Clements Sarama 2002
Clements Sarama 2002
Clements Sarama 2002
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Abstract
Clements and Sarama discuss research on the appropriateness of computer use with young children. Children interact differently using different types of software.
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If you ask, teachers will tell you about the advantages that they find in using computers. For example, writers have reported that fourand fiveyearolds from an urban,
economically disadvantaged population began making new friends as they asked others to join them in working at the computer. For the first time, they sought help from one
another (Bowman 1985). An egocentric child learned cooperation and problem solving. Children's cooperative play paralleled the proportion of cooperative play in the block
center and provided a context for initiating and sustaining interaction that could be transferred to play in other areas as well, especially for boys (Anderson 2000). Are these
examples unique, or are such advantages widespread?
We know that computers are increasingly a part of preschoolers' lives. From 80 percent to 90 percent of early childhood educators attending the annual conference of the
National Association for the Education of Young Children report using competers (Haugland 1997). Such use is no surpriseresearch on young children and technology indicates
that we no longer need to ask whether the use of technology is "developmentally appropriate" (Clements and Nastasi 1993).
Unfortunately, not everyone reads the research! We were surprised and disappointed to find that some authors still disagree with current research about computer use by young
children (Cordes and Miller 2000). This article presents a quick tour of research on the appropriateness of computer use with young children. What do we know about children's
use of computers? How old should children be before computers can have a positive influence in their lives? How do children interact with computers? What is the empirical
evidence about possible negative influences of such interaction? How do computers influence children's social and emotional development? How might computers affect their
learning and thinking in mathematics? What are the implications for teachers?
Developmental Appropriateness
Very young children have shown comfort and confidence in using software. They can follow pictorial directions and use situational and visual cues to understand and think about
their activities (Clements and Nastasi 1993). Typing on the keyboard does not seem to cause them any trouble; if anything, the ability to type is a source of pride!
With the increasing availability of hardware and software adaptations, children with physical and emotional disabilities also can use computers with ease. In addition to
enhancing their mobility and sense of control, computer use can also help improve the selfesteem of disabled children. A fouryearold who was diagnosed with mental
retardation and autism and who did not speak began to echo words for the first time while working at a computer (Schery and O'Connor 1992). Preschoolers' participation in
computer activities facilitated social interaction among children who had disabilities and their peers who did not (Spiegel McGill et al. 1989). A largescale, multiyear study
showed that every one of the study's 44 three to fiveyearolds who had special needs gained substantially and significantly in socialemotional development from their work
with computers. On joining the program, children were making an average gain in socialemotional development of less than half a month per month. While participating in the
program, children achieved an average rate of progress of 1.93 months per month (Hutinger and Johanson 2000).
Research has also moved beyond the simple question of whether computers can help young children learnwe know that they can. We now need to understand how best to use
computers to aid learning and what types of learning we should facilitate with computers. Obviously, we do not believe that every use of technology is appropriate or beneficial.
The design of the curriculum and that of the social setting are two of many important components in learning. The following paragraphs examine the social and classroom
context.
Social Interaction
Research dismissed a serious and early concern that computers would isolate children. Computers serve as catalysts of social interaction. For example, children spent nine times
as much time talking to peers while on the computer than while doing puzzles. Children prefer to work with friends rather than alone, and they display more positive emotion
and interest when working together. They build new friendships in the computer's presence. They show increased collaborative work, including spontaneous helping and
teaching, and they discuss and build on one another's ideas (Clements 1994). Even in the preschool classroom, a computer center fosters a positive climate characterized by
praise and encouragement of peers (Klinzing and Hall 1985). Computer activity was more effective than toys in stimulating vocalization in a regular preschool environment and
evoked higher levels of social play (McCormick 1987).
Children interact differently using different types of software. For example, openended programs, such as those that allow children to make shapes, foster collaboration. Drill
andpractice software, however, can encourage turn taking and competition.
The physical environment also affects children's interactions. Placing two seats in front of the computer and one at the side for the teacher can encourage positive social
interaction. Placing computers close to one another can facilitate the sharing of ideas among children. Centrally located computers invite other children to pause and participate
in the computer activity. Such an arrangement also helps keep teacher participation at an optimum level. Teachers remain nearby to provide supervision and assistance as
needed but do not constantly stay so close that they inhibit the children.
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Teaching and Learning Mathematics
The computer offers unique opportunities for learning through exploration, creative problem solving, and selfguided instruction. Again, children learn different things from
different types of software. Drillandpractice software leads to gains in certain rote skills but has not been as effective in improving children's development of mathematical
ideas (Clements and Nastasi 1993). More valuable is software that asks children to solve problems. Discoverybased software that encourages and allows ample room for free
exploration is also valuable. Research suggests, however, that the curriculum designed around such software should have children do more than merely engage in free
exploration, which can lead to boredom (Lemerise 1993).
Children who are encouraged to do openended projects work longer and actively search for diverse ways to solve tasks.
Another initial fear was that computers would replace other early childhood activities. Research shows that computer activities yield the best results when coupled with suitable
offcomputer activities. For example, children who were exposed to developmental software alone showed gains in intelligence, nonverbal skills, longterm memory, and manual
dexterity. Those who also worked with offcomputer activities gained in all these areas and improved their scores in verbal, problemsolving, and conceptual skills (Haugland
1992). A control group used the computer to work with drillandpractice software three times as often as the other groups but showed less than half the gains that the on and
offcomputer groups did.
Such results do not mean that some practice software is not helpful. It can help children as young as three to five years old develop competence in counting and sorting. Most of
children's time, however, should be spent developing ideas and solving problems. For example, using programs that allow pictures to be created with geometric shapes, children
have demonstrated growing knowledge and competence in working with such concepts as symmetry, patterns, and spatial order. One child, Tammy, overlaid two overlapping
triangles on one square and colored selected parts of this figure to create a third triangle that did not exist in the program! This preschooler not only exhibited an awareness of
how she had made this shape but also realized that recreating the shape would be a challenge to others (Wright 1994).
Computer manipulatives can provide other unique advantages (Clements and Sarama 1998; Sarama, Clements, and Vukelic 1996). They allow children to save and retrieve
work and, thus, work on projects over long periods. Computers offer flexible and manageable manipulatives that might "snap" into position. Computer manipulatives can also be
resized or cut. Finally, computers can help bring mathematics to explicit awareness, for example, by asking children to choose what mathematical operations (turn, flip, or slide)
to apply to manipulatives.
As an example, some kindergartners were working on a pattern with physical manipulatives and wanted to move the configuration slightly on the rug. Two girls tried to keep the
design together but were unsuccessful. Marissa told Leah to fix the design. Leah tried, but in recreating the design, she inserted two extra shapes and the pattern was not the
same. The girls experienced considerable frustration at their inability to recreate their "old" design. Had the children been able to save their design or move it and keep the
pieces together, their group project would have continued. Indeed, moving a design to another area of the screen was the most common reason for using the "glue" tool on the
computer with these kindergartners (Sarama, Clements, and Vukelic 1996).
Final Words
We can use technology to teach the same old stuff in the same way, or we can capitalize on the benefits of technology by using integrated computer activities to increase
achievement. Children who use practice software about ten minutes a day increase their scores on achievement tests.
However,
If the gadgets are computers, the same old teaching becomes incredibly more expensive and biased towards its dullest parts, namely the kind of rote learning in which
measurable results can be obtained by treating the children like pigeons in a Skinner box .... I believe with Dewey, Montessori, and Piaget that children learn by doing and by
thinking about what they do. And so the fundamental ingredients of educational innovation must be better things to do and better ways to think about oneself doing these
things. (Papers 1980)
We believe, with Papert, that computers can be a rich source of these innovative ingredients. We believe that having children use computers in new ways, including to solve
problems and manipulate mathematical objects, can be a catalyst for reform in early childhood mathematics classrooms.
As a final example, consider kindergartner Mitchell. He loved making hexagons. When he worked off the computer, he quickly manipulated the patternblock pieces, making
hexagons by trial and error but not responding to questions about his intent or strategies. When working on the computer, he seemed to be more aware of his actions; when
asked how many times he turned a particular piece, he said, "Three," without hesitation. When building a hexagon out of triangles, he placed two, counted while pointing, and
said, "I need four more."
He placed another triangle, turned it, and said, "Whoa! Now three more!"
He got three more triangles and finished his hexagon, proudly stating, "I did it!" The computer helped Mitchell be more deliberative and reflective.
References
References
References
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Computer, Housekeeping, and Manipulative." National Association for the Education of Young Children, Atlanta, Georgia, 2000.
Bowman, Barbara T. Computers and Young Children. New Orleans, La.: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1985.
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edited by June L. Wright and Daniel D. Shade, pp. 3150. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1994.
Clements, Douglas H., and Bonnie K. Nastasi. "Electronic Media and Early Childhood Education." In Handbook of Research on the Education of Young Children, edited by Bernard
Spodek, pp. 25175. New York: Macmillan, 1993.
Clements, Douglas H., and Julie Sarama. Building BlocksFoundations for Mathematical Thinking, PreKindergarten to Grade 2: ResearchBased Materials Development. National
Science Foundation, grant number ESI9730804. www.gse .buffalo,edu/org/buildingblocks/. Buffalo, MY: State University of New York at Buffalo, 1998. World Wide Web.
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. "How Teachers Use Computers in Early Childhood Classrooms." Journal of Computing in Childhood Education 8 (1997): 314.
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Klinzing, D. G., and A. Hall. A Study of the Behavior of Children in a Preschool Equipped with Computers. Chicago, Ill.: American Educational Research Association, 1985.
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McCormick, Linda. "Comparison of the Effects of a Microcomputer Activity and Toy Play on Social and Communication Behaviors of Young Children." Journal of the Division for
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Education edited by Elizabeth Jakubowski, Dierdre Watkins, and Harry Biske, pp. 56772. Columbus, Ohio: ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental
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Schery, Teris K., and Lisa C. O'Connor. "The Effectiveness of SchoolBased Computer Language Intervention with Severely Handicapped Children." Language, Speech, and
Hearing Services in Schools 23 (1992): 4347.
SpiegelMcGill, P., S. Zippiroli, and S. Mistrett. "Microcomputers as Social Facilitators in Integrated Preschools." Journal of Early Intervention 13 (3) (1989): 249 60.
Wright, June L. "Listen to the Children: Observing Young Children's Discoveries with the Microcomputer." In Young Children: Active Learners in a Technological Age, edited by
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AuthorAffiliation
Edited by Julie Sarama,[email protected], and Douglas Clements, elements @buffalo .edu, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260. This department
addresses the early childhood teacher's need to support young children's emerging mathematics understandings and skills in a context that conforms with current knowledge
about the way that children in prekindergarten and kindergarten learn mathematics. Readers are encouraged to send manuscripts for this section to "Early Childhood Corner,"
NCTM, 1906 Association Drive, Reston, VA 201919988.
AuthorAffiliation
This article was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under grants no. ESI9730804: "Building BlocksFoundations for Mathematical Thinking, PreKindergarten to
Grade 2: ResearchBased Materials Development"; REC9903409: "TechnologyEnhanced Learning of Geometry in Elementary Schools"; and ESI9817540: "Conference on
Standards for Preschool and Kindergarten Mathematics Education," as well as a grant for the conference from the ExxonMobil Foundation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or
recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation or ExxonMobil Foundation.
Copyright National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Feb 2002
Details
Subject Computers;
Children & youth;
Education
Title The role of technology in early childhood learning
Author Clements, Douglas H; Sarama, Julie
Publication title Teaching Children Mathematics
Volume 8
Issue 6
Pages 340343
Publication year 2002
Publication date Feb 2002
Year 2002
Publisher National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Place of publication Reston
Country of publication United States
Publication subject EducationTeaching Methods And Curriculum, Mathematics
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ISSN 10735836
Source type Scholarly Journals
Language of publication English
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ProQuest document ID 214139000
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Copyright Copyright National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Feb 2002
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