largest single power source and having a large number of smaller generating
units can sometimes be beneficial.

In addition to providing replacement power, wind plants reduce emissions by forcing

the most polluting and inflexible power plants offline with more efficient and flexible types
of generation. However, with increasing use of wind energy in the system the proportion of
conventional plant wind replaces reduces, and consistent wind power generation requires
high voltage connections to wind farms over a wide area.

Further expansion of the industry may also require energy storage technologies to
balance fluctuations of supply and demand; these include hydroelectricity, compressed air
storage and electro-chemical batteries. The latter option is particularly interesting in view of
the potential use of battery-electric vehicles in the future since their batteries could be
charged overnight when power demand is low and used to supply power during peak
demand periods. Peak electricity demand could also be reduced through pricing structures
and switching off non-essential appliances.

In addition to replacing carbon intensive electricity production, wind power can

drive heat pumps for space heating or charge vehicle batteries for transport, reducing natural
gas and petroleum use. These are more efficient methods of producing heat and work than
the traditional methods they replace, so direct comparisons of energy cannot usually be
made. For example, one popular book grossly underestimated the potential contribution of
wind power, partly because it compared the electricity generated from wind turbines with
the primary chemical energy in fossil fuel directly.
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4.4 Power Contained in Wind

The power contained by wind is given by:

P = 0.5× (air mass flow rate) × (wind velocity)2
= 0.5× (ρ×A×V) × (𝑉 2 )
P = 0.5ρA𝑉 3
Where,
P = power contained in the wind (W)
ρ = air density (kg/𝑚3 )
A = rotor area (𝑚2 )
V=wind velocity before rotor interference (m/s)

The power coefficient (Cp) describes the efficiency of a turbine that converts the energy
in the wind to rotational power. Therefore power output of the turbine is given by
Pο = 0.5ρA𝑉 3 Cp ------------ (4.1)

The tip speed ratio of the wind turbine is defined as

λ =ωR/V -------------------- (4.2)
Where,
R = radius of the swept area in metres
ω= angular speed in radians per second.

4.5 Types of Wind Turbines

Depending on their axis alignment Wind turbines can be categorized as:
1) Horizontal-axis wind turbines
a) Dutch-type grain-grinding windmills
b) Multiblade water-pumping windmills
c) High-speed propeller type windmills
2) Vertical-axis wind turbines
a) The Savonius rotor
b) The Darrieus rotor
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4.6 Components of Wind Turbine

The main important components of a wind turbine are shown in fig 4.1 below

Fig 4.1 Components of wind turbine

4.6.1 Blades
Most wind turbines have three blades, though there are some with two blades. Blades are
generally 30 to 50 meters (100 to165 feet) long, with the most common sizes around 40 meters
(130 feet). Longer blades are being designed and tested. Blade weights vary, depending on the
design and materials—a 40 meter LM Glass fibre blade for a 1.5 MW turbine weighs 5,780 kg
(6.4 tons) and one for a 2.0 MW turbine weighs 6,290 kg (6.9 tons).

4.6.2 Controller
There is a controller in the nacelle and one at the base of the turbine. The controller monitors
the condition of the turbine and controls the turbine movement. Different types of controllers
used are:
a) Pitch Angle Control
This system changes the pitch angle of the blades according to the variation of wind speed.
On a pitch controlled machine, as the wind speed exceeds its rated speed, the blades are
gradually turned about the longitudinal axis and out of the wind to increase the pitch angle which
reduces the aerodynamic efficiency of the rotor, and the rotor output power decreases. During the
operation below the rated speed the control system endeavours to pitch the blade at an angle that
maximizes the rotor efficiency.
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b) Yaw Control
It turns the nacelle according to the actuator engaging on a gear ring at the top of the tower.
Yaw control is the arrangement in which the entire rotor is rotated horizontally or yawed out of
the wind. During normal operation of the system, the wind direction should be perpendicular to
the swept area of the rotor. The yaw drive is controlled by a slow closed- loop control system.
The yaw drive is operated by a wind vane, which is usually mounted on the top of the nacelle
sensing the relative wind direction, and the wind turbine controller. In some designs, the nacelle
is yawed to attain reduction in power during high winds. In extremity, the turbine can be stopped
with nacelle turned such that the rotor axis is at right angles to the wind direction. One of the
more difficult parts of a wind turbine designs is the yaw system, though it is apparently simple.
Especially in turbulent wind conditions, the prediction of yaw loads is uncertain.

4.6.3 Gearbox
Many wind turbines have a gearbox that increases the rotational speed of the shaft. A
low-speed shaft feeds into the gearbox and a high-speed shaft feeds from the gearbox into the
generator. Some turbines use direct drive generators that are capable of producing electricity at a
lower rotational speed. These turbines do not require a gearbox.

4.6.4 Generators
Wind turbines typically have a single AC generator that converts the mechanical energy
from the wind turbines rotation into electrical energy. Clipper Wind power uses a different
design that features four DC generators.

4.6.5 Nacelles
The nacelle houses the main components of the wind turbine, such as the controller,
gearbox, generator and shafts.

4.6.6 Rotor
The rotor includes both the blades and the hub (the component to which the blades are
attached).
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4.6.7 Towers
Towers are usually tubular steel towers 60 to 80 meters (about 195 to 260 feet) high that
consist of three sections of varying heights. (There are some towers with heights around 100
meters (330 feet)).

4.7Classification of Wind Turbines based on speed

Based on speeds the wind turbines can be classified as:

4.7.1 Fixed-Speed Wind Turbine

For the fixed-speed wind turbine the induction generator is directly connected to the
electrical grid according to Fig. 4.2.

Fig 4.2 Fixed speed wind turbine with a an Induction Generator

The rotor speed of the fixed-speed wind turbine is in principle determined by a gearbox
and the pole-pair number of the generator. The fixed-speed wind turbine system has often two
fixed speeds. This is accomplished by using two generators with different ratings and pole pairs,
or it can be a generator with two windings having different ratings and pole pairs. This leads to
increased aerodynamic capture as well as reduced magnetizing losses at low wind speeds. This
system (one or two-speed) was the “conventional” concept used by many Danish manufacturers
in the 1980s and 1990s.
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4.7.2 Variable-Speed Wind Turbine

The system presented in Fig. 2.4 consists of a wind turbine equipped with a converter
connected to the stator of the generator.

Fig 4.3 Variable speed driven (gear less) wind turbine with a Synchronous Generator

The generator could either be a cage-bar induction generator or a synchronous generator.

The gearbox is designed so that maximum rotor speed corresponds to rated speed of the
generator. Synchronous generators or permanent-magnet synchronous generators can be
designed with multiple poles which imply that there is no need for a gearbox, see Fig. 2.6. Since
this “full-power” converter/generator system is commonly used for other applications, one
advantage with this system is its well-developed and robust control.

4.8 Betz Criterion

4.8.1 What is Betz Law?
We all feel the wind on us when we go for a ride on a motorcycle or on a windy day
where you almost are swept off your feet. Wind can be very strong and we experience this power
on windy days or storms. With all this wind energy flowing around us, scientists decided to put it
to good use especially in these days with more emphasis on global warming there is a lot of
pressure to use renewable sources of energy. Wind energy is flowing freely all around us and has
not been utilized much. Well, with that in mind, wind farming is being tried and to some extent
has been harnessed very successfully. Wind farming makes use of turbines which turn with the
speed of the wind and create kinetic energy. This energy is converted to electricity by an
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electrical grid or generator.

Many experiments are being conducted to find the most cost effective and energy
efficient solution. But one of the most important inventions was made way back in 1919 by a
German physicist; Albert Betz demonstrating the limitations of wind turbines is worrying the
scientists. Even today these findings known as Betz Law or Betz limit have been found to be true
irrespective of man‘s effort to create different energy efficient wind turbines. Betz law is quite
interesting and how a calculation made almost 100 years back holds true even today.

4.8.2 Betz Limits?

According to Betz law even when all the ideal conditions of energy generation are
prevalent we can only derive 59% energy from wind turbines. 100% wind energy generation is
simply not possible. Herein the capacity or ability of a generator to convert kinetic energy into
electric energy is not under question. Rather the structure and mechanism of wind turbine has
limitations in converting the wind energy into 100% kinetic energy owing to which we cannot
take full benefit of wind energy.

Although we are always inclined to get 100% of everything, it‘s not always possible and
most of the times nature has its genuine reasons for confining man from achieving his own will.
Betz law although was invented in 1919 has been known unknowingly to mankind but in a
simpler way. How? Well what happens when you extract 100% energy from any source? The
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energy becomes empty or dried out. Similarly, if we are successful in deriving 100% kinetic
energy from wind energy will there be any air or wind left? No! And then what will rotate the
wind turbine? So at least to keep the velocity enough so as to make the wind turbine rotate for
energy generation it‘s important that 100% efficiency is not achieved.

4.8.3 What is the fundamental basis of Betz law?

Betz law basically talks about how a wind turbine cannot extract more than 59.3 % of
Kinetic energy from the wind. Under Ideal conditions or theoretically the maximum energy that
can be extracted from the wind is called the Power coefficient which is a ratio between the
amounts of energy that can be extracted by a Wind turbine to the total energy in the Wind.

Kinetic Energy that is extracted by a Wind turbine

Power Coefficient (Beth's Coefficient) = Total energy in the Wind
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Objective Questions

1. The fundamental process now in the general use for heat conversion is effect.
[ ]
a) Green house effect b) carbon dioxide c) oxygen d) pollution

2. The fraction of the free flow wind power that can be extracted by rotor is called
[ ]
a) Current coefficient b) Power coefficient c) voltage coefficient d) gain coefficient

3. Non-concentrating solar collector is also called ___________ [ ]

a) Round type b) Flat plate type c) circular type d) square type

4. Mass ‘m’ of air transferring the area A swept by the rotating blade of a wind mill type
Generator is _________? [ ]
a) m = AV b) m = PV c) m = PA d) m = PAV

5. For high temperature storage in the order of 200 to 300oc the salts used are [ ]

a) MgO b) Cao c) Na2So4 10H2O d) both a and b

6. A 100% efficient aero generator would able to convert available wind energy into
___________ amount of mechanical energy. [ ]
a) 40% b) 50% c) 60% d) 80%

7. The 2 factors determining output from wind energy are __________________

8. Expression of kinetic energy in a wind mill is given by ____________________

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9. The maximum power available from wind varies according to the _____________ of
diameter of intercept area [ ]
a) ½ b) cube c) square d) eight times

10. The density in diameter will result in ___________________ increase in power

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Assignment Questions

1. Derive an expression for energy available in the wind.

2. Explain Horizontal axis wind turbine main components and their function.
3. Describe the generator control schemes.
4. Describe the main applications of wind energy.
5. What are the most favorable sites for installing of wind turbines?
6. What are the major sources and locations for the generation of power from the wind
energy? Explain the important parameters to be considered for the site selection.
7. Explain the working principle of three blade vertical axis wind mill along with the
suitable diagrams.
8. Derive an expression for energy available in the wind.
9. Sketch and explain vertical axis wind turbine.

University Previous Questions

1. List out the differences between horizontal and vertical wind mills.
[April/May-2012]
2. Derive an expression for axial force on the turbine blade.
[April/May-2012]
3. What is Betz limit? Derive an expression for it.
[December-2012]
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of any two types of vertical axis wind turbines.
[December-2012]
5. Explain the prospects and status of wind energy in India.
[November/ December-2013]
6. Explain the performance characteristics of vertical axis wind mills.
[November/ December-2013]