Diagnostic Cytology

Diagnostic cytology involves the examination of cells which have either naturally
exfoliated or been artificially removed from a body cavity or a tissue mass. The
cytological interpretation is often valuable in establishing a diagnosis, identifying
the disease process, directing therapy, forming a prognosis, and/or determining
what diagnostic procedure should next be performed.

Some of the major advantages of cytological procedures are that they require
minimal equipment, have rapid turn around time and most are minimally invasive
and minimally stressful for the patient. However, since cytologic interpretation is
based upon the distinct characteristics of individual cells on a smear that lacks
the source tissue's architectural patterns, it should be mainly utilized as a rapid
screening procedure. Histopathology is usually more diagnostic and definitive in
that it allows study of both structure and form of a tissue or organ. Cytology
should be considered a tentative diagnosis requiring a histologic confirmation,
particularly in lesions with suspected neoplastic characteristics.

10.1 METHODS OF SPECIMEN ATTAINMENT

A. Solid Tissue Cytology

The particular method used for obtaining cytological specimens is determined by

the characteristics of the lesion to be sampled. The major goal is to obtain a
significant number of well-stained intact cells that reflect the composition of the
lesion.

1. Touch impressions or imprints

Imprints can be prepared from excised external lesions on the living animal or
from tissues removed during surgery or necropsy. The imprints are easy to
obtain but they collect fewer cells than scrapings and contain greater
contamination (bacterial and cellular) than aspirates. Therefore, imprints from
superficial lesions often only reflect a secondary bacterial infection and/or
inflammation-induced tissue dysplasia. This markedly hinders their use in
diagnosis of neoplasia. To reduce contamination and to obtain a more
representative sample, touch imprints are made on freshly excised surfaces. If
the excised surface is very bloody or moist, it should be blotted with absorbent
paper. Touch the slide gently to the specimen, remove and quickly air dry.
Dragging of the slide across the specimen will distort the cells. Tissue rich in
connective tissue imprints poorly.

2. Scrapings

Scraping has the advantage of collecting many cells from the tissue, and
therefore, is advantageous when the lesion is firm and yields few cells.
Disadvantages are similar to those described for tissue imprints. The surface of
the lesion is freshly excised and scraped with a scalpel blade until material
appears on the blade's surface. This material is then smeared thinly across a
slide.

3. Swabs

Swab smears are collected only when imprints, scrapings and aspirates cannot
be made; e.g., fistulous tracts, nasal and vaginal collections. The lesion or tissue
is swabbed with a moist, sterile cotton swab. Sterile isotonic fluid, such as 0.9%
NaCl, should be used to moisten the swab. This helps minimize cell damage
during sample collection and smear preparation. After sample collection, the
swab is gently rolled, not rubbed, along the flat surface of a clean glass
microscope slide.

4. Fine Needle Aspirations

Fine needle aspiration biopsies can be collected from masses such as lymph
nodes, nodular lesions and internal organs. Aspiration of cutaneous masses
avoids the superficial contamination common with imprints or scrapings, but
collects fewer cells than scrapings. The tissue to be aspirated is immobilized as
close to the skin surface as possible. A 21-25 gauge needle attached to a 3-20
ml syringe is used (a 12-ml syringe is a good all-around size). The softer the
tissue being aspirated, the smaller the needle and syringe used. When needles
larger than 21 gauge are used, tissue cores tend to be aspirated, resulting in a
poor yield of free cells suitable for cytological preparation. Also, larger needles
tend to increase the incidence of blood contamination.

The needle with syringe attached is introduced into the center of the mass and
strong negative pressure is applied The cell population retrieved from a mass is
highly dependent upon the site aspirated. In order to obtain a representative
sample, the needle is redirected and moved to several areas in the mass, taking
precautions to prevent the needle from leaving the mass. Negative pressure is
maintained during the redirection. However, when the mass is not large enough
for the needle to be redirected and moved without danger of the needle's leaving
the mass, negative pressure is relieved during redirection and movement of the
needle. In this situation, negative pressure is applied only when the needle is
static. In both cases, aspirate may or may not appear in the syringe, but the
needle will contain sufficient tissue for smears. Before removing the needle from
the mass, the negative pressure is relieved. The needle is removed from the
mass and skin and the needle contents are expressed onto a slide and a smear
prepared.

10.1 Fluid Cytology

1. Centesis

Centesis is the process of perforation or tapping as with an aspirator, trocar, or

needle, to obtain abdominal, thoracic, synovial or cerebrospinal fluid. The size of
the trocar or needle used is dependent upon the species and centesis site.
Whenever possible, at least 3 ml of fluid should be aseptically obtained to
provide an amount sufficient for determination of specific and concentration for
microscopic examination. Since exudates coagulate and modified transudates
may coagulate, a portion of the specimen should be collected in an EDTA tube.
A sterile tube should be used for one portion to assure a satisfactory specimen in
the event that culture is indicated. Direct and sediment smears should be made
for cytological examination. Sediment smears are prepared by centrifu-gation of
the fluid for 5 minutes at 165-360 G to concentrate the cells. In addition to
cytological examination, other properties (e.g., specific gravity, total protein,
glucose) should be determined in order to pin-point the pathogenesis of the
occurrence.

2. Catheterization

Catheterization procedures are used for transtracheal/ bronchial and prostatic

washes. Once obtained, the fluid specimens are handled in a manner similar to
centesis fluids.

10.2 PREPARATION OF SMEARS

10.2.1 Preparation of smears from aspirates of solid masses

Several methods can be used to prepare smears for cytologic evaluation of solid
masses, including lymph nodes. The experience of the person preparing the
smears and characteristics of the sample influence the choice of smear
preparation technique. No matter what the technique used, the resultant smear
must have a thin area where cells may settle flatly and expose a large surface
area to view. If the smear is thick, the cells are supported more upright on the
slide and have a smaller diameter. Cellsin thick areas are taller and thus stain
darker. In addition, thick layers of proteinaceous and necrotic debris in the dried
fluid surrounding cells interferes with staining. Some common cytological
preparation techniques include:

1. Combination Technique

This method makes a squash prep of 1/3 of the aspirate, leaves the middle 1/3
untouched and thus concentrated, and gently spreads the remaining 1/3 of the
aspirate. A portion of the aspirate is expelled onto a glass microscope slide (prep
slide). Another glass microscope slide is placed over about one-third of the
preparation. If additional spreading of the aspirate is needed, gentle digital
pressure can be used. Excessive pressure should be avoided. The spreader
slide is smoothly slid forward. This makes a squash prep of about one-third of the
aspirate. The spreader slide also contains a squash prep. Next, the edge of a
tilted glass microscope slide (second spreader slide) is slid backward from the
end opposite the squash prep until it contacts about one-third of the expelled
aspirate. Then, the second spreader slide is slid rapidly and smoothly forward.
This produces an area that is spread with mechanical forces like those of a blood
smear preparation. The middle area is left untouched and contains a high
concentration of cells.

2. Squash Preparation

This method is used for spreading viscous samples and samples with flecks of
particulate material. A portion of the aspirate is expelled onto a glass microscope
slide and another slide is placed over the sample to spread it. If the sample does
not spread well, gentle digital pressure can be applied to the top slide; however,
care must be taken not to place excessive pressure on the slide causing the cells
to rupture. The slides are smoothly slid apart. This usually produces well-spread
smears but, even when care is take, may result in excessive cell rupture.

3. Modified Squash Preparation

This method is also used for spreading viscous samples and has less tendency
to rupture the cells. A portion of the aspirate is expelled onto a glass microscope
slide and another slide is placed over the sample. This causes the sample to
spread. If necessary, gentle digital pressure can be applied to the top slide to
spread the sample more. Care must be taken not to use excessive pressure and
cause cell rupture. The top slide is rotated about 45 degrees and lifted directly
upward, producing a spread preparation with subtle ridges and valley of cells.

4. Needle Spread or "Starfish" Preparation

This technique tends not to damage fragile cells, but allows a thick layer of tissue
fluid to remain around the cells which may interfere with staining. A portion of the
aspirate is expelled onto a glass microscope slide. The tip of a needle is placed
in the aspirate and moved peripherally, pulling a trail of the sample with it. This
procedure is repeated in several directions, resulting in a preparation with
multiple projections.

10.2.2 Preparation of smears from fluids

Smears should be made immediately after fluid collection. Smears can be made
directly from fresh, well-mixed fluid or from the resuspended sediment of a
centrifuged sample. The cellularity, viscosity and homogeneity of the fluid
determine the selection of smear technique used. The most common techniques
include:

1. Blood Smear Technique

This procedure is identical to that used for preparing smears of blood and will
result in a smear with a feathered edge. This method is generally not appropriate
for viscous samples. A drop of fluid sample is placed on a glass microscope slide
close to one end, then another slide is slid backward to contact the front of the
drop. When the drop is contacted, it rapidly spreads along the juncture between
the 2 slides. The spreader slide is then smoothly and rapidly slid forward the
length of the slide, producing a smear with a feathered edge.

2. Line Smear Concentration Technique

When the fluid cannot be concentrated by centrifugation or the centrifuged

sample is of low cellularity, the line smear technique can be used to concentrate
cells in the smear. Unfortunately, an excessive amount of fluid may also remain
in the "line" and prevent the cells from spreading well.

A drop of fluid sample is placed onto a glass microscope slide close to one end,
and another slide is slid backward to contact the front of the drop. When the drop
is contacted, it rapidly spreads along the juncture between the 2 slides. The
spreader slide is then smoothly and rapidly slid forward. After the spreader slide
has been advanced about two-thirds to three-fourths the distance required to
make a smear with a feathered edge, the spreader slide is raised directly
upward. This produces a smear with a line of concentrated cells at its end,
instead of a feathered edge.

3. Squash Preparation (Same as described above)

Smears of viscous fluids such as synovial fluid can be prepared using this
technique.

10.3 CYTOLOGICAL STAINS

The two general types of stains most commonly used are the Romanowsky- type
stains (Wright's stain, Giemsa stain, Diff-Quik) and Papanicolaou stain.

10.3.1 Romanowsky-type Stains

These are permanent stains which stain organisms and the cytoplasm of cells
excellently. The stains tend to have a "smudging" effect on the nucleus, thus,
nuclear and nucleolar detail cannot be perceived as well as with the
Papanicolaou-type stains. However, the detail is usually sufficient for
differentiating neoplasia and inflammation and for evaluating neoplastic cells for
cytologic evidence of malignant potential. Smears to be stained with
Romanowsky-type stains must first be air dried to fix the cells and prevent them
from falling off the slide during the staining procedure. These stains tend to
dissolve lipids from cells leaving vacuoles. RNA stains blue and DNA stains
purple with variations to red or pink. Mast cell granules may not stain with Diff-
Quik.

New Methylene Blue Stain (NMB) is a useful adjunct to Romanowsky-type

stains. It stains cytoplasm weakly, if at all, but gives excellent nuclear and
nucleolar detail. NMB does not stain RBC hemoglobin and is thus useful in
interpretation of blood contaminated samples. Fungi are stained and lipid
droplets are outlined. This stain is a wet mount of a dried smear and is not
permanent; however, the smear can be counter stained with Wright's stain to
provide a permanent preparation. A combination of a drop of NMB and Sudan's
or other oil stain will selectively stain lipid and give adequate cell detail. This stain
combination is useful for fatty livers, chylothorax, aspiration pneumonia or lipid
granulomas.

10.3.2 Papanicolaou Stains

These stains use wet fixed smears (i.e., the smear must be fixed before the
cells have dried) and clearly illustrate cell structure and nuclear characteristics.
They do not demonstrate bacteria and other organisms as well as Romanowsky
stains. Papanicolaou-type staining requires multiple steps and considerable
time.

10.4 MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION

Once the smear has been prepared, stained and dried, it is scanned at low
magnification (4-10X objective) to determine if all areas of the smear are stained
properly and if there is adequate cellularity for evaluation. When proper staining
is assured and all areas of increased and/or unique cellularity are recognized,
magnification is increased to the 10X or 20X objective. An impression of the
cellularity and cellular composition of the smear and of cell size are ascertained.
Using the 40X objective, nucleoli and chromatin pattern are discerned. Cell
morphology is evaluated in detail with the 100X (oil-immersion) objective.
10.5 INTERPRETATION

An algorithm to aid in the general evaluation of all cytologic preparations is

presented in Figure X.1. While a definitive diagnosis is not always achieved, the
general process usually is recognized. Probably the most important judgment to
be made when interpreting a cytologic sample is whether the lesion is
inflammatory or neoplastic in nature. Samples containing only inflammatory cells
or inflammatory cells and a few nondysplastic tissue cells indicate and
inflammatory lesion, whereas samples containing only tissue cells indicate a
neoplastic or hyperplastic process. An admixture of inflammatory cells and tissue
cells suggests neoplasia with secondary inflammation, or inflammation with
secondary tissue cell dysplasia. Lesions determined to be inflammatory in nature
can be classified into different categories of inflammation.

The inflammatory process can be classified as acute when >70% of the

inflammatory cells are neutrophils, as subacute or chronic-active when 50-70% of
the inflammatory cells are neutrophils and 30-50% are macrophages, and
chronic when >50% of the inflammatory cells are macrophages. If >85% of the
inflammatory cells are neutrophils, the process is classified as purulent or
suppurative, granulomatous if inflammatory giant cells and/or numerious epitheli.
macrophages are present, and eosinophilic or allergic if eosinophils are
numerous.

Often neoplastic lesions can be recognized as epithelial, mesenchymal (spindle-

cell) or discrete round-cell tumors. Important cytological characteristics of these
tumor types are illustrated in Figure X.2. Evaluation for malignant potential of
tumors is estimated by evaluating tumor cells for indications of anaplasia and
asynchronous development. The cytomorphologic criteria for this assessment are
illustrated in Figure X.3. Descriptions for the various terms used to assess
nuclear chromatin patterns are listed in Figure X.4.
Nuclear criteria of malignancy are more reliable than cytoplasmic criteria for
estimating malignant potential. Recognition of more than 3 nuclear criteria of
malignancy in a high percentage of tumor cells is strong evidence that the tumor
is malignant. If malignant criteria are not recognized, the tumor is most likely
benign. However, some tumors, such as canine thyroid tumors, may be
malignant but show few, if any, criteria of malignancy. Therefore, if the cell type
of a tumor cannot be recognized, caution must be exercised in classifying the
tumor as benign.

FIGURE X.3

MALIGNANCY CRITERIA

MALIGNANCY CRITERIA (CONT.)

FIGURE X.4
10.10 FLUID CYTOLOGY

Abnormal accumulations of fluid in body cavities and joints are relatively common
occurrences in animals. Cytological examination of these fluids is utilized to
reveal the cellular characteristics of the fluid so that the presence or absence of
inflammation or neoplasia can be detected. Fluids to be discussed will include
body cavity effusions (abdominal, thoracic and pericardial), synovial fluid,
cerebrospinal fluid prostatic fluid, and trans-tracheal bronchoalveolar aspirations.

10.10.1 Body Cavity Effusions (Transudates and Exudates)

The body cavities of animals normally contain small quantities of fluid which is
essentially an ultrafiltrate of blood. This fluid has few cells, chiefly of the
mononuclear type. a process that impairs absorption, alters vascular pressure, or
alters the concentration of albumin in the blood can result in accumulation of fluid
in a body cavity, which is termed an effusion. Four basic mechanisms by which
fluid may accumulate in abnormal quantities includes:
 • 1. Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure (e.g., venous stasis of the
type seen with congestive heart failure).
• 2. Decreased capillary oncotic pressure as a result of hypo-albuminemia
and/or increased arterial pressure.
• 3. Increased capillary membrane permeability (e.g., anoxia or
inflammation).
• 4. Lymphatic obstruction (e.g., lymphadenitis, lymphangi-tis or
neoplasia)

Removal and examination of fluids from body cavities is indicated when there is
excessive fluid accumulation or if the clinician suspects the presence of a lesion
characterized by cellular exfoliation. An increased amount of fluid in a cavity is
not a disease in itself but rather an indication of a pathologic process in the fluid
production and/or removal system, or an accumulation from an ectopic source.

1. Fluid Collection

Most fluid transudates can be collected through a 16- to 20-gauge needle,

whereas a 14- to 16-gauge needle may be required for exudates. A sample of
the effusion should be collected in an EDTA tube to be used for a total nucleated
cell count, total protein determination, and cytologic examination. Another sample
should be collected in a serum tube if any biochemical analyses are to be
performed.

a. Thoracentesis

Pleural effusions are typically abundant and bilateral but may be mild, unilateral
and/or compartmentalized. Radiography is helpful in determining the extent and
location of the effusion. Under most circumstances a 1- to 1 1/2-inch needle will
suffice, except in some large domestic animals in which a 2- to 2 1/2- inch needle
may be required. The site for thoracentesis varies, but the seventh or eighth
intercostal space is chosen in most animals. The puncture should be made in the
middle of the intercostal space to avoid damaging intercostal vessels found just
caudal to the ribs. Thoracentesis is preferably performed with the animal in a
standing position. In cases of accidental blood contamination, blood will be
apparent either during the first or very last portion of the aspiration. Blood will be
present throughout the aspiration if hemothorax is present

b. Abdominocentesis

In small animals, the ventral midline of the abdomen, 1-2 cm caudal to the
umbilicus, is the usual site of needle insertion. In the horse, the preferred site is
at the lowest portion of the abdomen between the xiphisternum and umbilicus. A
1-inch needle is generally sufficient for small animals and a 2-inch needle or teat
cannula for horses. Open-needle abdominocentesis is reportedly more sensitive
than aspiration via syringe; therefore, a syringe is usually not attached. If a
syringe is attached, only mild negative pressure should be applied because it is
easy to aspirate omentum or other abdominal contents against the needle
opening and inhibit fluid collection.

c. Pericardicentensis

Fluid is less frequently removed from the pericardium, but if there is an abnormal
accumulation or pericardial fluid, percardicentesis may be of diagnostic and
therapeutic value. An 18- to 20-gauge needle of sufficient length to reach the
pericardium is required. The site of for puncture is at the cardiac apex. After the
cardiac apex beat is located, the needle is carefully advanced toward the heart. A
constant negative pressure is maintained in the syringe. When the needle enters
the pericardial sac, fluid will appear in the syringe. If the needle contacts the
cardiac wall, pulsation occurs and the needle will move. Should this occur, the
needle location is slightly altered in order to prevent damage to the heart or its
blood vessels. A small quantity (0.5 to 1.0 ml) of fluid is adequate for cytologic
evaluation. If the fluid collected is bloody and clotted, this usually indicates that a
blood vessel has been entered during collection. If a bloody fluid does not clot,
this is an indication that defibrinated blood is present in the pericardial sac.

2. Physical Classification of Effusions

On the basis of nucleated cell counts and total protein concentrations, effusions
may be classified as either transudates, modified transudates or exudates. A
transudate is an excess accumulation of normal fluid (filtrate of plasma) in any
body cavity or space. Transudate accumulations result primarily from obstructive
phenomena and usually contain few cells and have low specific gravity and
protein content. However, any transudate that remains in a body cavity for a
period of time causes irritation to the lining of that cavity. This irritation generally
results in increased cellularity, primarily due to proliferated mesothelial cells, and
an increase in protein content that is generally due to fluid leakage from
lymphatics. Fluids of this type are termed modified transudates. An exudate is an
excess accumulation of abnormal fluid in any body cavity or space. It is usually
the result of both obstructive and productive phenomena. The cellular and protein
content are generally much higher than that of transudates. Since most exudates
are inflammatory, this increased cellularity is usually due to accumulations of
white blood cells.

The general parameters evaluated in effusion cytology include:

a. Physical and Chemical Characteristics

• 1) Color
o a) serum or plasma - light or dark yellow
o b) Erythrocytes - red, dark red, or reddish
brown
 o c.) Leukocytes - white, cream, yellow, gray or
green
o d) Chyle - milky white (after centrifugation),
peach or pink
o e) Bilirubin - yellow, orange, red or brown
• 2) Transparency or Turbidity
o a) Erythrocytes - grayish-red turbidity
o b) Leukocytes - from light turbidity to thick,
creamy pus
o c) Fat droplets - milky turbidity
• 3) Coagulation - depends upon the amount of fibrin
present.
o a) Transudates - rarely show spontaneous
complete or partial coagulation
o b) Exudates - usually coagulate very quickly
after removal from the serous cavity.
• 4) Protein Concentration - Refractometer
o a) Transudates less than 3 g/dl
o b) Exudates more than 3 g/dl
• 5) Specific Gravity - Refractometer
o a) Transudates under 1.017
o b) Exudates over 1.017
• 6) Bilirubin, BUN, Creatinine, globulin, amylase,
cholesterol, triglycerides and other determinations may
facilitate interpretation.

b. Cellular Elements

The approach to cytologic evaluation of fluids is essentially the same as the

approach to the cytologic evaluation of solid masses. The populations of cells
present is determined and compared to those found in the normal fluid of the
given cavity. It must then be decided if the cells in the fluid accumulation are
normal, the result of inflammation, or the result of neoplasia.

Normally, fluid content of the body cavities is low and contains few cells.
Occasional white blood cells with the same features as those in the peripheral
blood will be seen. Additionally, mesothelial lining cells are seen. The following is
a list and description of those cells which may be present in variable numbers in
effusions:

1) Mesothelial Cell

These cells line the serous surfaces of the pleural, pericardial and peritoneal
cavities. With Romanowsky stain, the normal exfoliated cell is a large cell (12-30
microns), with extreme cytoplasmic basophilia which may obscure the nucleus.
The cytoplasmic margin may or may not present reddish hairlike processes
(eosinophilic brush border). Nuclei are of uniform size and are hyperchromic.
Binucleation may be observed.

Pale-staining mesothelial cells may also be observed and represent in situ cells
removed during the centesis procedure. The cells are usually in clusters. The
nuclei are of uniform shape and size. The density of RNA and DNA is low, giving
a pale-staining overall appearance to the cells.

The accumulation of large quantities of transudative fluid causes mesothelial

cells to exfoliate in relatively large numbers. The transudate fluid is biologically a
perfect cell-culture medium in which the mesothelial cells may replicate and
transform into so-called blast-transformed, reactive or activated mesothelial cells.
These are highly variable in cytologic appearance. The nuclei are generally less
hyperchromic than those of non-transformed mesothelial cells. The chromatin
generally has a finely reticular pattern and nucleoli may be present. Mitotic
figures and multinucleate forms are common. The cytoplasm is slightly basophilic
and may contain phagocytic debris, since activated mesothelial cells may
become phagocytic. For this reason, they cannot be differentiated from the
monocyte-derived macrophage.

Blast-transformed mesothelial cells often imbibe water and swell to unusually

large size. The swollen cells have a clear cytoplasmic area with the nucleus
displaced, giving a signet-ring appearance to the cell. The transformed cells may
occur singly but more often , the cells suspended in the fluid do not divide
completely and result in clusters of cells.

Since many of the morphologic criteria of malignancy are observed in blast-

transformed mesothelial cells, it is important that the nuclear criteria be
stringently applied when differentiating reactive mesothelial cells from neoplasia.

2) Macrophage

Mesothelial-cell reactions are accompanied by variable numbers of

macrophages, depending on the amount of particulate detritus. Macrophages
tend to be sticky and form cell clusters of a pale or light appearance. The cells
are large (15-50 microns) and they generally have a single oval to bean-shaped
nucleus; however, multinucleation and variable nuclear shapes may be present.
Their nuclear chromatin is lacy and their cytoplasm is frequently vacuolated and
may contain phagocytic debris.

3) Neutrophil

Neutrophils are present to some degree in most effusions and tend to

predominate in effusions associated with inflammation. The two general
cytological classifications, non-degenerate and degenerate, and their significance
have been discussed in a previous section of this syllabus.
4) Lymphocytes and Plasma Cells

Lymphocytes are present in small numbers in many effusions and may be

predominant in chylous, pseudochylous and lymphosarcomatous effusions. Care
must be taken not to confuse reactive lymphocytes in inflammatory conditions
with neoplastic lymphocytes. Neoplastic lymphocytes are usually lymphoblasts
and are characterized by a moderate amount of clear to blue cytoplasm, variably
shaped nuclei, finely stippled nuclear chromatin and nucleoli of variable shape
and size. These cells are larger than neutrophils.

5) Eosinophils

Moderate to large numbers of eosinophils may be seen in effusions secondary to

mast-cell tumors, heartworms, allergic reactions and hypersensitivity. They are
commonly seen in bovine aspirates, perhaps due to the high incidence of
Setaria nematodes within the peritoneal cavity of cattle.

6) Mast Cells

Mast-cell tumors within body cavities may be associated with effusions and
frequently exfoliate large numbers of mast cells into the effusion. However, mast
cells are observed in small numbers in effusions from dogs and cats with many
different inflammatory disorders.

7) Erythrocytes

Erythrocytes may be seen cytologically within effusions secondary to

hemorrhage or contamination with peripheral blood. Erythrocytes are useful as a
marker in measuring size of other cells. It is important to differentiate bloody taps
from true intracavity hemorrhage. This differentiation is based upon clinical signs
and the presence or absence of intact platelets and erythrophagocytosis.
Macrophages containing hemoglobin pigment are indications of chronic
hemorrhage. A hemorrhagic effusion has a PCV and WBC counts similar to
pripheral blood. Modified transudates and exudates containing blood usually
have a PCV of 5% or less.

8)Neoplastic cells

Neoplastic cells may be observed in effusions with many different types of

neoplasia. Distinction of transformed mesothelial cells from malignant cells in
effusions may be difficult by ctyologic study. Identification of the neoplastic cells
depends upon recognition of the cell type and malignancy criteria. Various
carcinomas, adenocarcinomas, lympho-sarcomas, mast-cell tumors,
hemangiosarcomas and mesotheliomas may exfoliate neoplastic cells.

c.Type of Effusions and Their Causes

Attempts are made to classify effusions as transudates, modified transudates
and exudates. This is often difficult because of the overlapping of many of the
parameters. In attempts to simplify this procedure, the following discussion on
classification is based solely on the total nucleated cell count (TNCC) and total
protein (TP) concentration of the fluids.

• 1)Pure Transudate

Transudates are usually due to decreased plasma oncotic pressure,principally

from hypoalbuminemia. Characteristics of a transudate are:

Colorless and clear fluid

• Less than 3.0 g/dl protein in canine and feline thoracic and
abdominal fluid.
• Less than 2.0 g/dl for thoracic fluid in large animals
• Less than 1.5 g/dl for horses and less than 3.5 g/dl for
ruminant abdominal fluids
• Less than 1000 nucleated cells/ul in canine and feline fluids
• Less than 5000 nucleated cells/ul in large animal fluids

Cell population consists of nondegenerate neutrophils, macrophages and

reactive or trans-formed mesothelial cells in low numbers

• 2)Modified Transudate

Most modified transudates occur as a result of fluid leakage from lymphatics or

blood vessels. Such leakage is caused by increases in hydrostatic pressure or
permeability. Both of these conditions allow high-protein ultrafiltrate fluid to pass
into the cavity. Neither of these conditions results in chemotactants in the cavity;
therefore, large numbers of inflammatory cells do not migrate into the fluid. This
produces a high protein fluid with low to moderate nucleated cell counts.

Modified transudates are the least specific classification of effusions. Effusions in

this classification can develop secondary to many nonspecific disorders. Most
modified transudates are transitory and may progress to nonseptic exudates. The
effusion itself may initiate an inflammatory response. Some of the general
characteristics of modified transudates are as follows:

• Low to moderate cellularity with TNCC or between 1000 -

7000 cells/ul
• Total protein concentrations of between 2.5-7.5 g/dl
• Color variation from amber to white to red and frequently
slightly turbid to turbid
Nondegenerate neutrophils, meosthelial/macro-phage cell types, small
lymphocytes or neoplastic cells may predominate, depending on the cause of the
effusion.

• 3)Exudates

Exudates occur most commonly due to chemotactants in the cavity as a

consequence of an inflammatory process. Occasionally, an exudate may develop
due to abundant exfoliation of cells from a tumor or secondary to a chylous
effusion. Any modified transudate may develop into an exudate. The general
characteristics of exudates are:

• High protein concentrations of greater than 3.0 g/dl

• High TNCC or >7000 cells/ul
• Color variation from amber to white to red
• Turbid to cloudy

The predominant cell type is dependent upon the cause of the exudate. In
inflammatory exudates, the neutrophil generally predominates with variable
numbers of macrophages and lymphocytes.

Inflammatory exudates are generally divided into two main categories, non-septic
and septic.

a)Nonseptic Exudates

• This type of effusion is the product of inflammation caused

by irritants that are not toxic to neutrophils.
• Causes include gallbladder or urinary bladder rupture and
sterile foreign bodies.
• It may develop from any of the causes of modified
transudates.

Characteristics are:

• (1)White or pink and cloudy fluid

• (2)3.0-5.0 g/dl of protein
• (3)3000-50,000 or more cells/ul
• (4)Nondegenerate neutrophils and variable numbers of
macrophages, erythrocytes and lymphocytes. Small numbers of
cells may have pyknotic and karyorrhectic nuclei.

b)Septic Exudates

• They are caused by a wide variety of microorganisms that

are toxic to neutrophils
 • Septic exudates are characterized by:
o (1)White, red, or yellowish, cloudy fluid
o (2)3.0-5.5 g/dl of protein
o (3)300-100,000 or more cells/ul
o (4)Degenerate neutrophils and variable numbers of
macrophages
o (5)Intracellular and/or extracellular bacteria
o Exudates caused by Nocardia sp. or Actinomyces sp.
in the dog have special features:
 (1)Microcolonies composed of pleomorphic,
filamentous rods are observed. Some organisms
occur in branching chains with a beaded appearance.
 (2)Neutrophils around the microcolony are
degenerate, whereas neutrophils distant from the
microcolony or in aspirates not containing
microcolonies are nondegen-erate.

d.Effusions in Selected Disorders

1)Infectious Peritonitis and Pleuritis

Peritonitis and pleuritis are associated with release of chemotactants and

vasoactive substances within the respective cavities. This results in an exudative
effusion due to increased capillary permeability with a massive outpouring of
peripheral blood neutrophils and high-protein plasma filtrate. Degenerate
neutrophils generally predominate in bacterial infections and intracellular and/or
extracellular organisms may be seen. Spirochetes occasionally are seen in
association with bacterial peritonitis and pleuritis, especially secondary to bite
wounds. Mycotic, protozoal and rickettsial organisms may also be etiological
agents in infectious peritonitis/pleuritis.

2)Tissue Inflammation

Intracavity organ inflammation (e.g., heart, liver, spleen, lymph nodes, lungs,
etc.) or a walled-off abscess may result in an associated body cavity effusion.
The mechanisms are similar to those described for infectious peritonitis/pleuritis
in that inflammation causes the release of chemotactic and vasoactive
substances. These in turn result in the influx of inflammatory cells and high
protein fluid into the involved area. When this process extends into the
associated cavity, effusive inflammation results. TNCC and TP levels will
determine if this effusion is classified as a modified transudate or exudate. In this
type of effusion, nondegenerate neutrophils generally predominate, but
macrophages, mesothelial cells and lymphocytes are also present. The
mononuclear cell component will increase with chronicity.
Cytological evaluation of these effusions is typically nondiagnostic as to etiology
or to the site of original tissue involvement and must be correlated with physical
findings, history and other laboratory test results to pinpoint the exact problem.

3)Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP)

An effusion associated with FIP is one cause of a nonseptic exudate (pleural

and/or peritoneal) in cats. This effusion is an odorless, straw-colored to golden,
tenacious fluid that may contain flecks or fibrin strands. The fluid is generally
cloudy and has an extremely high protein concentration (3.5 to 8.0 g/dl)
consisting predominantly of gamma globulin. This high protein concentration and
fine particles of cell detritus give Wright's stained smears of the fluid a precipitous
eosinophilic background. NMB-stained fluids may show a background of fibrin in
needle-like meshwork form. There is a mild to marked increase in the TNCC (can
vary from less than 1000 to 23,000 or more cells/ul) consisting primarily of
nondegenerate neutrophils (60-80%) and lesser numbers of macrophages,
lymphocytes and occasionally plasma cells. In chronic effusions, the percentage
of neutrophils may decrease as the number of mononuclear cells increases.
Blast-transformed mesothelial cells and associated cell clusters are seldom
found in FIP fluids.

While the cytological findings are not diagnostic alone, when associated with
history and clinical findings, a presumptive diagnosis of FIP can be made.

4)Bile Peritonitis

Rupture of the gall bladder or bile duct can produce a nonseptic exudative
effusion. The effusion is discolored by bile pigments giving it a typical yellow-
orange color. Bile is an irritant and results in increased cell counts, particularly
neutrophils and macrophages. The fluid will give a positive icotest and is high in
cholesterol. In Wright's stained smears, bile peritonitis is characterized by
phagocytized yellow green to brown green pigment within macrophages.

5)Uroperitoneum

Rupture of the kidney, urinary bladder, urinary tract or patent urachus that results
in release of urine in the abdominal cavity can also produce a nonseptic
exudative effusion. Urine is an irritant and results in increased in mononuclear
cell count. Very acute rupture causes an elevated urea nitrogen in the abdominal
fluid (compared to blood urea nitrogen levels); however, this is rapidly
reabsorbed by the lining tissues and levels soon equilibrate with blood levels
(generally within 24 hours). Creatinine is more poorly absorbed by the lining
tissues and will remain elevated above blood levels for longer periods. Therefore,
measurement of the creatinine level is more reliable than measurement of the
urea nitrogen level.
6)Chylous/Pseudochylous Effusions

Chylous effusions can occur secondary to many disease processes, including

trauma, heart disease, inflammation and neoplasia. These effusions in dogs and
cats seem to occur most frequently in the thorax and are generally bilateral.
Chylous effusions occur as a result of lymphatic duct leakage or rupture. These
effusions are odorless and vary in color from milky white to yellow or pink,
depending on the animal's diet and the number of RBCs in the fluid. Overnight
refrigeration of the chylous fluid will typically produce a "cream layer". Tests for
protein levels give inaccurate values because of interference by lipid droplets.
TNCC are usually less than 10,000/ul. While small lymphocytes are typically
thought of as the predominant cell type, chylous effusions occur in which
neutrophil and/or macrophages predominate. Lysed cells are common in
effusions rich in lymphoctyes. Bacterial infection is uncommon due to the
bacteriostatic effect of the fatty acids in chyle.

Most milky white effusions are chylous, but occasionally they are pseudochylous.
These effusions most commonly occur with neoplastic of inflammatory disorders,
but may be associated with any chronic effusion. Unlike chylous effusions, the
white color of pseudochylous effusions is not due to fat (chyle) but to cellular
debris, protein, lecithin globulin complexes and/or cholesterol granules.

Chylous and pseudochylous effusions have been differentiated by staining

smears with fat stains such as Sudan III. A positive stain confirms the presence
of a chylous effusion; however, since cytologically identifiable fat may be absent
from some chylous effusions, a negative result does not confirm pseudochylous
effusion. The use of ether to clear the chylous effusion is also not a reliable
differentiation test.

The best available diagnostic test for differentiation between chylous and
pseudochylous effusion is measurement of the triglyceride and cholesterol
concentrations in both the effusion and peripheral blood. With chylous effusions,
the triglyceride concentration is higher in the effusion than in the serum and the
cholesterol concentration is higher in the serum than in the effusion. The reverse
is true of pseudochylous effusions. Also, the cholesterol/ triglyceride ratio of the
effusion fluid is <1.0 in chylous effusions.

7)Heart Disease Characterized by Heart Failure

A common sequelae to heart failure or liver congestion is the development of a

modified transudate effusion termed ascites. This effusion develops secondary to
increased intrahepatic pressure and leakage of high-protein hepatic lymph. Some
specific characteristics of this fluid are:

• -pink to red and cloudy fluid

• -2.5-5.0 g/dl protein
 • -300-5500 cells/ul
• -Variable numbers of erythrocytes, nondegenerate
neutrophils, mesothelial cells, macrophages , and
occasionally eosinophils and lymphocytes

There is no cytologic finding in these effusions that is pathognomonic for heart

failure and other clinical examinations are necessary to establish the diagnosis.

Cats may develop a pleural effusion secondary to feline chronic congestive heart
failure (cardio-myopathy). These effusions are yellow to milky white and
typically consist of >50% small mature lymphocytes. While the color of the fluid
may be similar to that of a chylous effusion, the triglyceride concentration may or
may not be increased.

8)Hemorrhagic Effusion

Hemorrhagic effusions are usually caused by trauma, surgery, infarction of the

intestine, neoplasia and hemostatic defects. Hemorrhagic effusion must be
differentiated from blood contamination due to bloody taps and organ taps (e.g.,
liver and spleen). Unfortunately, differentiating blood contaimination from acute
hemorrhage can be difficult. However, if acute hemorrhage is severe, clinical
signs of blood loss should be evident. When blood enters a body cavity, the
platelets quickly aggregate, degranulate and will disappear within 45 minutes. In
conjunction with these platelet changes, the blood will coagulate rapidly and then
undergo mechanical defibrination. Therefore, hemorrhagic effusions do not clot.
Also, within hours of release into the cavity, the RBCs are phagocytized and
digested by macrophages. These and other factors can be used to confirm the
existence of hemorrhage and to estimate its duration.

Recent hemorrhage (within several hours) is characterized by:

• Clear supernatant fluid and red sediment

• Protein and cell count values similar to those of
peripheral blood.
• Intact erythrocytes
• Leukocytes of similar morphology and distribution as
those in peripheral blood
• Platelet aggregates

More longstanding or resolving hemorrhagic effusions are characterized by:

• Erythrocytes and leukocytes that appear older and

distorted.
• Supernatant fluid may be pink due to hemolysis
• Absence of platelets
 • Macrophages with phagocytized erythrocytes and
hemosiderin and/or hematoidin crystals.

In summary, the absence of erythrophagocytosis and presence of platelets

suggest either peracute hemorrhage or a bloody tap. The presence of
erythrophagocytosis and platelets suggests either chronic persistent hemorrhage
or previous hemorrhage and a bloody tap. The presence of erythrophagocytosis
and absence of platelets suggest chronic or previous hemorrhage.

9)Neoplasia

The characteristics of an effusion associated with neoplasm will be variable

depending upon the tumor involved. Neoplastic effusions may have characteris-
tics of obstructive, inflammatory, or hemorrhagic effusions. Most effusions
caused by tumors not exfoliating neoplastic cells are modified transudates.
Effusions caused by tumors that are exfoliating cells into the cavity and/or are
secondarily inflamed will be exudative in nature. In all cases, particularly in
inflammatory exudates, care must be taken not to confuse dysplastic cells and/or
normal or reactive mesothelial cells with neoplastic cells.

The most common cause of feline neoplastic pleural effusion is mediastinal

Lymphosarcoma. In horses, lymphosarcoma is also the most commonly
identified neoplasm in pleural and peritoneal effusions. These fluids are generally
characterized by:

• Whitish to pink and cloudy fluid

• 3.0-6.0 g/dl of protein
• 4500-45,000 cells/ul
• Immature lymphocytes, usually lymphoblasts

Other neoplasms which may exfoliate into the body cavities include mast-cell
tumors, mesothelioma and various carcinomas, adenocarcinomas and sarcomas.
Malignant mesothelioma, a primary pleural or peritoneal tumor, is a rare cause of
effusion in animals. They are extremely difficult to diagnose cytologically because
of the variability of normal mesothelial cells. Diagnosis generally requires a
biopsy and it is difficult even on histopathologic examination to make a definitive
diagnosis.

Since many tumors do not exfoliate neoplastic cells, the absence of neoplastic
cells within effusions does not rule out neoplasia. As in many instances, a
positive finding is positive but a negative finding necessitates further diagnostic
evaluation.

10.10.2 Synovial Fluid

Evaluation of synovial fluid is a valuable adjunct to assessment of many
lameness cases. In addition to cytologic evaluation, the fluid should be assessed
for volume obtained, color, turbidity, viscosity, mucin (hyaluronic acid)
quality/concentration, and protein concentration.

Based on laboratory tests and cytological findings, arthropathies can usually be

categorized as hemorrhagic, degenerative (non-inflammatory, non-exudative)
or inflammatory (exudative) in origin. Unfortunately, all synovial fluid specimens
will not fall neatly into one of these categories. This is especially true of longer-
standing problems which tend to develop characteristics of more than one
category, thus making classification and interpretation more difficult.

Degenerative or non-inflammatory joint diseases usually result from trauma to a

joint and/or degenerative changes of the articular surfaces. The latter may be
caused by acute or chronic trauma as a result of accidental injury or congenital or
acquired anatomic disorders that predispose articular surfaces to abnormal
stresses. Additional causes include metabolic and nutritional abnormalities and
neoplasia.

Inflammatory joint diseases include those caused by both infectious and

noninfectious causes. Both are usually associated with an effusive exudate
showing a moderate to marked increase in neutrophil numbers and variable
increase in large mononuclear cell numbers. Etiological agents associated with
septic arthritides in the various species include bacteria, fungus, Mycoplasma,
Protozoa, Rickettsia and Virus. The noninfectious inflammatory joint diseases
can be subgrouped into immune-mediated and nonimmune-mediated causes.

1.Types of Abnormalities

• a.Non-exudative joint disease

o 1)Osteoarthritis
o 2)Osteochondrosis and other degenerative joint diseases
o 3)Hip dysplasia
o 4)Ruptured cruciate
o 5)Traumatic joint disease
o 6)Tarsal hydrarthrosis
• b.Exudative joint disease
o 1) Nonseptic arthritis and autoimmune conditions
o 2)Septic arthritis

2.Routine Analysis and Differential Diagnosis

Normal synovial fluid is essentially a dialysate of plasma. Hence, concentrations

of electrolytes and nonelectrolytes (such as glucose and urea) are similar to
those in blood. It is essentially without fibrinogen and most other clotting factors
and therefore does not clot, even in vitro. With blood contaimination, intraarticular
hemorrhage or protein exudation in various inflammatory diseases, samples may
clot unless processed immediately or added to an anticoagulant. EDTA is
preferred for cytological examination. Heparin is recommended for the mucin clot
test because EDTA interferes with the test by degrading hyaluronic acid. Both
anticoagu-lants are suitable for other routine tests.

• a.Volume
o 1)The volume is nearly normal in degenerative and traumatic joint
disease
o 2)Increased fluid occurs in inflammatory processes and
hydrarthrosis
• b.Color and Turbidity
o 1)Normal synovial fluid is transparent and colorless in most species
and transparent and yellow in the horse.
o 2)Blood is red if fresh and amber if old. If the fluid is blood tinged,
hemarthrosis must be distinguished from iatrogenic contamination
at collection. Figure 15 outlines the procedures for differentiating
between these conditions.
o 3)Abnormal samples with increased cellularity exhibit variable
discoloration .
o 4)Turbidity indicates cells or fibrin.
• c.Viscosity
o 1)Normal synovial fluid is very viscous because of its high
concentration of hyaluronic acid.
o 2)Normal fluid should not separate from the tip of the hypodermic
needle until it has dropped 1-2 inches.
o 3)Decreased viscosity is caused by degradation of synovial mucin
by bacterial hyaluronidase or by dilution of synovial mucin by
serous effusion into the joint
• d.Mucin Clot Test
o 1)Following centrifugation, undiluted synovial fluid supernatant is
added to 2-5% glacial acetic acid at a ratio of about 1:4. This
causes mucin to agglutinate.
 a)A normal or good mucin clot will be tight and ropy
 b)A poor clot indicates degradation of synovial mucin,usually
by bacterial enzymes, or dilution by excessive effusion into
the joint.
 c)Poor clots are associated with septic arthritis while good
clots usually occur with traumatic and degenerative joint
disease.
• e.Fibrin Clot
o 1)Normal fluid contains no fibrinogen and should not clot.
o 2)Clotting indicates blood contamination or inflammation.
• f.Chemical Constituents
o 1)Total protein (A/G ratio) - In arthritis there is often decreased
albumin and increased globulins.
 o 2)Glucose - Serum/synovial ratio (1:1). Decreased in infectious
arthritis due to the glycolytic activity of bacteria.
• g.Immunologic Evaluation
o 1)Rhemuatoid factor
 a)An IgM with specificity for IgG
 b)Positive in 60% of the dogs with RA and 10% of the dogs
with SLE.
o 2)ANA (Antinuclear antibody)
 a)Positive in 10% of dogs with RA and 90% of dogs with
SLE.
• h.Cell Evaluation

Cytololgical examination of synovial fluid requires properly made smears. Since

normal synovial fluid is viscous, direct smears must be made by slowly
advancing the spreader slide to create thin smears. The high viscosity of the fluid
will result in cells evenly dispersed in the smear. Cells will not accumulate at the
feathered edge unless the viscosity of the fluid has been altered by dilution with
exudative effusion.

The background material is mucin and the density reflects the thickness of the
smear. In Wright's stained specimens, the background is granular. Clefts in the
background may result from fibrin formation and separation of the mucin.

Synovial fluid has a limited number of ways in which it can respond in disease.
Therefore, the major questions in examination of synovial fluid are, Is there
inflammation? and is there sepsis? Normal synovial fluid contains low numbers of
mononuclear cells. Lymphocytes predominate and monocytes-macrophages are
variable. Occasionally, synovial lining cells may be present. Neutrophils and
RBCs are rare in normal synovial fluid, and when found, are usually the result of
blood contamination from the sampling procedure. In small animals, inflammation
is determined by finding more than 3000 WBCs/mm3 or greater than 12% of the
cells are neutrophils. In large animals, nucleated cell counts greater than 1000
cells/ul (500 cells/ul in the horse) with similar increases in the percentage of
neutrophils is indicative of inflammation. In all species, sepsis is determined by
finding degenerated WBCs or bacterial (especially if engulfed by WBCs). For
unknown reasons, it is often much more difficult to detect etiologic agents,
particularly bacteria, in synovial fluid than in aspirates from other body sites.
Culture of the fluid is generally required to detect or confirm infectious agents.

RBC counts increase with blood contamination, traumatic conditions and with
certain inflammatory conditions. The highest elevation of WBC cell counts occur
in septic and autoimmune arthritis. Mild increases occur in traumatic and
degenerative disease. Lymphocytes and monocytes comprise 90% of the cells in
normal fluid and predominate in tarsal hydrarthrosis and traumatic and
degenerative joint diseases. Neutrophils predominate in bacterial and certain
nonseptic inflammatory diseases; e.g., lupus erythematosus (SLE) and
rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Occasionally, osteoclasts, multinucleated giant cells,
may be found in smears and are indicative of cartilage erosion and exposed
bone.

10.10.3 Cerebrospinal Fluid

Removal and laboratory examination of CSF are indicated whenever there is

clinical evidence suggesting CNS disease. Lesions involving the CNS do not
consistently or uniformly cause changes in the CSF. The results of CSF analysis
may be within normal limits in many instances of neurologic disease, and even
when CSF cytologic abnormalities are present, they are often nonspecific.
Alterations of CSF probably depend more on the location and extent of the CNS
lesion than on cellular abnormalities. Thus, disease of the meninges produces
greater alterations in CSF than do most diseases of CNS parenchymal tissue.
Septic meningitis may cause suppuration within the CSF; inflammatory cells may
be numerous and levels of exudative protein markedly increased. In contrast,
viral disease affecting the CNS, such as canine distemper, usually cause only a
mild increase in CSF nucleated cell numbers.

Collected CSF should be placed in EDTA anticoagulant at the same

concentration as used for blood samples. Refrigeration at 4o C also aids cell
preservation. Because cells in CSF sometimes degenerate rapidly, cell counts
and cytologic examination should be performed within 30 minutes of collection.

1.Physical Examination

• a.Color
o 1)The normal CSF is crystal clear and colorless and resembles
distilled water. In viral encephalitis or meningitis, the CSF may
remain clear.
o 2)Hazy pink CSF may be associated with a traumatic tap or
intracerebral or subarachnoid hemorrhage.
o 3)Bright red CSF indicates fresh blood from iatrogenic hemorrhage.
Centrifugation of the fluid will produce a clear, colorless
supernatant. Blood contamination will invalidate the results of CSF
analysis but a crude correction can be made by discarding 1 WBC
and 1 mg% protein for every 1000 RBCs present.
o 4)Dull red or brown fluid indicates previous hemorrhage.
o 5)Xanthochromia (pale orange or yellow) is due to bilirubin from
degenerating RBCs. It indicates hemorrhage of at least 2-4 days
and can persist for up to 40 days. It may be associated with tumors,
trauma, spinal cord compression and abscesses and can have
protein concentrations greater than 400 mg%. Xanthochromia may
also be due to altered permeability of the blood brain barrier
allowing influx of pigments from blood plasma (e.g., unconjugated
bilirubin).
 • b.Turbidity

Turbidity will be apparent when the CSF contains 300-500 cells/ul or more.
Bacteria or mycotic agents can contribute to turbidity. Bacterial meningitis may
be only slightly turbid to almost pure pus which may clot. Viral encephalitis,
trauma, tumor, abscess may show turbidity due to large amounts of protein, fibrin
and/or cells.

• c.Coagulation

Normal CSF does not coagulate. Coagulation may occur if damage to the blood
brain barrier permits fibrinogen to enter the CSF or if CSF collection results in
hemorrhage.

2.Chemical Constituents

• a.Protein
o 1)CSF protein levels are normally very small and consist mostly of
albumin.
o 2)Globulin protein is of interest in that normal CSF is relatively free
of globulins and their concentrations are increased in pathological
conditions. The Pandy test is a qualitative test for high molecular
weight protein (globulin). Add 1-2 drops of CSF to 1 ml of Pandy
reagent (10 g phenol crystals/100 ml of distilled water) and
observe for white turbidity. Normal CSF produces only faint
turbidity. With abnormally large amounts of globulins, the solution
becomes cloudy.
o 3)Urine protein reagent strips may be used to grossly detect
protein. An elevated protein level would usually be represented on
reagent strips as >100 mg/dl .
o 4)Quantitative tests are colorimetric or turbidometric. In contrast to
cell evaluation, protein quantitation need not be done immediately.
Fluid may be frozen and evaluated at a later date. The Coomassie
brilliant-blue technique is the more commonly used
spectrophotometric assay. Normal values are <48 mg/dl for dogs
and cats, <70 mg/dl for horses and <60 mg/dl for ruminants.
o 5)Quantitation of protein fractions in both serum and CSF may be
necessary to differentiate leakage of plasma protein across the
blood-CSF barrier from increased synthesis of immuno-globulins
(IgG) within the CNS. Correlation between CSF albumin and CSF
globulin levels indicates a blood-CSF barrier dysfunction with both
albumin and globulin entering the CSF with equal facility, but at a
greater than normal rate. In contrast, low serum IgG
concentrations, high CSF IgG levels and normal CSF albumin
levels indicates a local CNS IgG production and not leakage across
the blood-CSF barrier.
 o 6)Increased total protein or globulin occurs in:
 a)Encephalitis or meningitis which increases the permeability
of the blood-brain barrier to plasma proteins. Levels are
generally markedly increased by bacterial meningitis and
somewhat less altered by viral meningitis or encephalitis.
Toxoplasma infections may also greatly increase CSF
protein levels.
 b)Brain or spinal cord abscess
 c)Hemorrhage or blood contamination during a traumatic
tap.
 d)Tissue destruction
 e)Neoplasm - total protein greater than 100 mg%
 f)convulsive states
 g)From high intracranial pressure due to a brain tumor or
intracerebral hemorrhage.
o 7)The pathologic mechanisms altering CSF protein levels are
complex and it must be remembered that CSF protein content may
increase without a concomitant increase in cell numbers.
• b.Glucose
o 1)Normally averages 75 mg% and is dependent on blood glucose
concentrations (should be measured concurrently). Normal CSF
glucose values are 60-80% of the blood glucose level.
o 2)Decreased levels are seen in hypoglycemia (normal CSF/blood
glucose ratio) or in the presence of pyogenic organisms or rapidly
growing tumors which utilize glucose. (decreased CSF/blood
glucose ratio)
o 3)Increased levels are seen in hyperglycemic states (normal
CS/blood glucose ratio)
• c.Sodium
o 1)CSF sodium levels are slightly less than that of blood.
o 2)The levels are increased in CSF (more than 160-200 mEq/L) in
water deprivation (Salt poisoning syndrome of swine).
• d.Enzymes
o 1)Increased CSF creatine kinase activity has been reported in a
wide variety of neurologic disorders. Elevated CSF CK levels in
dogs (normal values = 3 IU/L) appears to be a nonspecific but
sensitive index of CNS disease.
o 2)SGOT (AST) is found to be elevated in canine distemper,
purulent meningitis, or damage to brain tissue.
o 3)SGPT (ALT) is found to be elevated in canine distemper.

3.Cytologic examination

a.Total Nucleated Counts

Total cell counts of CSF can be determined by using a hemocytometer with a
Neubauer ruling. A capillary pipette is used to place CSF on one chamber of the
hemocytometer. The cells in all 9 squares are counted and the total multiplied by
1.1 to determine the total cell count/ul. Differentiation of RBC and nucleated cells
is done using the high-dry objective of the microscope. Nucleated cells are larger
than RBC and have a granular appearance.

Normal CSF is free of RBCs and contains <8 nucleated cells/ul in dogs and
cats and <5/ul in all large animal species. Total nucleated cells counts in the CSF
are mildly elevated (pleocytosis) in a variety of disorders, and, though cytologic
findings may suggest that inflammation is chronic (primarily macrophages) or
chronic-active (nearly equal numbers of macrophages and neutrophils), no
specific etiology may be apparent. Nucleated cell counts and cytologic findings of
CSF examination can be difficult to fit into classifications conforming to specific
disease. All classifications appear to overlap. Pleocytosis of CSF indicates
abnormality, but CNS disease may exist in which there is no pleocytosis and the
cells which are present are normal.

b.Differential Cell counts

The nucleated cell population of normal CSF is predominantly mononuclear

consisting of small lymphocytes and a few macrophages, endothelial cells and
histiocytes. Neutrophils are not normally found in CSF unless the tap is
traumatic. They should not constitute >10% of the total cell count.

Neutrophilic pleocytosis usually indicates pyogenic or bacterial infection, an

abscess, bacterial encephalitis or meningitis. Under these conditions, counts may
vary from 50 to over a 1000 cells/ul. Elevated neutrophil numbers may also occur
in noninfectious inflammatory conditions. Attempts should be made to identify
bacteria and the fluid should be cultured. In ruminants, pigment granules are
common and must be distinguished from bacteria.

The CSF of animals with mycotic and protozoal encephalitides will have varied
pleocytosis, consisting of neutrophils, mononuclear cells or eosinophils. An
increase in TNCC consisting primarily of lymphocytic cells may indicate viral
infections, uremia, fungal infections, postvaccinal inflammation, chronic infection
and toxic conditions. Monocytes/macrophages are often associated with
lymphocytes and will increase in conjunction with lymphocytes. They may
predominate in the CSF in FIP.

Pleocytosis is rarely observed in noninflammatory conditions involving the CNS.

In animals with spinal trauma, a slight increase in cell numbers may occur.
Animals with congenital malformations of the CNS generally have normal CSF.
Animals with cerebral infarcts may have increased numbers of RBC in the CSF
and erythrophagocytosis by macrophages is a diagnostic feature of this
condition.
Neoplastic cells may be evident if the meninges are involved. Filtration
techniques are usually needed to demonstrate these cells. In most CNS tumors,
CSF samples will have a normal or only slightly increased nucleated cell count
consisting predominantly of mononuclear cells.

10.10.4 Prostatic Fluid

Evaluation of an enlarged prostate may be greatly enhanced by cytological

evaluation. Clinical signs suggestive of prostatic enlargement include difficult
defecation or difficult micturition. Rectal palpation of the prostate may reveal
symmetric enlargement, unilateral enlargement or focal irregularities.

1.Collection and Preparation of Specimens

There are several ways in which cytological specimens may be obtained from the
prostate gland. Prostatic fluid may be obtained by digital massage while
aspirating with a syringe through a urinary catheter passed to the level of the
gland. In this procedure, the tip of the catheter can be palpated per rectum as it
approaches the base of the prostate. Care should be taken to properly lubricate
the catheter and cleanse the tip of the penis to assure clean technique and to
avoid introducing infection. This technique may cause fluid to be drawn into the
syringe or only a few cells may be drawn into the tip of the catheter. Following
massage and aspiration, negative pressure is released and the catheter
withdrawn. Cells collected at the tip of the catheter are placed on a slide, spread
by the "squash-prep" technique and evaluated. Fluid should be kept sterile for
bacterial culture if warranted.

More prostatic material can be obtained by prostatic washing. In this procedure,

a small amount of saline is used to wash the urethral lumen in the area of the
prostate. Gentle injection and aspiration is used while gently massaging the
prostate. Fluid with low cellularity should be centrifuged to concentrate the cells
for slide preparation.

In addition, direct fine-needle aspiration techniques can be used to obtain

prostatic material for evaluation, especially if prostatic cysts are suspected.

Another less desirable method is to obtain material by inducing ejaculation. This

procedure produces samples that contain contaminant substances from other
parts of the reproductive tract.

2.Cytological Examination

The prostate consists of numerous crypts lined by cuboidal epithelium. In

cytological preparations, sheets of cuboidal epithelium are commonly seen. In
normal smears, these epithelial cells will be uniform with round to oval nuclei.
The nuclei are central in location and have a homogeneous to fine reticular
chromatin pattern. The cytoplasm may be granular and slightly acidophilic.
Aspiration and wash specimens frequently contain cells of nonprostatic origin
including spermatozoa, squamous cells from the distal urethra or external
genitalia and urothelial cells.

A condition commonly seen in older dogs and believed to be caused by sex

hormone imbalances is prostatic hyperplasia. Cytologically, the hyperplastic
prostatic epithelial cells resemble normal cells but are usually greater in number.
Large sheets and clusters may exfoliate. In these cell clusters, cytoplasmic
boundaries are often indistinct. The cytoplasm is basophilic and slightly granular.
Nuclei are round to oval and may be eccentric in location. Chromatin patterns are
fine and nucleoli are generally not discernible. The nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio is
increased as compared to normal prostatic epithelial cells. Inflammatory cells
may occasionally be seen and suggest that the hyperplasia may be a result of
inflammation.

Aspiration specimens of prostatic cysts are highly variable cytologically. Some

cysts may contain poorly cellular fluid containing only a few epithelial cells and
cellular debris. Sometimes moderate numbers of normal or slightly hyperplastic
epithelial cells are found.

Squamous metaplasia of the prostate may occur under the influence of estrogen-
like hormone activity, such as occurs in Sertoli-cell tumors, or as a sequel to
chronic prostatic irritation or inflammation. Under these influences, the prostatic
epithelium undergoes metaplasia to a squamous-like epithelium. Similar changes
may also occur to some minor degree in normal older animals. Aspirates are
moderately cellular with clusters of slightly basophilic to slightly acidophilic pale-
staining cells. These cells are very large and have a flattened appearance. An
occasional cell may contain a pyknotic or karyorrhectic nucleus. Occasional
inflammatory cells and hyperplastic epithelial cells may be present.

Cytological specimens from an inflamed prostate will contain large numbers of

inflammatory cells. Neutrophils are usually most numerous, but variable numbers
of macrophages may also be present. Bacteria are frequently found and may
represent an etiologic agent or a contaminant from some other region of the
genital or urinary tract. Phagocytized bacteria are considered to be involved in
the etiology of the prostatitis.

Specimens from prostatic abscesses will contain large numbers of degenerated

neutrophils with a background of cellular debris. Single or small clusters of
prostatic epithelial cells may be present and may exhibit hyperplastic to
metaplastic changes.

Prostatic neoplasia generally results in prostatomegaly. The prostate may be

very large, irregular and asymmetric. Aspirates of prostatic adenocarcinoma are
moderately to markedly cellular. The neoplastic cells have the cytologic features
common to adenocarcinoma of other organs. Anisokaryosis, nuclear
enlargement, nuclear irregularity and an increased nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio are
often evident. Nucleoli are present and are usually small, single and uniform, but
large and sometimes irregular forms may occur. Cell membranes are usually
distinct in well differentiated tumors but are indistinct in more poorly differentiated
tumors. Cohesion of cells is often apparent and acinus formation may occur.
Prostatic adenocarcinomas frequently metastasize to the iliac lymph nodes and
cytological examination of these nodes should be performed in suspected
adenocarcinoma cases. In addition to adenocarcinoma, transitional cell
carcinomas may sometimes involve the prostate.

10.10.5 Tracheal Washes and Transtracheal Bronchoalveolar

Aspiration Biopsy

Diagnostic cytology of samples from the respiratory tract has been used
extensively in dogs, cats and horses and to a lesser degree in ruminants. These
procedures are used routinely in the evaluation of pulmonary disease.
Examination of secretions of the tracheobronchial tree and associated structures
can yield useful information on developing or established lower respiratory tract
disease including hypersensitivity reactions, inflammation, infectious agents and
neoplasia. Depending upon the method of collection used, the specimens
obtained are of variable volume and concentration techniques may be used in
conjunction with direct smears.

1.Methods of Collection

The most common procedures for obtaining specimens from the

tracheal/bronchial tree include percutaneous or endoscopic tracheobronchial
aspiration (TT/B) and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). The fluid used in these
procedures tends to damage and/or distort cells and induces changes in
inflammatory cells. Brush or punch biopsy of bronchial lesions is a more direct
and satisfactory method for obtaining specimens when lesions are visible during
bronchoscopy.

2.Cytological Evaluation of Tracheal/Bronchial Washes and

Lavages

Oropharyngeal contamination is indicated by the presence of superficial

squamous cells and Simonsiella bacteria. Superficial squamous cells are large
epithelial cells with abundant, angular cytoplasm and a small round nucleus.
Simonsiella bacteria divide lengthwise and line up in parallel rows. This gives the
impression of a single large bacterium. These organisms are nonpathogenic and
are often seen free in the smear or adhered to the surface of superficial
squamous cells. Specimens from animals with aspiration pneumonia may also
contain squamous epithelial cells; however, in these cases, there should also be
an accompanying increase in degenerated neutrophils and a mixed intracellular
bacterial population. Plant material and fungal hyphae or spores are occasionally
observed in normal herbivores and do not necessarily indicate oral contamination
in these species.

a.Mucus

Mucus is seen in virtually all wash specimens, including those from normal
animals. Mucus appears as blue to pink homogeneous strands. These may
frequently be twisted or whorled. Mucus in inflammatory conditions stains
eosinophilic due to incorporation of inflammatory proteins and material from lysed
cells. Specimens from animals with chronic respiratory conditions causing
excessive production of mucus, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,
may have mucus casts of small bronchioles. These are called Curschmann's
spirals and appear as spirally twisted masses of mucus that may have
perpendicular radiations that impart a test-tube-brush-like appearance.

b.Cellular Elements

Total cells counts on TT/B wash fluids are generally not performed because of
the mucus content and the dilution of the specimen with saline. Total cell counts
are usually performed on BAL specimens but care must be taken in their
interpretation because of the dilution factor.

Erythrocytes may be seen in TT/B and BAL fluids with disorders causing
vascular damage or RBC diapedesis into the lung. Intrapulmonary hemorrhage
may be of pulmonary origin (e.g., trauma, infarct, foreign bodies, infectious
diseases, neoplasia) or also may occur with disorders of non-pulmonary origin
(e.g., heart failure, pulmonary embolism, hemostatic disorders). RBCs
and/or RBC breakdown produces (hemosiderin, hematoidin) within alveolar
macrophages is an indication of chronic hemorrhage. These cells are often
referred to as heart failure cells; however, they may occur as a result of any
disorder which causes intrapulmonary hemorrhage. Hemosiderin-laden
macrophages are common in high-speed performance horses that have
experienced pulmonary hemorrhage at least 72 hours previously. The presence
of hemosiderin can be confirmed with special stains (e.g., Prussian blue) which
stain iron-containing compounds, such as hemosiderin, blue.

The predominant cell types observed in TT/B wash specimens from normal
animals include respiratory epithelial cells and alveolar macrophages with low
numbers of nondegenerate neutrophils and small lymphocytes. In pathologic
conditions, increased numbers of inflammatory cells (neutrophils, eosinophils,
lymphocytes and macrophages), RBCs, mast cells, and/or dysplastic and
neoplastic cells may be present.

a.Epithelial cells
Types of epithelial cells that may be observed in TT/B wash and BAL
specimens include ciliated and nonciliated columnar and cuboidal cells and
mucus-secretory cells.

Generally, the most abundant cell type is the ciliated columnar epithelial cell.
These cells are elongated or cone shaped with apically located cilia and a basally
located nucleus. The basal cytoplasm frequently terminates in a tail. The nucleus
is round to oval with a finely granular chromatin pattern. The non-ciliated
columnar cell is identical to these cells but does not have cilia. Ciliated and
nonciliated cuboidal epithelial cells resemble their columnar counterparts except
that they are as wide as they are tall. These latter cells are generally from the
bronchial regions and are, therefore, more common in BAL specimens.

Goblet cells are not commonly seen in specimens from normal animals; however,
any chronic pulmonary irritant may result in increases in their numbers. These
cells appear as an elongated or columnar cell with a basally placed nucleus.
They secrete mucus which appears as coarse metachromatic cytoplasmic
granules which frequently distend the cytoplasm. Occasionally, the cytoplasm
may be so distended as to give a rounded shape to the cell. Granules from
ruptured goblet cells may be seen free in the smear.

b.Macrophages

Alveolar macrophages are readily observed in TT/B washings from normal

animals and may be the predominant cell type. Depending upon the pathologic
state, macrophages vary considerably in size and activity level. Unactivated
alveolar macrophages are rounded mononuclear cells 15 to 20 microns in
diameter with abundant blue-gray, granular cytoplasm. The nucleus is round to
bean shaped and eccentrically positioned. Activated macrophages will have
more abundant cytoplasm that will be vacuolated or foamy and may contain
phagocytized material. These activated cells may form huge, multinucleated
phagocytic cells that may exceed 80 microns in diameter. These multinucleated
forms are common in chronic lung diseases such as chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease.

Increased numbers of macrophages are seen in many subacute and chronic lung
disorders such as congestive heart failure, granulomatous pneumonia, lipid
pneumonia and various chronic persistent inflammatory processes. Various
pigments from RBC breakdown (hematoidin, hemosiderin) or inhalation of
polluted air (anthracotic pigment) may be found in the cytoplasm of phagocytic
macrophages.

c.Neutrophils

In specimens from normal animals, low numbers (generally <5%) of

nondegenerate neutrophils may be present. These cells will resemble those of
peripheral blood. Neutrophil numbers will be increased in nearly all conditions
that cause inflammation, including both infectious and noninfectious conditions.
Infectious disorders include bacterial, mycotic, viral and protozoal diseases.
Noninfectious disorders include tissue irritation or necrosis secondary to
inhalation of toxic substances and tissue necrosis resulting from neoplasia. In
clinical cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, tracheobronchial
aspirates often show a rise in the numbers of nondegenerate neutrophils along
with activated macrophages, particularly multinucleated giant cells.

As with other cytological specimens, assessment of neutrophil preservation is

critical and the cells must be examined for degenerative changes indicative of
infectious or toxic processes. Care must be taken in making this assessment in
that smudging and/or rupture of neutrophils may result during collection and
preparation of the specimen.

d.Eosinophils

Eosinophils are present only in very small numbers (<5%) in TT/B and BAL
fluids from normal animals. Eosinophils may be seen in increased numbers
(>10%) with type I hypersensitivity reactions such as allergic processes (e.g.,
allergic bronchitis/ pneumonitis, feline asthma) and parasitic migration.
Eosinophlic granuloma may demonstrate eosinophilic lung infiltrates in affected
cats. Increased numbers are commonly seen in specimens from dogs infected
with heartworm, dogs and cats infected with lungworm, foals infected with
Parascaris equorum (during the pulmonary migration stage of the parasite),
horses with Dictyocaulus arnfieldi infection and in cattle infected with
Dictyocaulus viviparus. In addition to increased eosinophil numbers, parasite ova
and/or larvae may occasionally be identified.

Rupture of eosinophils results in free granules present in smears and can be

confused with bacteria. Eosinophil granules may coalesce into a large crystal
known as a Charcot-Leyden crystal. These are elongated double pyramids and
may occur in any condition that results in accumulation of large numbers of
eosinophils. Increased numbers of neutrophils and macrophages may be seen
along with increased numbers of eosinophils if tissue irritation is sufficient to
induce an inflammatory response.

e.Miscellaneous Cell Types

Increased numbers of small lymphocytes in TT/B and BAL specimens generally

denote nonspecific inflammation and are of limited diagnostic value. Mild
increases in their numbers may occur with airway hyperreactivity, viral disease of
the tracheobronchial tree and in chronic infections. Immune stimulated
lymphocytes have abundant cytoplasm which stains deep-blue because of
increased protein synthesis. Transformation into plasma cells with the
characteristic nuclear halo or negative golgi apparatus may occur.
Increased numbers of mast cells may occur in specimens from animals with
various inflammatory lung disorders. The presence is generally of little diagnostic
significance.

Various atypical cells may be seen with pulmonary metaplasia, dysplasia or

primary and metastatic neoplasia. Epithelial cells adapt to chronic irritation by
undergoing metaplasia. The normal respiratory epithelium is replaced by
stratified squamous epithelium. The metaplastic cells mimic maturing squamous
epithelium and must not be confused with neoplastic cells. Epithelial cells will
also react to irritation by becoming dysplastic. Dysplastic changes include
variation in cell size and shape, increased nucleus/cytoplasm ratio, increased cell
basophilia and increased numbers of immature cells. Care must be taken not to
confuse inflammation induced dysplastic changes with neoplasia.

Unless the neoplasm has invaded the tracheobronchial tree and invaded
bronchioles are not blocked by mucus plugs, neoplastic cells are rarely found in
TT/B and BAL fluids. When neoplastic cells are observed, they are generally
from adenocarcinomas. These large epithelial cells may be present as single
cells or as clusters. They generally have basophilic, vacuolated cytoplasm and
high nucleus/ cytoplasm ratios, coarse nuclear chromatin and prominent nucleoli.

10.11 SOLID TISSUE CYTOLOGY

Cytological procedures can be used to evaluate tissue masses and organ

parenchyma for the purposes of detection and/or classification of pathological
conditions. One of the most widely used applications of cytological evaluation is
the identification and classification of tissue masses.

The usual composition of a mass is a proliferation of tissue cells, an

accumulation of inflammatory cells, or both. The algorithm presented in Figure
X.1 indicates the procedures for evaluating a cytological specimen from a mass.
If it is determined that the cell population is primarily inflammatory, attempts
should be made to classify the reaction and to identify an etiologic agent.

Tissue cells found on cytologic smears may arise from normal tissue,
hyperplastic and/or dysplastic tissue, or neoplastic tissue. The observed cells
indicate a proliferative tissue mass if they are noninflammatory tissue cells of one
type; i.e., a uniform population. This conclusion is often made difficult by
concurrent inflammation and necrosis in many neoplasms. The higher the
percentage of inflammatory cells in the population, the lower one's confidence
that the mass is not primarily inflammatory. The presence of inflammation can
induce dysplastic changes in surrounding tissue cells which can be confused with
neoplastic processes. Cells undergoing dysplasia may show mild to moderate
variation in cell, nuclear and nucleolar size and shape, increased
nucleus:cytoplasm ratio, and coarse chromatin. Dysplasia generally does not
cause the bizarre nuclear and nucleolar morphology characteristic of neoplasia.
In any case, care must be taken in the interpretation of these lesions. They
should be biopsied or treated and re-evaluated cytologically when the
inflammatory process has subsided.

10.11.1 Cytologic Classification of Tumor Types

The shape of the cells, their association with other cells, especially in tissue
fragments, and cytoplasmic features are used to indicate the tissue of origin of a
tumor (See Figure X.2). Once the cell type of a neoplasm is ascertained, the
mass is evaluated for malignancy based upon the criteria listed in Figure X.3.

1. Epithelial Cell Tumors

• a.Epithelial in origin
• b.Often exfoliated in clusters, clumps or sheets of round to oval cells
• c.In some cases, may appear arranged in ductular or acinar patterns
around a central lumen (adenoma or adeno-carcinoma).
• d.Cytoplasm may also appear distended by a secretory product.

2.Sarcomas

• a.Connective tissue (mesothelial) in origin

• b.Do not exfoliate regularly and scrapings are often necessary.
• c.Usually found as individual cells
• d.Elongated, fusiform or spindle shaped cells.

3.Discrete Cell Neoplasms

• a.Consist of cells which are round to oval in shape and exfoliate readily.
• b.Cells are not intimately associated with each other.

10.11.2 Cytologic Features of Selected Tissue Masses

1.Masses of Epithelial Origin

a.Basal Cell Tumor

Basal cell tumors are neoplasms of the basilar layer of the epidermis. They are
common in cats and dogs. They can be pigmented, especially in cats, and often
contain cystic spaces. The tumors are generally benign but can be locally
invasive or malignant. Their malignancy potential is difficult to predict
cytologically; however, it is reported that those exhibiting solid or basosquamous
tendencies tend to behave malignantly.
The cell type found in these tumors is a primitive epithelial germ cell that does
not exhibit differentiation toward squamous cells or adnexal structures.
Histologically, these cells are arranged as palisaded cords or ribbons embedded
in fibrous stroma. This pattern is caused by the tendency of basal cells to line up
along basement membranes within the tumor.

The tumor is readily imprinted and aspirated and yields large numbers of cells
arranged singly or in groups. Sometimes a row or ribbon of several cells may be
found. Individual cells are uniformly small, approximately the size of a RBC, and
dark staining. The N:C ratio is generally 1:1; therefore, only a scant amount of
pale blue cytoplasm can be visualized in most of the cells. Their nuclei are
variably-sized but regular in shape and have finely etched, lacy to finely stippled
chromatin and contain multiple indistinct nucleoli. Mitotic figures may be
common.

b.Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma originates in surface stratified squamous epithelium. It

is among the most common of all dermal and oral neoplasms and is found in all
domestic species. Due to its tendency to become ulcerated and inflamed, deep
aspiration is the preferred method for obtaining cells for cytological examination.
The cells generally exfoliate in clusters with variable numbers of individual cells.

Tumor cells from well-differentiated squamous cell carcinomas show slight

cellular atypia and little evidence of neoplasia. These tumors are difficult to
distinguish from dysplastic conditions of the skin resulting from chronic irritation
or infection. The degree of differentiation of a squamous cell carcinoma is directly
proportional to the degree of cellular anaplasia and indirectly proportional to the
degree of keratinization. In poorly differentiated tumors, the cells exfoliate in
clusters typical of other epithelial neoplasm; however, a few individual
keratinizing cells usually are present which confirm an interpretation of squamous
cell carcinoma.

In moderately to poorly differentiated tumors, marked variation in cell, nuclear

and nucleolar size, nuclear and nucleolar number and shape, nucleus:cytoplasm
ratio (1:3 to 1:5) and cytoplasmic basophilia occurs. Individual cellular
morphology varies from normal large, mature squamous cells to small or
medium-sized round cells, with a small amount of very basophilic cytoplasm and
large, round nuclei that may have a very coarse, ropy chromatin pattern and
contain multiple, prominent, irregularly shaped and sized nucleoli. Some cells
may contain small clear vacuoles which occasionally aggregate around the
nucleus and appear to coalesce, forming a clear ring around the nucleus
(perinuclear halo).
c.Circumanal Gland Adenoma or Perianal Adenoma/
Adenocarcinoma

The perianal glands encircle the canine anus, and a few cells can be located in
the skin of the tail, the prepuce, the thigh, and over the dorsum of the back.
Perianal adenomas and adenocarcinomas can occur at any of these locations.
These tumors are most commonly seen in the male. Perianal adenomas and
adenocarcinomas often ulcerate because of pressure necrosis of the overlying
epidermis and mechanical irritation of the tumor.

Cytologically and histopathologically, it is difficult to differentiate between perianal

gland hyperplasia and benign neoplasia. Generally, large numbers of cells
exfoliate and occur in clusters with a few scattered individual cells. The cells are
uniform and medium in size and shape. They have a moderate amount of pink to
tan-staining foamy cytoplasm. At high magnification, the cytoplasm may appear
granular. The cells contain uniform rounded nuclei with 1-2 small round nucleoli.
Because the cells resemble hepatocytes, the tumors are sometimes referred to
as hepatoid gland tumors. Keratinization may be a feature in cells which have
undergone squamous metaplasia. In some aspirates, a row of flattened reserve
cells may be seen surrounding the clusters of larger cells. These cells are more
basophilic and have N:C ratios of from 1:1 to 1:2.

Perianal gland adenocarcinomas may demonstrate numerous criteria of

malignancy or they may be well-differentiated and difficult to distinguish from the
benign tumor. The most common malignancy criteria demonstrated by these
tumors are variation in nuclear and nucleolar size and variation in nucleolar
number/cell.

d.Sebaceous Gland Adenomas/Adenocarcinomas

Tumors of the sebaceous glands are more common in older dogs and usually
appear as wart-like growths. They generally exfoliate cells in groups and clusters
and acinar patterns may be seen.

The predominant cell type in the sebaceous gland adenoma is the large mature
secretory cell which has foamy cytoplasm and a small, central to slightly
eccentric nucleus. The nucleus has dark staining slightly coarse chromatin and
an indistinct or indiscernible nucleolus. The nucleus may be totally obscured by
secretory material. In addition to these mature cells, adenomas may also contain
basilar reserve cells. These cells are immature and contain little or no secretory
material. Their cytoplasm is basophilic and the N:C ratio is approximately 1:2.
Care must be taken not to interpret these cells as malignant.and contain little or
no secretory material. Their cytoplasm is basophilic and the N:C ratio is
approximately 1:2. Care must be taken not to interpret these cells as malignant.
Sebaceous gland adenocarcinomas are relatively uncommon. Cytologic
preparations usually consist of groups of extremely basophilic reserve cells
showing numerous criteria of malignancy. Only a few cells will contain secretory
material. An occasional cell will produce a large amount of secretory material
which presses the nucleus to the cell margin resulting in a signet-ring
appearance.

e.Transitional Cell Carcinoma

Transitional cell carcinoma may have papillary, nonpapillary or invasive growth

patterns. The most common site is the bladder trigone, but they may also occur
in other areas of the bladder, the renal pelvis and the tubular system. Direct
tumor aspiration and urine sediment evaluation reveal cells with similar cytologic
features. Transitional cell carcinomas exfoliate isolated cells and cell clusters,
frequently including very large clusters of cells with marked pleomorphism. The
cytoplasm of these exfoliated cells is often deeply basophilic. In urine specimens,
the cytoplasm may contain relatively light-staining vacuoles, indicating that the
cells are undergoing hydropic degeneration. This degeneration may be a result of
the toxic effects of urine upon the cells. Within the cellular clusters, cytoplasmic
borders are usually indistinct and cell crowding is evidenced by cellular and
nuclear molding. The nucleus: cytoplasm ratio is high in most cells; however, a
few very large cells with abundant cytoplasm and a low nucleus:cytoplasm ratio
are generally present. Nuclei are large, circular to ovoid, with finely to coarsely
reticulated chromatin. Binucleate forms are common. Nucleoli may be indistinct
to large and prominent.

2.Masses of Spindle Cell Origin

Inflammation and other irritation can cause mesenchymal cells to become

dysplastic and exhibit changes similar to neoplastic manifestations. In many
cases, histopathologic examination is necessary to definitively diagnose these
tumors. Since many of the spindle cell tumors are embedded in a dense ground
substance, imprints generally contain few neoplastic cells and the ones obtained
are discrete and individual. Scrapings generally results in a greater population of
cells. As with imprints, cells obtained by scraping are generally not intimately
associated.

a.Granulation Tissue

Granulation tissue is composed of young proliferating fibroblasts and vascular

tissue. Since these young fibroblasts are plump spindle cells with anaplastic
characteristics, it is difficult cytologically to differentiate granulation tissue from
fibrous tissue neoplasia. Like neoplastic fibroblasts, hyperplastic fibroblasts are
active proliferating cells and exhibit large nuclei with multiple nucleoli and
abundant cytoplasm with increased basophilia. However, unlike neoplasia,
hyperplastic cells are proliferating under control mechanisms and therefore
maintain a constant nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio. Additionally, nuclei of proliferating
fibroblasts retain the normal finely granular chromatin pattern of the more mature
normal fibrocyte. The differentiation between fibrous hyperplasia and fibrous
neoplasia is particularly important in the equine where both sarcoids and
excessive granulation tissue are common. Histopathological evaluation should be
performed to make this definitive assessment.

b.Fibroma/Fibrosarcoma

Fibromas can occur in the dermis or subcutaneous tissue. Unlike fibrosarcomas,

they seldom ulcerate. Scrapings yield a small number of cells arranged
individually or in small groups. The cells are relatively uniform in size and shape
and tend to have very elongated spindle shapes with a moderate amount of light
blue cytoplasm. The nuclei are round to oval with a smooth to lacy chromatin
pattern and may contain 1-2 small, round, indistinct nucleoli.

Fibrosarcomas can arise from cutaneous or subcutaneous tissues and may

ulcerate and become secondarily infected. Fibrosarcomas of the dermis do not
occur with great frequency in the dog but oral canine fibrosarcomas are relatively
common. Sarcoids in horses resemble fibrosarcomas cytologically; however,
they generally do not demonstrate malignant neoplastic behavior.

On cytological preparations, cells taken from fibrosarcomas are generally less

spindle shaped than cells from fibromas. Many of the cells may be plump and/or
oval shaped. Others may be stellate or have only a single indistinct tail of
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is often coarse and basophilic with Wright's stain or
Diff Quik. Often small vacuoles are seen in the cytoplasm. Nucleoli may be
singular and very large or multiple. With increased malignancy potential, large
nucleoli are present and are often very irregular and angular. Chromatin is
frequently clumped, particularly along the nuclear margin.

c.Lipoma/Liposarcoma

Mature lipocytes are large and distended with fat. They usually rupture during the
aspiration procedure; therefore, aspirates of lipomas usually yield abundant free
fat with a few lipocytes giving the smears an oily appearance which will not dry.
Staining of the aspirate in an alcohol-based stain will dissolve the fat leaving
clear areas and a few intact lipocytes on the smear. Lipocytes have pyknotic
nuclei that are pressed against the side of the cell membrane by huge fat
globules. Fat stains, such as Sudan IV and oil red O, may be used on fresh
smears before alcohol fixation to verify the presence of these cells. New
methylene blue stain may also be used. Lipomas are benign tumors but they can
occasionally infiltrate between muscle masses. These infiltrative lipomas are
difficult or impossible to remove and can cause death of the animal. In horses,
pedunculated lipomas may be life threatening because of their potential for
causing strangulation of the gut.
Unlike lipomas, cytologic preparations from liposarcomas may contain numerous
cells. Aspirates, imprints and scrapings from liposarcomas may contain free fat,
some mature lipocytes and lipoblasts, and appear greasy. Or they may contain
very little free fat, few mature lipocytes, many lipoblasts and don't appear greasy.
Histopathologic examination demonstrates that the cells contain abundant
cytoplasm. This feature is not noted in most cytologic preparations because the
cell membrane is visualized poorly. Cytologically, the cells have very light
cytoplasm containing vacuoles of varying size and number. Some of the larger
vacuoles may cause indentation of the cell nucleus. In general, the more
immature and anaplastic cells have fewer and smaller fat globules. The lipoblast
nucleus is typically round and variation in nuclear size and multinucleation is
usually present in the preparation.

d.Melanoma/Melanosarcoma

Dermal melanomas are common in dogs and horses but rare in cats. Although
generally benign in dogs, cutaneous melanomas of the oral cavity, lips and digits
have a high incidence of malignancy. Aspirates generally contain a large to
moderate amount of cells but, occasionally, only scattered cells mixed with blood
are aspirated. In all instances, melanin pigment almost always will be found in
the background. The tumor aspirate contains predominantly individual cells, but
sheets or rare clusters may be found. Cell morphology varies from round, oval,
stellate or spindle shaped.

The cells from both benign and malignant tumors have a moderate to abundant
amount of cytoplasm with a low N:C ratio. Melanomas are often extremely
malignant and bizarre forms are common. Tumor giant cells and cells with giant
nuclei are often seen. Melanin pigment appears as brown-black to green-black
cytoplasmic granules of irregular size and shape. This pigment might appear as a
salt-and-pepper sprinkling in occasional cells; or might be densely packed and
obscure the nucleus. Even in tumors apparently devoid of pigment, a thorough
examination of the smear will generally reveal a few cells containing a few small
pigment granules interspersed throughout their cytoplasm. Anisokaryosis and
numerous mitotic figures are usually additional features of these "amelanotic"
neoplasms. In general, the less pigmented the melanoma, the more malignant
the neoplasm.

e.Hemangioma/Hemangiosarcoma

Hemangiomas and hemangiosarcomas are tumors of blood vessel endothelium

and are contiguous with the blood vascular system. The spindle cell tumor origin
of hemangiomas and hemangiosarcomas may be difficult to recognize on
cytologic preparations because of the massive blood contamination that may
occur.
The cells of hemangiomas are difficult to differentiate from non-neoplastic
endothelial cells. They tend to be oval, spindle or stellate in shape, have
moderate to abundant amounts of light to medium blue cytoplasm, and contain a
medium-sized round to slightly oval nucleus. The nucleus has a smooth to fine
lacy chromatin pattern and may have 1-2 small, round, indistinct nucleoli.

Neoplastic endothelial cells aspirated from hemangio-sarcomas range in

morphology from apparently normal endothelial cells to medium or large cells
with marked cytologic criteria of malignancy (e.g., marked variation in cell,
nuclear and nucleolar size; increased N:C ratios, nucleolar prominence and
angularity, cytoplasmic basophilia.

f.Osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is the most common tumor involving bone. A striking feature is

that some of these malignant osteoblasts can be seen embedded in and
apparently secreting an osteoid matrix which appears as fibrillar bright-pink
material on Wright's stained slides. Osteoid is not found in most aspirates from
osteosarcomas; however, when found, its presence provides strong evidence
that a tumor is of bone origin.

The principal cell is the malignant osteoblast which may appear singly or in
clusters. The cells are polygonal to fusiform with abundant foamy basophilic
cytoplasm. Several clear cytoplasmic vacuoles and/or scattered pink cytoplasmic
granules may be present. A Golgi area is often apparent. Nuclei of malignant
osteoblasts are highly variable in size, exhibiting coarse chromatin patterns and
multiple nucleoli. The nuclei may be eccentrically located and appear as if they
are being "spit out" by the cell. Multinucleate forms may be present due to
incomplete cellular division. These cells resemble osteoclasts; however, they are
not osteoclasts but tumor giant cells and will exhibit nuclear criteria of
malignancy.

g.Chondrosarcoma

Chondrosarcomas are the second most common tumor of bone and are difficult
to differentiate from osteosarcomas cytologically. The ribs, turbinates and pelvis
are the most common sites for chondrosarcomas of dogs, while the scapulae,
vertebrae and ribs are most common sites in cats. One useful but inconsistent
cytologic feature on low-power examination of aspirates is lakes of bright pink,
smooth or slightly granular material in which cells may be embedded. This
material is the intercellular matrix of cartilage sometimes called chrondroid.

Individual neoplastic chondroblasts have cytologic features similar to those of

osteosarcoma cells. They vary from round to fusiform, with large nuclei and dark-
blue cytoplasm. Anisokaryosis is prominent, and multinucleate tumor cells may
be found. The cytoplasm Often contain several small clear vacuoles, and
occasional cells may contain fine pink cytoplasmic granules. If the tumor is
causing bone lysis, osteoclasts may also be found in cytologic specimens.

3.Discrete Round Cell Tumors

The round cell tumors consist of three sarcomas (transmissible venereal

tumor, mast cell tumor and lymphosarcoma) and the histiocytoma, a benign
tumor or questionable origin. The round cell tumors typically exfoliate well. Like
epithelial cells, the cells are round and have distinct cell membranes. Like
mesenchymal tumors, however, the cells from round cell tumors exfoliate
individually rather than in clusters.

a.Mast Cell Tumor

Smears made from Mast cell tumors contain few to many round to oval cells
containing a moderate amount of cytoplasm with variable numbers of small, red-
purple granules (when stained with Wright's stain). The number of granules
seen within a given neoplastic mast cell may vary from tumor to tumor and even
within a tumor. Generally, mast cell neoplasms containing relatively few granules
are considered to be formed by less differentiated, more primitive cells than are
highly granulated neoplasms.

The nuclei of neoplastic mast cells are round to oval, variably sized and generally
eccentric. They appear to stain palely because of the intense staining of the
cytoplasmic granules. Nuclear criteria of malignancy are present although nuclei
may be so obscured by granules that these features are indistinguishable. Mitotic
figures may be present.

Mast cells contain heparin and its anticoagulant effect may result in local
hemorrhage. Because of the local histamine release that occurs when mast cells
degranulate, inflammatory cells are commonly noted in aspirates. Some tumors
have a marked infiltrate of eosinophils which may be a distinct cytologic feature.

b.Transmissible Venereal Tumor (TVT)

The TVT is a discrete cell tumor of dogs most commonly found on mucous
membrane surfaces, such as the penis, the vagina, and the oral or nasal cavities.
The neoplasm is believed to have a viral etiology, currently unclassified. The TVT
meets both cytologic and histologic criteria for malignancy but reports of
metastasis are rare. In many cases the neoplasm will regress spontaneously.

Cells from TVTs exfoliate extremely well giving numerous cells in aspiration,
impression or scraping preparations. Most of the cells are uniformly round;
however, an occasional large or multinucleated cell may be observed. The cells
have a moderate amount of light gray to blue cytoplasm with distinct boundaries.
Numerous cytoplasmic vacuoles may be present. The nuclei are usually round
and eccentrically placed and contain coarse, cord-like chromatin and 1-2 large
prominent nucleoli. Variation in N:C ratio is a common feature. TVTs generally
exhibit a high mitotic index. Tumor infiltration by plasma cells and and
macrophages is common.

c.Histiocytoma

Histiocytomas are benign dermal neoplasms that occur most commonly as

solitary growths on the head or the extremities of young dogs. The overlying
epidermis is often ulcerated and accompanied by secondary inflammation of the
neoplasm. Histiocytomas usually yield only a few cells on cytological
preparations. The tumor cells are pleomorphic and resemble monocytes and
epitheliod cells. They have a moderate amount of pale blue cytoplasm that often
has ill-defined boundaries and may contain a few small vacuoles. Nuclei of
histiocytoma cells are variable in both size and shape and a few multinucleated
cells may be present. The nuclei may be indented like those of monocytes.
Although the mitotic index may be quite high, nuclei of most cells appear benign
and do not exhibit nuclear criteria of malignancy. The nuclei have finely etched,
lacy to finely stippled chromatin patterns and contain multiple indistinct nucleoli.
Lymphocytic infiltration of the tumor is a common feature.

d.Lymphosarcoma

Cutaneous lymphosarcoma can occur as a part of systemic lymphosarcoma or,

rarely, as a disease localized to the skin only. It is usually manifested as multiple
plaque-like lesions, but may occasionally occur as solitary nodules. Aspirates of
these lesions usually yield highly cellular cytological preparations. Although
numerous histo-pathologic classification schemes based on tumor architecture
have been proposed for lymphosarcoma, the cytologist is limited to describing
the tumor based on the predominant cell type. These cytologic classifications are
lymphoblastic, lymphocytic and histiocytic lympho-sarcoma.

In canine multicentric lymphosarcoma, the lymphoblastic form of the disease is

much more common than the lymphocytic or histiocytic forms. The neoplastic
lymphoblasts are large, often several times the size of erythrocytes, and have a
small to moderate amount of light to medium blue-staining cytoplasm. There is
often displacement of this cytoplasm to one side of the nucleus. The nuclei are
indented to irregular with smudged to stippled chromatin patterns and contain
one or more nucleoli. Mitotic figures can be frequent. Because these immature
cells are fragile, it is common for them to rupture during preparation of the smear.
Naked, smeared nuclei and cytoplasmic fragments frequently are observed
scattered among the intact cells.

Smears from cytologic preparations of lymphocytic lymphosarcoma consist of

small lymphocytes that cannot be readily differentiated from normal lymphocytes.
These tumors require histopathologic examination for definitive diagnosis.
10.11.3 Cytologic Features of Miscellaneous Tissues

1.Mammary Gland Abnormalities

Aspirates from normal mammary glands are generally acellular or contain only
blood. If mammary tissue is present, it consists of acini of secretory cells. These
cells have a moderate amount of basophilic cytoplasm and round, dark uniform
nuclei. Active cells will appear foamy due to the accumulation of secretory
material. Sheets or fragments of simple cuboidal duct epithelium may be present
and appears as small cells with scanty cytoplasm and basally located ovoid
nuclei. A third cellular component, the myoepithelial cell, may also be present
and appears as a dark staining, naked, oval nucleus or as a spindle shaped cell.

Mammary cysts result when a dysplastic process causes dilatation of the duct
system with the formation of large cavitations. They are common in middle-aged
and older bitches, but may occasionally occur in younger dogs. Though
considered benign, mammary cysts may be precancerous. Aspirated fluid is
yellow, brown, green or blood-tinged and is of low cellularity consisting primarily
of "foam cells" and pigment-laden macrophages. Dense clusters of cyst
epithelial lining cells exhibiting minor degrees of nuclear pleomorphism may also
be present.

Dysplastic and benign neoplastic lesions include lobular hyperplasia, adenosis,

adenomas and papillomas. Aspirates from these all appear similar cytologically
and contain numerous epithelial cells occurring singly or in sheets and clusters.
The cells exhibit little or no pleomorphism. The nuclei have evenly dispersed
chromatin patterns and contain single, small, round nucleoli. Pigment-laden
macrophages may be present.

Complex adenomas, fibroadenomas and benign mixed tumors involve both

epithelial and stromal elements. Smears of aspirates from these lesions contain
spindle-shaped connective tissue cells and clusters of epithelial cells similar to
those described in the preceding paragraph.

Numerous classifications of malignant neoplasms may involve the mammary

gland, including various carcinomas, sarcomas and mixed origin tumors.
Histologically, areas of cartilagenous/osseous metaplasia may be found in these
various tumor types. Nests of these metaplastic connective tissue cells may also
be seen in cytologic preparations.

Adenocarcinomas are the most common malignant tumor and have the classic
cytological criteria previously described for this tumor type as do the less
common mammary squamous cell carcinomas. Aspirates of anaplastic
carcinomas contain very large, very pleomorphic epithelial cells occurring
individually or in small clusters. These cells have a high N:C ratio, bizarre nuclear
and nucleolar forms and exhibit a high mitotic index. Multinucleate forms are
common.

2.Lymph Node Cytology

Three general processes can cause lymph node enlargement, hyperplasia,

inflammation and neoplasia. Cytological examination can be used to differentiate
between these conditions.

a. Normal Lymph Nodes

Cytologic examination of a normal size lymph node is warranted to ascertain the

presence of certain microbial agents and to determine whether neoplastic
metastasis has occurred.

Small (9 micron) mature lymphocytes are the predominant cell type in aspirates
of normal lymph nodes and make up 85 to 90% of the cells observed. These
cells have condensed nuclei, only slightly larger than a red blood cell, and scant
cytoplasm consisting of a narrow rim around the nucleus.

The medium lymphocyte, or prolymphocyte, is somewhat larger than the small

lymphocyte and contains more abundant pale cytoplasm. It has a nucleus with
less densely packed nuclear chromatin and a nuclear diameter approximately
equal to two red blood cells (i.e., 10-15 microns).

Large lymphocytes, or lymphoblasts, are the less common than either small or
medium lymphocytes in normal nodes. They are large cells (15-25 microns) with
basophilic cytoplasm which may appear as a broad or narrow rim around the
nucleus. The nucleus is vesicular with a fine, diffuse chromatin pattern and may
contain multiple distinct nucleoli.

Plasma cells and plasmablasts are derived from antigen stimulated B-

lymphocytes and may be present in small numbers in normal lymph nodes.
Plasma cells have small, round, eccentric nuclei with condensed chromatin. They
have abundant deep blue cytoplasm with a prominent clear Golgi zone.
Plasmablasts are more immature and are larger with less aggregated chromatin
and a higher nucleus:cytoplasm ratio. Their very blue cytoplasm often contains
vacuoles.

Cytoplasmic fragments called lymphoglandular bodies are a characteristic

feature of lymphoid tissue. They are round, homogeneous, basophilic structures
similar in size to platelets. They should not be confused with organisms.

b. Reactive Hyperplasia
Lymph nodes become reactive or hyperplastic when they are antigenically
stimulated, such as occurs when high concentrations of antigens reach the
draining nodes. A reactive hyperplastic lymph node resembles a normal lymph
node cytologically; however, the size of the lymph node aids in differentiation
since a normal node should not be enlarged. As with normal lymph nodes,
specimens from reactive hyperplastic nodes contain a heterogeneous cell
population. The small lymphocyte predominates, composing approximately 60-
70% of the cells. The numbers of medium and large lymphocytes are increased
and may make up to 15% of the total cell population. Mitotic figures may be
prominent. Mature and immature plasma cells are generally increased in number
and make up to 5-10% of the cell population in some areas of the smear. Plasma
cells that contain many discrete vacuoles (Russell bodies) are called Mott cells
or Russell body cells and are commonly seen in reactive lymph nodes.
Macrophages may be increased in number, particularly when hyperplasia of
sinus macrophages occurs. Increased numbers of lymphoglandular bodies are
generally present.

c. Lymphadenitis

The cytology of an inflamed lymph node will vary depending upon the etiology.
Neutrophils (degenerate or nondegenerate), eosinophils, or macrophages can
predominate. Inflammation is probably present when the total cell population of
the lymph node is >5% neutrophils or >3% eosinophils. Macrophage numbers
can increase in inflammation, hyperplasia and sometimes in neoplasia.
Macrophages may also appear as epithelioid cells and multinucleated giant cells
in granulomatous inflammation.

d. Lymphosarcoma

Lymphosarcoma is characterized by a uniform population of large, intensely

basophilic immature cells (usually prolymphocytes or lymphoblasts) which
give the smear a homogeneous cellular appearance. When these immature cells
comprise >50% of the cell population, a diagnosis of lymphosarcoma can be
reliably made, but smaller numbers may be present in early stages. Mitoses may
be more numerous than in hyperplasia. Macrophages, called "tingible-body"
macrophages, containing bluish cytoplasmic globules may be present and
indicate intense lymphopoiesis and cell turnover. Lymphoglandular bodies are
more numerous than in hyperplasia. Unlike lymphoid hyperplasia, plasma cells
are usually few in number. Occasionally, lymphosarcoma is manifested as the
small, well-differentiated lymphocyte type. This form is very difficult to distinguish
from hyperplasia because the small lymphocyte predominates in each.

e. Metastatic Neoplasia

Malignant tumors frequently metastasize via lymphatics. This can result in the
proliferation of neoplastic tissue in the draining lymph node. The presence of
cells not normally found in lymph nodes or an increase in numbers of certain cell
types normally present may suggest metastatic neoplasia.

3. Testis

Unilateral or bilateral enlargement is the major indication for fine-needle

aspiration biopsy and cytologic evaluation of the testis. Fine needle aspiration
may also be used to evaluate an enlarged epididymis. Enlargement of these
organs can be due to inflammatory or neoplastic conditions.

The three major neoplasms of importance in the testis include seminomas,

Sertoli-cell tumors and interstitial-cell tumors. These tumors are difficult to
differentiate by cytologic examination alone and interpretation must be
accompanied by a thorough history and clinical examination.

a. Seminoma

Aspirate from seminomas are usually highly to moderately cellular. The cells are
of variable size with high nuclear:cytoplasm ratios. Distinct cells with intact
cytoplasmic membranes may be sparse and ruptured cells are common. The
nuclei are variable in size with homogeneous to finely reticular chromatin. Bi- and
multiple nucleation is common. Nucleoli are prominent, relatively large and
frequently multiple and irregular. Mitotic figures are common. Small lymphocytes
are frequently scattered throughout the stroma.

b. Sertoli-Cell Tumor

Aspirates from Sertoli-cell tumors are highly cellular. The tumor cells usually
have abundant light-staining cytoplasm which contains numerous distinct
variable sized vacuoles. Nuclear chromatin patterns are coarsely reticular and
small to large nucleoli may be present. Mitotic figures may be found. Rarely,
spindle-shaped cells with abundant cytoplasm may be present.

4. The Vagina

The vaginal epithelium is a target tissue for ovarian hormones, changing from 2-4
layers thick to a multilayered epithelium under their influences. These changes
result in exfoliation of large numbers of superficial epithelium cells. Examination
of these cells from the vagina is a simple technique that can be used to
accurately monitor the progression of proestrus and estrus in dogs and cats.
Cytologic examination of vaginal smears is also useful in detecting inflammation
and neoplasia in the female reproductive tract.

a. Classification of Vaginal Epithelium

Vaginal epithelial cells will vary in age and morphology during the various stages
of the estrous cycle. The four main classifications include basal, parabasal,
intermediate and superficial epithelial cells.

Basal cells are from the deepest layer of the epithelium lining, near the
basement membrane. These cells give rise to the other epithelial cell types in the
vaginal lining. Basal cells are small with a small amount of cytoplasm and a
relatively high nuclear: cytoplasm ratio. They are rarely seen in vaginal smears.

Parabasal cells are located just above the basal cell layer of the epithelium.
They are small round cells with round nuclei and a small amount of cytoplasm;
however, they are considerably larger than basal cells. Large numbers of
parabasal cells may exfoliate when the vagina of a prepubertal animal is
swabbed. These cells are usually quite uniform in size and shape.

Intermediate cells vary in size depending on the amount of cytoplasm present

but are generally twice the size of parabasal cells. Their nuclei are approximately
the same size as those of parabasal cells, no matter how large the intermediate
cell is. As intermediate cells increase in size, their cytoplasm becomes irregular,
folded or angular, similar to the cytoplasm of more superficial epithelial cells.

Superficial cells are the largest epithelial cells seen in vaginal smears. As they
age and degenerate, their nuclei become pyknotic and then faded, and
occasionally they disappear. Their cytoplasm is abundant, angular and folded. As
the cells degenerate, they undergo cornification.

b. Characteristics of the Stages of the Canine Estrous Cycle

Depending upon the reference used, the canine estrous cycle is divided into four
or five stages. These stages are anestrus, proestrus, estrus and metestrus. The
fifth stage, diestrus, is described as occurring after metestrus and before
anestrus. In some references, diestrus and metestrus are used synoymously.

1) Proestrus

Smears obtained in early and mid-proestrus contain a mixture of epithelial cells,

including parabasal, small and large intermediate and superficial cells. RBCs
may be numerous and a few neutrophils may be present. As proestrus
progresses, there is a steady increase in the number of cornified epithelial cells
so that by late proestrus, large intermediate and superficial cells predominate.
Parabasal and small intermediate cells are no longer seen on smears about 4
days before the LH peak of estrus. As estrus approaches, neutrophils totally
disappear and RBC numbers decrease substantially.

2) Estrus
Cytologically, early estrus is characterized by a marked decrease in red blood
cells, an absence of neutrophils and a continuing increase in the number of
cornified epithelial cells. The time of maximum cornification is variable and may
range from as early as 6 days before to 3 days following the LH peak. Large
numbers of bacteria are commonly observed on and around superficial epithelial
cells. Neutrophils may reappear during tthe last day or two of estrus and indicate
its end.

3) Metestrus

Cytologically, metestrus is characterized by an abrupt change in relative numbers

of superficial epithelial cells with a marked increase in the proportion of parabasal
and intermediate cells. Neutrophils appear in variable numbers and usually
coincide with increased numbers of parabasal and intermediate cells. "Metestral
cells", which are parabasal epithelial cells containing a neutrophil in the
cytoplasm, are often present. Individual cytologic preparations made during the
transition period from late estrus to early metestrus, without benefit of prior
preparations, can appear very similar to smears made in early or mid-proestrus.
At both times there can be a similar mixture of superficial and nonsuperficial
cells.

4) Diestrus and Anestrus

Diestrus follows metestrus and is characterized by increasing numbers of

parabasal and intermediate cells and a few of the more superficial cells. If
present, neutrophils and bacteria are few in number. This stage will blend into the
quiescent phase of the heat cycle, anestrus. during normal anestrus, the vaginal
mucosa is dry and secretions are absent. Parabasal and intermediate cells
predominate.

c. Vaginitis and Metritis

Vaginitis and metritis can be suspected in animals with a history of a lack of

sequential estrus cycles and when mild vulvar swelling is observed with a white
to pink vulvar discharge. The vaginal smear will demonstrate a large number of
neutrophils, some in clumps. When these occur with noncornified epithelium, it
may be difficult to differentiate inflammation from proestrus or metestrus.
Neutrophils associated with cornified epithelium indicate inflammation because
the two cell types do not normally occur together. Degenerate neutrophils
indicate septic inflammation. Vaginal smears from animals with pyometra or
metritis usually contain large numbers of very degenerate neutrophils. Clusters of
foamy secretory endometrial lining cells may also be seen in endometritis.
Endometrial hyperplasia is characterized by the presence of endometrial lining
cells without associated inflammation.

10.8 STUDY QUIDE

 Questions

• 1. What are 4 recommended procedures for obtaining specimens from

solid tissue masses for cytological evaluation? What procedures are
recommended for fluid cytology specimens?
• 2. Know the general procedures for evaluating a cytological smear.
• 3. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of cytological
procedures v.s. histopathological procedures?
• 4. Define dysplasia, anaplasia, neoplasia and metaplasia. How can
dysplastic changes be differentiated from neoplastic changes in
cytologic specimens?
• 5. When would a squash technique be used instead of a blood smear
technique when making smears of fluid specimens?
• 6. What are the general cytological characteristics of solid tissue
masses of epithelial, mesenchymal and discrete round-cell origin?
• 7. Be familiar with the cytological criteria of malignancy and their
morphological appearance.
• 8. What are the physical and chemical parameters of importance in the
evaluation of body cavity effusions? Using these parameters, contrast
and compare transudates v.s. exudates.
• 9. What is the most prevalent cause of pure transudation?
• 10. What is a modified transudate? Give specific a example and its
cytological descriptions.
• 11. Explain the relationship of cholesterol and triglycerides in the
differentiation of chylous from pseudochylous effusions.
• 12. What are the cytological characteristics of the abdominal fluid in
Feline Infectious and Bile Peritonitis? What chemical tests can be run
to determine the presence of acute uroperitoneum (i.e., less than 2
hours) and uroperitoneum of longer duration?
• 13. Differentiate between iatrogenic hemorrhage occurring during
sampling and hemorrhagic effusions. What is erythro-phagocytosis?
What is Nuclear phagocytosis?
• 14. What are the physical, chemical and cellular properties of synovial
fluid from normal joints, and joints with degenerative and
inflammatory arthropathies?
• 15. What is the significance of color, protein, and glucose in CSF
evaluation? What is the relationship between blood and CSF glucose
levels?
• 16. Describe the cytological characteristics of hyperplastic,
metaplastic and neoplastic prostatic epithelial cells.
• 17. What are the cytological characteristics of normal transtracheal
washes? What are some causes of increased eosinophil numbers?
What is the appearance and significance of hemosiderin laden
macrophages? What special stain can be used to identify
hemosiderin? What is the significance of squamous epithelial cells
and Simonsiella bacteria in transtracheal washes?
• 18. What are cytologic characteristics of basal cell tumors, squamous
cell carcinomas and perianal gland adenomas?
• 19. The cells of what connective tissue neoplasm appear trying to
"spit out" their nuclei?
• 20. What are the 4 examples of round cell tumors? What are some
distinguishing characteristics of each?
• 21. What are the cytologic features of melanomas? What is the
relationship between granule numbers and malignancy? How can
melanocytes be differentiated from mast cell? From melanophages?
• 22. Describe the cytological features of aspirates from normal,
reactive, inflamed and lymphosarcomatous lymph nodes. What is the
one possible significance of the presence of non-lymphoid origin
tumor cells in a lymph node aspirate?
• 23. Compare the cytologic features of seminomas and sertoli-cell
tumors. Which tumor generally has a feminizing effect upon the
affected animal and why?
• 24. What are the cytological characteristics of the various stages of
the canine estrus cycle?