Journal of Hellenic Studies cii (1982) 145—160

TRAGIC FORM AND FEELING IN THE ILIAD

lov lov • ra TTOLVT' av e£r)Koi aa.(f>rj. Soph. OT 1182

These hours of backward clearness come to all men and women, once at least, when they read the past
in the light of the present, with the reasons of things, like unobserved finger-posts, protruding where
they never saw them before. The journey behind them is mapped out, and figured with its false steps,
its wrong observations, all its infatuated, deluded geography.
Henry James, The Bostonians, ch. xxxix1

I
paper is intended to contribute to the study of both Homer and Greek tragedy, and
THIS
more particularly to the study of the influence of the epic upon the later poets. The current
revival of interest among English scholars in the poetic qualities of the Homeric poems must be
welcomed by all who care for the continuing survival and propagation of classical literature.2
The renewed emphasis on the validity of literary criticism as applied to presumably oral texts
may encourage a more positive appreciation of the subtlety of Homeric narrative techniques,
and of the coherent plan which unifies each poem. The aim of this paper is to focus attention on a
number of elements in Greek tragedy which arc already present in Homer, and especially on the
way in which these poets exploit the theme of knowledge—knowledge of one's future,
knowledge of one's circumstances, knowledge of oneself. Recent scholarship on tragedy has paid
much more attention to literary criticism in general and to poetic irony in particular: these
insights can also illuminate the epic. Conversely, the renewed interest in Homer's structural and
thematic complexity should also enrich the study of the tragedians, his true heirs.3
I begin and end with Homer, in the belief that this is where the greater need for serious
literary criticism still lies; and on the whole I restrict my attention to the Iliad, not because there
arc no connections between the Odyssey and tragedy in terms of plot and technique, but because
these links are for the most part of a different kind. The Odyssey finds its closest affinity with
Euripides, who for related reasons figures less prominently in this paper than his two
predecessors.4 The kind of play that Euripides makes with knowledge and ignorance of identity
is very Odysscan in quality; but there is correspondingly less focus, at least in the majority of his
oeuvre, on the Iliadic themes of self-knowledge and understanding of the divine plan. The
present paper is not, however, intended as an exhaustive treatment of those themes, even if that
were possible, but is meant to stimulate further and broader discussion.
In Iliad xviii, Achilles learns of the death of Patroclus, and immediately realises his own
responsibility and his past errors. His impetuous demand that Zeus show him honour by
punishing the Greek army has been fulfilled, but with bitter and ironic consequences for himself.
(Sec i 407—12, 505—10; xviii 73—84.) In the scene in which this news reaches him we sec the
meaning of this reversal, which is to lead to his own death, presented symbolically: thus Achilles
grovels on the earth, defiles his face with dust and dirt, lies outstretched like a dead man (xviii
1
I owe this parallel to Dr M. Winterbottom, whose Homer: Iliadxxiv (Cambridge 1982). Adam Parry, in his
teaching has enhanced my understanding of Homer as introduction to Milman Parry, The Making of Homeric
of other authors with whom his name is more usually Verse (Oxford 1971) 1—lix, had already pointed the way:
associated. I have also been much helped by comments cf. Macleod, Notes & Queries xxi (1974) 318-19.
3
on this paper by Dr O. Taplin, and by many discussions For ancient statements of the debt which the
of Homer with Miss E. Kearns. Finally, I thank Mrs P. tragedians owed to Homer, see Pi. Rep. x 595c, Arist.
E. Easterling and the late C. W. Macleod, for valuable Poet. 4.i448b38 £, 8.51322—30, 23.59329—34; also
criticisms and advice, and the latter for constant Gudeman on Poet. 348a6; Aesch. ap. Athen. viii 347c;
stimulus over a longer period. I offer this paper as a Vita Soph. 20; Ps.-Plut. de vita et poesi Horn. 213; Radt,
tribute to his memory. TGF iv T 115-16; N. J. Richardson, CQ xxx (1980)
2
See esp. J. Griffin, Homer on Life and Death (Oxford 270.
4
1980), hereafter 'Griffin', and the articles which pre- For related contrasts see Arist. Poet. 24.59^0-16;
ceded this outstanding study; and now C. W. Macleod, Ps.-Long. 9.15, 29.2 with Russell's nn.

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 146 R. B. RUTHERFORD
22—7), and is mourned by the slavegirls and by the nymphs who attend on Thetis (23—31,
35—69).5 But this scene is more than simply passionate and plangent: for despite his frenzied
grief, Achilles' speeches here and throughout the rest of the poem are pervaded by a terrible
rationality, not unlike the speech in which Oedipus endeavours to explain why he blinded
himself (Soph. OT 1369 ff.). Achilles both recognises his responsibility and accepts the
consequences. It is in part this clear-sightedness that makes him a heroic figure. Whereas
formerly, ignorant of the details of his fate, he wished to evade it (ix 316—20, 401—16), he now
learns of the imminence of his death and accepts it (xviii 95 ff.).6 Homer makes it plain that
Achilles' doom is of his own choosing, and also that the death of Patroclus was his own
responsibility; for Achilles failed to remember a divine warning (xviii 6—14, discussed further in
section IV below). This misjudgement undermines Achilles' former self-confidence and egoism:
it also transforms his earlier desire for either life or honour (ix 413, 415) into a longing for
revenge and a prayer for death (xviii 90—3, 98—106).7
This scene is a crucial turning-point in the poem, not least because of the divine background;
for the gods have not only foreseen and prophesied Achilles' error ofjudgement, but have also
made its enormity painfully clear to him. All Achilles' hopes, expectations and assumptions have
been deceived. This situation, above all the powerful moment of revelation, is tragic not only in
the emotions it expresses, but in its thematic significance: for the gulf between human
deliberation and divine foreknowledge is a constant theme in Greek tragedy as in Homer. 'The
desires of Zeus are hard to track; in darkness and shadow the paths of his thought move to their
goal, undiscernible', sings the chorus of Aeschylus' Suppliants (87-90). 'Nothing that is of the
divine is clear to mortal sight', laments Megara in Euripides' Heracles (62). 'In our vainglory we
think ourselves wiser than the gods', says Theseus with stern disapproval (Eur. Supp. 217—18).8
Earlier in the Iliad the Greek embassy supplicated Achilles like a god (see ix 158—9, 496—501; cf.
155, 297, 301—3). But man is not a god, as Achilles is to learn and as tragedy teaches. Above all,
Achilles is bound by mortality; and the same gods who honoured him and raised him up will
ultimately bring about his end.9
Achilles then in many respects foreshadows the heroes of tragedy, and in particular those of
Sophocles' plays—in his defiant resolution, his impatience with consolation, his longing to die
and so to remove the shame and guilt of his actions.10 Typical of tragedy also is his indifference
to others' advice or their willingness to help: this is powerfully captured in the way that
Antilochus sits helplessly by him, weeping but unable to help (xviii 32 ff.).11 Finally, Achilles is
the archetypal tragic figure in his inability, for all his power and greatness, to dictate or influence
the course of future events: for even when he seems most in control, his own plans and prestige
form part of a wider picture which he can see only in details. And even in the later books of the
poem, as his knowledge and understanding of events increase, so too does his helplessness.
Thus the peripeteia of the Iliad, like that of the Oedipus Tyrannus, depends on a change in the
hero's knowledge of his position, a change that confirms and explains past foreknowledge. This
new knowledge also reveals the extent and the catastrophic consequences of past ignorance and
5
On this episode see further K. Reinhardt, Die Mas received (v 815—24) from Athene, and observes the
und ihr Dichter (Gottingen 1961) 348—73. limits laid upon him (see v 121 ff., 443—4, 606, 815—24;
6
Cf. Macleod, Iliad xxiv (n.2) 23—8. Vi 129—41 is not therefore inconsistent). See further 0 .
7
On death-wishes in tragedy, see Collard on Eur. Andersen, Die Diomedesgestalt in der Ilias, Symb. Osl.
Supp. 86. supp. xxv (1975) ch. iv; and on theomachoi in tragedyj.
8
See further Collard ad loc. and on 504-5. C. Kamerbeek, Mnemos.4 i (1948) 271-83.
9 10
Another aspect of Achilles' human limitations is In general, see B. M. W. Knox, The Heroic Temper
brought out in the Theomachy. Here his defiance of the (Berkeley/L.A. 1964) chs i-ii, esp. pp. 50-2.
11
gods is perilous, and for all his greatness he will be Antilochus' fear that Achilles will kill himself
punished: he himself recalls this at xxi 275 ff, and the (xviii 34) also finds echoes in tragedy, e.g. Soph. Aj.
gods, especially Scamander, resent his brutality (xxi 326-7, 583-8, Eur. Med. 37, and the whole final scene of
136, 147, 214, 217—21, 306, 314—15). This stands in the Heracles (see Bond on 1248; Stanford's comm. on
contrast with the prudence of Diomedes in the earlier Ajax, appendix E).
theomachy: Diomedes remembers the warning he has

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 TRAGIC FORM AND FEELING IN THE ILIAD 147
error. The pathos of such a situation emerges from the actual construction of the narrative, e£
avTTJs TTJS ovordoecos ru>v Ttpay^idriov, oirep earl irpoTepov KCLI TTOITJTOV d/xeivovo? (Arist.
Poet. I4.53b2). 12 The author exploits the knowledge and expectations of his audience, and as his
work advances he brings out further the connection of cause and effect, the sombre inevitability
of choice and consequence. This tragic pattern is already present in the Iliad—more diffusely
presented, as the epic form made natural, but in no way less sophisticated or less profound. 13 The
object of this paper is to develop some of these comparisons between Homer and his successors,
and to comment, albeit selectively, on the tragic and compassionate outlook that these structural
devices serve to communicate.

II
In Chapters 14 and 16 of the Poetics Aristotle discusses the different categories of
dvayvojpiais, and the closely related ideas of dyvoia and d)xapria. At 14.5^27 ff. he sets out the
possibilities for the agents involved: either (1) they can be ei'Sdra? Kal yiyvajoKovras
concerning what they are doing and whom they are damaging, as is the case with Medea in
Euripides; or (2) they can commit the deed dyvoovvras . . . effi vorepov avayvwpiocu rr)v
<f>iXiav, toairep 6 Ho<f>OKXeovs OISITTOVS; or (3) they may through their ignorance intend to do
TI TCOV dvrjK€OT<x)v and then dvayvcopioat Trplv noirjoai (as happens in Eur. Ion, IT, Cresphontes,
Helle).
From his examples and his references to <f>iXia, it is plain that Aristotle considered
dvayvdopiois to be a matter of the characters knowing each other's identities, and especially
being aware of their familial relationships (cf. I4.53b2o ff.).14 This again is something that he
traces back to the epic, finding its ancestry in the recognition-scenes in the second half of the
Odyssey (referred to at i6.54b25 ff.). While this conception is central to the plays he cites, above
all the OT, it can be viewed rather as a sub-class of a broader and more significant kind of
recognition, which I should prefer to call 'realisation'. This is not in fact discussed by Aristotle,
although it seems to be allowed for in the general definition of dvayvciopiois given in Poet.
11.52329 ff., which is also the passage that makes clearest the connection with human ignorance.
The relevant lines run as follows:

dvayvcopiois 8e, (Lcnrep Kal rovvopia arffiaivei, ££ dyvoias els yvaioiv piera^oXr/, rj els
<f>iXiav rj els exOpav, TCOV irpos evrvyiav rj hvorvyiav (LpiofJ-evcov KaXXiarr/ 8e
dvayvtbpiois, orav dfxa vepnreTela yevryrai, olov k'xei 7) ev TOI O18ITTO8I. elalv jiev ovv /cat
aXXai dvayvcopioets' Kal ydp rrpos atfjvxa /cat rd rv^ovra j"eortv wanep eiprjTat,
/cat et neTrpaye rt? rj (j.r) ne-npayev eanv dvayvojpiaat..15

Aristotle goes on to say that the most powerful kind of recognition 15 that involving
blood-relationship, but he clearly recognises that other possibilities exist, notably the discovery
'whether one has done something', a no less apt description of what happens at the climax of the
OT. Indeed, for all the power and terror which the story of Oedipus' incest and parricide
possesses (cf. Poet. 14.53b:—7), its full pathos is brought out just as much by the way in which
Oedipus' power and wisdom, his supreme energy, his faith in himself and his own mentality, are
the very things which lead him to ruin and despair, and which in the end prove useless to him.
The anagnorisis of Oedipus entails the acquisition of fresh knowledge which changes his whole
perspective: the final piece of the jigsaw is in place, and forces him to see the true state of affairs,
to apprehend the magnitude of his error. 16
12
Cf. B. Vickers, Towards Greek Tragedy (London context, see G. F. Else, Aristotle's Poetics: the Argument
1973) 62. (Cambridge Mass. 1957) 342-55.
13 16
Contra]. M. Bremer, Hamartia (Amsterdam 1969) For 'error' and 'flaw' in the O T a n d elsewhere, see
99, 'in a more or less rudimentary form in Homer'. esp. T. C. W. Stinton, C Q xxv (1975) 221—54, a n d t n e
14
Cf. B. Knox, Word and Action (Baltimore 1979) discussion in subsequent issues. For the Homeric
21—2. background see Bremer (n. 13) 99—111, who somewhat
15
For helpful observations on this passage and its over-emphasises the element of divine control.

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 U8 R. B. RUTHERFORD
The key moment, at which Oedipus does see the truth and feels his world collapsing around
him, comes with the line (1182) which is set at the head of this paper. All has now emerged
dearly, aa<j>r\: he sees his error, 17 even later when he is blind, and this contrasts with his earlier
failure to understand and see his situation (esp. 412—19). This sequence provides the clearest
example in tragedy of a conception which we can discern also in the play most closely akin to
OT, namely Trachiniae. Here too the fate of Heracles is foretold by prophecy but
misunderstood; then at the end of the play the truth is seen in the light of new information, but it
is seen too late. Again the critical moment is recognised in the words of the suffering hero: at Tra.
1145, when Hyllus informs him that the agent of his death was the supposed love-potion made
from the centaur's blood, Heracles cries:

oifxoi, (jjpova) 8r) i'v' e

and shortly afterwards he explains: he was forewarned (1159 Trpo<f>avTov) that he would die by
the hand of no living creature:
08' ovv 6 drjp Kevravpos, <bs TO 9eiov rjv
TTp6(/)aVT0V, OVTOU £a>VTCl jU,' €KTeiV€V ddVUJV.
<f>avcb 8' iyd) TOVTOIOI ovfifiaivovr' taa
fjLdVTeia Kaiva, rots iraXai ^vv-qyopa. (1162—5)
Heracles had also been told by the oracles of Dodona that after a fixed time, which has now
elapsed, all his labours would be over. Now the interpretation of this too is clear:
1
TO S' i p dp ovSev dXXo TTXTJV Qaveiv e/xe (JI72)
TO.VT' OVV e-neihrj AajiiTrpa avfifiaivei, re/cvov ( IT 74)
Here Xafiirpd is like oa<j>fj in the parallel passage of OT. In both cases the imperfection of human
knowledge and judgement allows a man to believe he has reason for confidence and hope, only
to find that he has in reality only seen a part of the picture. Absolute knowledge belongs only to
the gods, and although in tragedy, as in the work of Herodotus, 18 the gods may grant us
occasional fragments of information, man's very humanity leads him to misunderstand and to
judge amiss. Yet the poet in part shares the knowledge of the gods, and permits the audience to
anticipate the hero's realisation.
In this respect Trachiniae differs, however, from OT, since the ambiguity about the actual
content of the oracles is preserved throughout much of the play, 19 and this means that the
audience's foreknowledge is not so certain, whereas the true irony of Oedipus' situation is
established and exploited by the poet from the beginning. Further, the action of Trachiniae allots
error and death to Deianira as well as Heracles. In her case this error is the product of purely
human reasoning and impulse, and regretted when she realises the consequences. The position of
Deianira is analogous to that of Heracles only in that she sees the truth too late:
opu) 8e fi' epyov 8eivov e£€ipyao[i€vqv. (706)
cbv iyaj [j,edvo~Tepov,
6V OVKCT' apKti, TTJV fxddrjoiv dpvv^ai. (710—11)
Thus she appreciates that her reasoning powers (cj. 590 ff., answered by 668—9) have in fact been
clouded by her hopes, hopes that sprang from the all-too-natural weakness of human love,
17
CJ. R. G. A. Buxton, JHS c (1980) 22-37; also a 80; also J. Fontenrose, The Delphic Oracle (Berke-
forthcoming study by David Seale, as Mrs Easterling lcy/L.A. 1978) 58-70, 8o, 96-100. On Herodotus and
informs me. Sophocles see now A. J. Podlecki, in Greece and the
18
For a comparison of oracle-types in Herodotus Eastern Mediterranean, Festschr. F. Schachermeyer, ed.
and Greek tragedy, see B. M. W. Knox, Oedipus at K. H. Kinzl (Berlin 1977) 248—9.
19
Thebes (Yale 1957) 33—47. For examples of ironic twist Sec W. Kranz, Studien zur antiken Literatur und
and unexpected fulfilment, see Hdt. i 53.2, 66.2-4, "i ihrem Fortwirken (Heidelberg 1967) 285 ff.; M. D.
64.4 (cj. Shakespeare, HIVVt 2 IV v ad fin), vi 76.1 and Reeve, GRBS xi (1970) 283 ff.

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 TRAGIC FORM AND FEELING IN THE ILIAD 149
which she had recognised as present in herself before she ever laid her plans (438 fT., esp. 444). 20
But there is nothing supernatural in her sudden, guilty horror: rather, her experience and that of
Heracles represent two elements in a tragic plot, which in the other play are united in the figure
and fate of Oedipus, at once the victim of divine admonition and human weakness.
Hyllus, the son of Heracles and Deianira, provides another element. In his ignorance he
denounces Deianira as a treacherous murderess, and in her guilty awareness of what she has done
she is unable to answer him. Thus she finds herself alienated from both husband and son (see esp.
790—3, 807-9), a n d departs in silence, having nothing further to live for. In due course Hyllus
learns how he has misjudged her, and experiences the agony of knowing that it was his cruelty
that drove her to suicide.

I8<hv 8' 6 770,1? cujuco^ev eyvio yap rdXas

rovpyov x a r ' opyrjv d>s i<j)on{tei.€v rdSe,
01/1' e/<SiSax#ei? rtov KCLT' OLKOV OVVCKCL
axovoa irpos TOV drjpos iptjetev rd8e. (932.—5)
This pattern of'late-learning' in the two dramas has been.commented on by a number of
critics, 21 but it does not seem to have been realised quite how prevalent it is, and how integrally
related to themes which have generally received much more attention, such as the power and
knowledge of the gods, above all when contrasted with the limitations and failures of human
insight and action. These themes are central to much that is greatest and most influential in Greek
literature and thought; and already in the Iliad they are united in the tragic pattern of human
6ifiifj.adia.
T h e Antigone provides us w i t h a further e x a m p l e . T h e r e C r e o n is w a r n e d b y wiser m e n : b y
the chorus his views are d o u b t e d o r corrected from an early stage (perhaps 213; further 278—9,
724—5, 770), b u t it is only after t h e representative o f the gods, Tiresias, has spoken that they also
m a k e their feelings plain (1091—4, 1098; cf. 509). In the end C r e o n yields, accepting t h e chorus's
plea for evflovXia (1098), and realising that h e is forced t o o b e y (1105 f ) . B u t his change o f m i n d
comes t o o late, and h e finds that h e has destroyed n o t only t h e offender b u t his son and his wife.
Like O e d i p u s he accepts t h e responsibility for his o w n misjudgements a n d mistakes. T h e
language o f his speech at this point is rich in t h e vocabulary o f rational t h o u g h t : 1261
id> I <f>pevtbv 8vo(f)p6va>v djuapTTy/xara; 1265 w/uoi e/xwv avoAjSa jSouAeu/xaTcov; 1268—9
edaves, aTTeXvOr/s / ep,ais ov8k aaiat Su<j/3ouAicus". T h e chorus g r i m l y says t o h i m : OI'JU.' cos
eoLKas oifte TI)V 8IKT)V I8eiv. A n d C r e o n replies: ot/xot, / e^oi p:a9u>v Sei'Aaio? (1270— 1). T h u s
the stress C r e o n himself laid o n TCOV aplarcov . . . ^ovXev/xaTcov (179) as essential for a n y
statesman finds its ironic reversal: a n d t h e deeper b u t still i n c o m p l e t e vision o f the chorus,
reflecting o n t h e p o w e r s and t h e w o n d e r o f m a n k i n d (332 ff.) 2 2 is qualified a n d y e t also

20
Line 444 is sensitively defended by T. C. W. (The fate of the Phaeacians is an interesting exception.)
Stinton, JHS xevi (1976) 135-6. In the Iliad, compare
p ii 3325, 330 ((the Greeks will sack
5 33
221
1
S esp. C
See C. HH. Whi
Whitman, ShlSophocles:AA Sd ) A related
Study in Troy). l d conception, hthat of f ndOei
dO fidOos,
dO hhas
Heroic Humanism (Cambridge Mass. 1951) ch. vi, and p. received much more attention: cf. E. R. Dodds, The
265 n. 4, citing Soph. Ant. (quoted in text), and also Ancient Concept of Progress (Oxford 1973) 59-62; West
Acsch. Ag. 1425, Pind. P. v 28 ff., Eur. Or. 99, Aeschin. on Hes. Op. 218; Headlam-Thomson on Aesch. Eum.
iii 157. Add Eur. Ale. 940 (with Dale's comm., p. xxii); 520 f., who point out that this idea is in turn linked with
Hipp. 1401 (and the whole situation of Theseus at the the precept yvu>9i oeavrov. Such self-knowledge
time of Artemis's revelation); Ba. 1120 f, 1285, 1296, involves above all consciousness of the gulf between
1345; perhaps Aesch. Septem 655, 709-11. See also A. D. god and man: see //. v 440-2, xvi 705-9, xxiv 525-6,
Nock, Essays on Religion and the Ancient World (Oxford etc.; Od. xviii 129-42; also Richardson on hDem. 147-8.
22
1972) 538; West on Hes. Op. 86 f, adding Horn. Od.v'm For an interesting though occasionally fanciful
564-71 with xiii 125-87 (esp. 169, 172 f.); ix 507 ff, analysis of this ode see C. P. Segal, Arion iii (1964)
xviii 124-57. The non-tragic nature of the Odyssey (cf. 46-66 = Sophocles, ed. T. Woodard (New Jersey 1966)
F. Jacoby, Kl. Philol. Schriften [Berlin 1961] i 107-39) 62-85. For further connections with fifth-century
means that the oifujxadia pattern is attached to unsym- thought see Knox (n. 18) 107 ff; E. A. Havclock, The
pathetic characters (Aegisthus, the Cyclops, the suitors), Liberal Temper in Greek Politics (London 1957) 66 ff.
not to the successful hero, whom the prophecies favour.

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 150 R. B. RUTHERFORD
confirmed. Human wisdom has been shown as imperfect and two-edged (365-70, cf. 1347-53);
and one thing from which no mortal, neither Antigone nor Creon, can find a remedy or an
escape is the irreversible force of death. 23

Ill

Not only oracles but prophetic dreams function in this manner in the tragedians. Again, this
is a legacy of Homer. 24 In the Odyssey in particular, the dreams which Athene grants to Penelope
offer both hope and cause for unease. Dreams may deceive, as Penelope explains (xix 560—9) and
as we know from the second book of the Iliad; and like oracular pronouncements they can be
misinterpreted and may provoke illogical, though very human, reactions. A famous and
much-debated instance is the dream Penelope narrates at xix 535—53, in which she grieved at the
slaughter of her geese.25 Her failure to interpret the omen, recognising the eagle as Odysseus,
surely prefigures her doubts and hesitation in book xxiii, and this is consistent with Penelope's
disillusioned hopelessness, the fruit of many disappointments. The theme of omens
misunderstood or ignored, which is constantly exploited in the Odyssey, is thus adapted to the
special case of Penelope, with particularly poignant and sympathetic force.26 (Compare Eur. IT
42—58, where Iphigenia interprets an optimistic dream pessimistically.)
In Aeschylus' Persae and Choephori, and in Sophocles' Electra, the dreams which disturb the
rest of the Persian queen and of Clytemnestra are prophetic, and function in a way parallel to the
Delphic warning which is given to Oedipus: while the foreknowledge is terrible, no advice or
aid is given which might enable the human recipient to escape. But it is striking that the
fulfilment is also presented, as it were, intellectually: the Queen, who in the earlier part of the
play is ignorant of the very location of Athens (231), and more significantly about its form of
government (241 f), advances in understanding as she does in dismay and suffering. We may
also note the close verbal resemblance between her reaction to the messenger's grim catalogue of
disaster and the moments of horrified insight quoted from the Sophoclean plays in the previous
section. She cries:
to VVKTOS oifiis iix<f>avrj? evvnvitov,
<1)S Kapra fxoi oacfxvs eSyAtooas KaKa. (518—19)
All is only too clear, too late. This suggests a touch of dramatic irony in her earlier narration of
the dream: never has she seen a dream so clear (179 kvapyes), but the full meaning and force of
the vision is not apparent to her until the later scene. With this comprehension comes realisation
of the wider significance, of the divine hand at work (472 f); this also stands in contrast with
Xerxes' ignorance (361, 373, 454). Whereas the queen had previously had to question the chorus
about Athens and Greece, she now pronounces with authority: this is Xerxes' bitter, but
righteous, punishment (473—7). In this she is the true wife of Darius, who subsequently confirms
the supernatural interpretation of events. She speaks with heightened dignity in disaster; it is she
who proposes the summoning of Darius' ghost, and she addresses him as an equal: the two royal
figures remorselessly fill the gaps in each other's knowledge.
For Darius too recognises the Persian downfall as the fulfilment of a supernatural warning,
in this case oracular (740-50; 800—4). The warnings he passed on to his son were not sufficient
23
For related themes in Sophocles see the passages Dream in Homer and Greek Tragedy (New York 1918).
25
collected by J. C. Opstelten, Sophocles and Greek Cf. G. Meautis, Paideia xv (1960) 81—6.
Pessimism (Amsterdam 1952) 124-5. F ° r the futility of 26
In general on omens in the Odyssey see A. J.
human intelligence and insight as a recurrent theme in Podlecki, G&R xiv (1967) 12—23. F ° r Herodotean
Euripides' plays see Dodds (n. 21) 80—9; also Opstelten parallels involving dreams misunderstood or ignored,
132 (very unselective). For the general prevalence of this see i 34.2 with 45.2, 107—8, 209—210.1, iii 124.1—2,
theme in fifth-century literature see C. W. Macleod, 125.4, v 55—6, vi 107, vii 12—19. Omens ignored: Hdt. i
PCPS xxv (1979) 53—60. 59-2, vii 37.3, 57.1—2, etc. The wise advisor: H.
24
See esp. E. R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational Bischoff, Der Warner hex Herodot (Diss. Marburg 1932);
(Berkeley/L.A. 1951) 102—IT; also W. S. Messor, The R. Lattimore, CPh xxxiv (1939) 24—35.

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 TRAGIC FORM AND FEELING IN THE ILIAD 151
(783); they were based, moreover, on insufficient consciousness of the danger on Darius' part:
<j>ev Tc^efa (739) and eyco . . . r)vxovv (740—1) emphasise that he had thought the disaster might
still be postponed for many generations (cf. Hdt. i 13.2 with 91: another case of warnings
forgotten). Yet the intensity of the tragedy lies in the very fact of the warnings—their obscurity
before, their terrible clarity and inevitability when seen in their fulfilment. Nor are the gods to
blame, who have been both just and consistent: for Xerxes, as for Sophocles' Creon, the personal
responsibility is inescapable.27
Again, in the Choephori, Aeschylus lays powerful stress on the dream of Clytemnestra, who
like Atossa attempts to avert it by prayer and sacrifice. It is referred to at an early stage (32 ff.),
described to Orestes (523 ff.), and explained by him (540 ff.). This is important because the
dream, if true and truly interpreted (cf. 542, 551), provides confirmation of the divine mandate,
commanding and assuring the success of Orestes' mission; it serves a similar function to the
taking of omens. Later, the dream is referred to again at the climax of the play, as Orestes
confronts Clytemnestra. Here again, to understand the dream's interpretation is to sec the
hopelessness of her position:
KX. 01 'yco, TeKovoa TWO" 6<f>iv eflpei/ra/xijv.
'Op. rj Kapra /xavris ov£ oveipdrcov <^d/3o?.28 (Cho. 928—9)
A somewhat similar stroke introduces this scene, as the slave cries out 'I tell you, the dead are
killing the living' (886), to which Clytemnestra replies with a flash of near-despair:
or 'yw [cf. 928], £vvrJKa TOVTTOS e£ alviyfxaTwv.
SoXois oXov/xed' uxjTTep ovv iKTeiva/jLev. (887—8)
N o oracle is involved here, b u t the riddling phrase o f the slave creates a comparable effect,
allowing Clytemnestra to interpret it with her characteristic speed and acumen. Yet her
defiance, and her dialectical skill, p r o v e useless in the ensuing scene (in contrast with her verbal
and physical victory in the corresponding exchange in the Agamemnon, 931 ff. 2 9 ). A n d the
slave's w o r d s voice a m o r e significant truth concerning the vengeance of the dead and the anger
of the nether gods: the ambiguous, riddling syntax gives his line the quality o f an o m e n , for
riddles and oracles are a k i n . 3 0 Clytcmnes'tra's response shows her realisation o f the central truth
of the trilogy, the law o f retribution: b u t as with A g a m e m n o n and Orestes, the full realisation
comes only with the e v e n t . 3 1
T h e richest source in Aeschylus' w o r k o f such intellectual and prophetic imagery is the
Agamemnon itself: indeed, the w h o l e Oresteia m a y from one point of view be studied in terms o f
the degree o f insight and foresight which its different characters possess. 3 2 T h e language o f
prophecy and premonition runs through the choruses; 3 3 the prophet Calchas has warned t h e m
of disasters past and to come; the prophetess Cassandra speaks with an authority that confirms
and deepens their greatest fears. T h e choral odes present a conflict between the speakers'
compulsion to seek explanation, to understand the chain o f events preceding the return and
downfall of A g a m e m n o n , and their h u m a n reluctance to contemplate the possible o u t c o m e (esp.
27
In general on the theology of the Persae see R. P. achieves a kind of status at the end as a prophet of future
Winnington-Ingram,_/ffS xdii (1973) 210-19. evils (El. 1497-8; cf. n. 38), which Orestes' bluster
28
I strongly doubt Page's reattribution of 929 to cannot simply brush aside (1499 iyw 001 fxavris elfJ.1
Clytemnestra, and less certainly question the likelihood TCOVS 'aKpos, says Orestes, deliberately refusing to look
of Macleod's proposal ap. O . Taplin, The Stagecraft of further). This scene thus carries heavy implications of
Aeschylus (Oxford 1977) 356 n. 2. reprisals for the victors, however hazily defined.
29
Cf. Taplin (n. 28) 356-7. Different again is the prophetic role of Cassandra in Eur.
30
Cf. West on Hes. Op. 202. Tro. 353-461.
31 32
The 'riddle' passage is imitated by Sophocles at El. See Dodds, loc. cit. (n. 21); Taplin (n. 28) 327—9,
1476—81 (as the repetition of £vvi)Ka TOVTTOS makes 356—7.
33
certain). There the victim is Aegisthus, and when he See further B. Alexanderson, Eranos lxvii (1969)
recognises Orestes' identity, the latter taunts him as a 1—23; W. C. Scott, Phoenix xxiii (1969) 336—46; D.
/Maims" who has failed until that moment (1481). But Sansone, Aeschylean Metaphors for Intellectual Activity,
Aegisthus, like Polymestor in Eur. Hec. 1257—84, Hermes Einzels. xxxv (1975) ch. iii.

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 152 R. B. RUTHERFORD
248—55). It is in the latter spirit that they withdraw their acceptance of the news that Troy has
fallen (475—87). This clash of feelings reaches its highest intensity in the ode that follows
Agamemnon's entry into the palace: here the language of foreknowledge is very prominent (977
TepaoKonov, 978 ixavTivoXei, 981 SvoKpirwv, 989 avro/xaprvs, 991 CLVTOBISCLKTOS, 992, 999
IXTTISOS, 995 juaTa^et; also 997 Te\eo<f)6pois ~ i o o o T€\eo(f)6pov, cf. Cho. 541 on
Clytemnestra's dream). Here it serves to heighten our sense of the chorus's terror as they wait
poised between doubt and certainty about events within the house. These events Cassandra, the
true /j.dvTt,s, will shortly unveil in their full and terrible significance. Her insight is that of divine
dispensation: where the chorus guess and fear, she truly knows. Yet the subsequent scene shows
not only the difficulty she finds in conveying her insight to others and convincing them (1074 f,
1077 f, 1105 f, iiT2—13, 1119 fF., 1130 fF.) but their reluctance to accept it even when they do
understand (1162 ff., 1173 fF.). The chorus shrink from the dark prophecy that she finally makes
explicit (1247, and their subsequent replies). Moreover, Cassandra's knowledge of his own fate
gives her neither protection nor consolation (cf. sections IV—V below on Achilles' similar
foreknowledge); nor does it enable her to help Agamemnon or the chorus. Such knowledge
brings its possessor neither nobility nor fame (despite the chorus's hopes, 1302, 1304), but only a
clearer insight into the tragedy of humanity—its infinite blindness and insignificance in contrast
with the supreme and inescapable power of the gods (Ag. 1322—30; 1485—8, where the chorus
too have come to share Cassandra's despairing fatalism).
ico jSpdreia TTpayfxaTa (1327). Cassandra's words sum up a view of the world which derives
from Homer, and which is prominent also in the pessimism of archaic lyric. Man is ephemeral
and wretched; above all, he cannot know his future, and so can never guarantee the security of
his happiness or his expectations.34 But the proper response to this is not simply despair, but pity
(Ag. 132T [the chorus]; 1330 [Cassandra])—pity that recognises the community of human
suffering, pity that is founded in knowledge of one's limitations and which is granted to those
who share them with oneself.35 The tragedy of Cassandra is that pity is all that she can give, to
her father and brothers and her people as to Agamemnon, who has destroyed them. So also for
Achilles the understanding which allows him to pity his enemy comes too late; and his own
death, the place and authors of which are known to him, can no longer be altered or postponed,
but only awaited.

IV

Without having exhausted either the examples of this motif in tragedy or the significance of
those presented above, we may now look back to the more large-scale, more intricate use of the
same pattern in the Iliad. Here the central figure in the pattern is of course Achilles; but it is also
important to define the similarities and difFerences between his actions and reactions, and those
of both Patroclus and Hector. 36
The poet's great design makes the death of Patroclus lead inevitably to the death of Hector,
and the slaying of Hector by Achilles in turn precipitates Achilles' own death (cf. xviii 96 aunVa
yap TOL eWiTa ju.e#' "EKropa TTOT/JLOS iroifios). The moment of each hero's supreme triumph
makes his destruction inevitable. This sequence is emphasised by the parallels between the
death-scenes of Patroclus and Hector. 37 Both fall before a superior warrior; Patroclus and
34
H. Frankel, TAP A lxxvii (1946) 131-45 and Early H. Erbse, Ausgewahlte Schriften (Berlin/N.Y. 1979)
Greek Poetry and Philosophy (Oxford 1976) index p. 530, 1-18 = Kyklos, Festschr. R. Keydell (Berlin 1978) 1-19.
37
provides a valuable collection of material. This also Parallels and connections may also be seen
figures as a central theme in Griffin, esp. ch. vi (more between the deaths of these heroes and that of Sarpcdon
fully CQ xxviii [1978] 1-22). in book xvi: for interesting remarks on the significance
35
Cf. section V below. of these, and on Sarpedon and his 'code' (xii 310—28) as a
36
Griffin 43—4, 163, makes important points in this foil to the lonelier and more tragic fates of Patroclus,
connection, but his remarks are very brief. See further Hector and Achilles, see M. Miiller, Mosaic iii (1970)
the excellent essay by W. Schadewaldt, Von Homers 86—103 = Essays on the Iliad, ed.J. Wright (Indiana 1978)
Welt und Werk4 (Leipzig 1965) 240—67; and on Hector, 105—23.

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 TRAGIC FORM AND FEELING IN THE ILIAD 153
Hector have both overstepped the limits of their strength and fortune; and in both cases the final
execution is assisted by a divine champion who aids the victor. Thus Apollo helps bring about
the doom of Patroclus, Athene that of Hector. Moreover, both Patroclus and Hector have a
moment of prophetic power before the end comes:38 Patroclus warns Hector that Achilles will
destroy him, and Hector foretells Achilles' death beneath the arrows of Paris, who in his turn
will be aided by Apollo (xvi 853—4; xxii 358—60). This divine intervention is far from rendering
the human agents insignificant or devoid of interest; rather, the divine support reflects and in a
sense symbolises the superiority of the victor. What Patroclus, Hector and Achilles achieve on
the battlefield in no way misrepresents their individual heroic stature and prowess.39 The divine
background, however, provides a higher significance and, by granting us a broader vision of the
events than the participants possess themselves, achieves a truly tragic irony.
On a larger scale than these individual moments of foresight, the deaths of all three heroes
are foretold and foreshadowed throughout the poem. 40 In particular, the poet grants his
audience progressive revelations by means of the episodes in which Zeus prophesies subsequent
events. These prophecies are full enough to give the listeners an outline of what is to come, and
so allow them to savour the grim pattern of irony and reversal of fortune as it unfolds. On the
other hand, the details are not sketched in, and some important episodes are not predicted, so that
this device does not prevent Homer from utilising the equally vital techniques of surprise and
suspense.41
As Zeus had promised in i 547—8, he tells Hera first when he chooses to divulge his plans.
Firstly, in viii 470—83 he prophesies the rout of the Achaeans, Patroclus' entry into battle, and his
death, but nothing further. Secondly, in xv 49—77, he predicts the events of books xvi—xxii,
especially the dpiareia of Hector, the appearance of Patroclus, the slaying of Sarpedon, the
death of Patroclus and the revenge of Achilles—but not the later relenting of Achilles and the
restoration of Hector's corpse. He also foretells the failure of the Trojan forces after the fall of
Hector, and the ultimate sack of Troy (xv 69—71; cf. xxii 410 ff.;42 also iv 1—103). Irrespective,
therefore, of whether the Iliad involves major mythological innovation,43 we can be certain that
from these passages the audience knows what is to happen to both Patroclus and Hector, and
responds with appropriate pity and anticipation at xi 604 (the poet on Patroclus): ex/jboAev loos
"Apr)i, KCLKOV 8' dpa ol -neXev dp^1?-44 This effect is sustained and heightened by the further
comments of the narrator, and those of Zeus himself, as the action of the subsequent books is
played out. Patroclus, Hector and Achilles are all presented as being, in their different ways,
blind, overconfident and doomed.
A selection of the most important passages will show better than any paraphrase how
Homer, with divine impartiality,45 achieves the effect described.
xv 610—14 (which must be read in the light of the preceding forecast by the narrator at 592—604):
avros yap 01 OLTT' aZOepos rJ€v a^vvriop
Zevs, os (JUV TrAeoveooi /iier' dvSpdai /JLOVVOV iovra
Ti/xa Kai KV8CLLV€. /xivwddSios yap e/xeAAev
€ooeo6'' 7/877 yap 01 inopvve fiopoifjiov r^iap
TlaWds 'AdrjvaiT) VTTO /TryAet'Sao f3irj<f>Lv.
38 41
On the last words of dying men as prophetic, see Compare the method of Euripidean prologues,
also Pi. Ap. 39c; Virg. Aen. iv 614 ff., x 739—41; Genesis and of Homer's own proems (cf. B. A. van Groningcn,
xlviii—ix; Shakespeare, RIIII ii 31 ff.; Pease on Cic. Div. Med.d.Kon.Med.Ak. ix.8 [1946]; and on proemia in
i 63—4. general, Richardson on hDem. 1—3, Austin on Virg.
39
Further, A. Lesky, Gb'ttliche und menschliche Moti- Aen. i 1—11, and bibliographies there).
42
vation im homerischen Epos, SB Heidelberg 1961, 4. Abh., On the significance of this passage see Griffin 1;
esp. pp. 22-44. and compare Priam's speech at xxii 59-76.
40 43
For a useful collection of passages see G. E. For bibliography of this 'neo-analyst' school of
Duckworth, Foreshadowing and Suspense in the Epics of criticism, see A. Heubeck in Homer: Tradition and
Homer, Apollonius and Virgil (Princeton 1933) 38—9, Invention, ed. B. Fenik (Leiden 1978) 9 n. 27.
44
53-5, 6 0 - 1 , 71, 92, et passim. More briefly, C. H. Cf. Griffin 85.
45
Moore, HSCP xxxii (1921) 109—16. Cf]. T. Kakridis, Homer Revisited (Lund 1971) 64.

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 154 R. B. RUTHERFORD
xvi 46—7: cos <f>dro \1006fxev0s [sc. Patroclus] jxeya VTJTTLOSA(> rj yap
ol auToi Odvarov TC KCLKOV KO.1 Krjpa Xireodai.
Compare xvi 236-8, 249-56: Zeus will not grant the whole of Achilles' prayer; xvi 644-55:
Zeus ponders d(JL(f>l (f>6va> TlaTpoxXov when to bring it about, but the actual fact that he is to die
is not in question).
xvi 684—88: ndrpoKAos 8' ITTTTOIOI /cat AvTO/xeSovrt KeXevoas
Tpcoas xal Avxiovs |U,eTe/aa#e, /ecu /xey' ddadr]
vqirios' ei Se evos /T^AiyiaSao (frvAatjev,
rj T' av vTT€K<f>vye xfjpa xaxrjv /xe'Aavo? davdroio.
dAA' cu'ei re A 16s xpeLoocDv voos r/e vep dvSpwv.
xvi 692—3: evda Tiva. rrpcoTov, riva 8' VOTCLTOV i^evdpi^as,
IJarpoxXeis, ore 817 ae 9eol Odvarov&e KaXeaaav;
xvi 796—800: rrdpos ye yt-tv ov Oe/xis rjev
LTTTTOKOjXOV TTrjXrjKO. /JLlCLlVeoOoLl KOVlTjOlV,
dAA' dvSpos QeCoLO Kaprj xa/nev re
p'ver' 'AxiXXrjos' rore 8e Zevs "EKropi
fj Ke<f>aXfi <f>ope€iv, a^eSo^ev Se 01 rjev SXedpos-A1
(This motif—that Hector's moment of glory also seals and signifies his own doom—is
developed shortly afterwards, in xvii 183-97, in which Hector dons the armour taken from
Patroclus' corpse—which is, of course, the armour of Achilles: cf. xvii 186, etc.) 48
xvii 194—7: o 8' a/LijSpora rev^ea Svve
n^XetSecu ^A^LXTJOS, a. ol deol Ovpaviioves
narpi </>lXu> evopov 6 8' dpa <h waiSt onaaae
yr/pds' dXX' ovx vios iv evrecn Trarpos iyqpa.
Thus even when the drama of Hector and Patroclus is at the centre of the stage, we are not
allowed to forget that Achilles' doom is interwoven with theirs, and equally pitiable. Hector has
no reason to feel pride or pleasure in the armour and his victory; and when Achilles' victory over
Hector finally comes, he too will have little reason to rejoice.49 Indeed, the fulfilment of his
vengeance gives Achilles as little satisfaction as the fulfilment of his prayer to Zeus in the first
book: for the latter brings about Patroclus' death, the former Achilles' own.
Like the poet himself, Zeus contemplates the action on earth with foreknowledge and
compassion. Above all at xvii 198 ff., when he speaks of Hector thus (201—8):
d SeiA', ov8e TI TOI ddvaros KaTadv/j.i6s ioriv,
os 8ry TOI dxeSov eior av 8' afx^pora Teu^ea Suvei?
dvSpos dpioTrjos • • •
46
On Homer's use of this word see Bremer (n. 13) undoing (for Virgilian imitation, see Aen. x 496 ff,
101 n
- 9- 503—5, xii 941—4). For such significant objects see
47
The close verbal connection with xxii 403-4 (Zeus Griffin ch. i (he does not discuss this example). Again the
permits the defilement of Hector's body) is another link Homeric technique is inherited by Greek tragedy: see
between the two scenes. O. P. Taplin, Greek Tragedy in Action (London 1978) ch.
48
See esp.^ xvii 202-3 (quoted j n text), 448-50, vi. An obvious parallel is the bow of Philoctetes.
472-3, 693 arap rd ye T€i>x*' £Xei xopvdaioXos w The KMOS gained from his victory does not seem
"EKTUJP (repeated from xvii 122; cf. xviii 21), xviii to me to alter this picture, for even glory no longer
13 1-2, 188, 197. The repetitions and emphasis on the means anything to Achilles, (xviii 121 is belied by his
physical possession of the armour by Hector make the final attitude in book xxiv: note esp. his indifferent tone
object symbolically significant. Part of the point of a t 139-40, and the deep disillusionment expressed in
book xviii is that Hector's triumph in acquiring 540-2. See further Griffin 98-101.) This is another way
Achilles' old armour is negated by the acquisition of i n which the mood and reactions of Achilles during his
new and greater armour. And in xxii 322-7 it is a first wrath (see ix 315-43) are echoed in more tragic
weakness in the plundered armour that proves Hector's circumstances in the final books of the poem.

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 TRAGIC FORM AND FEELING IN THE ILIAD 155
drdp TOI VVV ye jxeya Kpdros
TLOV TTOlVTjV O TOI OV TI flOLX^S €K VOOTrjOOLVTl
xXvrd rev^ea IlrjXei'cuvos•
We may see here an echo and reversal of Hector's prayer in book vi (476—81). Not only will
Andromache never see their son returning proudly with captured armour, but she will never see
Hector himself thus again.
While Patroclus lies dead on the plain, the concentration of the Greek army and of Homer's
audience is repeatedly directed to the questions 'When will Achilles hear? What will he do?' (see
esp. xvii 105, 121, 641, 654, 691, 701, 709). But as yet Achilles sits in untroubled calm by his
ships, and his total ignorance of what has happened is powerfully brought out by the following
passage, set in the centre of a long series of scenes entirely devoted to the fighting over Patroclus'
body:
rolov Zevs evTt TJarpoKXa) dvhpwv re /cat I'TTTTOJV
T/jLtaTt TO> irdvvooe «axov TTOVOV OV8' dpa na> TI
rj/See TldrpoKXov Tedvrjora 8tos 'Axi-XXevs'
TTOXXOV yap p' dndvevde vetbv fxdpvavro dodtov,
VITO Tpwcov TO JAW OV TTOTC eXnero #uju.aj
v, dXXd t,wov evixpt-^devra TTVXJJOIV
v, €7rei ouSe TO eXireTO
€KTT€pO€I.V ITToXieOpOV dv€V eOeV, Ol5Se OVV

8rj TOTC y ' ov 01 eeiwe KOLKOV TOOOV b'oaov

, OTTI p'd oi voXv (^tAraTO? ciiAe#' eTaipos- (xvii 400-11)
All Achilles' careful warnings to Patroclus have been frustrated, and as yet he does not even
know it.
The irony here is enhanced by the way in which the wishes of Achilles finally prove
self-defeating. His actions ever since the first book have brought about this disastrous conclusion.
In that book Zeus promised him Ti/u/ry through the rout and humiliation of the Greeks, as well as
massive compensation for his mistreatment (i 493—530). As the promise of Zeus, this unfailingly
comes true, but in a manner very different from anything Achilles had expected (cf. xvii 405, 407
CXTTCTO above).
The parallelism between scenes in books i and xviii serves to show this more clearly. In both
books Achilles is filled with anger and grief; in both, Thetis comes from the sea to speak to him
and offer comfort; in both, she first addresses him with the words:
T£KVOV, TI /cAaicis; TI Se ae (j>pevas IKCTO TTZVOOS;
i^avSa, fj.i] xevde. (i 362—3, xviii 73—4)
But however passionate the anger of Achilles in book i, its pettiness becomes evident in
retrospect, when it is replaced by the terrible agony and furious hatred that consumes Achilles
when he learns of Patroclus' death. Nevertheless, for all his hatred for Hector, the supreme
horror of the situation of Achilles lies in his recognition that he himself has destroyed his beloved
friend, by accepting his plea in book xvi and allowing him to enter the battle when he, Achilles,
would not be there to protect him.
Achilles therefore does not rebuke his mother or cry curses on Zeus; he admits that his
former wish has been fulfilled:50
50
Again there are verbal echoes, through the jueAijaercu, 5<f>pa TeXeaaw and 526-7 ov yap ipov
significant use of nXelv and cognates: xviii 74 TraXivaypeTOV 0118' OTraTTjAoi'/ouS' aTeXevTTjTOV, 0
TereXeoTcu and 79 i^ereXeaaev should be related not ri . . . xaravevejeo. Cf. the title Zevs reXeios (Fraenkel
only to xviii 4 ra cfapoveovr' dva dvfiov a Srj on Aesch Ag. 973—4).
X a tfev, but also to i 523 spot 8e K€ ravra

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 156 R. B. RUTHERFORD
xviii 74 (Thetis) '. . . TO. fxev 8r/ TOI rereXearai
e/c Aios, cos a.pa 8T) irpiv y' eii^eo

xviii 79 (Achilles) 'ixijrep i/x-q, ra /xev ap /xoi

dAAd TI fxoi rCiv r\hos, ewei </>i'Aos" a)Ae9' eraipos,
ndA , TOV iyw nepl TTCLVTCOV riov iraipcov,
laov infj K€(f>aXrj- TOV dr
Again, later in the same book Achilles, as he weeps over the corpse of Patroclus, is forced to
admit that his hopes of a safe homecoming for them both were empty fantasies:
dAA' ov Zevs avSpeooi vorfixara vavra TeAeuTa. (xviii 328)52
As in the Sophoclean examples, human advice and divine forewarning are insufficient guides: a
man of superior ability, intelligence and merit, one of TCOV iv /xeydXri So^iy OVTUJV KO.1 eumxia,
olov OISITTOVS, in Aristotelian terms [Poet. i3.53aio), 53 can still go wrong through ignorance of
the whole truth, fJ.r/T€ Sid KaKiav KO.1 fxoxd'rjpia.v . . . dAAd St ajxaprtav n v d (ibid. 8—io, cf.
15-16).
Achilles' mistake is all the more poignant because his mother had been able to tell him so
much, and yet it was not enough: it was still possible for him to overlook the crucial warning
that she did once give, that the best of the Myrmidons would be killed by the Trojans during his
lifetime (see xviii 9—n).54 This passage establishes a further significant parallelism between the
cases of Patroclus, Hector and Achilles. Each receives a warning on both the divine and the
human level. In Patroclus' case the warning comes first from Achilles (xvi 87—96; cf. 684—98);
and later, at the height of his apioTeia he receives a command from Apollo to give up his vain
attempt to storm Troy (xvi 705—11). At this he falls back, but does not withdraw from the field,
and so in the end he faces defeat. Hector is warned by Iris that Zeus' favour will give him victory
until the sun sets that day (xi 193—4, 208-9, recalled at xvii 441—55); and just after the fateful
appearance of Achilles on the rampart, ready to re-enter the battle, the sun does set (xviii
239—42). But Hector in his moment of glory cannot accept that he has reached the limit of his
good fortune. He insists on remaining on the plain that night and eagerly awaits the renewed
fighting next day, even though the voice of human reason, in the person of Polydamas,55
reinforces the divine warning (xviii 243—313, esp. 250—2, 293—5, 3°5—6). Polydamas is in the
right, as the poet's comment points out with ominous severity (xviii 310—13), and as Hector will
later realise (xxii 99—107). Finally there is the case of Achilles himself. Here the embassy-book
51
On the force of this word see most recently Griffin not try to remove it by excision of lines'; contrast
163 n. 41, who is more cautious than I would be about Reinhardt (n. 5) 373—4. Homer's words do not seem to
finding the meaning 'destroyed' present. make a contradiction inevitable. Thetis had told
52
For other formulations of this theme, see Od. v Achilles many things, including, perhaps, the content of
103—4, Hes. Op. 105 ovrcos ov TI Try eon Aios voov xvii 406—7? Cf. xvi 91 ff.: 97—100 (Achilles' strange
etjaAeaoBai, 483 ff, Theog. 613, Semonides 1.1 ff. W, prayer) seem to imply that he does know that the
Theognis 141-2, Solon 13.63 ff. W, id.17, Heraclitus Greeks will sack Troy without him and Patroclus, but
B78, Pind./r. 61 Snell, Aesch. Supp. 92 ff., 1057, Ag. he wishes that the reverse could be true: cf. xviii 329-32;
1487 f, Eur. Or. 1545-6, Hel. 1137-43 and KannichtaJ xix 328-33. But Thetis does not tell him now (on the
loc. force of S17 TOT€ see Leaf ad loc.) that Patroclus has fallen
53
On the other hand, o fi-qre aperfj 8ia<j)epa)v KO.1 (not 'will fall'). But the passage is difficult, and perhaps
SiKaioavvrj (i3-53a8) does not seem an altogether deliberately made unclear, on any account. Others may
suitable description of Achilles, and it might be said that prefer to have recourse to Tychoismus (R. D. Dawe,
Aristotle here overstates his point. It is not necessary to PCPS ix [1963] 21-62): so, e.g., M. M. Willcock, A
deny that a tragic hero can be superior in such qualities, Companion to Homer's Iliad (Chicago/London 1976) on
as in birth and fortune, only to insist that he should ix 410, xvi 50-1, xvii 408. See also IP'A xviii i o - i 1, for
possess also the human weaknesses that make him akin a different approach.
55
to ourselves (cf. nn. 60-1, 71-2). This is the case with Homer's treatment of Hector and Polydamas is
Achilles as with Oedipus. well expounded by J. M. Redfield, Nature and Culture in
54
There is a difficulty in reconciling xviii 9-11 with the Iliad (Chicago/London 1975) 136-53; see also Erbse
xvii 404—11: cf. Leaf on xvii 408, 'The discrepancy of (n. 36) 5—6, 8—10.
course arises from difference of authorship, and we need

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 TRAGIC FORM AND FEELING IN THE ILIAD 157
seems to provide a warning on the human level, especially through the paradigm of Meleager
and the fable of the Litai and Ate. The Greeks feel that in some sense Achilles is going too far,
wanting too much (see esp. ix 510—12, 523, 598-602, 628—38), and Phoenix especially voices
their uneasy suspicion that he may have to suffer for this, even though he does not suspect the
form which Achilles' downfall will in fact take. 56 On the divine level, Achilles is warned by
Thetis but misunderstands or forgets (above). In each case the pattern is clear: success and glory
are promised, but with qualification; the hero ignores the warning or misses its point; and the
glory which he sought turns to disaster.
No less important than the resemblances between the main characters are their differences.
Again these may usefully be formulated in terms of knowledge, and particularly self-know-
ledge. It is noteworthy that Patroclus' death comes upon him wholly as a surprise: filled with the
fervour of battle, he is struck down from behind by Apollo, whereupon Euphorbus and Hector
finish the job (xvi 786—842). Even in defeat he is defiant and contemptuous: he answers taunt
with taunt (xvi 844—54), blames the gods for his downfall and declares that even if twenty
Hectors had faced him, he could have prevailed (847—8). Apart from his prophecy of Hector's
death, he betrays no understanding of the wider scheme of Zeus, nor indeed any appreciation of
the impact that his death will have upon Achilles. Above all he sees no further than Hector's
death; he shows no knowledge of Achilles' own.
Hector's reaction reveals his characteristic and increasing overconfidence.57 Here and later
his hope is that his success will continue and that he may even be a match for Achilles himself (xvi
860—1, xviii 305-9, xx 366—72, 434—7). But his ambition is shown to be delusion by the
comments of Zeus and of the poet himself, even in this very scene (xvi 799—800; cf. xvii 198 ff.,
quoted above). In the end, Hector, put to flight by Achilles the next day, is forced to
acknowledge his error and to confess that Polydamas was right (xxii 99—107). Even then,
however, a trace of hope that he might still win out flares up in his heart (xxii 130; also 256-9,
279—80, 285—8). Only when his ally Deiphobus proves to be the treacherous Athene does he
recognise that he is doomed, and steels himself for his final hopeless attack, with words that again
echo the death-scene of Patroclus:
a> TTOTTOI, rj [laAa. 8rj /xe Oeol ddvarovBe KaXeaaav.
(xxii 297; cf. xvi 693)
It fits the pattern suggested here that in book xvi the formula is used by the narrator, in book xxii
by Hector himself. This reflects the different degrees of insight or awareness which Patroclus and
Hector possess at the moment of death. Hector now understands what he had failed to see before
and what Patroclus never saw, that the gods supported him before for a purpose, but with that
purpose achieved, they will do so no longer; and so, as Hector acknowledges, vvv avre /ne fxoipa
Kixav€t. (xxii 303; cf. 203—4, 212—13). This speech of Hector's goes beyond even his earlier
speech before the walls (xxii 99 ff.) in showing him rid of his illusions. At the last, he recognises
that his own calculations and hopes were bound to fail.
The case of Achilles is more complex again. Like Hector, he sees that he has been deceived
and destroyed by the very favour of heaven. Like Hector but unlike Patroclus, he recognises also
his own responsibility for what has befallen him and those he cares for. Like Hector, he is warned
of his imminent death; but unlike him, he chooses the course that will lead to his death with open
eyes and without self-deception.58 Achilles and Hector are opposites in many ways: Achilles the
invader, Hector the defender; Achilles son of a goddess, Hector all too human; Achilles a man
apart, all but indifferent to concubine and child (xix 56—63, 326—7), Hector a man who fights to
56 57
On the integrity of book ix and the place of Cf. Redfield, loc. cit. (n. 55), esp. 145, 150;
Phoenix's speech in the structure of the book and of the Willcock (n. 54) on xii 237 f., xiii 823.
58
epic, see esp. D. Motzkus, Untersuchungen zum p. Buck See esp. Schadewaldt (n. 36) 257, 263—4; also
der llias unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Phoinixgestalt Griffin 163, who concisely collects and sums up the
(Hamburg 1964) 37—46. See also Reinhardt (n. 5) relevant passages.
212—42.

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 158 R. B. RUTHERFORD
protect his beloved family and city; Achilles a lone fighter, Hector leader of a community and its
allies.59 But this does not mean that Achilles is devoid of human illusion and weakness, or that he
has nothing to learn after he has made his final choice of death (xviii 90—1, 98—100 and esp.
115—i6 = xxii 365—6). Earlier in the poem it is the humiliation of Agamemnon that is
all-important to him; later, the punishment of Hector. Neither of these vindictive ends can be
permitted to stand as the final expression of the character of Achilles or of the poet's tragic yet
compassionate vision.
The association of Patroclus and Hector, stressed by the parallel death-scenes, is one of the
means by which the poet shows the gods bringing death and sorrow indiscriminately to both
sides. But even this fundamental aspect of the poem is subordinate to a greater theme. Not only
the audience, but Achilles himself, comes to see Patroclus and Hector as equals in death; and in
them, Achilles also sees himself. Through his suffering and the increased insight that his
experience brings, he transcends the values of the Greek army, preoccupied with winning a
victory that he will never see. The supreme moment in the last book of the Iliad comes when
Achilles finds it in himself to respond to the equal suffering in his enemy Priam, the father of
Patroclus' killer, and understands that despite the enmity between them, he and Priam have
more in common that he can ever again have with his fellow-Greeks. Community of suffering
leads to a fuller realisation of their kinship, not by blood or nationality, but as two human beings,
the victims of the common fate of man, grief and death. 60

V
This mutual understanding and pity {ovyL-ndQeia, oyLOioirdOeia) is another theme which,
inherited from Homer, animates much that is greatest and most moving in Greek tragedy. It is
natural, and right, that a man should recognise his own weakness and vulnerability, and that
seeing such qualities in another he should understand the bond of humanity which cuts across
more temporary or man-made distinctions. Thus in the Ajax Odysseus in a famous speech
declines to gloat over his humiliated adversary, because he must acknowledge that he too may
come to such a state (Aj. 124-6, cf. 1365—7). Theseus sees the similarity between the aged
Oedipus' experiences and his own (OC 560—8; cf. Virg. Aen. i 628—30, viii 333—6). Hecuba begs
the merciless victor Odysseus to show magnanimity to the defeated side, for he should not
assume that he will always be successful (Eur. Hec. 282—5, cf. 340; also Supp. 549—57)—very
much the same grounds on which the more enlightened Cyrus, in Herodotus' account, spares
the vanquished Croesus:
rov Kvpov aKOvoavTa TCOV ip/jLrjvecov TO. Kpolaos tlirt, / x e r a y v o v T a re Kal
ivvtooavra OTi Kal avros dvQptoTros icov aAAov avOpwnov, yev6(X€vov ecovrov
OVK eXdaaco, £ a W a rrvpl 8180177, wpos re TOVTOLGI heiaavra TTJV TIGIV Kal
cos ovSev ei'77 TOIV iv dvdpdjTroiai ao(f>a\ea>s ^Xov> ^cAeueiv ofievvvvai
TO Kaio/xevov Trvp. (Hdt. i 86.6)61
59
Cf. (with rather different emphasis) Redfield (n. own glorious deeds at Troy, finds himself weeping tears
55) 108-13, 119-27. On the individualism of Achilles of pity (531: the preceding simile associates the victor
see also Knox, loc. cit. (n. 10); J. Griffin, JHS xcvii (1977) Odysseus with the sufferings of the victims, as does
43—4; Macleod, Iliad xxiv, 23—8. the repetition in 530-1: rrjs 8' iXeeivoTarw ax€'
60
R. Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism (Princeton <f>8ivv9ovcn napeial- / ai? 'OSvooeiis eXeeivov VTT'
1957) 319 comments: 'It is hardly possible to overesti- 6<j>pvoi SaKpvov eijSev. See also Soph. Tra. 303-6, Phil.
mate the importance for western literature of the Iliad's 500—6, Thuc. v 90; perhaps Hdt. vi 21 oucrjia K-a/cd, but
demonstration that the fall of an enemy, no less than of a the exact sense is disputed, see Macan ad loc. The
friend or leader, is tragic and not comic' See further Homeric-tragic ethic of 6fWioTra8eia should be con-
Vickers (n. 12) ch. ii; K. J. Dover, Greek Popular trasted with the principle 'do good to your friends and
Morality (Oxford 1974) 268-72; F. Martinazzoli, Sap- harm to your enemies', for which see J. F. Kells,
phica et Vergilia (Bari 1958), a work known to me only Sophocles: Electra (Cambridge 1973) 8; Dover (n. 60)
from J. G. Griffith's review in CR ix (1959) 285. 180-4; Knox (n. 14) 127-8, 152-3 ( = HSCP\xv [1961]
61
Further, note esp. Od. viii 485-531, where 3-5, 29-30).
Odysseus, expecting to enjoy Demodocus' song of his

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 TRAGIC FORM AND FEELING IN THE ILIAD 159
As often, Homeric practice anticipates the schematising of rhetorical theory: 62 thus Aristotle
insists that a misfortune that is to arouse pity must be such that the pitier (in //. xxiv Achilles) can
suppose that he, or someone dear to him (Peleus) might suffer in the same way (Rh. ii 8.1385^3
ff.; cf. Rh. Alex. 1444312—14).
It can hardly be overemphasised that in Homer, as in tragedy, the poignancy and urgency of
the appeal to pity lie in the ease with which the entreaty is often ignored. It has been observed
that no human supplication represented in the action of the Iliad proves successful before Priam's
to Achilles.63 Indeed, Agamemnon's injunction in vi 55—60 to slaughter all the people of Troy,
even the unborn babe in the womb, prepares us for the ever-mounting tide of brutality and
destruction64 which is to culminate in the blood-thirsty vengeance of Achilles, sustained with
horrifying effect throughout books xx—xxii. Again, the fears of Priam (xxii 60—76), the laments
of the Trojans,65 and above all Andromache's prophecy of the fate of Astyanax (xxiv 734-9),
remind us that the victors will have no mercy. Consequently, the actions of Achilles in book
xxiv break out of a pattern, emphasising his uniqueness in a new way. His magnanimity is
isolated, and in a sense futile, for it changes nothing in the situation of Priam and Troy, or of
Achilles himself; but it would be wrong to see it as any less admirable or precious for that reason.
The scene in which Priam supplicates Achilles is so familiar that only a few specific
comments will be required in order to show its importance for the themes of this paper. In the
Iliad as a whole Achilles is seen to suffer two great wraths, one against Agamemnon, the other
against Hector and all associated with him. The first fades into insignificance when the second
has begun. The dispute between Achilles and Agamemnon is formally brought to a conclusion
in book xix, but there Achilles is consumed by such frantic eagerness to take the field against
Hector that he barely takes any notice of the proceedings. In particular he ignores the
exhortations to eat in order to strengthen himself (esp. xix 205—14, 305—8). Here the abstinence
of Achilles, his indifference to human needs,66 reinforces his doomed isolation. Similarly in the
fighting which follows, he does battle alone, dedicated to his revenge. None but he must be the
slayer of Hector (xxii 205—7). But in book xxiv, with the truer reconciliation and the suppression
of his second and greater anger, he himself urges food on the grief-stricken Priam, as Odysseus
and others had tried to do before in his own case (xxiv 601—20).67
In Priam Achilles sees his own father Peleus,68 and he realises the other side to the killing of
Hector—not just revenge and punishment, but the agony of a parent's grief and the certain
doom of a whole people. And by analogy, he sees that Hector is to Priam as he himself is to his
lonely father Peleus (see esp. xxiv 486—92, 503—4, 534—43). Further, the grief of Achilles for
62
On Homeric rhetoric see L. Radermacher, Artium Aeschylus: Persae (Cambridge i960) appendix 4; Collard
Scriptores, SOAW ccxxvii.3 (Vienna 1951) 1—10; G. on Eur. Supp. 1114—64.
66
Kennedy, AJP lxxviii (1957) 26 ff.; K.J. Dover, Lysias For grief-stricken dairia see Griffin 15—17, and
and the Corpus Lysiacum (Berkeley/L.A. 1968) 175—81. add Od. iv 788, hDem. 47 ff. and Richardson ad loc,
On pity in rhetorical theory, with useful references to Soph. Aj. 324, Eur. Med. 24, Hipp. 135 ff., 277, Supp.
Homeric precedent, see E. B. Stevens, AJP lxv (1944) 1105—6, Or. 39—41, 189.
67
1—25: add that Arist. Rh. ii 8.i385b27, though more Thus the arguments at xix 155 ff, 178—80, 216 ff.,
intcllectualised (cf. Eur. Held. 458—60, Jr. 407), corre- 302 ff, correspond to Achilles'speeches to Priam at xxiv
sponds to //. xxiv 157-8=186-7. 522-4, 549—51, 599-620; Achilles'statement of his own
63
J. Gould, JHS xciii (1973) 80—2. Further, Mac- supreme misfortune in xix 315—37 corresponds to
lcod, Iliad xxiv, 15—22. Priam's at xxiv 486—506; Achilles' refusal to bathe (xxiii
64
Cf. C. Segal, The Theme of the Mutilation of the 38—47) is like Priam remaining uncleansed of the dung
Corpse in the Iliad, Mnemos. suppl. xvii (1971) 18,72—3. in which he grovelled after Hector's death (xxii 414,
65
For the significance of ritual lamentation, tearing xxiv 162—5); Achilles cannot sleep (xxiv 3—13; cf. xxiii
of clothes, etc., see Griffin 2—3 (for tragic parallels to the 62—7, where he sleeps only to dream of Patroclus), and
motif discussed there see Collard on Eur. Supp. 990 ff); Priam has not closed his eyes since Hector's death (xxiv
Vickers (n. 12) 87—96; M. Alexiou, The Ritual Lament in 635—42). Note also the bitter injunction ovSe fxiv
Greek Tradition (Cambridge 1974) passim, esp. chs i—ii, avorrjoeis (xxiv 551, cf. 756; Soph. El. 137 ff. is an
vi, viii; also her index, s.v. 'self-mutilation', 'laceration', instance of this motif in tragedy).
68
etc. In both subject-matter and form the tragic KOfXfxos Compare the way in which Deianira comes to see
is influenced by//. xxii 437—515, xxiv 718—76 (though both the similarity (Soph. Tra. 465, cf. 25) and the
for a contrast of the genres, see Macleod on xxiv 721—2). differences between herself and her rival Iole (303—6,
ror this aspect of tragedy see H. D. Broadhead, 441—8).

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 160 R. B. RUTHERFORD
Patroclus corresponds to that of Priam, and all the Trojans, for the lost Hector. But the chain of
destruction is not ended; for at the end of the poem both Achilles and Troy must be resigned to
the inevitable. The events presented in the Iliad itself have determined the destruction of both.
The suffering of Achilles and the sympathy he feels for Priam make themselves manifest in
generalisation, for in both Homer and tragedy the individual struggles to see himself in a
context, and so to make some coherent sense of his misery;69 which is to say, again, that it is part
of human nature to seek to understand the course of events even when they arc beyond human
understanding. Homeric epic differs from the drama in presenting more fully and impartially the
actual decisions and motivations of the gods, which may be weighed and assessed against the
imperfect guesses of the human participants. But with due allowance for poetic elaboration (in
the imagery of the two jars), Achilles' account of the state of man is borne out by the preceding
action, whereas his earlier guesses, like those of Agamemnon, Hector and the rest, were not.
Consequently the utterance of Achilles, especially in such a scene and with such a companion,
possesses much more significance and power.
Part of that significance lies in the consolatory force of the generalisation: it is not Priam
alone who has suffered (525 ff., answering 505).70 But this is cold comfort at best, as both
Achilles and Homer know. We should rather see Achilles as trying to instil in both Priam and
himself a greater degree of objectivity and realism. Again suffering brings a fuller kind of
understanding, if in the midst of it the two men can make themselves look beyond the
individual's sorrow, beyond even the combined sorrow of two opponents and two sides,71 and
can contemplate these particular griefs in the light of the true condition of all humanity. 72
At the end of the poem there is no more room for illusion: both Achilles and Priam finally
know. But as often in literature as in life, that knowledge, and even the moment of mutual
understanding and sympathy that follows from it, is powerless to alter the course of subsequent
events. The imperfect knowledge of mankind can never hope to outwit the gods, just as mortal
success can never surpass or outlast their eternal joys.
J ;
R. B. RUTHERFORD
Christ Church, Oxford
69
For instance, Hyllus' speech at the end of Tra- undermine the not-so-high ideals expressed by Aga-
chiniae (lines 1257-78 are incredibly rejected by Dawe: memnon and picked up by Iphigenia (contra D. J.
no supporting argument in his Studies). Eur. Tro. Conacher, Euripidean Drama [Toronto 1967] 261-4,
1240—5 is another good example, and one with evident with further bibliography). Note also the portrayal of
Homeric background: cf. //. iii 125-8, vi 355-8, Od. i the Trojan captives in Hec, Tro., Andr. A striking line.
346-59, viii 577-80, xxiv 196-202; Griffin 97-102; W. which epitomises Euripides' realistic, and Homeric,
Marg, Homer iiber die Dichtung2 (Munster 1971); stand on this is Tro. 764: (Andromache speaks) <L
Macleod, Iliad xxiv, 1-8, and his paper 'Homer on jSapjSap' igevpovres "EWyves KaKa. Here as elsewhere
poetry and the poetry of Homer', to be published in his (n. 61) Homer anticipates the best elements of fifth-cen-
Collected Papers. This passage of Troades refutes the tury ethics: cf. Antiph. Soph. 644b DK; Eur. Phaeth. 163
contention of Taplin (n. 28) 133 and of D. Bain, Actors and Diggle ad loc. Contrast the facile arrogance of
and Audience (Oxford 1977) 208 ff., that no case of popular opinion about J3dpj3apoc e.g. Isoc. iv 131, xv
theatrical self-reference can be found in Greek tragedy. 293, and even Arist. Pol. vii 7.i327b2O ff. Further,
Hecuba's utterance here is in fact very close to the Dover (n. 60) 83 ff., 279-83; F. W. Walbank, Phoenix v
passage of Julius Caesar cited by Bain 209 n. 1. (1951)41—60.
72
(Tangcntially relevant to this question: Bond on Eur. Priam and Achilles are paradigms of humanity;
HF 1021 f.) which is not to deny that they are also vividly imagined
70
Cf. Od. i 353-5; R. Kassel, Untersuchungen zur and fully rounded characters. For individuals in tragedy
griechischen und romischen Konsolationsliteratur, Zetemata as exempla of the human condition, see esp. Aesch. Ag.
xviii (Munich 1958) 54 f. The uselessness of grieving 1331-42, Soph. OT 1186-96, Ant. 1155-71; also H.
over an inevitable loss is 'consolatio pervulgata quidem Friis Johansen, General Reflection in Tragic Rhesis
ilia maxime' (Cic. Fam. v 16.2). (Copenhagen 1959) ch. viii. Such archetypal figures are
71
On the absence of partisanship or of any kind of fit subject matter for poetry that is concerned with
'panhellenism' in the Iliad see Kakridis (n. 45) 54 ff.; also something broader than the narrative of an individual or
C. S. Lewis, A-Preface to Paradise Lost (London 1942) ch. a single historical sequence of events. Cf. Arist. Poet.
v. In tragedy, the message of Aeschylus' Persae is not 9.145 i a 3 6 - b u ; perhaps Thuc. i 22.4? Further, F. W.
aimed at barbarians alone: see e.g. Broadhead (n. 65) Walbank, Historia ix (i960) 216—34; G. E. M. de Ste
xv—xviii, xxi, xxviii-ix; H. D. F. Kitto, Poiesis (Berke- Croix, in The Ancient Historian and his Materials, Studies
ley/L.A. 1966) 74-106. In Eur. IA I take it that the presented to C. E. Stevens, ed. B. Levick (Farnborough
character and behaviour of the participants is meant to 1975) 51—2.

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