ASEAN - India Shared Cultural Heritage
ASEAN - India Shared Cultural Heritage
ASEAN - India Shared Cultural Heritage
ACT EAST:
can be utilized effectively to expand collaboration, beyond
economic and political domains into areas of education, tourism
ASEAN-INDIA
and people to people contact. This book presents historical and
contemporary dimensions between India and Southeast Asia with
particular reference to cultural heritage. One of the recommenda-
tions of this book is to continue our efforts to preserve, protect, and
restore cultural heritage that represents the civilisational bonds SHARED CULTURAL
HERITAGE
between ASEAN and India. The book will serve as a knowledge
product for policymakers, academics, private sector experts and
regional cooperation practitioners; and is a must-read for anyone
interested in the cultural heritage.
AIC
Core IV-B, Fourth Floor, India Habitat Centre
Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003, India
AIC
Tel.: +91-11-2468 2177-80, Fax: +91-11-2468 2173-74
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] fodkl'khy ns'kksa dh vuqla/ku ,oa lwpuk iz.kkyh ASEAN-India Centre at RIS
Website: www.ris.org.in; http://aic.ris.org.in ASEAN-India Centre at RIS
Act East:
ASEAN-India Shared
Cultural Heritage
Act East:
ASEAN-India Shared
Cultural Heritage
First Published in 2019 by
All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be produced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without permission from the publisher and the copyright
holder.
1. Introduction...................................................................................... 1
Prabir De
Part I
2. Shared Cultural Heritage: Towards A Sustainable Future ............... 9
Himanshu Prabha Ray
3. Commercial Interactions between India and Southeast Asia
during the Medieval Period and Future Interaction between
ASEAN and India .......................................................................... 25
K. Selvakumar
4. Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia:
An Archaeological Perspective...................................................... 45
K. Rajan
5. A Study on Ancient Culture and Civilization Links between India
and Myanmar ................................................................................. 85
Mya Mya Thaung
. Part II
6. Women in Monastic Buddhism in Southeast Asia: An Agenda for
Archaeological Research ............................................................. 111
Garima Kaushik
7. Circulation of Buddhist maṇḍalas in Maritime Asia: A Study of
the Art of the Buddhist Diamond Triangle of Odisha (India) and
Borobodur–Candi Mendut in Java............................................... 119
Umakanta Mishra
vi Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Part III
9. Some Prospects of ASEAN-India Partnership in Culture ........... 151
Sophana Srichampa
10. Building Synergies through Digitalization .................................. 163
Nilima Chitgopekar
11. South and Southeast Asian Interactions: Contexts
for Renewal.................................................................................. 167
Niharika Gupta
12. Through the Lens of Art: Setting the Context to Indian Heritage
in Singapore and Southeast Asia.................................................. 175
Nalina Gopal
13. Cultural Role in ASEAN-India Relations for the World Peace.... 191
Andrik Purwasito
14. Strengthening Cultural Relations through the Role of
Museum Institutions .................................................................... 201
Mohamad Shawali bin Haji Badi
15. Enhancing India-Philippines Cooperation in Culture.................. 209
Joefe B. Santarita
16. Cultural Relation between India and Vietnam: Toward a Profound
Partnership for Future Development ........................................... 223
Nguyen Thi Thu Ha
Appendix
Summary of the Conference................................................................ 235
Agenda................................................................................................. 243
Keynote Address by Gen. (Dr) V. K. Singh ........................................ 247
Inaugural Remarks by H.E. A.M. Fachir............................................. 253
Remarks by H.E. Nguyen Quoc Dzung............................................... 255
Foreword
Mohan Kumar
Preface
Sachin Chaturvedi
Acknowledgments
The Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage has been edited
by Dr Prabir De, Professor, Research and Information System for
Developing Countries (RIS) with the assistance of Ms. Sreya Pan, Research
Associate, RIS.
This book is an outcome of the 2nd International Conference on
“ASEAN-India Cultural Links: Historical and Contemporary Dimensions”,
organised by the ASEAN-India Centre (AIC) at Research and Information
System for Developing Countries (RIS) in collaboration with the Indian
Embassy to ASEAN in Jakarta, Indonesian Foreign Affairs Ministry, and
ASEAN Secretariat, held at Jakarta on 19 January 2017.
We thank all the contributors for their contributions to this
volume. We wish to thank Dr Mohan Kumar, Chairman, RIS and
Prof. Sachin Chaturvedi, Director General, RIS for their guidance.
Our sincere thanks are to Mr Anurag Bhushan, Joint Secretary
(ASEAN Multilateral), MEA; Col. Sandeep Puri, the then Director (ASEAN
Multilateral), MEA; and Dr Madan Sethi, Deputy Secretary (ASEAN ML),
MEA for their cooperation. We also wish to extend our thanks to Mr Suresh
Reddy, former Indian Ambassador to ASEAN and Mr Rakesh Upadhya,
First Secretary, Indian Mission to ASEAN and other colleagues at the
Mission for helping us to organise the second International Conference on
“ASEAN-India Cultural Links: Historical and Contemporary Dimensions”
at Jakarta.
We would like, in particular, to acknowledge the financial assistance
under the ASEAN-India Fund, extended by the Ministry of External Affairs
(MEA), Government of India through the ASEAN Secretariat to ASEAN-
India Centre (AIC) at RIS for organising the aforesaid conference.
This volume has benefited greatly from the assistance and support
by the RIS Administration. Copy editing of the Report was carried out
by Mrs Shashi Verma. Mr. Tish Malhotra along with Mr. Sachin Singhal
coordinated the production of the Book.
Views expressed in this volume are those of the authors and not the
views of the Governments of India or ASEAN countries, Research and
Information System for Developing Countries (RIS), ASEAN-India Centre
(AIC) or the ASEAN Secretariat. Usual disclaimers apply. For any further
queries on the Book, please contact at [email protected]
List of Tables, Figures and Maps
List of Tables
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 : Map of Important Archaeological and Historical
Sites in India and Southeast Asia............................... 30
Figure 3.2 : Distribution of Merchant Guild Inscriptions.............. 32
Figure 5.1 : Stone Slab Bearing the Figures of the Pyus
Discovered from Hanlin............................................. 88
Figure 5.2 : Kaw Gun Cave Stone Scription................................. 88
Figure 5.3 : The Inner Herm of the Hanging Robes Inscription.... 89
xiv Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
List of Maps
Map 5.1 : Map of India and Southeast Asia................................ 86
Map 7.1 : Diamond Triangle Buddhist Sites of Odisha............ 135
Map 8.1 : Expansion of Hinduism in Southeast Asia............... 142
Abbreviations
AD Anno Domini
AEC ASEAN Economic Community
AEP Act East Policy
AIC ASEAN-India Centre
AIR Artist in Residence
AMCA ASEAN Ministries Responsible for Culture and Arts
APSC ASEAN Political-Security Community
ASCC ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations
ASEAN-COCI ASEAN Committee on Culture and Information
ASI Archaeological Survey of India
BCE Before Common Era
BV Bujang Valley
BVAM Bujang Valley Archaeological Museum
CE Common Era
DU Delhi University
EFEO École Française d’Extrême-Orient
ICCR Indian Council for Cultural Relations
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IHC Indian Heritage Centre
IIM Indian Institute of Management
IIT Indian Institute of Technology
IPMDB Indo-Pacific Monochrome Drawn Beads
ITEC Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation
JNU Jawaharlal Nehru University
LEP Look East Policy
MEA Ministry of External Affairs
MVS Mahāvairocanasūtra
xviii Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Introduction
Prabir De
I
ndia and Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) are home
to 1.8 billion people and have an economic size of US$ 3.8 trillion
and a substantial share of world resources, economic and otherwise.
Both share land and maritime boundaries to each other. Overtime, India’s
relations with ASEAN have grown from strength to strength.
ASEAN-India relations are firmly embedded in culture, commerce
and connectivity (3Cs). India’s ‘Look East Policy’ (LEP) was in force for
more than two decades, and thereafter, it has been transformed into a more
serious ‘Act East Policy’ (AEP) with ASEAN at its core. The ASEAN-
India relations have gained constant momentum throughout this period.
The collaboration between ASEAN and India has accelerated across a
range of economic and strategic issues, including trade and investment,
connectivity, energy, culture, people-to-people contacts, and maritime
security. Starting as a sectoral partner of ASEAN in 1992, India became
a dialogue partner of ASEAN in 1996, a summit-level partner in 2002
and a strategic partner in 2012. On 25 January 2018, India and ASEAN
celebrated 25 years of its partnership at a Commemorative Summit in
New Delhi with the participation of Heads of State/Government from
all the ten countries of ASEAN and India. For the first time, all the ten
ASEAN leaders also attended India’s Republic Day celebrations on
26 January 2018 in New Delhi as Guests of Honour.
2 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Chapter Outline
This book presents 15 research papers, which were presented at the
aforesaid Conference. It presents several dimensions of cultural heritage
between India and Southeast Asia. In particular, the book has three
distinct sections on India’s shared cultural heritage with Southeast Asia.
Himanshu Prabha Ray in her paper (Chapter 2) has focused on the
historical cultural-maritime linkages of the region and the importance
of the coastal areas in bonding the South and Southeast Asia from the
prehistoric time to modern era. The diversified nature of region embrace
the cultural interchanges across Bay of Bengal in different forms. To
understand the plural nature of South and Southeast Asian societies, there
is a need to explore more studies on cultural heritage.
V. Selvakumar in his paper (Chapter 3) has presented the commercial
interactions between India and Southeast Asia in the medieval period
and possible measures for cultural and academic cooperation in the
contemporary period. The author has recommended to enhance present
4 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
form also influenced the traditional and classical dance of the Southeast
region. The author has highlighted the similarities in the hand-gestures
of ASEAN dance with Indian dance forms. The author has proposed to
explore the origins of hand-gestures of Southeast Asia’s classical and
traditional dances, and has argued that it had originated from a single-
source, hypothetically from India.
Sophana Srichampa in her paper (Chapter 9) has presented the
perspective of ASEAN-India partnership in light of cultural diplomacy.
From religious connection to natural resources the similarity persists in
rice culture consortium, alternative medicine practice and other potential
cultural diplomacy collaborations like films/movies, books, etc. The
e-mapping of Indian diaspora in Southeast is another evidence of our
shared cultural values.
Nilima Chitgopekar in her paper (Chapter 10) has argued the necessity
of digitisation to build more synergies between South and Southeast
Asian nations. Digitisations will make easier access to the commoners to
deepen their knowledge on ancient cultural affinities of South-Southeast
Asian region.
Niharika Gupta in her paper (Chapter 11) has argued that the ASEAN-
India region needs to create more spaces for engagement and academic
association in order to deepen awareness of the region’s historical
and civilizational links. The author has also highlighted Sahapedia’s
contribution in this endeavour and encouraged people to relate local
cultural forms with trans-local patterns and to document multi-ethnic
histories through a tool for cultural mapping.
In her paper (Chapter 12), Nalina Gopal has discussed the cultural
affinity of Southeast Asia in terms of religious connection, popular
mythological influence and age old trading network of the region. Author
has described how art history and social history approaches are depicted
in the permanent galleries of the Indian Heritage Centre situated in
Singapore, which tell the story of Singapore’s Indian communities within
the larger context of Southeast Asia. The collection of the Centre, its use
of technology and its position as a model community museum has also
been illustrated in this paper.
Andrik Purwasito in his paper (Chapter 13) has attempted to build a
bridge that connect the spirit of ancient cultural link to modern regional
cooperation of South and Southeast Asian region.
6 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Mohamad Shawali bin Haji Badi in his paper (Chapter 14) has
discussed the role of museums in context of cultural and civilizational
linkages of the region. India and Malaysia have signed the Cultural
Exchange Programme Agreement 2015-2020 to strengthen cultural
relations through the social institutions like museums. The author has
recommended implementing the Agreement in order to strengthen our
cultural bonding.
Joefe B. Santarita in his paper (Chapter 15) has explained Indian
influences in the Philippines performing arts and also found Sanskrit
elements in the languages of the Philippines. The author has presented
artefacts and textiles to show regional affinities. To promote regional
cultural empathy, author has urged to develop more people to people
contract to support the cultural diplomacy.
Nguyen Thi Thu Ha in his paper (Chapter 16) has explored the cultural
linkages between India and Vietnam. Author has argued that both the
governments have extended their efforts to strengthen ancient linkages
by ensuring cultural cooperation between the nations. Author has
mentioned that Vietnam has revised its policies in the field of culture and
international cultural cooperation to strengthen mutual cultural relations.
Concluding Remarks
As India’s engagement with the ASEAN moves forward with support of
the Act East Policy, the socio-cultural linkages between the two regions
can be utilized effectively to expand collaboration, beyond economic and
political domains into areas of education, tourism and people to people
contact. Several new ideas, therefore, emerge from this book, which may
be taken up for implementation in order to deepen the cultural relations.
We should continue our efforts to preserve, protect, and restore cultural
heritage that represent the civilisational bonds between ASEAN and
India.
Part I
1. Introduction
The historical and cultural links between India and countries of the
present ASEAN grouping go back to at least two thousand years if not
earlier. The links have deep foundation and are diverse both spatially
and temporally.1 They range from prehistoric maritime exchanges to
historical connections starting from the beginning of the Common
Era onwards-expansion of Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam across the
Bay of Bengal to travels undertaken in the early twentieth century by
Indian leaders like Rabindranath Tagore. In addition to these historical
links, the discipline of archaeology developed in South and Southeast
Asia under British, French and later Dutch rules and often the military
officials involved was common to both regions.2 As a result of these early
beginnings of archaeology, much of the history of the region was focused
on monumental remains such as magnificent temples, splendid sculptures
and wonderful Buddhist stupas. This paper has three objectives – first,
to highlight the diverse nature of contacts across the seas; second, to
illustrate how early archaeological interest in Empires and monumental
architecture created a somewhat warped understanding of the past;
and third, to suggest that there is an urgent need to initiate dialogue
emphasizing the plural nature of societies of the ASEAN-India region,
10 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
The ninth century marked a turning point and several major coastal
sites in peninsular Malaysia date to this period such as Ko Kho Kao
near Takuapa, Laem Pho near Chaiya and Kampong Sungai Mas in
south Kedah known for large collections of Chinese as well as West
Asia ceramics. Other characteristic features of these sites are the
brick architectural remains that survive and have been unearthed in
archaeological excavations as well as stone statuary, both Hindu and
Buddhist.11 The founding of Srivijaya in 670 CE in Sumatra is often
described as a momentous event in that it had led to the consolidation
of the first Southeast Asian maritime polity, whose influence extended to
the Malay peninsula as also to Java and west Kalimantan. Inscriptions,
with Sanskrit lexical inputs, dating back to 680s in Old Malay, the centre
of manufacturing, commercial, religious and political activity, were
identified in the archaeological record on the banks of the Musi river.12
Both Buddhism and Hinduism were adopted by communities in
mainland Southeast Asia simultaneously at the major sites of the Óc
Eo culture, such as Óc Eo and Gò Tháp. The earliest temple along
the Vietnamese coast was built of wood in the 4th century CE by King
Bhadravarman, who dedicated the entire valley of My Son to Bhadresvara
– one epithet of God Siva. The surviving shrines, however, mainly date
back to the tenth century. The kings of various dynasties continued to
build Hindu temples and worshiped Siva in form of Sivalinga in My
Son. Meanwhile, various groups of Hindu temples were constructed
in the coastal plains of Champa from the seventh century onwards and
continued to the thirteenth and fourteenth century in the southern realm of
the Champa kingdom. Buddhism was also followed by the Cham people.
The largest monastery was built at Dong Duong in 875 by the Cham
king Indravarman II. Gò Xoài is one of the sites where a Buddhist stupa
is clearly defined. Small bronze Buddhas and Avalokitesvara images
have been found along the coast of Central Vietnam, while terracotta
votive tablets depicting Buddhist triad were discovered from Tra Kieu
and produced in a kiln site at Nui Choi (Quang Ngai province), which
represents a long history of development from seventh to about twelfth
centuries CE. Sanskrit and Chăm languages belong to two distinct
language families and yet they co-existed in ancient Vietnam.13 The
seafaring skills of the Chăm and their domination in the south China Sea
makes it imperative that any discussion of their art heritage should also
include an overview of maritime activities along the Vietnamese coast.14
Shared Cultural Heritage: Towards a Sustainable Future 17
Archaeological research during the last few decades has deepened the
past of Thailand and challenged the notion of a unified superimposed
Dvaravati kingdom. In 1980s, a careful study of aerial photographs of the
central plain of Thailand produced an atlas of 63 moated settlements that
have generally been identified as remnants of the Dvaravati Kingdom.
During the sixth century, the sea level was appreciably higher and the
shallow bay extended inlands many more kilometres than at present,
creating an irregular shoreline with numerous peninsulas. Particularly
relevant to this section is the Chao Phraya valley, the large fertile
lowland, suitable for rice cultivation and accessible to maritime travel
through the Gulf of Siam. Buddhism provided a common faith to several
contemporary centres and the diverse and the heterogeneous communities
inhabited the region. It is also significant that as in India and other parts
of Southeast Asia, Buddhist centres co-existed with Hindu shrines and
other cultural centres of local deities.15
Two aspects of the South and Southeast Asian past are striking–
one the diversity; and second the interconnectedness through travel
and pilgrimage. It is these two outstanding features of the culture of
the ASEAN-India region that will form the leitmotifs of this section.
Diversity encompasses a wide variety of groups with distinctive ethnicity,
language, religion and culture; and is nowhere more marked than in the
range and variety of religious architecture in South Asia from the third
century BCE onwards. A shrine not only functioned as a place of worship
and ritual, but also a centre for religious festivities and discourses on
ethics and moral values. The rulers and other members of elite groups
often used it as a platform to further their own agenda by making lavish
donations and often inscribing these within the precincts of the shrine.
The shrine undeniably was at the core of the cultural life of a community
and the focal point of a range of followers, from the lay devotee to
the ritual specialist, from the patron to the architect. Poets and scribes
engraved their writings in praise of the deity or the genealogy of the
patron on temple walls.
The variety and religious affiliations of shrines in South Asia are
extraordinary and range from open-air tree shrines to elaborate temples,
monumental stupas and colossal mosques. Similarly remarkable is the
sanctity accorded to certain locations, which continue to be revered by
devotees of different religions. An appropriate example of this is the site
of Ellora, in the Aurangabad district of the present state of Maharashtra
18 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
in India.16 The earliest cave excavation at Ellora began in the late sixth
century and was dedicated to Siva, followed by Buddhist and Jaina caves
over the next several centuries until the tenth century CE. Though a
majority of Ellora’s Hindu excavations are dedicated to Siva, the two
exceptions are Caves 14 and 25, which appear to have been temples to
Durga and Visnu (or, possibly Surya), respectively. Cave 16, famous
as the monolithic rock-cut Kailasanatha temple, dedicated to Śiva, is
admired for its conceptualization and sculptural exuberance. The Śaiva
caves shared several architectural features with twelve Buddhist caves at
Ellora, which were excavated from 600 to 730 CE. They document the
development of Vajrayana imagery from the simple delineation in Cave
6 to the elaborate forms of Cave 12. Much of the excavation activity for
the Jain cave-temples was conducted during the ninth and tenth centuries,
a time when the Rāṣṭrakūṭas had attained paramount sovereignty in the
region. Although the Archaeological Survey of India has categorized
Jain monuments into five separate cave complexes (Caves 30-34), there
are in actuality twenty-three individual cave-temples, nearly all of them
containing a shrine and rock-cut Jina image.17
Around three kilometres from the caves at Ellora is Khuldabad, known
as the valley of saints, as it is said to contain graves of 1500 Sufi saints
as well as the tomb of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and his sons and
his generals. Marking the Chisti establishment at the site are the tombs of
Sayyad Burhan-al din, a Sufi Saint, who died in 1344, and the mausoleum
of Sayyed Zain ud din, another saint, highly revered by the Muslims. On
the east side it contains a number of verses inscribed from the Quran
and the date of the saint’s death in 1370 CE. These tombs are important
markers of the fourteenth century Sufi tradition of Nizamuddin Auliya
that went from Delhi to the Deccan and established itself in Khuldabad.18
Ellora is by no means the only example of religious pluralism in South
Asia, but instead is one of the many sacred places that have preserved
diverse historical memories.
One of the issues that we have mentioned above was that of the
mobility in the region and interconnectedness of religious shrines.
Buddha dhamma permeated across ethnic and political boundaries in
South Asia. The Mauryan ruler (317-186 BCE) Aśoka was perhaps the
first pilgrim; as his edicts refer to his dhammayātā or travel for visiting
sites associated with the Buddha. Obligatory pilgrimage and rituals thus
provided identity and laid the foundation of an extensive religious and
cultural ethos extending across the region.19
Shared Cultural Heritage: Towards a Sustainable Future 19
Commercial Interactions
between India and Southeast
Asia during the Medieval
Period and Future Interactions
between ASEAN and India
V. Selvakumar
1. Introduction
The ideas of networking and connectivity that have brought people and
cultures across the world together in this digitalized, globalized era are
not new. These ideas had emerged much before in history, when the
cultures of the Indian Ocean sphere had developed extensive exchange
networks, and were interacting and exchanging ideas, people and
commodities (Chakravarti 2012). The cultural connectivity between
India and Southeast Asia (in the Bay of Bengal or Indian region) has been
vibrant, continuous and multi-dimensional in nature involving cultural,
commercial and political spheres for more than two millennia, and it has
mutually benefitted cultural systems that flourished across the Bay of
Bengal. The connectivity and interactions between India and Southeast
Asia perhaps began in the prehistoric period, and increased connections
were established from the early historic period with the ideas related to
26 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
various faiths, polity and arts, commodities, and people were constantly
flowing, gradually contributing to cultural efflorescence of both these
regions. No region, which has been culturally vibrant, can be considered
exclusive, and such regions have always interacted with the neighbouring
regions, and in the making of the Indian Sub-continent cultures, India’s
connections with Southeast Asia have contributed significantly in terms
of ideas and materials. The Indian texts and archaeological sources have
numerous references to interactions between India and Southeast Asia
from the early historic period (Majumdar 1953; Cœdès 1964; Nilakanta
Sastri 1978; Ray 1994, 1996, 2003). The landscape of Southeast Asia
finds a frequent mention in the Indian literature. The early medieval
Tamil text of Manimékalai refers to Cāvakam or Java (Monius 2001). In
the medieval and modern period too, intense cultural, commercial and
political interactions continued between the regions. This paper focuses
on the commercial interactions between India and Southeast Asia in the
medieval period, and also discusses about the possible measures for
cultural and academic cooperation between India and Southeast Asia.
The data for this paper is mainly derived from the inscriptions from
Southern part of India, and as a result, the focus of this paper is more on
the southern part of India.
Academic research seeks to look at the reality from an outsider’s (emic)
perspective. It is like looking at the reality from a particular direction and
a position. Therefore, the context and motive of the perceiver/investigator
influences what is perceived and highlighted. The India-Southeast Asia
relations could be viewed variously from the perspectives of India/Indians,
Southeast Asia/Southeast Asians, and Indian Ocean, or from a completely
outsider’s position. It is a fact that we live in a much modified, very
different ‘modern’ context with completely different socio-economic and
ideological systems. What is the use of historical knowledge? How can
it be useful to the contemporary context? The interactions and exchange
of ideas that took place in the past can offer clues for future cultural
interactions and free flow of people, which became upset and disturbed
by the colonial processes and the developments after the colonial period.
The ancient connectivity has disappeared from the memories of the
people, and society at large, which are very transient, and here, historical
research can help in rediscovering or regenerating old connectivity to suit
modern context and geo-political situation.
Commercial Interactions between India and Southeast Asia 27
Commercialization
The process of commercialization and the organization of mercantile
activities are well attested from the early medieval period in different
parts of India. In the early medieval South India, the development of
hinterland territories and settlements through the organization of
irrigation and agrarian activities; the rise of nagaram (commercial
establishment) settlements from ca. ninth century; and the movement
of Brahmins and the formation of elite groups with higher consumption
power created necessity for the long-distance trade. The formation of
a territorial division of nādu, which was the ‘basic fabric of agrarian
society’ with a nagaram each (Hall 1980), suggests the development of
commercial activities and the rise of merchant guilds.
100
90 87 93
80
70
60
50 52
40
30 27
27
20 20
10
5
0
800-900
901-1000
1001-1100
1101-1200
1201-1300
1301-1400
1401-1600
The sense and sensibility to body and dressing were also changing in
the course of history, and new types of weaving and variety of clothes
were developed in the medieval period, as we find numerous references
to clothes in the inscriptions. Perhaps clothes were used more frequently
by the people of many sections of the society from the medieval period.
The paintings of the Chola period and the Vijayanagara period reveal
the variations in the attitudes of the people to clothing. The Tamil text of
Pattinappālai narrates about the produce from kāzhakam (Pattinappālai
191-194), which is the Tamil equivalent of Sanskrit Katāha, reached the
port. It has been argued that this could refer to the iron objects from Bujang
Valley (Rahman 1990); although the Pattinappalai does not specify the
name of the product that came to Kaverippumpattinam. However, other
references are very clear that Kāzhagam refers to textile. Kāzhagam is
mentioned as a type of clothe in Purananuru 41: 9. It is mentioned as blue
cloth in Kalittogai 7: 9. Similar references occur in a few early Tamil texts
(Kalitogai 73: 17; 92: 38, and Tirumurugarrupatai 184).
Tukir or red coral was another important import from the east, as
Pattinappālai mentions about the tukir from the eastern sea, which refers
to the Bay of Bengal and beyond (Pattinappālai 191-194). Other poems
mention about its use in ornaments (Puranānuru 218). The red coral
must have come from Indonesia or from the region of the Philippines,
since these areas have coral reefs suitable for coral production. Similarly,
clove (Eugenia aromatica) (Rajan 2011), karpur (from Cinamomum
camphora) or karpur barus, lead and copper were also probably
imported from Southeast Asia in the early historic period (Minter 2005).
It was continued to be imported in the medieval period. Camphor is
mentioned in the inscription of Belgaum, and akil is mentioned in
the Virinjipuram and Piranmalai, Belur and Kovilpatti inscriptions
(Karashima 2002).
Ceramics were also traded in the medieval period as a large quantity
of Chinese Ceramics appears all across the Indian Ocean. Very limited
ceramics of Southeast Asia have come to light. Thai iron painted ware
and Thai celadon wares from Sichanari kilns were found at the site of
Kotapatnam in Andhra Pradesh (Sasaki 2004).
Approaches to Research
The interactions between India and Southeast Asia have been viewed
from colonial perspectives in the early part of the twentieth century. As
a result of the colonial/nationalist perspectives, extreme notions, (e.g.
Greater India) were prevalent. From the end of twentieth century, such
early ideas have been very critically reviewed, and the research focus has
to be shifted to apply rigorous historical research methods with proper
analysis of the texts and archaeological sources. We need to decolonize
and deconstruct the colonial paradigms and intellectual structures to
understand the interactions from a closer to objective perspective.
Academic Cooperation
Ancient and medieval societies were exchanging ideas, techniques and
people for the welfare of the society, and often such exchanges were
mutually beneficial, free from the “modern” or “post-modern” notions.
There is an evidence for the presence of Buddhists from the Southeast
Asia in the educational establishments of Nalanda for the purpose of
learning. Similar academic cooperation and exchange can be organized
in the contemporary context under the India-ASEAN initiatives.
4. Conclusions
Long distance exchange has been an important mechanism used by
societies, not only to tackle the lack of exotic resources necessary
for cultural complexity, but also to allow new ideas for cultural and
technological development. Such exchanges help the concerned
communities mutually, and contribute to cultural enrichment. India and
Southeast Asia had strong commercial interactions in the medieval period
and the merchant guild network of Indian origin that was present at a
few settlements of Southeast Asia and India facilitated these interactions.
While at one level the interactions between India and Southeast Asia can
be seen as part of the Indian Ocean regional exchanges involving Afro-
Euro-Asia region in the west to China in the east, at another level, the
interactions between India and Southeast need to be focused exclusively.
The early medieval society in India and Southeast Asia had attained
a higher degree of social complexity with state formation and social
hierarchy, when compared to the early historic period. Commodities
such as copper, eagle wood, tin and camphor of Southeast Asia and pearl,
coral, betel nuts, cardamom, Indian spices, variety of textiles and silk,
medicinal herbs, and possibly iron were exchanged. Cultural ideas that
were exchanged between these regions contributed to immense cultural
developments. The Medieval commercial interactions were very well
organized with the presence of the merchant guilds of Indian origin.
These guilds were active till the 13th century, when major transformations
took place in the organization of merchant guilds. The interactions of the
early period can offer use for the way forward.
In the globalized, contemporary context, serious academic and cultural
cooperations between India and ASEAN can be beneficial for both the
regions for exchanging ideas and for building long-term partnerships.
Shifting away from the colonial paradigms of research, focusing on
the local cultural historical developments holistically, working on the
microscopic aspects of Indian influence in Southeast Asia, collection
of primary archaeological and epigraphical data through archaeological
explorations and excavations, and application of scientific analysis,
development of heritage sites and heritage tourism, and forging academic
research partnerships for undertaking research projects can be useful
for developing lasting ties and interactions. To achieve the academic
Commercial Interactions between India and Southeast Asia 41
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank RIS, ASEAN-India Centre, Prof. H. P. Ray,
Prof. Prabir De and Dr. Durairaj Kumarasamy for the support in the
preparation of this paper.
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44 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
1. Introduction
The Coromandel Coast (cōḻmaṇṭala kaṭaṟkarai), Malabar Coast
(malaimaṇṭalam) and Konkan Coast of peninsular India played a vital
role in the transoceanic trade from the times of Iron Age. The sepulchral
monuments, popularly called Iron Age megalithic monuments, ceramics,
graffiti marks, iron objects, beads made of semiprecious stones such
as carnelian, quartz, agate, lapis-lazuli, sapphire and black-cat-eye
encountered in South India, Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka clearly point to
the emergence of cultural homogeneity as well as towards close maritime
contacts. Further, the archaeological sites and habitation mounds
strategically located on trade routes and in the midst of resource zones
suggest that human occupation is widespread, transcending different
ecological zones. The continuous human occupation leads to resource
mobilization and subsequently to resource transaction through trade
and trade networks. The archaeological and epigraphical findings of the
region under discussion point to a vibrant trade carried out with extensive
and reliable trade networks. The long survival of trade centres and port
towns located in potential economically viable resource zones are the
46 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Gemstone
One of the important industries that fetched greater amount of external
wealth to peninsular India is of gemstone industry. India’s tradition in
gemstone is elaborated in Arthasāstra, Ratnasāstra, Vishnudharmottara,
Brahma samhita, Yukiti-kalpataru and in Caṅkam literature. The availability
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 47
for gems. During early historic times, beryl was highly valued than gold.
These finished beads were sent down to Muciṟi (Pattanam) through
Palaghat gap on the Kerala Coast for final shipment to Roman world.
Such beads also made a way to Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka through
ports of Korkai, Alagankulam, Kaveripattinam and Arikamedu.
The collection of gemstone recorded at several places in Caṅkam
literature belongs to the early part of Christian era. But all of them
refer to the natural way of collection. They collected gemstone while
tilling the land, grazing the cattle and digging the land for roots. There
is hardly any reference, except one, on an organized way of quarrying
the gemstones. Generally, the hillocks (kuṉṟam) embedded with gems
(tiru-maṇi) are often mentioned in the literature (Naṟṟiṇai 234:3). The
precious stones (tiru-maṇi) with various shapes (pala-urū) emerged
from the ground (nilavaṟai) (Naṟṟiṇai 399:4-5). Here, the various shapes
denote the nature of the original shape of the precious stone. When the
hillock people (vēṭṭuvar) go for hunting, the sparkling (miḷira) gems
(maṇi) appear on the ground due to the thrust of toe (kuḷampu) of the
galloping deer or animal (Puṟanāṉūṟu 202:1-3; Maturaikāñci 273). The
cattle keepers (kōvalar) collected sparkling precious stones (katir-maṇi)
while going for cattle grazing in the pastoral tracks (mullai-nilam) of
Ceruppumalai belongs to Chera king (Patiṟṟupattu 21:20-23). The hillock
Ceruppumalai belonging to the Chera king Pūliyar Kō (Palyāṉai Celkeḻu
Kuṭṭuvaṉ) could be contextually identified with the Sivanmalai and
Perumalmalai located west of Kangayam in Erode district. The flawless
gems (tiru-maṇi) were collected by the tillers (ērālar) from the plough
marks while tilling the land (nāñcil-āṭiya-koḻu-vaḻi) (Patiṟṟuppattu
58:13-19; 76:11-15). The hillock people (kāṉavar) used to collect
precious stones (tūmaṇi) when they dug for roots (kiḻaṅku) in the hillocks
(kuṉṟam) (Kuṟuntokai 379:1-3). The kāṉavar also collected sparkling
precious stones (kaṇ porutu imaikkum tiru-maṇi) by digging hard surface
with the help of elephant tusk (yāṉai-veṇ-kōṭu) (Akanāṉūṟu 282:1-10).
The precious stones also appeared in pits dug by the wild boars (Naṟṟiṇai
399:2-4). The gems were also collected in the midst of milk-white quartz
(vāṉ-paliṅku) and red gravel/feldspar (cem-paral) (Patiṟṟuppattu 66:16-
20). The gems were collected from hillock (malai), land (nilam) and
water (nīr) (Maturaikāñci 504-506). In this context, one must realize that
the pearl (muttu) is also considered as a gem by the Early Historic people,
as it comes from water i.e. sea-water.
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 49
The quality is judged based on the level of light that is emitted from
a semi-precious stone (tiru-maṇi imaikkum). The exposed gemstones
emit light through reflection of the evening sunlight falling on the
western slopes of the Kolli hills, located near Namakkal (Akanāṉūṟu
213:11-15). The hills, hill slopes and lands were spread with the stones
(Maturaikāñci 273-285; Naṟṟiṇai 234:3) and they were found exposed
during rainy season and these were sometimes brought down by streams
(Aiṅkuṟuṉūṟu 233:2-4). These precious stones collected by the local
people were sold out in the markets (Maturaikāñci 504-506). Quite
interestingly, there is a reference to specialist artisan called tiru-maṇi
kuyiṉar (gem borer) (Maturaikāñci 511; Cilappatikāram 5:46) and
mani-viṉaiñar (Maṇimēkalai 28:45) exclusively working on gemstones.
The Tamil-Brahmi inscription of 2nd century CE, found at Arachchalur
in Erode district, mentions about a gemstone tester, called maṇiya-
vaṇṇakkaṉ (Mahadevan 1968). There is a reference on the whetstone/lap
stone (cemaikal) specialist called ciṟukārōṭaṉ, who prepares the wheel
by mixing payiṉ (wax) and kal (probably corundum powder) (Akanāṉūṟu
1:5-6; 356:9). The gems to be faceted or polished are fixed on wax placed
on the tip of the rod. Sometimes, the gemstones (teṉ-maṇi) are separated
from the parent rock by placing them in the furnace (ūtulai) that makes
clipping easier (Kuṟuntokai 155:3-4).
These references clearly indicate that semi-precious stones (tiru-maṇi)
were generally collected by the hillock people (kāṉavar), cattle-raising
people (kōvalar) and tillers (uḻavar). The collected gemstones were sold
in the local market. Then, the artisans (like ciṟukārōṭaṉ and tiru-maṇi-
kuyiṉar/tiru-maṇi viṉaiñar) prepared the beads or other objects and sold
them again in internal, external and international markets. There was a
gemstone tester (maṇiya-vaṉṉakkaṉ) to judge the quality of the gemstone.
The mode of collection, the process involved in the preparation of final
products and the use of various technical terms clearly suggest the
existence of a gemstone industry in Tamil Nadu during the early historic
times and the finished products were exported to Indian Ocean countries.
Pearl
The recent ethno-archaeological study made on the traditional diving
practices in the Gulf of Mannar helps to understand economic viability of
pearl fishing that existed in the pre-Christian era. Even today the people
of the Gulf of Mannar go for diving without any breathing aids to the
50 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
depth of six fathoms; they used to stay on the sea floor for about 54
seconds (Athiyaman 1997; Athiyaman 2000). This ethnographic study
proved beyond doubt that the references found in the literature and
foreign accounts are not an exaggeration. The earliest account of pearl
and chank fishery in Tamil Nadu is of Megasthenes (Arunachalam 1952).
Though the method of diving is not adequately recorded, many of the
Caṅkam literature like Kalitokai (131:22) and Akanāṉūṟu (350:10-11)
had mentions of fishing community paratavar (Barata in Sri Lanka);
who resided at Pandya capital Korkai were involved in the pearl fishing
(Ciṟupāṇāṟṟuppaṭai 56-58). Mahāvaṃsa refers to eight kinds of pearls
presented to king Ashoka by King Devanampiya Tissa (250-210 BC).
Duttagamani (161-137 BC) decorated his hall with pearls establishing
the existence of pearl fishing in Gulf of Mannar (Geiger 1950). The
Periplus Erythrean Sea mentions that condemned criminals were used at
the Pandya port Korkai in the Gulf of Mannar (McCrindle 1984). Strabo,
Pliny and Ptolemy also referred to pearl fishing. The port Korkai on the
east coast of Tamil Nadu and Mantai on the west coast of Sri Lanka are
the two important international ports of calls in the Gulf of Mannar. The
pearl oysters of P.fucata type grow on pearl beds or banks (pār in Tamil),
but it is seasonal. Due to frequent migrations of pearl oysters to opposite
beds in the Gulf of Mannar of India and Sri Lanka, the pearl divers were
forced to move frequently between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lankan coast.
The recent excavations conducted in 2015 and 2016 at Keeladi (Kiladi),
near Madurai, yielded considerable number of pearls in the excavated
trenches testifying existence of the pearl industry.
Metallurgy
Another important industry that fetches good amount of wealth to the
treasury is iron and steel industry. The traditional crucible steel was
produced out of high carbon alloys in India before 4th - 3rd century BCE.
This is well reflected in the Classical Mediterranean accounts (Bronson
1986).Pliny’s Natural History identifies the Chera country as the source
of iron to Roman world (Bronson 1986). This traditional method was in
vogue till 17th century in Tamil Nadu (Buchanan 1807). The technical
terms like irumbu (iron) (Akanāṉāṟu 4:3), ekku (steel) (Puṟanāṉūṟu
26:5-6) kollan (black smith), karumai kollan (skilled black smith)
(Puṟanāṉūṟu 21:8), ulai (furnace) (Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai 437), ulai-kūṭam
(workshop) (Puṟanāṉūṟu 170-17) ulai-kal (anvil) (Puṟanāṉūṟu 170:11),
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 51
too. However, there is hardly any evidence that comes forth from the
Southeast Asia. The future discovery may help to understand the role of
steel in Southeast Asia.
Glass
The production of glass in India has a hoary past. It seems that the
Indus people did not have glass, although they had contacts with the
Mesopotamian region. They preferred faience, which may be seen as
a type of proto-glass. The Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture of the
Ganga valley and possibly the Chalcolithic culture of southern Deccan
(four glass beads found at Maski, date uncertain) (Engle 1976; Francis
1984; Kanungo 2004a; Kanungo 2004b; Dussubieux et.al., 2008) did
have elegant glass beads dating before the mid-first millennium BCE.
However, the Indian glass industry, with production of beads, bangles
and small ornaments, truly gained momentum in the last two or three
centuries BCE. About 30 excavated sites in different parts of India have
revealed glass objects of various colours, including green, blue, red,
white, orange and some other shades. In South India, many archaeological
sites yielded glass beads. Arikamedu (Casal 1956; Lal 1952), Manikollai
(Cuddalore Dt.), Thiruchapuram (Cuddalore Dt.), Appur (Kanchipuram
Dt.), Aliyanilai (Pudukottai Dt.) and Porunthal (Diṇḍugal Dt.) stand out
for the several thousands of beads. All except Arikamedu have possible
evidence of furnace material. Kanungo summarized information from
more than 200 sites with evidence of glass; starting from the Iron
Age down to Late Medieval times. Nearly 29 sites belong to the Iron
Age and about 119 sites come from Early Historic times; of these,
about 150 sites reported glass beads, and 36 claimed to have been
manufacturing sites too (Kanungo 2002a; 2004). Thus, India enjoyed
an important, even dominant role in manufacturing of both stone and
glass beads. Interestingly, India enjoys the same position today. While
glass beads rapidly became popular as an item of adornment due to their
attractiveness, affordability, transportability and durability; even more
important may have been the role of beads in economic, social, aesthetic
and ritual realms of mankind. The sustainable internal and external trade
intertwined these systems together. Different kinds of beads were made
and exchanged, but the small, monochrome, beads manufactured by the
drawn-tube method in south India or furnace-wound techniques in North
India are most common at the archaeological sites.
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 53
Textile Industry
In archaeological context, impression of woven fibre, generally found
at the base of the pot, stands as mute evidence on the existence of
56 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Forest Products
Forest products like spices, cardamom, sandal wood, etc. played a crucial
role both in the internal and external trade. The recent excavations
carried out in two seasons at Thandikudi in Palani hills at the 4400
feet MSL by the author clearly proved that people reached and settled
in high altitude from time immemorial. The archaeological vestiges
identified at Thandikudi site clearly suggest that this site lies in a perfect
ecological background, which helped to occupy the site continuously for
more than two thousand five hundred years. The trade guild inscription
issued during 12th regnal year of Kulasekara Pandya (1280 CE) suggests
its long existence and also its trade contact with plains. The mountains,
perennial ponds, fertile soil formed in the valley helped ancient settlers
in several ways to continue their occupation for such a longer period. The
environment helped to cultivate pepper and cardamom at a large scale.
The occurrence of large number of carnelian, quartz and agate beads
at this altitude suggests the existence of extensive trade network. Most
of the elite items recovered from the graves were of products of plains.
These extravagant items might have been exchanged with equal value
such as pepper and cardamom or other forest products like ivory and
medicinal plants. The concentration of large number of archaeological
sites noticed in the Vaigai basin particularly in the Kambam valley
suggests that the whole Western Ghat might have been well-connected
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 57
with the trade centres/routes of the plains (Rajan 2005). These products
might have found its way to the far of countries through well established
trade networks.
ceramics like NBP, Amphorae, rouletted ware and Arritine ware clearly
points to the existence of trade along this route. The occurrence of name
of the traders in the Tamil-Brahmi cave inscriptions dealing on oil, gold,
paddy and ploughshare indicates the vibrant trade and also of having
enough wealth to make donations to Jain monks. The huge settlements
noticed along the trade route at Uttamapuram, Uttukkadu, Putuppatti and
Tamanampatti reveal the existence of a continuous occupation. These
sites yielded large number of black-and-red ware, russet coated ware,
burnt bricks of abnormal size and rouletted ware. A Jain monument
dating back to c. 9th century CE was also found at Uttamapalayam. It is
a well-known fact that most of the Jain monuments were established on
the trade routes and patronized by merchants. The inscription found on
the walls of the Siva temple at Chinnamanur pinpoints existence of the
mercantile guild Ticaiāyirattu ayiṉūṟṟuvar.
The merchant community specializing in sugar, salt, gem, gold, cloth
and oil were mentioned in the Tamil-Brahmi inscription as donors, and
they organized trade (Mahadevan 2003). The art of gold smith seems to
have caught the fancy of foreign markets and these types of ornaments
were exported to foreign countries during the early historic times. The
availability of Brahmi inscription with influence of Prakrit of Sri Lankan
origin found at Alagankulam clearly suggest that this port on the mouth
of Vaigai river played a significant role on the maritime trade with Sri
Lanka. The Sri Lanka is known for pearl, forest products and gemstones.
There is another trade route which was branched off from this east-
west route by taking diversion from Madurai and reaching again Muciri
through Palaghat gap after crossing Dindugal, Palani and Pollachi (Rajan
2009). The archaeological site Porunthal and Kolumam and Roman
coin hoard sites Kalayamuttur and Pollachi are located on this route.
Another east-west major trade route connecting Kaveripattinam on the
east coast and Pattanam on the west coast passed through major cities,
trade centres and industrial towns such as Karur (the second capital of
Cheras), Kodumanal, Sulur, Vellalur, Velanthavalam and Vanji. The
famous Roman coin yielding sites Karur, Kodumanal, Kattanganni,
Sulur, Vellalur, Velanthavalam and Eyyal are located on this trade route.
The trade route emerged as the site Arikamedu moved westward along
the river Pennaiyar and it reached Karnataka after passing through
Tirukoyilur (the capital of chieftain Malaiyaman), Jambai (the location
of famous satiyaputō Atiyamāṉ inscription) Chengam, (the capital of
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 59
Navigational Techniques
The established trade routes, production centres, mercantile cities,
trade centres and port towns clearly point to the existence of maritime
trade. Navigational technology might have played a crucial role in the
development of trade. The navigational terms such as ampi (Aiṅkuṟunūṟu
98:1-2; Naṟṟiṇai 354:5-7), Puṉai or Kaṭṭumaram (Akanāṉūṟu 186:8;
Kalittokai 134:24-25; Perumpāṇāraṟṟuppaḍai 2.11:30-35) and Timil
(Naṟṟiṇai 111:5-9; Akanāṉūṟu 350:10-15) point to the existence of
different type of boats/ships. The boat koḍuntimil and tīntimil (Naṟṟiṇai
175:1-3; Akanāṉūṟu 240:5-7) were named after their sturdiness employed
with specialized sailors, called timilar. The ship used for international
trade was invariably called as kalam and nāvāy (Naṟṟiṇai 295:5-6). It had
many sails and masts hoisted with flag (Puṟanānūṟu 30:10-11; Akanāṉūṟu
152:6-8; Maduraikāñchi 74-83) and moved from one paṭṭiṉam (port) to
another paṭṭiṉam (Paripāḍal 10:38-40). One of the remarkable recent
evidences is a ship motif collected from the fifth season of the excavation
at Alagankulam, a Pandya port, on the mouth of the river Vaigai. The
ship was engraved as graffiti on the shoulder portion of a rouletted ware.
L.Casson of New York University who examined this graffiti identified
as one of the largest type of Graeco-Roman three mastered ships used in
trans-oceanic voyage (Sridhar 2005). One must recall here, the Vienna
Museum papyrus, a trade contract written in Greek executed between a
Musiri and Alexandria trader, specifying the volume of goods carried to
Alexandria in a single ship (Rajan 2000). The references like Yavaṉar-
iyaṟṟiya-viṉaimāṉ-pāvai (the beautiful lamp made by Yavanas), Yavaṉa-
p-pāvai, Yavaṉar-ōtima-viḷakku (Yavana lamp), vaṇkaṉ-Yavaṉar (war
like Yavanas), Yavaṉar-irukkai (residence of Yanavas) and Yavaṉa-t-
tatchar (Yavana carpenter) found in Caṅkam literature further support this
phenomenon. This was strengthened with identification of extensive port
infrastructures like wharf, lighthouse and warehouse at Kaveripattinam
(Soundrarajan 1994; Kasinathan 1999). An identical wharf-like structure
in association with a wooden boat, wooden pillars installed along the
brick structure (wharf) to tie the boat were unearthed at Pattanam
(Muciri) on the bank of river Periyar near the mouth in Thrissur district of
Kerala in 2007. Near to this, a huge brick platform was also exposed. The
rouletted ware and amphorae found in large quantities also suggest their
60 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
external contact. So far, the Kerala Coast has not yielded rouletted ware;
the present evidence sheds a new light on this aspect. Further, the brick
structure unearthed at Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam and Muciri suggests
their technical know-how. As the excavation at Muciri is in progress, it
may give much more evidence in future.
The structures noticed at Kaveripattinam (Pūmpuhār) and Pattanam
(Muciṟi) could be compared with the structural descriptions mentioned
in Caṅkam literature. The term muṉtuṟai generally refers to the place
where one enters into the river. If the same term refers to the place
near the coast at port towns, one could presume that it also denotes the
harbour. This term is used in relation to the early historic ports like
Korkai, Kaveripattinam and Arikamedu (Vīrai-paṭṭiṉam) (Akanāṉūṟu
130:12; 201:4; 206:13; Paṭṭiṉapālai 173). The term peruntuṟai (Naṟṟiṇai
295:6; Akanāṉūṟu 27:9) refers to the actual place where the cargo is
handled. The ships were either anchored at a distance away from the
port city or the goods welled into the river mouth without slackening
the sail (Puṟanāṉūṟu 30:11-13), as one noticed at Kaveripattinam, which
indirectly suggests that the ancient Kaveri river mouths were wide and
deep enough to allow the boat move in freely. So the anchorage depends
upon the nature of the river mouth. In a few cases, the small boats were
pressed into the service to carry the goods from the big ships anchored in
the open sea, near to the harbour (Puṟanāṉūṟu 343:5-6).
For effective seafaring, the knowledge of tide, current, wave action,
wind movement and position of the star is essential. The term ōtam
(Naṟṟiṇai 117:1-2; 335:1-3; Akanāṉūṟu 123:12-13; 220:12; 300:16-17)
is used to note high tide and low tide. The movement of wind (kaṟṟu)
and its effective utility in the trans-oceanic voyage was also recorded
(Naṟṟiṇai 4:4; 31:8: 295:6). The knowledge of astronomy is also well
reflected in the literature at several places. The astronomer known as
aṟivaṉ (Tolkāppiyam Poruḷatikaram 17) forecasted the monsoon, draught
period and even the change in the political rule based on the position of
the stars (Gurunathan 1993). The knowledge of names of different stars
and its position might have been effectively used by the mariners to navi
gate. Another interesting feature was the use of land-finding bird in a ship
vaṅkam (Nālāyirathivvyaprabandam 692:3-4). Though the reference is
late but the usage of land-finding birds had the antiquity since Harappan
times (Rao 1987). The Sanskrit manuscript Yuktikalpataru refers these
birds as disakakas. Pliny also states that Taprobane (Sri Lanka) mariners
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 61
handled this bird (Mc Crindle 1901). The Buddhist text Digha Nikaya
(1.222) of Sutta Pitaka also confirms this (Davids 1890). The usage of
stone anchor is also mentioned in the literature (Maduraikāñnchi 375-
379), and the recent discovery of stone anchors, though late in period,
confirms the continuity of tradition (Jayakumar and Athiyaman 1996).
This acquired and accumulated knowledge in the traditional navigation
would have helped to multiply their mercantile activities in oceanic trade.
The existence of large number of archaeological sites and Jain
centres with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions all along the trade routes, the
availability of Roman coin hoards, Punch-marked coins, NBP, Arritine
ware, rouletted ware, amphorae, inscriptions of Sri Lankan origin and
many other material remains suggest that sea ports of east and west coast
of peninsular India have played avital role in the internal and the external
trade during early historic times.
Medieval Period
There are several references on ancient highways (peruvaḻi) mentioned
in medieval inscriptions. For instance, the inscriptions found in
semiprecious bearing zone of Kongu country (present Coimbatore,
Tiruppur, Erode and part of Salem region) refer several ancient trade
routes. Among them, the koṅga-p-peruvaḻi, viranārāyaṇaṉ-peruvaḻi,
nāṭṭu-p-peruvaḻi, rājakēśari-peruvaḻi, ayirai-peruvaḻi, magadēsaṉ-
peruvaḻi, atiyaṉmāṉ-peruvaḻi, pēraṟṟu-p-peruvaḻi, chōḻamādēvi-p-
peruvaḻi, pāla-p-peruvaḻi and kārai-t-turai-p-peruvaḻi can be cited. The
koṅga-p-peruvaḻi is one of the east-west major highways that connects
Kaveri deltaic region with Kongu country (ARE 1911/281). It might
have passed through Uraiyur, Kulithalai and Karur along the banks of
river Kaveri and passed further west along the river Noyyal up to Perur
near Coimbatore. The viranārāyaṇaṉ-peruvaḻi mentioned in a record at
Anaimalai is probably the one that connects Anaimalai with Kolumam.
The vaṭṭeḻuttu inscription found at Pachchai-pāḻi near Sundakamuttur
on the rocky surface on the side of the highway Rājakēśari-p-peruvaḻi
(named after Chola king Aditya I) is the one that connects Kongu-nadu
with Malaimandalam (Kerala) (Vaidyanathan 1983). One could see still
the old highway existed in front of the Rājakēsari-p-peruvaḻi inscription.
Another interesting feature of this inscription is that next to the eight-
line vaṭṭeḻuttu inscription, three-line inscription in Tamil script reading
svasti sri rājakēsari peruvaḻi is engraved. This inscription belongs to
62 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
10th century CE, and this is the period when vaṭteḻuttu script was slowly
replaced with the Tamil script by Chola regime in Tamil Nadu. The bi-
script presentation suggests that the merchant not knowing a particular
script could read the alternative script and understand the name of the
highway. The term nāṭṭu-p-peruvaḻi mentioned in the epigraph Rajendra I
probably is the one that emanated from Karur connecting various nāḍus of
Kongu country (ARE 1921/111).The highway that run between Karur and
Karai-t-tolu, south of Dharapuram, was known as kāraittuṟai-p-peruvaḻi
(SII 3:26). The highway from Karai-t-tolu to Kolumam was known as
chōḻa-mādēvi-p-peruvaḻi. The mēlai-p-peruvaḻi was another highway
mentioned in Kiranur inscription that was from Dharapuram towards
Pandya country through Palani/Vaikavur (SII 5:282). The Palani temple
inscription mentions about a diversion road that goes to Pandrimalai on
Lower Palani hills, and this road may have also proceeded further to
Pundurai, west of Koḍaikanal (SII 5:286). This diversion would have
taken from the major Highway connecting Pandya country and Chera
country through Vaikavur (Palani) and Kolumam. The Palani temple
inscription mentions this highway as koḻumattiṟkku-p-pōṟa-peruvaḻi;
a highway heading towards Kolumam (SII 5:286). It is also known as
Cēraṉaimēṉkoṇḍa-chōḻaṉ-peruvaḻi (ARE 1909). The east heading route
from Dharapuram was known as pāla-p-peruvaḻi (SII 5:257). Another
major highway probably that connected to Chera capital Karur with
Pallava capital Kanchi was the magadēsaṉ-peruvaḻi. The Arakalur
inscription refers to this highway running through magataimaṇḍalam in
Attur taluk of Salem district (Rajannan 1992).
Besides, there were a few trade routes probably connecting with main
highways like veḷḷōṭṭu-vaḻi (ARE 1968), perunthoḻuvu-vaḻi (ARE 1908),
Kongukulavalli-vadi. The Kongukulavaḷḷi-vadi runs between Pollachi
and Coimbatore and connected with koṅga-p-peruvaḻi or rājakēsari
peruvaḻi. Rājamahēndra-vadi was the one between Dindugal and Karur,
connecting either koṅga-p-peruvaḻi or nāṭṭu-p-peruvaḻi (ARE 1921).
The major trade guild inscriptions are found on these trade routes.
The trade goods were transported on bullock-carts and also on the backs
of donkeys and buffaloes (ARE 1920, 1978; Manickam 2001). The
milestones might have been installed on these highways to indicate the
distance as the two milestone inscriptions, respectively, were noticed
at Muttanur and Atiyamankottai in Dharmapuri district (Govindarasu
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 63
1982). In these two mile-stones, the unit kātham indicating the distance
is mentioned as 27 and 29 kāthams. The GPS position taken at the find-
spots suggests that the crow-fly distance of one kātham is equivalent to 5
miles/8 km approximately. The laying of road, installing milestones and
maintenance of these highways periodically probably were considered
as the duty of the state. The toll-tax collected at several toll-gates would
have been utilized for this purpose. These highways were connected with
major mercantile towns.
ii. The second earliest inscription (first trade guild inscription) was from
Takua Pa, north of Krabi, in southern Thailand. It is believed that Takua
Pa is ancient Takkola mentioned by Ptolemy. It seems to record the
protection of a tank called Avaṉināranam, the title of Nandivaraman
III (846-869 CE) under maṇigrāmattār and sēṉamukattār and similar
body. Maṇigrāmam is a famous guild flourished in Tamil Nadu and
Kerala from 9th to 14th century CE.
iii. The third inscription dated back to 1088 CE was from Barus from
northern Sumatra of Indonesia. This was discovered in 1890 in Lubo
Tuo (Loboe Toewa) near Barus (Baros) and re-examined in 1994 at
Jakarta National Museum.
iv. The fourth inscription was from a Buddhist temple Wat Boroma That
in Nakhon Si Thammarat in Thailand and the dates back either 1183
or 1283 CE.
v. The fifth was again from Jakarta National Museum. It is bi-script
inscription carrying Old Javanease and Tamil. But in both the cases,
the language is Tamil. It is datable to 1258 or 1265 CE.
vi. The sixth inscription comes from Pegan National Museum in Myanmar
datable to 13th century CE. It records the construction of a front hall in
Vishnu temple called Nāṉādēsi-viṇṇakar and the installation of a door
and lamp into that hall by Iṟayiraṉ Sirīrāyaṉ alais Sri Kulasēkhara
Nambi of Makōthayar-paṭṭaṇam in Malaimaṇḍalam. It is dated to
13th century CE.
vii. The last seventh inscription was from Quanzhou, a famous medieval
port in China and dated back to 1281 AD. It refers to the installation
of idol of Siva in a temple Tirukkāñchichuram for the health of
the authority by a merchant Champanta Perumāḷ alias Tavach-
chakkaravartikaḷ by permission of Chekachai Kan (Chechchai Khan).
Trade Guild Inscriptions in Sri Lanka
• Viharehinna inscription near Moragolla of Kandapalle Koralle in the
Matale North District of Sri Lanka (early part of 12th century AD)
• Vahalkada inscription (early part of 12th century AD)
• Padaviya inscription (early part of 12th century AD)
• Lankatilaka temple inscription at Reddegamuva in Udunuvara in
Kandy Dt. (14th century AD)
• Anuradhapura inscription
• Budumuttava inscription
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 67
dealing with the salt, textiles, metal, gems, gold, pearl, spices etc. were
integrated into a trading system. The frequent references on trade guilds
in Peninsular India and in Ganga valley indirectly pointed to this scenario.
Glover felt that the great expansion of Southeast Asian exchange was
closely connected with the demand of the exotic and luxury items by the
urban people of the Mediterranean basin, which induced the mercantile
community to venture into the sea towards Southeast Asia (Glover 1996).
Among the spices, the cloves from Moluccas received the attention of the
traders. The unopened aromatic flower buds of the tree Eugenia aromatica
would have been exported through South Indian ports particularly
through the ports of Kaveripattinam and Muciri to the western world.
The reference found in the Caṅkam literature Paṭṭiṉapālai (Paṭṭiṉapālai
191-194) mentions about the item of Kalakam (kāḷakattu ākkam meaning
objects from the place/region of Kāḷakam) and red coral from East sea
(kuṇakkaṭal tukir). Though the exact location of the place is not identified
but scholars felt that it points to the place covering southern Thailand
and northern Malaysia, where important archaeological sites with Indian
goods were found.
The site of Khlong Thom (Khuan Lukpad or Bead mound) in Krabi
Province and the Chana in Suratthani province of Thailand is known
for its glass and semi-precious stone beads (Glover 1996). A number of
etched agate and carnelian beads, carnelian lion pendent, glass collar
beads similar to those from Arikamedu, Roman carnelian intaglios and
other intaglios like elephant, lion and the god Perseus are some of the
items found at this site (Veraprasert 1987; Bronson 1990). One of the
interesting findings was of a tortoise or a turtle made of quartz found at
Srikshetra in Thailand (Di Crocco 1996). Such an identical piece was
recovered at Kodumanal. The objects of carnelian and agate recovered
in Southeast Asia particularly in graves were considered of Indian origin.
One of the largest deposits and the oldest to be quarried came from
Deccan plateau of India. The recent evidences, particularly the ones from
Kodumanal, suggest that carnelian beads were manufactured in other
industrial centres by importing raw material from Deccan. Berenice
Bellina recent studies on beads, particularly the ones collected from
the earlier Southeast Asian sites like Khuan Lukpad, Kuala Selinsing,
Khao Sam Kaeo in Thai-Malay Peninsula, Buni area of West Java and
Oc Eo area of Mekong Delta of south Vietnam, point to the existence
of high quality carnelian beads of Indian origin. Further, she identifies
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 69
the square coins were found only in Caṅkam period and the tiger figurine
stands for the insignia of the Caṅkam Age Cholas (Krishnamurthy 1997).
Pallava coins with bull on the obverse and double masted ship motif on
the reverse were also unearthed at this place. The next Tamil inscription
originally discovered in Kho Khao island and presently preserved in
the Nakhon-Si-Tammarat Museum is of the famous Takua Pa (ancient
Takkola of Ptolemy) inscription of Pallava Avaninaranam (Nandivarman
III AD 846-869). The above evidences show the continuous presence
or contact of peninsular Indian traders with Thailand. The major ports
like Khlong Thom and Muang Thong (Ko Kho Khao) on the Andaman
sea coast on the west and Khao Sam Kaeo and Laem Pho on the
south China sea coast on the east of Thailand played a pivotal role in
linking the Vietnam and China on the east and Indian, Sri Lanka and
Mediterranean countries on the west in the early historic period (Sirsuchat
1996).
Glass is considered as one of the export items. The chemical and
spectrographic analysis shows that glass objects were made of three
basic compositions-potassium-silica, lead-barium and soda-lime. The
potassium-silica based glass was manufactured at Arikamedu in Tamil
Nadu and then at Mantai in Sri Lanka. The monochrome beads produced
out of hollow tubes were more common in South India. The lead-barium
had its origin in China and soda-lime in the west. Based on these chemical
composition one could easily locate its origin. For instance the single
coloured small potassium bearing glass beads of Arikamedu and Mantai
reached Southeast Asia. The tombs of the Han dynasties in the Yellow
and Yangzi river valleys of south China yielded quite a number of glass
beads and were very popular between 200 BC and 200 AD. Along with
lead-barium glass beads of China, potassium-silica glass beads were also
found at Guangong and Guangxi. Among the objects, glass bowls, cups
and plates were quite interesting. Even the historical records of the Han
dynasty say that Emperor Wu (140-187 BC) sent people to Southern Sea
to buy glass. It seems that these glass beads would have reached China
from Tamil Nadu but after crossing over the sites like Mantai in Sri Lanka,
Khlong Thom in Thailand and Oc-Eo in Vietnam (Francis 1991). The
Indian traders would have even carried Roman glass objects after making
trans-shipment at Muziris in Kerala and Arikamedu or Kaveripattinam
in Tamil Nadu. The Roman dark blue glass bowls appeared at Canton,
Hanjian and Nanjing in the Han tombs of southern China belonging
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 71
1st century CE (Jiayao 1996). Francis Jr. felt that based on the current
level of knowledge that the potassium-silica based glass beads were first
manufactured at Arikamedu (3rd c. BCE to 3rd c. CE) indicates the crafts
man moved from Arikamedu to Mantai in Sri Lanka and then to Khuan
Luk Pat in Thailand and to Oc-Eo in Vietnam. From Khuan Luk Pat,
they must have reached to Kuala Selinsing in Malaysia. Further he felt
that due to the complexity of the process and its relative difficulty in
transferring the technology, this industry would have been in the hands
of Tamils (Francis 1996). It is widely believed that Arikamedu could be
the production centre of glass beads, particularly the ones exported to
Southeast Asia. Arikamedu did not yield any such concrete evidence to
be marked as glass bead manufacturing centre. As stated above, recently
a bead mound, called Manikollai (maṇi > bead and kollai > field) has been
identified 25 km south of Kadalur (Cuddalore) on the Chidambaram road.
A large number of beads at various stages of manufacturing along with
glass crucibles were collected. Interestingly, quite a number of hollow
tubes were recovered from the site. Glass cullet, carnelian, agate, steel
would have been exported from Tamil Nadu coast. Among them glass
occupied an important position. Glass and semi-precious stone beads
were also collected from the site at Gilimanuk in West Bali of Indonesia
(Indiraningsih 1985). The carnelian particularly the etched carnelian was
exported to Southeast Asia. The sites like Bon Don Ta Phet and Khlong
Thom are the fine examples. The regular concentric grooves found in the
drill holes of the semi-precious stone beads were found at Khlong Thom
and Don Ta Phet; clearly indicative of an Indian origin.
On the ceramic side, Walker (1980) identified three vessels of Indo-
Roman rouletted ware of 1st c. CE belonging to the Buni grave complex
on the north coast of Java. Glover identified another rouletted ware at
Tra Kieu in Vietnam. Besides, rouletted wares were also reported at
Darussalam in Brunei, Kobak Kendal and Sembiran in Indonesia, Tra Kieu
in Vietnam and at Mantai, Kandarodai, Tissamaharama and Ambalantota
in Sri Lanka (Glover 1989, 1996; Gogte 1997). Ardika unearthed 79
sherds of rouletted ware in which 78 came from Sembiran and a solitary
example from Pacung. The X-ray diffraction and neutron analysis carried
on the rouletted ware from Sembiran, Anuradhapura and Arikamedu
indicate that they all have one geological source in terms of their clay
and temper compositions (Ardika et.al. 1993). By taking a thread from
this one geological source, Gogte made further study and concluded that
72 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
this fine pottery was produced with locally available chlorite based clay
at multiple centres in the Lower Ganga plain with the epicentre in the
Chandraketugarh-Tamluk region of Bengal and it moved to other parts
(Gogte 1997). One needs to have a close look of this hypothesis in the
light of Alangankulam findings. The six meter cultural deposit yielded
rouletted ware in abundance. It had in continuous use for more than 400
hundred years. If we consider this ware came from lower Ganga valley
without any break for over three centuries then certainly the Caṅkam
literature would have noted this flourishing ceramic trade. But there is
no such reference. Further, the site has not yielded any appreciable other
artefacts of lower Ganga valley. Under these circumstances, Gogte’s
findings need further investigation.
2001) show the contact of the early historic times. The excavation at
Kantarodai, situated in the centre of the Jaffna Peninsula, yielded a
black and red ware phase, followed by a rouletted ware phase which
is comparable with the one found in Tamil Nadu (Begley 1973). The
inscribed rouletted ware with Prakrit language affinity of Sri Lankan
origin found at Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam and Alagankulam is a further
proof (Mahadevan 1994, 1995). The international call of port Mantai (the
ancient port Mahatittha), located in the Mannar Gulf against the port of
Alagankulam and Korkai in Tamil Nadu, helps to inter-link the Sri Lanka
with India and also bridge the trading activities of the Southeast Asia
and the West (Carswell and Prickett 1984). Likewise the port Mahagama
also yielded rouletted ware, Brahmi, graffiti, Indo-Roman and punch
marked coins (Parker 1909). Tissamaharama is another site located in
the southern coast of Sri Lanka, providing considerable evidence of
trade contact in the form of rouletted ware, black-and-red-ware, beads
of semiprecious stones and glass and inscribed potsherds in Prakrit
language. The limited artefacts such as glass ingots, black-red-ware
pot and inscribed objects recovered from the shipwreck noticed off the
Sri Lankan coast at Godwaya provided further impetus on the transoceanic
trade.
The available epigraphical and archaeological sources suggest that
the traders played an active role in accelerating these cultural activities
time and again. Some of the cultural traits like the introduction of Brahmi
script were viewed; this script was introduced by Asoka in view of its
expansion of Buddhism. Based on the Anuradhapura stratigraphical
evidence, Allchin conceived that the Brahmi script began to be used in
Sri Lanka a century ago and before the start of Mauryan rule in Magadha;
and these were introduced by mercantile community at least in 4-5th
century BCE. As per this assumption, the Sri Lankans, particularly the
trading communities were aware of the Brahmi script even before the
introduction of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. This script was later adopted for
writing religious texts so the whole gamut of Prakrit inscriptions was later
in date. He draws the attention of the series of non-scriptural marks. Even
if one leaves the date aside, there is no denying of the fact that the trading
community played a greater role in introducing the script and language
(Allchin 1995). Considering their geographical proximity, the absence of
Prakrit inscription of Sri Lankan origin in the Indian mainland is quite
surprising. However, the recent study of Iravatham Mahadevan proved
74 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
trade guild involved in maritime trade and he may have probably issued
the coin. The Tirupparankundram Tamil-Brahmi inscription mentions
about a cāttaṉ in association with a man called Īḻakuṭumpikaṉ. Unlike in
Sri Lanka, the coin issued by their counterparts cāttaṉ and mācattuvāṉ
(mā > big, cāttaṉ > trader) of Tamil Nadu could not be surfaced so far.
All the inscribed coins so far unearthed belong to Tamil rulers. Periplus
records that Roman traders procured the Sri Lankan goods without
visiting that country and likewise Sri Lankan traders procured Roman
goods from west coast ports of Tamil Nadu (Warmington 1928). The
literature Paṭṭinapālai speaks on the imports from Īḻam (Sri Lanka) at
Kaveripattinam and the householder of Sri Lanka Īḻakkuṭumpikaṉ made
a stone bed for a Jain at Tirupprankundram.
The above evidences point to a frequent voyage between the two
neighbouring regions. The economically viable interaction played
a causative role in the formation of ports, establishing a state, spread
of literacy through the wide usage of Brahmi script and the exchange
of technology in boat building, production of iron, glass beads, etc.
According to Mahavamsa, Sena and Gottika, the children of a captain of
a ship involved in the horse trade, were the first Tamil rulers of Ceylon
(177-155 BC) who came from Tamil Nadu (Mahavamsa XXI:10) and
subsequently Ellalan (Elara) established a longest rule (145-101 BC)
(Mahavamsa XXI:15-34). The frequent political contact during the
Duttagamini rule clearly established the fact that there was a continuous
political and cultural contact between Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka
(Mahavamsa XXXIII: 37-61).
The above discussion clearly indicates that the multiple factors
played a greater role in the transoceanic trade. The trade led to the
cultural interactions between the Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka, and each
factor has to be weighed in the given chronological and cultural frame
to understand the real fathom of the socio-cultural-economic impact on
both the side of the littoral states of Bay of Bengal.
Endnote
1
The material like crucibles and slag collected at this site probably used for
manufacturing iron/steel. Therefore, Aliyanilai findings required further
investigations to confirm its association with glass
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 77
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Bennett, A. N. and I. C. Glover, 1992. Decorated High-Tin Bowls from
Thailand’s Prehistory, in Southeast Asian Archaeology 1990 (I.Glover
Ed.), Hull University, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, pp.187-208.
Boperachchi, O. and Rajah. M.Wickremesinhe. 1999. Ruhuna:An Ancient
Civilization Re-visited -Numismatic and Archaeological Evidence on
inland and maritime trade, The French Mission of Archaeological Co-
operation, Sri Lanka, Colombo.
78 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Brill, R.H. 1999. Chemical Analyses of Early Glasses, vols.1 and 2, New York:
The Corning Museum of Glass, Corning.
Bronson, B. 1986. The making and selling of wootz -a crucible steel of India,
Archaeo-materials 1(1):13-51.
Bronson, B. 1990. Glass and Beads at Khuan Lukpad, Southern Thailand, South
Asian Archaeology 1986, pp.213-230.
Buchanan-Hamilton. 1807. A Journey from Madras through the Countries of
Mysore, Canara and Malabar, London.
Casson, L. 1992. Ancient Naval Technology and the Route to India, in Rome
and India -the Ancient Sea Trade (Vimala Begley and R.De Puma Eds.),
Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp.8-11.
Chakrabarti, D.K. 1978. Lapis lazuli in Early India. Man and Environment
2:51-58.
Coningham, R.A.E. 1990. Anuradhapura Citadel archaeological project, British
sub-project, Anuradhapura Salgaha Watta preliminary report 1989-1990,
Ancient Ceylon 9:23-48.
Coningham, R.A.E. 1991. Preliminary report on the second season of Sri Lanka-
British excavations at Salgaha Watta June-August 1990, South Asian
Studies 7:167-175.
Coningham, R.A.E. 1999. Passage to India? Anuradhapura and Early Use of the
Brahmi Script, Cambridge Archaeological Journal 6(1):73-97.
Coningham, R.A.E. and F.R.Allchin. 1992. Preliminary report on the third
season of Sri Lankan-British excavations at Salgaha Watta, July-September
1991, South Asian Studies 8:157-167.
Davids, Rhys, T.W. and J.E.Carpenter. 1890. Digha Nikaya, 3 vols, London.
Deraniyagala, S.U. 1972. The Citadel of Anuradhapura 1969: excavations in the
Gedige area, Ancient Ceylon 2:49-169.
Deraniyagala, S.U. 1992. The Prehistory of Sri Lanka, Department of
Archaeological Survey, Government of Sri Lanka, Colombo.
Di Crocco Virginia M. 1996. References and Artefacts Connecting the Myanmar
Area with Western and Central Asia and China Proper via the Ancient
Southwestern Silk Route from ca. 3rd century BC to the 13th century
CE, in Ancient Trades and Cultural Contacts in Southeast Asia (Amara
Srisuchat Ed.), Office of the National Culture Commission, Thailand,
Bangkok, pp.161-180.
Dikshit, G.S. 1959. Constitution of the Trade Guilds in Medieval Karnataka.
Journal of Karnatak University, Humanities 3:53-57.
Dussubieux, L. and B.Gratuze. 2001. Analysis of Glass from the Indian World
and from Southeast Asia”, BSTN, vol.37, pp.8-9.
Maritime Relations between Peninsular India and Southeast Asia 79
Dussubieux, L., and B.Gratuze, 2003 “Nature et origine des objets en verre
retrouvés à Begram (Afghanistan) et à Bara (Pakistan) , in De l’Indus a
l’Oxus. Archeologie de l’Asie Centrale, O. Boperarachchi, C. Landes et
C. Sachs (eds.), Association IMAGO-musée de Lattes, Lattes, France, pp.
315-337.
Dussubieux, L., C.M. Kusimba, V. Gogte, S.B. Kusimba, B. Gratuze and R.
Oka. 2008. The trading of ancient glass beads: new analytical data from
South Asian and East African soda-alumina glass beads. Archaeometry
50(5):797-821.
Dussubieux, L., B. Gratuze, and M. Blet-Lemarquand. 2010. “Mineral soda
alumina glass : occurrence and meaning”, Journal of Archaeological
Science, vol. 37, pp.1646-1655.
Engle, A. 1976. Glassmaking in China. Readings in Glass History 6/7:1-38.
Francis, Peter. Jr. 1984.Some Observations on the Glass Beads of Arikamedu.
Revue Historique de Pondicherry 30:156-161.
Francis, Peter. Jr. 1987.Bead Emporium: A Guide to the Beads from Arikamedu
in the Pondicherry Museum, Pondicherry: The Pondicherry Museum.
Francis, Peter. Jr. 1990.Glass Beads in Asia, Part II: Indo-Pacific Beads. Asian
Perspectives 29:1-23.
Francis, Peter. Jr. 1991. Bead making at Arikamedu and Beyond. World
Archaeology 23(1):28-43.
Francis, Peter. Jr. 1996. Beads, the Bead Trade and State Development in
Southeast Asia, in Ancient Trades and Cultural Contacts in Southeast
Asia (Amara Srisuchat Ed.), Office of the National Culture Commission,
Thailand, Bangkok, pp.139-160.
Francis, Peter. Jr. 2002. Asia’s Maritime Bead Trade 300 BC. to the Present,
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Ganesan, Naga. 1999. Mēlnaṅkāvaram aiñuṟṟvar aalvettu, Āvaṇam, Journal of
Tamil Nadu Archaeological Society, Thanjavur, vol.10, pp.16-17.
Geiger, W. and M.H.Bode. 1950. The Mahavamsa or the Great Chronicle of
Ceylon, Ceylon Government Information Department, Colombo.
Glover, I.C. 1989. Early Trade Between India and Southeast Asia, The University
of Hull, U.K.
Glovar, I.C.1996. The Southern Silk Road:Archaeological Evidence for Early
Trade between India and Southeast Asia, in Ancient Trades and Cultural
Contacts in Southeast Asia (Amara Srisuchat Ed.), Office of the National
Culture Commission, Thailand, Bangkok, pp.57-94.
Glover, I.C. 1996a. Recent archaeological evidences for early maritime contacts
between India and Southeast Asia, in Tradition and Archaeology -Early
Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean (H.P.Ray and J.F.Salles), Manohar
Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, pp.129-158.
80 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
1. Introduction
Indian relations with Southeast Asia can be generally ascribed to the
invasions of the Kushans into India in the 1st century AD; seeking fortunes
overseas by high-caste Indian adventurers and their colonization of the
locals (Map 5.1). There are reliable evidences regarding the sea-routes
followed by the Indians. Beginning from the north, there was first the
famous port of Tamralipti (Tamluk) in Midnapur district of West Bengal.
From this port, there was a regular sailing of vessels which proceeded
along the coast of Bengal and Burma (Myanmar). At least as early as the
2nd century BC, there was a regular trade-route by land Bengal and China
through Upper Myanmar and Yunnan. Through this route, the Indians
came and established their colonies not only in Myanmar but also in the
mountainous regions of upper valleys of the Chindwin, the Ayeyawady,
the Thanlwin, the Mekong and the Red River as far as Yunan.
In recent decades European and Asian scholars have unearthed great
stores of information on the history of Southeast Asia before the reaching
of the Europeans. It is found that since 1st century AD kingdoms emerged
in Southeast Asia practicing Indian religions, arts and customs including
the use of Sanskrit or Pali as the sacred language.
86 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Stone Inscriptions
A considerable number of stone inscriptions were found scattering in
Ramannadesa of Lower Myanmar. Most of them were written in Mon
scripts. The Mon used Pallava scripts. Nai Pan Hla says that they derived
the Pallava scripts from the Southeastern part of India in the 6th century
AD.1 Forchhammer thinks that Mon alphabets may have originated in
one of the Telgu-Canarese alphabets.2
The first and second of the four lines on the back are about the last portion
of Anuloma Paticcasamuppāda (the Law of Dependent Origination in
foreword order).The third and fourth lines are about the Joy of Utterance
(Anekajātisamsāra), stanza made by the Buddha, immediately after the
Buddha had attained Buddhahood.6
The brief account of this inscription is that about 218 years after
the demise of the Buddha, king Dhammasoka asended the throne in
Pataliputta. He was much devoted to the religion of the Buddha. So
he offered monks a lot of grains.7 This stone inscription is the earliest
epigraphic evidence confirming Taikkala on the side of Mt. Kelāsa, near
Thaton as Suvannaabhūmi indicated by Dipāvamsa and Mahāvamsa
(Figure 5.6).
3. Votive Tablets
Votive tablets are small Buddha icons, usually made out of baked or
unbaked clay by a press-mould technique, a process that has been used
for many hundreds of years to produce religious objects.8 The practice of
stamping tablets originated in India around the beginning of the Christian
Era but it became more popular during the Gupta (4th-6thcenturies AD).
These tablets display figures of Buddha, Bodhisattva or Tantric divinities
and often include Buddha creed-the Yedhamma stanza.9 They are made
as a means of acquiring merit. Coedes is of opinion that the practice
of making clay votive tablets was confined only to the Buddhists but
Dr ThanTun argues against his opinion by asserting that the tablets are
also being used by devotees of Hinduism. Myanmar votive tablets belong
A Study on Ancient Cultural and Civilization Links between India and Myanmar 93
from the 6th to the 15th centuries AD.10 Dvaravati tablets date from the 6th
to the 13th centuries AD.11 It is said that art of making terra-cotta votive
tablets by a mould had come to Myanmar around the 6th century AD
(Figure 5.8 (a) (b)).
Figure 5.8 (a): Votive Tablet Found at Sriksetra
4. Buddha Images
Buddhists have the tradition of making Buddha images for worshipping
on the Buddha’s behalf. The Buddha images are regarded as Uddissa
Cetiyas; one of the four types of Cetiyas.12 But it is hard to trace back to
the time of inventing Buddha images. During the life time of the Buddha,
created Buddha (nimitta Buddha) was made by the Buddha himself when
he went down to the Uttarakuru for alms-meal while he was preaching the
Abidhamma Pitaka in Tāvatimsa. It is said that although the art of making
Buddha images started in the 2nd century AD,13 the symbols representing
the Buddha such as wheels of the Dhamma, deers, etc. may date as far
back as Asoka Period (3rd to 1st century BC).14 The earliest Buddha images
are said to have been made in Mathura in India.14In general, there are five
positions for seated Buddha images (1) Dhammacakkamudrā (2) Dhyāna-
mudrā (3) Abhayamudrā (4) Bhumisparsamudrā and (5) Varadamudrā.16
A considerable number of old Buddha images were found scattering over
Ramaññadesa.
A Study on Ancient Cultural and Civilization Links between India and Myanmar 95
An Amaravatī style image of the Buddha (30 cm) was found at Kyet-
tu-ywe-Thaung village, 24 km east of Thaton. It is now kept at monastery
named Nandawya KyaungTaik in Thaton. The sculpture depicts the
Buddha in a standing position; with his right arm pendent by his side
and his left raised in the Vitarka mudra or holding his robes. The eyes
are open, the head covered with large hair curl. The right shoulder is
uncovered, the robe falling smoothly in parallel curved folds, broken by
the long, upward weep of the fabric on the left where the arm is raised17
(Figure 5.10). Three Buddha images were found at Tagundaing village
near Twantay (Kabin) in 2005. Apart from the votive tablets, terra-cotta
plaques depicting some episodes from the Jātaka Atthakathās are found
at the walls of the Thagya Pagoda inside the precinct of the Shwezaryan
Pagoda.
5. Finger-marked Bricks
Finger-marked bricks are found at Thaton and nearby sites such as
Kyaikkatha, Sanpannago and Dawei. The origin of finger marking in
South Asia, however, remains unclear. Preliminary survey of Buddhist
sites in India and Nepal recorded finger-marked bricks in Bihar (at
Kosambi, Rajagriha and Vaishali), Uttar Pradesh (at Kusinara, aravasti
and Varanasi [Sarnath], and Kapilavastu18. Finger-marking can be used
as a rough guide only, but provides valuable evidence of first millennium
AD habitation.19 The use of finger-marked bricks in Myanmar indicates
the relationship between Myanmar and India since first millennium AD
(Figure 5.11).
6. Coins
A lot of coins were discovered at Kyaikkatha in Lower Myanmar.
Kyaikkatha was first identified on aerial photographs by U Aung
Myintin 1976 and verified on the ground in 1981. The site occupies
a unique position at the mouth of the Sittaung River, linking it to the
Gulf of Muttama. During the 1981 survey, a horde of coins was found
at Kyo Bin Kone Kyaung, a monastery to the southeast of Kyaikkatha.
These were decorated with conch or Sankkha and Srivatsa motifs and
stylistically dated to the 5th century AD. The design of the silver coins
was adapted from South Asian pieces–notably of Andhra region–in the
early centuries AD and employs a common repertoire of symbols.20 In
addition to Kyaikkatha coins, two silver coins with Srivatsa and conch
shell and Srivatsa and a radiating sun were discovered at Winka21 and
Ayetthema villages at the foot of Mt. Kelāsa (Figure 5.12(a) (b)). The
A Study on Ancient Cultural and Civilization Links between India and Myanmar 97
four symbols most often seen in Myanmar are Srivatsa, the Baddapitha,
and the swastika rising sun, and the Sankha or conch. These are dated
back to the 6th to7th century AD, but others are of early centuries AD.22
Coins were also discovered in Pyu City-States namely Beikthano, Halin
and Sriksetra and Hmaingmaw (Pinle) (Figure 5.13(a) (b)).
8. Halin City-State
Another old Pyu city, which yielded Buddhist archaeological evidences
is old Halin city. It is situated in Wetlet Township, Shwebo District.
Preliminary excavations were done by Taw Sein Ko, Director of the
Burma Archaeological Department in 1905 and by Duroiselle, Director of
the same department in 1929. Two Pyu stone inscriptions were unearthed
from these excavations. These scripts go back to the 4th century AD.29
As one of the stone inscriptions contains the name ‘Srivikrama’,
which is found on the burial urns in Srikhestra, there might have been
some connection between Halin and Srikhestra. No Buddha statue and
votive tablet were discovered in Halin as in Srikhestra. Since there is a
lid of a pot resembling a stupa in Halin, it is presumed that Buddhism
reached Halin. It is found that the stupa engraved on the lid is the one
A Study on Ancient Cultural and Civilization Links between India and Myanmar 101
9. Pinle City-State
Another ancient Pyu city in which Buddhist artifacts and buildings were
discovered is old Pinle city. It is located 5 miles southeast of Kume by
the side of Yangon-Mandalay High Way in Myit – Thar Township. As it
lies closest to the Nathtaik pass out of the old cities scattering over the
Kyaukse plain, it would have been a commercial hub in those days.30
It can be assumed that as it was an important city on one of the two
China-Pyu-India land trading routes, it was a militarily, economically
and religiously significant centre at that time.
Regarding Pinle, the Jambukonchar Treatises states thus:
“…The four previous Buddhas had lived in that region
in their previous births. The first king of the dynastic line ruling the
region was king Wanatakalutuppa and the last king Cetissa…It was
known as Uatyaung Pancalarit during the life time of the Gotama
Buddha but as Pinle in Pyu Period…”32
During the excavation of No (8) mound in old Pinle City in the
1981-82 field season, a hollow silver Buddha statue and an Arahat statue
under the debries of bricks in the No (2) layer were found. Therefore, it
can be said definitely that Buddhist objects including a Buddha statue,
an Arahat statue, religious edifices, etc. found in Pinle are Uddiyacetis of
Buddhist. These excavated objects are very important religious artefacts
for the Buddhist.33
In addition, seven gold Buddha statues, seven silver Buddha statues,
an alloy Buddha statue and four silver stupas were exposed from
a brick mound in Maing Maw Village near Pinle. These statues were
102 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Endnotes
1. Nai Pan Hla, Professor Dr. Nai Pan Hla’s Research Papers, Yangon, Myanmar,
AharmanThitSarpay, 2005, p.267 (Hearafter cited as Nai Pan Hla, Research
Papers.)
2. SriPyanchi U Mya, Ancient Myanmar Alphabets, Yangon, Government
Printing and Stationary Department, 1961,p.4
3. Refer page 13, “Historical Sites in Myanmar, U Aung Thaw.
4. Dr. Nai Pan Hla, Archaeological Aspects of PYU MON MYANMAR,Yangon,
Thin Sarpay ,2011,pp.29-30
5. Nai Pan Hla, The Significant Role of the Mon Language and Culture in
Southeast Asia, Tokyo, Japan: Institute for the Study of Languages and
Cultures of Asia and Africa, 1992,p.56
6. U Sein Win, “Kun SeikPyu Stone Inscription in Pali”,Thuyethami Diary,
Yangon, Chan Tha Press, 2004, pp.3-9
7. KhinGyiPhyaw, Myanmar Translation of the Kalyani Stone Inscription,
Yangon, Myanmar: Department of Religious,1997, p.5
8. Chirapravati, Votive Tablets in Thailand, Oxford University Press, 1997, p.1
(Hereafter cited as Chirapravati, Votive Tablets in Thailand.)
9. Chirapravati, Votive Tablets in Thailand, P.5
10. Dr. Than Tun, Myanma Terracottas, Yangon, Monywe Press, 2003, p.64
11. Chirapravati, Votive Tablets in Thailand,P.9
12. Min Sithu, History of Worshipping Pagodas and Buddha Images, Yangon,
Shwedaungtaung Press,2001, p.125 (Hereafter cited as Min Sithu, Worshipping
Pagodas and Buddha.)
13. Min Sithu, Worshipping Pagodas and Buddha, p.113
14. Nai Pan Hla, Research Papers. P.23. Naing Pan Hla Says that Stone-deer
and wheel of the Dhamma are very old. They are similar to those appeared
in Asoka Period (3rd to 1stcentury BC.)
15. Coomaraswamy, The Origin of the Buddha Images, New Delhi,
MushiramManoharlal, Publisher Pvt. Ltd., 2001, p.33 (Hereafter cited as
Coomaraswamy, Buddha Images.)
16. Coomaraswamy, Buddha Images, p.32
17. Elizebath Moore, Early Landscapes of Myanmar, Bangkok Printing Co.Ltd.,
2007, p. 201(Hereafter cited as Elizebath Moore, Landscapes.)
18. Elizabeth Moore and San Win, The Gold Coast: Suvanabhumi?, Lower
Myanmar Walled Sites of the First Millennium AD., Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press, 2007, P. 214 (Hereafter cited as EleizabethMooreand San
Win, The Gold Coast: Suvannabhum.)
19. Donald M. Stadtner, The Mon Over Two Millennia Monuments, Manuscripts,
Movements, Institute of Asian Studies, Demystifying Mists: The Case For
the Mon. Chulalongkom University, Bangkok, 2011, P.40
106 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
20. Eleizabeth Mooreand San Win, The Gold Coast: Suvannabhum, P. 310
21. U San Win, ‘’An Overall Review of Field Trips made in Kyaikhto and Bilin
Townships in Mon State’’, Golden Jubilee Commemorative Issue of the
Myanmar Historical Commission, 2004,pp.272-285
22. P. Pamela, Gutman,’’The Ancient Coinage of Southeast Asia’’,Journal of the
Siam Society, Ι, 1978,pp.8-21
23. Nyunt Han, AungKyain, Chit San Win, Thein Lwin Oo, (New Evidence
Discovered in Old Cities) Myanmar Old Cities, Shwe Min Thar Press, 2007,
p.9 (Hereafter cited as Old Cities)
24. Major Ba Sein, (Beikthano City and Perspective on History),
ThakathopangapadethaSargaung, Vol. l, Part lll, 1966, P.184
25. Old Cities, PP.9-10
26. U Htay Wai, History of Pyu City Civilization, Yangon, Thiser press,
2009,PP.288-289
27. U Aung Thaw, ‘Old Visnu’ The Historical Sites in Burma, 2ndedition, Yangon,
The New Light of Myanmar and Guardian Press, 1993,p.50
28. Old Cities, p.11
29. U Myint Aung ,Research Field Trip in Halin, Yangon, MyintMetta Off-set,
2007,PP.86-87
30. Field Trip in Halin, P.236
31. Old Cities, P.13
32. Jambukonchar Treatise, PP.4-5
33. Old Cities,P.13
34. Niharranjan Ray, Theravada Buddhism in Burma, Calcutta, Calcutta
University Press, 1946, p.37
35. Niharranjan Ray, Sanskrit Buddhism in Burma, Niharranjan Amsterdam, H.J
Paris,1936, P.20
References
Chirapravati. 1997. Votive Tablets in Thailand, Oxford University Press.
Coomaraswamy. 2001. The Origin of the Buddha Images, New Delhi,
MushiramManoharlal, Publisher Pvt. Ltd.
Gutman, P. P. 1978. The Ancient Coinage of Southeast Asia. Journal of the Siam
Society, Ι.
KhinGyiPhyaw. 1997. Myanmar Translation of the Kalyani Stone Inscription,
Yangon, Myanmar: Department of Religious.
Min Sithu. 2001. History of Worshipping Pagodas and Buddha Images, Yangon,
Shwedaungtaung Press.
A Study on Ancient Cultural and Civilization Links between India and Myanmar 107
1. Introduction
The academic study of women in Buddhism began in late 19th century,
and the works of C.A.F Rhys Davids, Mable Bode, I. B. Horner laid
the bedrock over which subsequent works on the subject were carried
out. The Orientalist and the Protestant Buddhist approaches converged
on to one point; an over dependence on Pali textual tradition which
was seen to represent Buddhism in entirety with all its various forms.
More recent works, focusing on the different Nikayas, have also largely
based their interpretations on the texts of different schools to arrive at an
understanding of the relationship that women had with Buddhism and
also how / which sect was disposed more favourably towards women.
With the study of different genres of Buddhist texts, the main issues
that have kept scholars preoccupied in more recent times are as follows.
• The religious aspirations and capabilities of women
• The issue of Bhikkhuni or nuns ordination
• Women’s role within the Samgha and outside it
• Images of the feminine in Buddhism; their visual representation and
reception
112 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Having said this, there are also instances where archaeological data
have supported and substantiated textual interpretations. The fact that
upasikas were definitely favoured over their monastic counterparts is
evident in the textual renderings. Various types of structures associated
with lay-female Buddhist women have been identified and documented
at various Buddhist sites; like circular structures, ayaka stupas and three-
roomed cells all within and as an integral part of the sacred Buddhist
landscape. The presence of these structures, which imply lay presence, are
far more numerous as compared to sites with Bhikkhuni presence. Though
historical texts have been of little help in the identification of monastic
residences for nuns, quite a few have been identified archaeologically.
The presently available archaeological data on women within the
religion allow us to investigate further the role of women, their degree
of engagement with the religion, and their role of power and authority
within it; the issues that have evaded Buddhologists, so far.
Studies on women and Buddhism in Southeast Asia are mostly focused
on the contemporary issues like the issue of ordination and revival of
nuns lineage. Works that focus on the early history of Buddhism and
the role of women in it have been a fewer. They have basically followed
the methodological approaches that have directed the course of similar
studies in South Asia with primary focus on the survey of the textual
material. Most researches by feminist authors have focused on the study
of Mahayana Buddhism and its implications in the region. Works on
Theravada Buddhism on the other hand have been much lesser and far
between. These works have to try to assess among other reasons for
the popularity of Theravada among the female Buddhists in South Asia
(Andaya 2002). On the another trajectory, the innovative engagement
and reworking of the received Pali textual tradition to reconfigure and
repackage Theravada to make it more popular by bringing in elements
that find ready acceptance by lay adherents, especially the women (Derris
2008), indicates that the religion in the region was not a static monolithic
entity and was also not immune to change as was earlier believed.
Theravada penetrated into the interiors of the region, gaining a firm
foothold by integrating local beliefs and enhancing its appeal, presumably
by equating motherhood and merit making and creating thereby greater
opportunities for greater lay engagement, especially for Theravada
Buddhist women.
116 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
at the same time add to the study of cave sites known to have associated
with female Buddhist practitioners.
3. Concluding Remarks
Many temples in Thailand, more so in the North, do not allow women
to circumambulate the stupas. As by going around it, they might
desacralize relics enshrined within the stupa. Do such issues of purity
and pollution prevalent in contemporary Buddhism have a historical
precedent? In the light of this contemporary religious custom is there
a possibility of existence of stupas dedicated to women as are known
from South Asia? Issues such as these and many others still await
answer, and only an in depth archaeological enquiry would help resolve
many of these unanswered queries. Archaeological researches such
as focused on studying the nuances of monastic architecture from a
gendered perspective, its evolution and regional variations in the two
geographical regions can give answers to the issues that have evaded
satisfactory explanations thus far. Collaborative projects in archaeology
and ethnography that seek to map, document and more importantly
contextualize the presently available data can go a long way in providing
a more coherent and connected account of historical ties between the two
regions.
References
Davids, C.A.F Rhys. 1909. Psalms of the Early Buddhists: Volume I. Psalms
of the Sisters. London: Pali Text Society. https://archive.org/details/
PsalmsOfTheSistersPsalmsOfTheEarlyBuddhistsByMrs.RhysDavids
Derris, K. 2008. “When the Buddha Was A Woman: Reimaging Tradition in the
Theravada,” Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, Vol. 24 No.2, pp.
29-44.
Haynes, B. M. 1892. Women leaders of the Buddhist Reformation in Transactions
of the 9th International Congress of Orientalists, London, 1892, pp. 341-43.
Also published in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain &
Ireland (New Series), Volume 25, Issue 03, July 1893, London, pp 517–
566.
Horner, I. B. 1930. Women under primitive Buddhism : laywomen and
almswomen, G. Routledge & Sons, Limited. London. http://www.sacred-
texts.com/journals/jras/1893-13.htm
Jerryson, M. 2018. If you meet the Buddha on the road: Buddhism, Politics and
Violence, Oxford University Press.
118 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Umakanta Mishra
1. Introduction
George Cœdès (1968) considers arrival of the Esoteric Buddhism in
Southeast Asia from South Asia as the dominant fact of the 8th century
CE. Tantric Buddhism had spread to Southeast Asia in different waves
and through different channels and agents. Earlier scholars like Bernet
Kempers (1933) and recent scholars like Peter Sharrock (2016),
J. Sundberg (2003, 2010) and others, on the basis of the epigraphic,
archaeological and the Chinese Buddhist records, argue that ‘India’s
Buddhist strategists of the Pallava dynasty in the south and the later Pāla
dynasty in the north, ‘forged alliances in Southeast Asia in the 8th century
that became key to keeping alive their international proselytizing mission
when the emperors of China and Tibet ordered the closure of thousands
of monasteries on political-religious whims’ (Sharrock and Bunker
2016). The influence of Pallavagrantha script on the inscriptions of
early Sailendras (Canaggal Inscription of Sañjaya), the biography of the
Buddhist monk, Vajrabodhi, who spent three years in Java between 717-
120 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
He, however became a monk at the age of 13, and travelled towards
a monastery near the Sea (most likely Ratnagiri)2, where he obtained
Saddharmapuṇḍarīka sutra. He then accommodated on a merchant ship
and by travelling on which he visited many countries. He came to Nalanda,
became a disciple of Dhramagupta. Dharamagupta imparted him dhāraṇī,
yoga and three secrets of words, speech and mind. Then he wandered in
many parts of India and on the instruction of his preceptor, Dharmagupta,
left for China via Kashmir, Swat, Tibet, and finally reached in China in
712 / 716 CE at the invitation of the Chinese Emperor. Included among the
texts which he brought to China were the Mahāvairocanābhisaṁbodhi,
which he translated into Chinese in 725 AD. The text has survived later
in early Japanese copies, and is known as the Gobushinkan (Yamamoto
1990). He also made an iconographic copybook in his own hand of
maṇḍala deities of the Sarvatathāgata-tattvasaṁgraha (Sarvatathāgata-
tattvasaṁgraha 1981). Both the Sarvatathāgata-tattvasaṁgraha and
the Gobushinkan emphasised on the importance of Mahāvairocana and
the interrelated Mahākaruṇāgarbhodbhava-and Vajradhātu-maṇḍalas.
These two maṇḍalas form the basis of the Japanese Shingon Buddhism,
andaccording to the Japanese legends, were transmitted by Mahāvairocana
to Vajrasattva who kept them for several hundred years within an iron
stūpa in South India until they were recovered by Nāgārjuna (Snodgrass
1988 I). Śubhakarasiṁha also gave a copy of Mahāpratisarā dhāraṇī to
the Chinese emperor Su-tsung in 758 AD. Another Dhāraṇī, Usṇiṣavijayā
Dhāraṇī was also presented by Amoghavajra to the Chinese emperor Tai-
tsung in 762 AD (Chou 1945; Snodgrass 1988).
STTS (Sundberg 2003). On the other, Arlo Grifiths found the occurring
in the Buddhist tantric text of the Gūhyasamājatantra (Griffiths 2014).
Recently, Andrea Acri found parallel of the mantra Oṁ ṭakī jaḥ mantra
in two other Balinese texts: Pañcakaṇḍastava and Gaṇapatitattva
(Acri 2016).
Note: The first three square terraces contain Buddhas in four direction in four
different postures. The Buddha in the fourth gallery may be identified with
Sarvārthasiddhi, Sākyamunī and the Buddhas in circular latticed stupa in the
fifth and sixth can be identified with Vairocana Buddha
Source: Author’s own.
with vajra, maṇi and ratna, and Kazuko Ishii argues that the square and
rhombhic pattern of the bell shaped latticed pattern represent the jewelry
(Ishhi 1995).
Figure 7.4: Tathāgata Vairocana in Bodhyāngi Mudrā
Alignment of Bodhisattvas
The Bodhisattvas in the eight petalled lotus in intermediate direction
are SE: Sāmantabhadra, SW: Mañjuśrī, NW: Maitreya, NE: Lokeśvara
where as the four other Bodhisattvas in the outer circle are E: Mañjuśrī,
S: Sarvanivāraṇaviṣkāmbhin, W: Ᾱkāśagarha, N: Kṣhitigarbha.
In Table 7.2, a comparison has been made between the representation
of the alignments of various Bodhisattvas in various directions in the MVS
and the iconographic arrangements in the outer wall of Caṇḍī Mendut.
Table 2 continued...
132 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
...Table 2 continued
The Buddhist remains of Odisha are strewn throughout the state but the
main concentration is in the Assia group of hills in the undivided Cuttack
district. Archaeological excavations and explorations have revealed more
than 100 sites but the sites of Ratnagiri, Lalitagiri and Udayagiri contain
sustentative presence of tantric Buddhism (Mitra 1981; Patnaik 2017;
134 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Trivedi 2011). As has been noted in the previous section, two important
texts carried by Śubhakarasiṁha, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra to China
are the MVS and the STTS. The Abhisaṁbodhi Vairocana image of
Lalitgiri is inscribed with a mantra on the back slab which reads “namaḥ
sāmantabuddhānāṁ a vira (line 1), and is followed by huṁ khaṁ in line
2.3 This mantra appears in the chapter six of the MVS. The Khadipada
Avalokiteśvara image inscription from Odisha (dated to 8th century CE)
refers to installation of the image by Rahularuci who has been described
as Mahāmaṇḍalācāri (who is adept in maṇḍalas) paramaguru (supreme
preceptor) (Ghosh 1942). From the Buddhist sites of Odisha, five types
of maṇḍalas are found –1.the stūpa maṇḍala with four Dhyānī Buddhas
flanked by two Bodhisattvas each as in the Udayagiri stūpa; 2. Sculptural
maṇḍalas of eight Bodhisattvas around a Buddha on a single stone slab;
3. Four Bodhisattvas surrounding four Dhyānī Buddhas with fifth one
at the centre; 4. free-standing Bodhisattvas forming a maṇḍala and the
last type being the maṇḍala diagram on the back of the image. The
last category– maṇḍala diagram– is incised on the back of Jambhala
image at Ratnagiri which consists of two concentric circles along with
the Buddhist creed, a mantra and letters and numerous inscriptions
representing Jambhala, Vasudhārā, dance deities, deified paraphernalia
and musical instruments (Mitra 1981). In Odisha, there are many
examples of Vajradhātū and Garbhadhatū maṇḍalas datable to 8th-11th
centuries AD (Donaldson 2001; Mishra 2009).
The Udayagiri Mahāstūpa (dated to 10th century) CE has been identified
as a garbhadhātū maṇḍalas stūpa by Donaldson (Donaldson 2001). In the
outer niches of the Udayagiri stūpa, four Tathāgata Buddhas have been
represented. They have been identified as Vairocana in the north flanked
by Mañjuśrī on the right and Kṣhitigarbha on left (he holds a kalaśa
with a kalpavṛkṣa on it), Akṣobhya facing east is flanked by Maitreya in
the dexter and Sarvanivāraṇaviskhāmbin on the sinister, facing west is
Amitābha flanked by Lokeśvara on the right and Vajrapāṇi on the left and
Ratnasaṁbhava in the south is flanked on two sides by Sāmantabhadra on
the right. This alignment of the Bodhisattvas closely corresponds to the
Garbhadhātū maṇḍala of the MVS. Table 7.3 represents the iconographic
alignments of the Tathāgatas and Bodhisattvas in the Udayagiri Stūpa
near Monastery I.
Circulation of Buddhist maṇḍalas in Maritime Asia 135
6. Conclusion
The paper briefly deals with the Indian Buddhist masters who carried
the tantric Buddhism to central Java, China and Japan in 8th cenury CE.
Further, it also examined some of the traces of the tantric Buddhism in
cental Java by analysing mantras, icons and architecture. The Buddhist
monks of India went to Java and carried mantras, maṇḍalas and icons to
Southeast Asia. South India and Nalanda played a key role in the cultural
interaction with Java involving esoteric Buddhism. However, the eastern
littoral state of Odisha also preserved early epigraphic, iconographic
and architectural evidences of maṇḍala form of Buddhism based on the
twin texts of the MVS and STTS, which also efflorescenced in the art,
iconography and architecture of Borobodur, Mendut and Sewu. This
mutual interaction between Odisha and Southeast Asia in the tantric
Buddhism in early medieval period from 8th-12th centuries CE requires
more in-depth study.
138 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Endnotes
1. Mandala involves meditative visualization of hosts of supernormal beings
in particular geometrical arrangements (Skt.maṇḍala) for the purpose of
mundane and soteriological goals (Skt. siddhi).
2. Ratnagiri has been described as located on the sea coast by Tibetan Buddhist
monk Lama Tāranātha
3. This mantra on the back slab of Abhisaṁbodhi Vairocana image of Lalitagiri
appears in chapter six of the Mahāvairocana Sūtra. The section states,
“Then the World-honoured One Vairocana further dwelled in the samādhi
‘Adamantine Play Which Vanquishes the Four Demons’ and uttered words
of adamantine syllables for vanquishing the four demons, liberating the
six destinies, and satisfying the knowledge of an omniscient one: Namaḥ
samantabuddhānāṃ, āḥ vi ra hūṃ khaṁ”(Homage to all Buddhas! Āḥ vira
hūṃ khaṁ.’ (Giebel 2005: 80).
References
Acri, A. (ed). 2016. Esoteric Buddhism in Medieaval Maritime Asia, Networks
of Masters, texts and Icons, Singapore: ISEAS.
Bandyopadhyay, B. 2007. Excavations at Udayagiri-2. 1997-2000, MASI 100,
Delhi: ASI.
Chandra, L. 1980 a. ‘Borobodur as a monument of Esoteric Buddhism’, The
Southeast Asian Review 5(1): 1-41.
Chandra, L. 1995. ‘The Contacts of Abhayagiri of Sri Lanka with Indonesia in the
Eighth Century’, in Lokesh Chandra (ed) The Cultural Horizons of India,
Vol. IV, Delhi: IAIC. 10-22.
Chou Yi-Liang. 1945. ‘Tantrism in China’, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies,
8 (3-4): 241–332.
Cœdès, G. 1968. Indianised States of Southeast Asia, Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press.
Cruijsen, T., Griffiths, A., and Klokke, Marijke, J. 2012. ‘The cult of
the Buddhist dhāraṇī deity Mahāpratisarā along the Maritime
Silk Route: New epigraphical and iconographic evidence from
the Indonesian Archipelago’, Journal of the International
Association of Buddhist Studies 35 (1-2): 71-158.
Donaldson, T. E. 2001. Iconography of the Buddhist Sculptures of Orissa, 2
vols. Delhi: IGNCA/Aryan Book.
Ghosh, A. 1941-1942. Khadipadā Image Inscription of the time of Subhakara.
Epigraphia Indica, XXVI: 247-248.
Giebel, R. W. 2005. The Vairocanābhisaṁbodhi sūtra. Translated from the
Chinese. Taishō Volume 18. Number 848. Berkley: Numata Center for
Buddhist Translation and Research.
Circulation of Buddhist maṇḍalas in Maritime Asia 139
Sharrock, P. 2016. ‘Seeds of Vajrabodhi: Buddhist Ritual Bronzes from Java and
Khorat in A. Acri (ed) Esoteric Buddhism in Medieaval Maritime Asia,
Networks of Masters, texts and Icons, Singapore: ISEAS: 237-52.
Singhal, S. D. 1991. Candi Mendut and the Mahavairocana-Sutra’ in Lokesh
Chandra (ed) Art and Culture of South-East Asia, (New Delhi: International
Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan,): 373-384.
Skilling, P. 1997. Dharmakirti’s Durbodhaloka and the literature of Srivijaya.
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Snodgrass, A. 1988. The Matrix and Diamond World Maṇḍalas in Shingon
Buddhism, 2 vols, Sata Pitaka Series 354-55. Delhi: IAIC.
Sunberg, J. R. and Giebel, R. 2011. ‘The Life of the Tang Court Monk Vajrabodhi
as Chronicled by Lü Xiang (呂向): South Indian and Śrī Laṅkān Antecedents
to the Arrival of the Buddhist Vajrayāna in Eighth-Century Java and
China’, Pacific World (Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies) Third
series, 13: 129-222.
Sundberg, J. 2003. ‘A Buddhist mantra recovered from the Ratubaka Plateau’,
Bijdragen tot de taal- and-en volkenkunde 159: 163-88.
Trivedi, P.K. 2011. Further Excavations at Udayagiri-2, Orissa, (2001-03),
Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India (MASI-104), Delhi:
Archaeological Survey of India.
Yamamoto, C. 1990. Mahāvairocana-sūtra (tr.), Śata Piṭaka Series 359, Delhi:
International Academy of Indian Culture.
8
The Mudra in the Dances of
ASEAN: A Hypothesis
1. Introduction
The Mudra is the highly stylized language in hand-gestures used in Indian
dance forms. It is related to Hindu, Buddhist or Tantric iconography and
Carnatic music of southern India, but distinct in forms. From 200 BC
until the 15th century, India had established trade, cultural and political
relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Thailand, Indonesia,
Malay Peninsula, Cambodia and Vietnam. The Indian traders, adventurers,
teachers and priests continued to be the dominating influence in Southeast
Asia until about 1500 CE; and Indians often ruled the earliest states in
these regions. Hinduism and Buddhism existed with mutual toleration.
Cultural dissemination, hence, shaped cultures and performing arts of
Southeast Asian Kingdoms.
2. Indian Diaspora
The roots of the Southeast Asian cultures can be seen from the influence
of the movements of colonial powers, traders, adventurers, teachers and
preachers to Southeast Asia. Early movements suggest that migrations
and movements influenced the peoples of Southeast Asia. The influence
of Indian civilization became predominant in the early centuries
(Munoz 2006).
142 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Source: Wikipedia
3. Hypothesis
The roots of ASEAN classical and traditional dance can be seen from
the influence of the movement of Hinduism and Buddhism to Southeast
Asia. Such cultural heritage can be traced to its roots in classical Indian
dance. Protecting this heritage of classical and traditional dances is the
main concern of ASEAN Member States. Such protection involves proper
documentation and comparative study of the relationship between history
and practiced cultural expressions. Hence, classical and traditional dances
do have their significance on the importance of sustainable development,
therefore identifying the roots of cultural expression is very important for
identification of cultural heritage.
Being involved in numerous ASEAN-COCI performing arts
programmes and activities, I witnessed similarities in the hand-gestures
of ASEAN dances.
Figure 8.1: Namaskara / Anjali / Hridayanjali Mudra
Gesture of Greeting, Prayer, and Adoration
4. Suggested Projects
Brunei Darussalam suggested an ASEAN Committee on Culture
and Information (ASEAN-COCI) Project under the ASEAN-India
Cooperation Fund entitled Seminar and Workshop on the Mudra in
Classical and Traditional Dances of ASEAN in 2012. In the seminar and
workshop, the participants will explore the hasta-mudra (hand gestures)
in classical Indian dance and examine such gestures to the performing
arts of the ASEAN Member States. The experts from India will facilitate
discussions on similarities and differences as well as interactions between
professionals and practitioners.
Previous ASEAN-COCI projects involving the discipline of dance
concentrated on festivals and exchanges. In music, a project entitled
“Sonic Orders in ASEAN music” manage gathered similarities and
differences in sonic orders of the music and musical instruments of
ASEAN and the relationship with the standard and traditional tuning
systems.
By identifying the roots and looking back into the history of the
movement of cultures within ASEAN, ASEAN Member States can
identify their similarities and differences; hence such identification would
lead to understanding and tolerance with cultures of ASEAN. It would
also have an impact on the grassroot level of practitioners of cultural
expression (dance) hence with this unification through the Mudras,
ASEAN can be seen as building its identity through exploring its roots
hence promote ASEAN Awareness and the sense of community.
The objectives of this project are as follows.
• To preserve, ensure continuity and protect distinctiveness of ASEAN
and Indian cultural heritage
• To explore differences and similarities between ASEAN dance hand
gestures and tracing them back to the roots from Classical Indian
Dance
• To find common ASEAN Mudras and their roots from classical Indian
dances
Brunei Darussalam as the proponent will work closely with ASEAN
Secretariat, and India would work on the implementation. The Ministry
of Culture of India and the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR)
were suggested to organize the management of the project in India with
146 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
strong support from the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), India. Prior
to the implementation, the country coordinator for ASEAN-India will
establish mechanism for discussions between the ASEAN and India. It
is suggested that the India Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) will be
the counterpart in India.
Table 8.1: The Outputs, Indicators and Activities Proposed
Outputs Indicators Activities
To document one A compilation of During the workshop,
classical dance of AMS country papers each country will
and country research consisting of detailed present their country
papers based on the drawings and form paper and to submit
interactions, relations and of one classical or to the coordinator
roots to the history of the traditional dance, which the word file
movement of greatest has relations to classical and PowerPoint
civilization in ASEAN; Indian dance. presentations (with
videos and audios)
for compilation and
documentation.
To gather professional All AMS represented A forum for
dancers, choreographers and comprised discussion will be
and dance researchers in professionals in dance held.
an academic situation and choreography.
To learn and gain Participants to discuss Workshop from
experience with resource one of the common ASEAN Member
person(s) from India on hand gestures of States and resource
Classical Indian Dance, ASEAN, rooting back persons.
through Workshop on the to classical Indian
Mudras Mudras.
5. Concluding Remarks
It is hoped that the project can be materialized owing to the importance
of cultural links between ASEAN and India as well as tracing back at the
importance of Indian civilization in this region.
References
Carroll, C., and Carroll, R. 2012. Mudras of India: A Comprehensive Guide to
the Hand Gestures of Yoga and Indian Dance, Expanded Edtion, Jessica
Kingsley Publishers, London.
Guthrie, E. 2004. A Study of the History and Cult of the Buddhist Earth Deity
in mainland Southeast Asia, PhD Thesis submitted to University of
Canterbury, New Zealand.
Kaeppler, A.L. 2000. Dance Ethnology and the Anthropology of Dance, Dance
Research Journal, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 116-125.
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Resource for Educators, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
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1, New York, Hencry Hold and Co, pp. 309-312.
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Prehistoric Sources, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 8(1), pp. 1-14.
Mahulikar, G. 2003. The Effect of Ramayana on various Cultures and
Civilizations, Indica (Journal of the Heras Institute of Indian History &
Culture) Vol.40, No.1.pp.3-12.
Massey, D.S., Arango, J., Huga, G. Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., Taylor, J.E.,
1993. Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal,
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Monuz, P.M. 2006. Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the
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of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500, University of Malaya Press.
Part III
Sophana Srichampa
1. Introduction
In 1992, India joined as a sectoral dialogue partner of the ASEAN and
became the full dialogue partner in 1996 and Summit-level Partner in
2002. In 2009, India signed an FTA in goods with ASEAN; and services
agreement in 2014. The ASEAN is a strategic partner of India because
it is located between two major players and along important sea routes.
India aims to form the security architecture for the future of Asia, and it
is acting as a counter-balance against China in disputes over South China
Sea with some members of the ASEAN. India seeks to be a strong player
in ASEAN, which would help it to become a global power in future
(Mrunal, n.d.).
Over the last 25 years, India did gain benefits in following services–
education, healthcare, IT-software, accountancy and consultancy
services. Indian investors are interested in greater access to ASEAN
especially for IT, automobiles, engineering and pharmaceuticals. ASEAN
investors are keen to cooperate with India in construction, transportation
and engineering services as well as shipping (Mrunal, n.d.).
However, relations between India and ASEAN focus mostly on the
ASEAN Economic Community. But, there is an ASEAN Community
pillar, which is the concern of this article, namely, the ASEAN Socio
152 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
2. Cultural Diplomacy
The meaning of Cultural Diplomacy is “Cultural Diplomacy
may best be described as a course of actions, which are based
on and utilize the exchange of ideas, values, traditions and other
aspects of culture or identity, whether to strengthen relationships,
enhance socio-cultural cooperation, promote national interests
and beyond; Cultural diplomacy can be practiced by either
the public sector, private sector or civil society.” (Institute for
Cultural Diplomacy, n.d.)
The term ‘culture’ is defined variously by many scholars as follows.
Culture is way of life, cumulative knowledge, beliefs, values,
attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, spatial relations;
accumulated experience which is socially transmitted to be
a person’s learned and behaviour; it becomes a collective
programming of the mind of one group differentiated from
another. (‘Culture’, n.d.)
3. India and ASEAN Partnership in Culture
According to the historical linkages between India and Southeast Asia
over more than thousand years, the culture of India was syncretised into
local cultures of the Southeast Asian people. Moreover, Indian Diaspora
is acknowledged as assets for Southeast Asia. Here, we would like to
highlight issues, which will be developed between India and Southeast
Asia.
Some Prospects of ASEAN-India Partnership in Culture 153
The Hindu circuit can be promoted for tourists flow from India to
Southeast Asian countries (mainland down to Indonesia) and vice versa.
Other religions, namely, Islam, Sikhism and Jainism, can be promoted
for pilgrimages from Southeast Asia to India.
}
i) Rice plantation processes
ii) Rice nourishment processes
iii) Rice harvest processes
“Production processes”
iv) Rice consumption
v) Rice distribution
vi) Rice exchange
Some Prospects of ASEAN-India Partnership in Culture 157
‘wisdom ambassadors’ for others to learn more about that country. The
book exchange should be arranged formally and initiated effectively by
an assigned office. This way less investment is required, but the benefit
would be surmountable.
In the future, e-books can be exchanged over networks between India
and ASEAN. Moreover, there should be an “India and ASEAN Writer/
Translator Association” for selected books translation into national
languages. This would be a part of people to people understanding
promotion through the translation of outstanding literatures and novels.
If it can be promoted in the school curricula in each country, it would be
a good way to learn about neighbours’ culture.
8. Conclusion
All Southeast Asian countries have been influenced by Indian culture
and civilization in one way or other since more than thousand years.
Resultant “ASEAN values” are the foundation of common characteristics
of the ASEAN Community. When India first took part in ASEAN in
1992, most activities and policies were initiated at the government level
of both ASEAN and India. The goal of collaboration was mainly focused
on economics and security. However, India has implemented “Cultural
Diplomacy under Soft Power” as its policy towards other countries
including those of Southeast Asia. The socio-cultural programmes
connecting ASEAN to India have been promoted and sponsored by
the Government of India for more than 50 years through, for example,
scholarships. Southeast Asia tends to look towards western countries
and other eastern countries. In fact, many Indian people prefer to look
towards west too. So, the policies of governments and the interests of the
people may not correspond with each other.
According to the “3Cs Mantra” (Commerce, Culture and Connectivity)
of the Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s Act East Policy, these 3Cs are
important for building people-to-people relationships. Connectivity by all
means should be promoted, roads in particular. The governments of India
and ASEAN should plan further collaborative programmes through road
networks. Eco-tourism, religious tourism and ethnic (culture)-tourism
between India and ASEAN have been proposed for prospective partnership
project. When tourism starts, people would be able to travel and learn and
get to know each other. Trade and investment will then follow naturally.
Other potential cultural diplomacy collaborations include: films/movies,
Some Prospects of ASEAN-India Partnership in Culture 161
Acknowledgment
I am grateful to Dr Amarjiva Lochan, the Founder Adviser of the CBS,
Mahidol University for giving several ideas to boost the Indo-ASEAN
relations.
References
Abbi, A. (n.d.). Tai Kadai languages of India: A probe into the Seventh
Language Family. [Online:http://www.eva.mpg.de/fileadmin/content_
files/linguistics/conferences/2015- diversity-linguistics/abstracts_all.
pdf] retrieved on the 1st January 2017.
ASEAN-India Centre at RIS. 2016. ‘ASEAN-India Relations’. [Online: http://
www.mea.gov. in/aseanindia/20-years.htm] retrieved on the 11th February
2017.
‘Culture’. (n.d.). [Online: https://www.tamu.edu/faculty/choudhury/culture.
html] retrieved on the 1st January 2017.
‘Indian rhinoceros’ (n.d.) [Online:, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Indian_
rhinoceros] retrieved on the 1st January 2017.
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org/ index.php?en_culturaldiplomacy] retrieved on the 11th February 2017.
‘Khasi people’. (n.d.) [Online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khasi_people]
retrieved on the 1st January 2017.
162 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
1. Introduction
India has myriad features of cultural heritage. One of the significant
markers is its rich mythology. Hindu mythology is quantitatively huge
with a fascinating plurality in its interpretations. Additionally, one myth
may have several versions or retellings. Even the same frame story of a
myth has often different twists and turns. This renders the mythology to
appear to be contradictory and at times confusing also. The reasons for
dissimilarities in the stories are many, but two reasons sum up the peculiar
character of several Indian things. Variations have emerged in different
historical periods and in different geographical areas/regions. It is this
same kind of pluralities that one encounters in the case of languages,
vernaculars and customs of the country. This has rendered the nature
of the mythology as robust, almost garrulous as well as dynamic, ever-
changing over centuries to suit new socio-economic situations. Inchoate
as it may appear, it is paramount, for anyone who wants to understand
India, to first understand the mythology, as it is the mythology that forms
the backdrop to many of the dance forms, the classical and folk songs,
the visual as well as martial arts, the tropes and archetypes found in the
Indian cinema, among others. Therefore, I believe that one would be
bereft of certain things without some knowledge and understanding of
Hindu mythology, and many aspects of the culture would be lost without
some comprehension of its symbolism and interpretations.
164 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
The institutions where one can understand this area of myths are
practically non-existent in India. This is an appalling desideratum that
there are hardly any university, where one could go to pursue a course on
such studies. It is doubly pitiful that to study aspects of Hindu mythology,
culture or religion, one is given the best advice to enrol in an overseas
university, where there are full–fledged departments of religious studies.
In addition, if one would embark for an individual attempt to study
mythology, the scholars in majority are non-Indians which, in itself, I
must clarify, is not a negative feature; but I felt there is a need to contribute
in this area with one’s own living experiences and one’s own scholarship.
I was buoyed to contribute in this field because though I had done
a Doctorate on aspects of history and religion and I have been teaching
history for several years, mythology forms only a small part of the
syllabi. I have written books, articles and also given talks on various
aspects of Hinduism and culture in India and overseas. Even though I
am grateful for all these opportunities, what I am aware that the lectures
were only piecemeal and I could not do justice to the abundant tapestry
of research that I had been involved in during all these past decades. And
I was not able to reach a desirably larger audience. Hence, when I was
approached by a young entrepreneur to start a platform for understanding
Hindu mythology seven years ago, I was excited and ready to take on
the challenge. The idea was to videotape my lectures and subsequently
of other scholars lectures on several aspects of mythology and personal
development and to create online courses. There is a universal appeal to
mythology. Depending how it is presented and how it is interpreted, it can
be of use to people across all denominations. I know the value of myths
as I have been continuously fascinated as to why certain ideas continue
across millennia and garner strength over time and while others die out. I
focussed my energies on bringing out the fundamental principles behind
evergreen and empowering ideas and how people can apply them to
maximize their human potential. So what I started highlighting is what is
so powerful about the myths and at the same time providing life solutions
that lie in stories. After considerable online research, we realized the
massive online demand for information, content and related subjects.
Building Synergies through Digitalization 165
I am glad that I was able to make these films, where not only matters
regarding deep issues are considered but also amusing anecdotal parts
of different myths are shared, which people identify with or may just
simply find entertaining. Moreover, the entry point in the series is
psychological, and we deal with everyday problems. The resonance of
these life and world affirming stories is clear from the large number of
subscribers world-wide, and this in turn leads to constant avenues for
cultural exchange.
The films incidentally are not to be compared with free YouTube,
where a person just watches videos. In our films, there is text companion
along with video screening. The content is non-religious and modern, as
well as success oriented. The films have been kept neutral and wide for
all sections of people.
It is an exprience that would change and transform lives, thereby
creating new vistas of communication. This is how a global platform for
mythology was created and provided.
Total subscribers: 160,000
ASEAN countries: 27,000
where the free content is concerned, 400,000 people a year visit the site.
3. Concluding Remarks
I sincerely believe that this kind of interaction is crucial between different
ASEAN nations and should be done on both sides for increasing cultural
understanding and interactions.
11
1. Introduction
This paper places some of the themes explored at different conferences
over the last decade on historical interactions between South and Southeast
Asia in the context of the educational programmes and institutional
partnerships proposed at different fora like the Institute of Southeast
Asian Studies, Nalanda University and ASEAN-India Centre (AIC) to
suggest lines along which emerging collaborations could be developed.
The focus is on creating spaces of engagement and academic resources on
the artistic and intellectual traditions of these civilizations and to deepen
awareness of both their historicity and their plurality. These concerns
inform the mandate of Sahapedia, an online encyclopedic resource on the
arts and cultures of South Asia. The inter-cultural flows between South
and Southeast Asia form one of the most fascinating areas to observe how
arts, ideas and practice relate to broader historical and social dynamics.
Given the richly diverse cultures that distinguish the countries of South
and Southeast Asia, it is Sahapedia’s endeavour to encourage its users
to relate local cultural forms with trans-local patterns and to document
multi-ethnic histories through a tool for cultural mapping; both of which
have clear resonance with the aims of the conference.
168 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
to the popular understanding of Asia’s past and its living traditions, and
for us to explore avenues opened up by the current scholarship. These
possibilities are elaborated below.
3. Museum Collaborations
Museum collaborations (proposed at the AIC Conference, 2015) could
take the form of the loan of museum treasures as also the joint curation
of exhibitions, designed to help viewers move from recognition of
familiar icons to a sense of diversity of forms and practices associated
with divinities with similar names, and the intellectual and artistic energy
they embody. And for viewers from our countries, visual displays need to
be complemented by colloquia, where they may discuss representations
of divinities or epic characters in different literary and performing arts
traditions. Museum audiences are liable to assimilate what they see to
pre-existing frames of reference, just as scholars whose cross cultural
frontiers may be tempted to cherry-pick to buttress arguments (as
observed by Shereen Ratnagar at the ‘Asian Encounters’ Conference, IIC
2011). Yet these risks are being offset by the potentials opened up by
the kind of sensitive curation and interpretation that uses the security of
familiar reference points to stimulate curiosity about new interpretations,
and receptivity to other languages, especially among younger audiences.
Mutual understanding is also deepened by exposure to practice, where
rituals dissimilar at sight may be united by their underlying significance,
or obversely forms are retained with a shift in meaning (an understanding
of these strengthens mutual identification, or enlarges sensitivity to
other ways of seeing). Travelling exhibitions also allow curators to
explore different ways of interpreting similar collections in relation to
different audiences—when the exhibition, ‘The Everlasting Flame:
South and Southeast Asian Interactions: Contexts for Renewal 171
4. Conclusion
There are also large-scale projects that could serve as models. There is
the Clay Sanskrit Library and Murty Classical Library of India, a series
of translations with scholarly introductions where the original is printed
in parallel in roman script. For the literatures of South and Southeast
Asia, the introductions would need to bring out how narratives, themes
and rhetorical forms are elaborated and reinvented across literatures. A
second project would be to develop a digital database of past and current
studies on South and Southeast Asia along the lines of the International
Medieval Bibliography of Europe, North Africa and the Near East (300–
1500) that the University of Leeds is maintaining since 1967.
172 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
References
Ariati, N W. P. 2016. The Journey of a Goddess: Durga in India, Java and Bali.
New Delhi: Aryan Publishers.
Cama, S., Dadi P. and Ashdeen Z. L. 2016. ‘Threads of Continuity: Zoroastrian
Life and Culture.’ New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts.
School of Oriental and African Studies, London. 2013. ’Looking Back:
Zoroastrian Identity Formation through Recourse to the Past. Centre for
Iranian Studies, October 11.
Davies, No. 2011. Vanished Kingdoms: The History of Half-forgotten Europe.
London: Penguin Books.
Deshpande, P. 2016. ‘The Writerly Self: Discourses of Literate Practice in Early
Modern and Colonial Western India’. Lecture at the Centre for Historical
Studies, JNU, August 17.
Gaucher, J. 2006. De la Maison à la Ville en Pays Tamoul.
Godrej, P. and Firoza P. M. 2016. ‘Across the Oceans and Flowing Silks from
Canton to Bombay 18th–20th Centuries’. New Delhi: National Gallery of
Modern Art.
Heesterman, J.C., et al, eds. 1989. India and Indonesia: General Perspectives.
Leiden: E.J. Brill.
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Online at http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/ documents/working_papers/nscwps007.
pdf (viewed on January 10, 2017).
———. 2011b. ‘Figures of Repetition (Yamaha) in the Bhattikavya, the
Raghuvamsa, the Siwagrha Inscription and the Ramayana Kakawin’, in
From Lanka Eastwards: The Kakawin Ramayana in Literature and the
Visual Arts, eds. Andrea Acri, Helen Creese and Arlo Griffiths. Leiden:
KITLV Press, pp. 25–52.
India International Centre, IGNCA and Delhi University. 2011. International
conference, ‘Asian Encounters: Networks of Cultural Interaction’, New
Delhi, India International Centre, November 1–3.
Jha, P. 2017. ‘Writing Power and the Power of Writing: Literature and History
in Fifteenth Century North India.’ Lecture at the Centre for Historical
Studies, JNU, March 22.
Keay, J. 2005. The Spice Route: A History. London: John Murray.
Kwok, K. 2011. ‘Singapore’s Perakanan Museum: Making the Case,
Conceptualising and Presenting a Unique Regional Culture’, paper
presented at the international conference, ‘Asian Encounters: Networks
of Cultural Interaction’, India International Centre, New Delhi, November
1–3.
South and Southeast Asian Interactions: Contexts for Renewal 173
1. Introduction
The cultural identity of Southeast Asia is firmly rooted in the region.
Years of contact with the neighbouring civilizations have left deeper
impressions. Hinduism and Buddhism found their way into Southeast
Asia via travellers, monks and merchants. Islam and Christianity too
travelled via South Asia to Southeast Asia. The vast remains of stone
sculptures and architecture from early Southeast Asian kingdoms stand
testimony to the adaptation of Indian religions by local rulers. Early
Hindu-Buddhist cultural centres in Southeast and East Asia included Pyu,
Funan, Zhenla, Dvaravati, Champa, Central Java, Angkor, Majapahit,
Srivijaya and Kedah. Extensive archaeological remains and inscriptions
in Southeast Asia, dating from the 3rd century CE to the end of the 14th
century CE, bear testimony to the presence of Indian religions as well as
their adaptation by local rulers. Literary traditions too were adapted and
internalized; and the popularity of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata is
immeasurable. The trading networks established by South Asian Islamic
communities in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asian region too have a
long and uninterrupted history.
176 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Note: The Indian Heritage Centre building at night. The Centre under the management
of the National Heritage Board and with support from the Indian community, traces
the history of the Indian and South Asian community in the Southeast Asian region.
Source: Author’s own.
Through the Lens of Art: Setting the Context to Indian Heritage 177
armlet together with other pieces of Javanese gold jewellery. The armlet
is decorated with an embossed kala (known as kirtimukha in South
Asia) head. The advanced technique and design of the armlet have led
scholars to conclude that it has the appearance of an Indian ornament.2
Furthermore archaeological surveys conducted since 1984 by Professor
John Miksic and his team at sites such as the Fort Canning, the new
Parliament Complex, the old Parliament House, Colombo Court, and
Empress Place, yielded thousands of artefacts; predominantly dating
between 1300 and 1600. These artefacts include equally Chinese and
local (Malay-style) pottery, with small quantities of glass, gold, copper,
lead, and dammar (tree -resin used as incense). Ergo various types of
industries were operating in Singapore, which included gold, copper, and
bronze, glass recycling, and pottery-making. Several Chinese jars called
“mercury jars” dating back to the 14th century were excavated at the old
Parliament House site, and are suggestive of early industrial activity.
A carnelian bead and glass or perhaps lac-bangle fragment, possibly
originated in India, dated back to the late 13th century were found at Fort
Canning, and are indicative of early contact with the subcontinent. These
archaeological finds are initial displays at the Indian Heritage Centre;
establishing the presence of a cosmopolitan, multicultural community
since the pre-colonial period.
Note: As displayed at the Indian Heritage Centre. Collection of the Professor John Miksic
Source: Author’s own.
Figure 12.8: (Left) Head of Buddha, Late 8th–Early 9th Century CE,
Shailendra Period, Andesite Stone, Central Java, Indonesia
(Right) Head of Buddha, 5th Century CE, Gupta Period, Red
Sandstone, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India
4. Curating Displays
Through the curatorial device of juxtaposition, carefully installed
displays suggest the exchange of ideas in the creation of art and sculpture.
Bringing together South and Southeast Asian models of the Head of
Buddha, the influence of Indian artistic traditions on the development
of Javanese Buddhist art but with an emphasis on the development of a
unique Southeast Asian model has been put forward. In the collection of
the Centre is a remarkable Javanese Head of Buddha, made of andesite,
dating back to the 8th-9th centuries CE, Shailendra dynasty period. The
conspicuous base displayed as seen above is an attestation to its excellent
provenance having been mounted by the European Collection Karl Ernst
Haus, who had acquired the sculpture in the early 20th century for his house
museum. This superbly carved head evinces all the prescribed physical
attributes or Mahapurusha lakshana of the Buddha: a cranial bump or
ushnisha emerging from atop the head signifying enlightenement; tightly
arranged snail-shell curls suggestive of the closely shorn hair of a tonsured
man; a circular dot or urna at the centre of the forehead, denoting his
vision into the celestial world; and elongated earlobes, suggesting the
past use of heavy ear ornaments that were abandoned when the Buddha
gave up his regal life and went in search of enlightenment.This figure is
reminiscent of the dhyani Buddha sculptures at Borobudur – a colossal
Buuddhist temple complex in Central Java. Borobudur was constructed
between the 8th and 9th centuries CE under the Shailendra dynasty. It was
discovered in 1814 by Sir Stamford Raffles who was then the British
lieutenant governor of Java. Certain features of this sculpture such as the
elegantly arched brows, straight nose and full lips, are comparable to the
Gupta model displayed alongside at the Centre. Dating to the 5th century
CE, Gupta period, of the Mathura school, the sculpture is made of red
standstone exhibiting the perfect symmetry and balance of the Gupta
prototypes. The perfected art of the Gupta school had an influence on the
sculptural traditions of several other kingdoms within and outside India.
In Figure 12.9 (Left) standing figure of a bronze Buddha was found
at a site in the Bujang Valley in Kedah in the early 1940s. The serenely
smiling Buddha stands in tribhanga, with his hips tilted to the left and
his right hand in varada mudra (boon-bestowing) gesture. His left hand
holds the gathered ends of his diaphanous robe or samghati, which is
worn over the left shoulder. The style of this piece is typical of the Gupta
school, particularly of the Sarnath style. This figure is considered as one
Through the Lens of Art: Setting the Context to Indian Heritage 187
6. Concluding Remarks
From the earliest times, Indians have traded across the Indian Ocean and
over the Asian landmass. This has provided the setting for movement
and settlement in lands beyond India, well before the period of
European colonial intervention. Pre-colonial sojourns have further been
cemented by lasting migrations from the subcontinent to different parts
of Southeast Asia. Indian maritime communities such as the Chulias
of the Coromandel Coast and Bohras of Gujarat continue to be part of
diasporas in Southeast Asia, having links with the long standing cross-
cultural heritage of the regions. In this context post-colonial identities
emerged, which have had common socio-religious backgrounds breeding
mutual appreciation and understanding. The narration of modern South
Asian migration to Southeast Asia is incomplete without establishing
this vibrant past. The Indian Heritage Centre’s collection and displays
were constructed acknowledging this important prelude to the Singapore
Indian experience.
Role of Culture in
ASEAN-India Relations for
the World Peace
Andrik Purwasito
1. Introduction
The complexities of the international relations need the new global order
to promote peace between states and all human relationships. It means the
relations have not only to be state-centric but also relate to all citizens.
We have long been asleep on this matter that the state is the actor, and we
forget that the people and people contact, non-state actors, is also very
important. This works in a soft power diplomacy from an economic issue
to a social and cultural issue. We know that international relations are as
the relationship between family and friends. This India-ASEAN link in
culture is more based on the needs of the living beings. Art and cultural
relations between India-ASEAN are very strategic to promote a centre of
trade and the global market. ASEAN and India, both have huge natural
resources, like mining, forestry, plantation, breeding and fisheries. Our
cultural relations had supported economic and political relations and
enhanced stronger bonding between the regions.
The India-ASEAN cultural link considers it important to unify the
people in the spirit of togetherness. To create stable and prosperous people,
this decision can build a regional community based on cultural relations.
This relation is according to the objective of the ASEAN Community—
is creating an economic integration, the ASEAN Economic Community
(AEC), by establishing a single market,1 and then a political security,
the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC). The ASEAN
192 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Netizen Civilization3
Now, we are in the era of globalization. This period has abolished national
borders.4 We can meet each other through digital system. The world is
in our hand. On one hand, we follow globalization, but, on the other
hand, we face many challenges, threats and disruptions in international
relations, such as cybercrime, moral disaster, dehumanization and modes
of new crimes based digital system. Because of the development of
the information and communication technology (ICT), we have now
two worlds— the real space and a cyber space. The old traditions have
Role of Culture in ASEAN-India Relations for the World Peace 193
3. Anybody is Diplomat
India and ASEAN people follow the globalization path. They can
communicate freely. It is designed by “voice” to “click and share”. There
are a positive opportunities in the international relations, especially in
India-ASEAN cultural relations. Both are growing very fast and driving
every netizen to the desire of independence. Consequently, the hegemony
of the state to the people is becoming weaker. This is really the weakening
state control over citizens. The hegemony and legitimacy of capitalism
over citizens is also getting weaker. Now, we have been born what is
called “capitalnet,” a form of a local capitalists or a nano capitalism,
which is a new concept of local (small) community, but, it is globally
powerful.
Such people and small communities have become active actors in
international relations. They have built self-identities by themselves, and
tried also to educate people to be independent. They are also the great
part of the counter culture to the tendency of corrupt government, octopus
capitalism and hegemony. The artist community in India and ASEAN
countries, for example, can realize the goal of building the India-ASEAN
socio-cultural community with the goal of strengthening the solidarity
and unity of the people.
Finally, everyone can be a King. It is also changing the concept of
diplomacy from the official channels of communication6 to the non-
official channels of communication. An initial change in this period is
where we called, “anybody is a diplomat.” In cultural perspective, the
globalization would build cultural homogenization over time.
4. Cultural Actions
Hope that the cultural actions between India and ASEAN are realizable
when people communicate with each other to minimize dehumanization.
Some of the activities such as ASEAN cultural activity provide
scholarships to nine of the ASEAN youths those who aim to study batik
194 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
6. Conclusions
To realize the cultural India-ASEAN relations, we have conducted
following activities.
(i) International Puppet Festival
(ii) Artist in Residence
(iii) Cultural Media Relations:
• Cultural Television
• Bloggers Community
(iii) Guarantee freedom and creativity; (iv) Reject all forms of symbolic
and physical violence and (v) Maintain good attitude and politeness.11
The AIR as a cultural programme is based on a joint activity in small
community of 50-100 people or more. They work in same place and same
time.The members of AIR live in Ashrama (a cultural dormitory). Every
day they meet and eat together, do the art activities ensemble, such as
workshops, seminars, focus group discussions, exhibitions and cultural
research.
AIR programme requires involvement of various institutions, both by
state and non-state organization, so as to maintain routine, quantity and
frequency.12
AIR programme is an embodiment of diplomacy, people to people,
who are naturally able to contribute to the ideals of spirit of togetherness.
Therefore, official institutions such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Directorate General for ASEAN Cooperation, the Art Institutes, the
Universities, etc. should assist and facilitate and coordinate cultural
activities. The programme must be supported by financial and diplomatic
facilities to speed up the process of formation of Indian and ASEAN
cultural links.
Endnotes
1. Direktorat Jenderal Kerjasama ASEAN Departemen Luar Negeri RI, Cetak
biru Komunitas Ekonomi ASEAN (Asean Economic Community Blueprint),
Jakarta, 2009
2. Jurnal Pengkajian Lemhanas RI, No. 14, Desember 2012
3. Andrik Purwasito, Netizenship Civilization, HI-FISIP-UNS, Surakarta, 2015
4. Andrik Purwasito, Komunikasi Multikultural, Pustaka Pelajar, Yogyakarta,
2015
5. Ibid
6. G.R. Berridge, et.al, Diplomatic Theory from Machiavelly to Kissinger,
Palgrave, Macmillan, Hamsphire, 2001, p. 1
7. http://www.tabloiddiplomasi.org/previous-isuue/159-september-2011/1216-
kembangkan -kerjasama-sosial-budaya-asean-melalui-people-to-people-
diplomacy.html, download May 25, 2015, at 8.22
8. Anthony Giddens, The Textbook of the Nineties, Sociology, Polity Press,
Oxford, London, 1990, p 76-7
9. Thomas Stamford Raffles, The History of Java, Indonesian version, Penerbit
Narasi, Yogyakarta, 2014
10. Denys Lombard, Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya, Warisan Kerajaan-Kerajaan
Konsentrik, Indonesian version, PT. Gramedia, Jakarta, 2000, p. 133
11. Ibid
12. Ibid
References
Berridge, G.R. et.al. 2001. Diplomatic Theory from Machiavelly to Kissinger,
Palgrave, Macmillan, Hamsphire.
Direktorat Jenderal Kerjasama ASEAN Departemen Luar Negeri RI. 2009. Cetak
biru Komunitas Ekonomi ASEAN (Asean Economic Community Blueprint),
Jakarta. Jurnal Pengkajian Lemhanas RI. (2012). No. 14, Desember.
Role of Culture in ASEAN-India Relations for the World Peace 199
Giddens, A. 1990. The Textbook of the Nineties, Sociology, Polity Press, Oxford,
London.
Lombard, D. 2000. Nusa Jawa: Silang Budaya, Warisan Kerajaan-Kerajaan
Konsentrik, Indonesian version, PT. Gramedia, Jakarta.
Purwasito, A. 2013. “Memikirkan Peran Budaya, Guna memperkuat dan
mendukung ASEAN Community 2015” Paper on Seminar for ASEAN
Community 2015, in Lombok, Nusa Tenggara Barat, October, 28, 2013.
______, Komunikasi Multikultural, Pustaka Pelajar, Yogyakarta, 2015
______, Netizenship Civilization, Penerbit HI Publishing, FIFIP-UNS, Surakarta,
2015
Lull, J. 1998. Media Komunikasi Kebudayaan, Suatu Pendekatan Global,
Indonesian version, Penerbit Yayasan Obor Indonesia, Jakarta.
Limburg, Val E. 2004. Electronic Media Ethics, Penerbit Pustaka Pelajar,
Yogyakarta.
Raffles, T. S. 2014. The History of Java, Indonesian version, Penerbit Narasi,
Yogyakarta. http://www.tabloiddiplomasi.org/ previous-isuue/159
-september -2011/1216-kembangkan -kerjasama- sosial-budaya- asean-
melalui -people-to-people-diplomacy.html, download May 25, 2015, at
8.22
Internet Source
http://www.tabloiddiplomasi.org/ previous-isuue/159 -september-2011/1216
kembangkan -kerjasama-sosial-budaya-asean-melalui -people-to-people
diplomacy.html, download May 25, 2015, at 8.22
14
Strengthening Cultural
Relations through
Museums
Mohamad Shawali bin Haji Badi
1. Introduction
Both India and Malaysia are connected through several cultural and
historical ties in the following two phases:
• The Protohistoric Era, when the centre of the Indian civilisation was
the Indus river valley. It was spread throughout the world, including
Southeast Asia by merchants and Hindu-Buddhist missionaries as
well as through colonialism.
• The British Colonial Era in the 19th century, especially after 1870s,
when the British administration brought in many Indian immigrants
to fulfil the need for manpower in plantations and government service.
After Independence, the Indians who had long lived in Malaysia
obtained citizenship, and became part of Malaysia, living harmoniously
with other Malaysian communities and contributing to nation’s
development. Presently, the Indian community comprises 2.2 million or
9 per cent of the overall Malaysian population, and is the third largest
ethnic group in Malaysia.
202 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
d) Private Museums
Museums are established and managed by individuals or the private
sector, such as the Islamic Arts Museum, Chocolate Museum, Toy
Museum, Jade Museum and others.
Museums in both countries have a significant role in influencing India-
Malaysia relations. The cultural artefacts displayed in museums are solid
evidence on the existence of a long relationship between Malaysia and
India. It binds both nations in close cultural ties.
Evidence of the Indian civilisation and its influence on the Malaysian
culture can be seen through historical sites, monuments and artefacts
exhibited in museums. Several museums under the management of the
Department of Museums Malaysia have exhibited historical remains of
the Indian civilisation obtained through archaeological excavations and
private collections of the Indian community in Malaysia, who inherited
them from their ancestors. Presently, there are three specialized museums
under the administration of the Department of Museums Malaysia, which
exhibit archaeological and cultural artefacts that serve as evidence of
the existence of a trade and Hindu-Buddhism propagation centre in the
Southeast Asia.
are displayed. These textiles had penetrated the local market and made
into attires for the Malays.
It is undeniable that the Indian civilisation has influenced and
shaped the socio-cultural ethics of the Malaysian community, and
finally assimilated into the nation’s culture and bonded both nations
in a dynamic cultural relation. What is more important is how cultural
relationship can be strengthened and value can be added through the
role of cultural institutions in both countries. The role of museums and
other cultural institutions must be seen as equally important to the role of
economics, education, engineering, information technology or military
in strengthening relations between India and Malaysia.
3. Cultural Exchange
Diplomatic relations between Malaysia and India were forged in
1957, after Malaysia attained Independence. To further strengthen the
relationship between the two nations, particularly in terms of cooperation
and cultural exchange, the Malaysian and Indian governments signed a
Cultural Agreement on 30 March 1978 in New Delhi. Subsequently, on
27 October 2010, another Cultural Exchange Agreement was signed for
the period 2010-2013. On 23 November 2015, both countries signed a
Cultural Exchange Programme Agreement for the period 2015-2020.
This outlines steps that must be taken at the Ministry level and among
officers to encourage, strengthen and promote cultural cooperation
through activities such as the exchange of visits, performing arts
groups, art exhibitions, training, co-publications, publishing materials,
archives, joint exhibitions, as well as cooperation in the preservation and
conservation of cultural heritage that involves museums, archaeology, art
galleries, archives and libraries.
Out of 15 activities agreed upon, following four are directly related to
museum institutions:
• encourage cooperation in exchanging visits between archaeological
institutions, museums and archives establishments of two countries;
• endeavour to facilitate the exchange of Museums, Archaeologists,
Conservators, Archives and Libraries personnel for training to
exchange information and experience from each other;
• collaborate in joint publication projects and exchange publications
relating to heritage, librarianship, archaeology, museology, archives
and history of arts;
206 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
5. Concluding Remarks
Many Indian artefacts and cultural objects are displayed in museums in
Malaysia. Many monuments and historical sites of the Indian civilisation
and cultural practices have been absorbed as part of its national culture.
However, it is not enough to strengthen the relationship between the two
countries in a long term. More large-scale, consistent and high-impact
arts and culture exhibitions must be planned and implemented. Both
countries must take opportunities presented by the Cultural Exchange
Programme Agreement 2015-2020 to strengthen cultural relations
through the role of social institutions like museums. The Cultural
Exchange Agreement that was signed must be followed by the consistent
establishment of cultural exchange programmes as well as dialogues
between the ministries, agencies and cultural institutions. The remaining
years must be used beneficially by both the nations to plan, implement
and strengthen museum activities that are consistent, high impact and
mutually beneficial.
15
Enhancing India-
Philippines Cooperation
in Culture
Joefe B. Santarita
1. Introduction
Since time immemorial, culture and its related activities are considered
important part of human condition and for everyday transactions. In the
recent times, however, culture has evolved to become an indispensable
medium of dialogue and understanding with others, within or between
countries. Thus, modern nation-states began to employ various cultural
forms in conducting their relations with neighbours. In such interactions,
there were attempts that failed, but many were successful too. Hence, it
is imperative to countries such as India and the Philippines to similarly
revisit their ancient encounters and the traces of their practices/influences.
Subsequently, this revisiting of the ‘shared heritage’ is hoped to assist
stakeholders to craft and implement strategies that would fully enhance
cultural partnerships.
In the case of the India-Philippines cooperation in culture, it is
appropriate to start the discussion on the concept of heritage diplomacy.
To better understand this concept, it is good to quote here at length the
idea of Prof. Tim Winter. He opines that heritage diplomacy is more
expansive than cultural diplomacy which typically pivots around the
projection or export of a particular cultural form as a mechanism of soft
power. Film, celebrity, sport or fashion are among the frequently cited
examples of cultural exports that help countries secure influence beyond
210 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
their own national boundaries, with the United States, France, Italy and
India associated with cultivating successful programmes in these areas.
In contrast, heritage diplomacy goes beyond the export or projection of
a particular cultural form, and instead brings into focus bi-and multi-
directional cultural flows and exchanges. In many cases, heritage, as a
non-human actor, becomes activated diplomatically because it speaks
to notions of shared culture, even one culture. Moreover, heritage
diplomacy extends beyond the use of culture as a tool for international
public and political relations. It acts as an arena of governance, one that
crosses borders, and becomes politicized as it straddles sectors as diverse
as architectural conservation, social development and post-disaster
reconstruction. In this regard, heritage diplomacy can broadly be defined
as a set of processes whereby cultural and natural pasts shared between
and across nations become subject to exchanges, collaborations and
forms of cooperative governance (Winter 2015). Hence, states around
the world are pursuing a language of ‘shared heritage’ to semantically
shift material culture from one category to the other. Architecture,
archaeological remains, traditional dance forms, food and textiles are
among those cultural forms being discursively framed as shared heritage
by former colonial powers and rising regional powers alike in the name of
creating forms of historical and cultural conjoining; a process that gives
significantly more diplomatic weight to their contemporary international
relations (Winter 2016).
In the recent times, regional powers such as China and India have
also expanded their heritage diplomacy in many fronts all over the world.
India, as one of the early civilizations, is similarly expanding its cultural
interests in Southeast Asia. For some time, India has provided assistance
to Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, and Lao PDR in an array of heritage
sectors, including archaeology, textiles, museums and modern urban
architecture. More recently, however, such forms of cooperation have
been explicitly mobilized as a mechanism for promoting economic and
diplomatic relations with Myanmar, offering a case in point. Concerned
by the growing influence of China in the country, the Indian government
began folding archaeology into its official diplomatic visits from 2010
onwards, invoking ideas of mutual pasts to build trust and diplomatic ties
(Winter 2016). India in particular has implemented its Act East Policy
(AEP) as an important mechanism to forward its interest in the region
not only in the politico-security and economic aspects but also in cultural
aspects.
Enhancing India-Philippines Cooperation in Culture 211
in the Philippines by the 12th century observed these oral traditions by re-
telling similar storiesfound in the Indian epic Ramayana into ‘Darangen’.
This re-telling is the basis of the story being interpreted and performed,
whenever the singkil is danced (Santarita 2013).
Figure 15.2: Singkil
The body, arms, and hand swaying and movements in this dance
remind ancient dance forms from many countries of the Hindu-style of
dancing, which in the singkil can be explained by the extensive influences
made by the Sri-Vijaya and Majapahit empires that reached Indonesia as
well as the many islands of the Philippines. In the performance, the main
dancer–Princess Gandingan–interprets the movements after learning the
rituals from her mother, the powerful healer in the village, in gathering
medicinal plants and herbs from the forest. Movements that interpret
Gandingan’s sojourn in the forest, either alone or with her friends and
faithful assistant that usually bear a beautiful parasol for the princess
wherever she goes during the dance (Santarita 2011).
Aside from performing arts, the most extensive evidences of Indian
influences in the Philippines are Sanskrit elements in the languages of the
country. These have persisted since their introduction in the Philippines
between the 10th and 15th centuries and have been fully assimilated into
their speech systems. There appear to be about 336 words in Philippine
languages recognizably of Sanskrit in origin, and 50 per cent of these
have definitive provenance in Sanskrit (Francisco 1994). William Henry
Scott even gave actual statistical count of Sanskrit words in Philippine
214 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
languages. He found out that some 150 separate Sanskrit words are
identified as the origin of Philippine terms majority are in Tagalog and
the rest in Bisaya, Ilocano and Sulu (Tausug) (Scott 1968 as cited by
Francisco, 1994). Examples are guro (teacher), saksi (witness), and
dukha (grief/miserable) among others. Santarita even observed that some
Hindi words found in the Philippine languages through the years have
changed slightly its meaning. Words such as kama which means love in
Hindi and has become bed in Filipino; pitaka which is basket (Hindi) to
wallet (Filipino), and interestingly the term bana for arrow (Hindi) to
husband (Filipino/Hiligaynon).
In terms of concrete manifestations of Indian presence in the
Philippines, Francisco identified some artefacts that are housed either
in the National Museum of the Philippines or abroad (Francisco 1994).
These include the Buddhist Tara of Agusan, votive stamp of Calatagan,
Golden Garuda of Palawan and other glass beads.
In Agusan, Vajralasya, an eight-inch tall image of a woman in pure
gold at Maasin, Esperanza, was discovered in 1917 along the muddy
bank near the Agusan River. The figure passed through many hands and
almost melted down before the Field Museum purchased it in 1922.
Scholars think that the statue may represent an offering goddess from a
three-dimensional Vajradhatu (Diamond World) mandala. Possibly more
than 1,000 years old, this pint-sized, 18-karat gold statue is considered
one of the Philippine Islands’ most important cultural artefacts. The icon
is presently kept at the Grainger Hall of Gems of the Field Museum of
Natural History, Chicago, United States of America (The Field Museum).
In Calatagan, Batangas, clay medallion or votive stamp on whose
obverse face is an image of the Avolokitesvara Padmapani in bas-relief
was discovered. The image stands in the classic Indian pose known as
‘tribhanga’; three bends and appears to hold a padma, lotus in his right
hand. This object was associated with 14th – 15th century, and is now
stored in the National Museum of the Philippines.
Furthermore, the Golden Garuda pendant was found in Brookes
point Palawan. Such image is now stored in the National Museum of the
Philippines, and is believed to be the vehicle of the Hindu God, Vishnu at
the height of power of the Hindi-inspired Majapahit Empire. This image
along with other artefacts such as glass beads of various colours and the
Filipino words of Sanskrit origin are testaments of Hindu influence in
pre-colonial Philippine society (www.philippine-trivia.com).
Enhancing India-Philippines Cooperation in Culture 215
4. Conclusion
To ensure dialogue and promote amity and cooperation among peoples of
India and Southeast Asia, particularly the Philippines, culture (heritage to
be exact) as a resource should be maximized well through various forms.
This can be done only if strategies and plans are carefully considered and
implemented. It is important that the interventions being proposed should
concentrate more on the development of people who are working and
Enhancing India-Philippines Cooperation in Culture 221
Endnotes
1. In Maharadia Lawana story, Rama is Radia Mangadiri, Laksmana is Radia
Mangawarna, Sita is Tuwan Potre Malano Tihaia, Kusa/Lava is Laksmana,
who in the story assumes the character of Hanuman. Ravana is Maharadia
Lawana. The story’s setting is in the legendary island of Pulu Agama Niog.
Pulu means island, Agama for village and Niog for coconut. Hence, Pulu
Agama Niog simply means coconut grove village.
References
Canta, M . 2014. Indian Textiles in the Philippines: Contexts of Encounter and
Traces of Practice. University of the Philippines. Dissertation.
Francisco, J. 1994. Sarimanok and the Torogan & Other Essays. Marawi City:
Mindanao State University.
Santarita, J. 2011. India-Philippine Relations in the Context of India’s ‘Look
East’ Policy. National University of Singapore. Dissertation.
Santarita, J. 2013. Capitalising on Cultural Connections: Indian Influences in
the Philippines. Civilizational dialogue: Asian inter-connections and cross-
cultural exchanges. Ed., Anjana Sharma. New Delhi: Indian Council for
Cultural Relations and Manohar Publishers & Distributors.
222 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
1. Introduction
In 2017, Vietnam and India celebrated their 45 years of establishment
of diplomatic relations (7/1/1972-7/1/2017) and 10th anniversary of the
Strategic Partnership between the two countries (6/7/2007-6/7/2017).
The diplomatic relation and friendship between Vietnam and India
were formally founded by President Ho Chi Minh and Prime Minister
Jawaharlal Nehru, and then have been continued by successive leaders
and peoples of both the countries. The relationship between the two
countries, has been upgraded to the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership
level to meet aspirations of the two in their fundamental and long-term
interests in all areas.
That is not how far the relationship between Vietnam and India had
started. In fact, the relationship between the two had started long time ago.
India has profoundly left great influence on almost every aspects of life
in many countries in the world, particularly in the countries of ASEAN
region. Significantly, this influence was placed with no means of force.
It has been very unique and different from other dominant cultures and
civilizations of the world history. For over two millenniums, we have not
witnessed any violence from India on other nations. Cultural influence
224 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
and exchange between India and other regional countries have gradually
taken place through her ancient-yet-continuing religious, philosophy,
architecture, arts and trade. ASEAN members, particularly Myanmar,
Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam, are countries that were
deeply under the Indian cultural influence. By trade and religions,
Hinduism and Buddhism, all aspects of Indian culture and philosophy
spread widely and profoundly in many countries1 in the region.
In case of Vietnam, the cultural connection between India and Vietnam
was formed for many centuries through Buddhism and especially, the
existence of Champa, an Indianized Kingdom that was located in the
region of the south-central of today’s Vietnam. After becoming part of
current Vietnam (since the late decades of 15th century), many aspects of
Champa’s culture and arts survived and currently have been protected and
preserved well in many Cham relics, located scattered in some provinces
such as Hue, Quang Nam, Khanh Hoa, Binh Dinh, Phu Yen, Ninh
Thuan, etc. by Vietnamese authorities and people. My Son Sanctuary
(Quang Nam province), Po-Nagar (Nha Trang City) and many existing
Cham temples in the south-central and north of Vietnam reflect a great
influence of India’s religions (Brahminism and Buddhism), architecture
and sculptural arts2 (Sharma 2013).
4. Conclusion
We would like to make following suggestions for further discussion with
scholars and policy-makers of India, Vietnam as well as all other countries
in ASEAN on the international cultural cooperation and exchanges.
Extension: Extending the cooperation in culture from popular areas such
as traditional performing arts, cuisine, heritage management, religions,
yoga, etc. to more contemporary and creative industry-oriented areas
such as films, visual arts, design, software, game, applied craft, pop
music, religious tourism, etc.
Time-bound Implementation: Both nations must strictly respect the
times set in their bilateral agreements or MoUs. Result of the agreement
between India and Vietnam on the international project of conservation
and restoration of Cham monuments in My Son indicates for a better
time-bound implementation of any other cultural cooperation projects.
Sustainability: Countries should take turns to organize more regularly
cultural programmes or activities to make those cultural aspects become
closed and familiar with peoples of two countries.
Diversification: The cultural cooperation between the two countries may
aim to fund grants, technical assistance, technology provision/low-price
trade, governance strengthening (management, skills and professionalism,
entrepreneurship, etc); preferential mechanism for cultural goods and
service businesses, among others.
6. http://indembassy.com.vn/cms.php?id=8
7. http://indembassy.com.vn/cms.php?id=8
8. http://www.mysonsanctuary.com.vn/tam-diem/60/854/kiet-tac-a1-my-son-/
Appendix
2nd International Conference
ASEAN-India Cultural and Civilisational Links
19 January 2017, Jakarta
Summary
of the Conference
salt, textiles, metal, gems, gold, pearl, steel, glass, spices, etc. were
integrated into a well-organized trading system.
5. The participants of the Conference observed that the exact points
of trans-oceanic trade interactions could not be identified but
it points to the place covering Southern Thailand and Northern
Malaysia, where important archaeological sites with Indian goods
were found. The sites like Khlong Thom, Ban Don Ta Phet, Muang
Thong (Ko Kho Khao), Khao Sam Kaeo and Laem Pho in Thailand,
Kuala Selinsing in Malaysia, Brunei, Kobak Kendal and Sembiran
in Indonesia, Gilimanuk in West Bali of Indonesia, Buni grave
complex on the North Coast of Java, Oc-Eo and Tra Kieu in Vietnam
and Darussalam in Brunei were reported with Indian objects like
gem stones, glass beads and ceramics like rouletted ware indicating
that trade centres and port towns played a pivotal role in linking
the Vietnam and China on the east and Indian and Mediterranean
countries on the west in the early historic period. Thus, the available
material evidences clearly point to the existence of considerable
trade networks between India and Southeast Asia.
6. The participants of the Conference highlighted that the primary
concerns of Indian merchants were trade, traveled or migrated and
eventually settled in different countries in Southeast Asia. Indian
culture had a profound influence on the mind set of many Southeast
Asian civilizations. It was also observed that only very few literature
contributions from the Southeast Asian scholars and researchers.
Therefore, it is important to understand from Southeast Asian
countries perspective to know how the Southeast Asian countries
have adopted the Indian culture and carried in their part of life.
Agenda
Speakers
• Dr. V. Selvakumar, Assistant Professor,
Department of Epigraphy and Archaelogy,
Tamil University, Thanjavur
• Dr. K. Rajan, Professor, Department
of History, Pondicherry University,
Puducherry
• Dr. Umakanta Mishra, Assistant Professor,
Ravenshaw University, Cuttack
• Ms. Nalina Gopal, Curator, Indian
Heritage Centre, Singapore
• Dr. Mya Mya Thaung, Assistant Director,
Department of Historical Research and
National Library, Ministry of Religion and
Culture, Yangon
• Mr. Siyonn Sophearith, Director,
Cambodian Ministry of Culture and Fine
Arts, Phnom Penh
12.30 – 13.15 hrs : Lunch Break
Speakers
• Prof. Himanshu Prabha Ray, Former
Chairperson, National Monuments
Authority, Ministry of Culture, New Delhi
• Ms. Sophana Srichampa, Associate
Professor and Chair for Bharat Studies,
Organisation Research Institute for
Language and Culture of Asia, Mahidol
University, Bangkok
• Dr. Joefe Santarita, Associate Professor
and Dean, Asian Centre, University of the
Philippines, Manila
• Dr. Nor Arlinda Binti Mohamed Khalid,
Undersecretary of International Relations
Division (Culture), Ministry of Tourism
and Culture, Kuala Lumpur
Keynote Address
Your Excellency Mr. A.M. Fachir, Vice Minister for Foreign Affairs of
Indonesia;
Your Excellency Nguyen Quoc Dzung, Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs,
Viet Nam;
Your Excellency, Mr. Vongthep Arthakaivalvatee, Deputy Secretary
General of ASEAN;
Smt. Preeti Saran, Secretary (East), Ministry of External Affairs,
Government of India;
Shri. Suresh K. Reddy, Ambassador of India to ASEAN;
Distinguished Speakers;
Excellencies;
its South East Asian partners, and has offered scholarships to students
from CLMV countries to study there.
8. A Mekong-Ganga Coooperation Museum of Traditional Asian
Textiles inaugurated in Siem Reap, Cambodia, has proudly showcased
affinities in our weaving styles and textiles. As part of our effort to
document our cultural and civilizational ties, we also propose to map
Indian inscriptions along the Mekong River as well as record shared
cultural symbols that are found in the river basin.
Ladies and Gentlemen,
9. I said before, 2017, marks 25 years of our Dialogue Partnership, 15
years of our Summit Level interaction and 5 years of our Strategic
Partnership with ASEAN. Our celebrations will include hosting of
a Commemorative Summit, a Commemorative Foreign Ministers’
Meeting, a Youth Summit and a host of other events including
ASEAN-India Cultural Festivals, business events, policy seminars,
public competitions and a car rally and sailing expedition. The theme
of our commemorative celebrations is ‘Shared Values, Common
Destiny’, which aptly reflects the close cultural and civilizational
links India and countries of South East Asia have enjoyed over the
millennia.
10. Some of you must wonder why this focus on the historical and
cultural connect between India and South East Asia? It is because
a generation which ignores history has no future. As responsible
citizens, it is incumbent upon us to trace and preserve our shared
heritage and leave this legacy for the future generations.
11. India and Indonesia are close neighbors. We share a deep civilizational
and cultural link. We had the privilege of hosting President Jokowi
in India recently. His landmark visit reflected the special relationship
that India and Indonesia share. It is, therefore, my distinct pleasure
to be in Indonesia, which has long been our maritime bridge to South
East Asia.
12. I would like to thank His Excellency A. M. Fachir and the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, Government of Indonesia, for jointly hosting this
event with us in Jakarta.
13. ASEAN has evolved into a role model for regional cooperation as
it celebrates the 50th anniversary year of its foundation this year.
Today, it is appreciated for the stability it has brought to the region
250 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Buddhism until the 14th century A.D. In Viet Nam, Shaivism was the
predominant religion until the 15th century.
18. Buddhism spread to South East Asia from India through travelling
monks who were sent by the rulers of Indian kingdoms. In the 3rd
century B.C., nine Buddhist emissaries led by the monks Sona and
Uttara were sent by King Ashoka to South East Asia. With the passage
of time, Buddhism took an indigenous form in all parts of South East
Asia and gradually underwent a process of localisation of its tenets.
19. With the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism also came the assimilation
of Indian mythology and folklore into local mythology of the South
East Asian region. The various forms of Ramayana prevalent in the
region, be it Ramakien in Thailand, Pha Lak Pha Lam in Laos, Yama
Zatddaw in Myanmar, Kakawin Ramayana in Indonesia or Hikayat
Seri Rama in Malaysia, bear testimony to our historical connect.
20. Moreover, Islam travelled to South East Asia from India via traders.
It thrives today as a tolerant religion in the region, with Indonesia
of course being the largest Muslim country in the world, followed
by India. Together, we set an example for the rest of the world, in
peaceful co-existence, tolerance and compassion.
21. Contemporary popular culture in the form of music, Bollywood
movies and TV soap operas, is forging a new understanding between
us. The human element is vital in contemporary discourse. Our youth,
our future generation, must engage and bond in a more systematic
way and at a deeper level. To this end, in addition to organising
the annual student exchange programmes, India will host a Youth
Summit this year to encourage closer contacts among our youth, who
hold the future of our relationship.
22. Let me conclude by saying a few words about this evening’s cultural
programme on Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore’s travels to
South East Asia. Tagore, as we know, was a master litterateur who
weaved magic with words. He was so impressed by the manifest
cultural diversity of South East Asian countries that he set out to
develop close cultural cooperation between India and South East
Asia and to discover the quintessential Asian identity. He introduced
cultural elements from South East Asia in the curriculum of his Visva
Bharati University to enrich its cultural kaleidoscope. Following his
footsteps, we should continue to work together to strengthen our very
rich cultural partnership.
252 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
23. I look forward to hearing the views of all the intellectuals and
specialists gathered here today on how we can strengthen our
civilizational links amid the new challenges and opportunities of the
21st century.
2nd International Conference
ASEAN-India Cultural and Civilisational Links
19 January 2017, Jakarta
Inaugural Remarks
H.E. A. M. Fachir
Vice Minister for Foreign Affairs, Indonesia
Your Excellency, Dr. Vijay Kumar Singh, Minister of State for External
Affairs of the Republic of India,
Your Excellency Nguyen Quoc Dzung, Vice Foreign Minister of Viet Nam,
Your Excellency Vongthep Arthakaivalvatee, Deputy Secretary-General
of ASEAN,
Ambassador Suresh Reddy,
Excellencies,
Distinguished Guests,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
It is an honor to be here among distinguished participants of the 2nd
International Conference on ASEAN-India Cultural and Civilizational
Links. On behalf of the Government of the Republic of Indonesia, I
would like to welcome you to Jakarta.
Please allow me to also commend the Ministry of External Affairs
of Republic of India for co-hosting this important event. This event
represents the dynamic and strong engagement between ASEAN and
India. Moreover, this year marks the 25th anniversary of the dialogue
relation between ASEAN and India.
254 Act East: ASEAN-India Shared Cultural Heritage
Excellencies,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
We speak the same language. Borobudur, Ayyuthaya, Sanskrit, Ramayana,
for example. So what we learned from this? We notice how close we are
both emotional and physical.
What shall we do about it? Let’s identify linkages as well as stakeholders
of those emotional and physical links. Three biggest religion here in
Indonesia are coming from India: Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam in
Indonesia brought by people and traders from Gujarat, located in the
subcontinent of India. So this links in undeniable.
In Indonesia, we do not need to advertise India, because every day you’ll
find Indian movies and series in TV. You can find Indian culinary easily.
Not to mention in Singapore and another capital of ASEAN Countries.
So, the question is how to empower this? How to make our tourism
even stronger by connecting people who have this emotional links.
For example, setting up religious tourism. Another example area of
cooperation to be explore: movie industry or maritime.
Excellencies,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Again, I wish to thank the government of India for contributing a lot for
this conference in which we should get a benefit of that to strengthen
our emotional and physical links. With those linkages we will be able to
resolve our problems. For instance, the current global economics crisis,
we could address it with the spirit of cooperation.
And another challenges for us on how to address the current global
challenges and how to inherit our values to our young generation. We
should speak with the language being used by our young people: Twitter,
Facebook, and other social media platforms to encourage those shared
value which are so precious and inclusive.
Excellencies,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
So lets empower this. First, to strengthen our current cooperation. Second
to explore further possible area of cooperation. Third, to address our
problems.
So with this note I wish you success on your endavours.
Thank you so much.
2nd International Conference
ASEAN-India Cultural and Civilisational Links
19 January 2017, Jakarta
Remarks
H.E. General Dr. V.K, Singh, Minister of State of External Affairs of India,
H.E. Mr. A. M. Fachir, Vice Minister for Foreign Affairs of Indonesia,
H.E. Mr. Vongthep Arrthakaivalvatee, Deputy Secretary-General of
ASEAN,
H.E. Suresh K. Reddy, Ambassador of India to ASEAN,
Distinguished participants,
Distinguished participants,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
It is so proud that ASEAN countries and India share long history and
civilizational linkages, which have evolved together through exchanges
of people, ideas and trade over the milennia, long before we decided
to embark upon a partnership in 1992. Notably, it is the Indians and
Southeast Asians who played an active role in that long interaction
process, and the sea links were vital in connecting our two regions. Initial
contacts started with the trips of Indian traders, missionaries from coastal
regions of eastern India through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia.
Along with Ganga and Mekong rivers, ancient ports such as Tamralipti
in Ganga, Oc Eo in Viet Nam and Irrawaddy Vally of Myanmar provided
key routes for the flow of people, goods between the two regions. Legacy
of these exchanges remain in many places in Southeast Asia, ranging
from the famous temple architecture of Borobudur and Prambanan in
Indonesia, Angkor Wat in Cambodia, temples and pagodas in Thailand,
to the presence of Sanskrit words in Bahasha Indonesia and epic tales of
Ramayana in folk literature.
Today, it is our duty to not only preserve but also advance these shared
values and legacy for the benefits of our peoples as well as regional peace,
stability and prosperity. I would like to take this chance to appreciate
great efforts made by all ASEAN countries and India as well as the
ASEAN Scretariat to develop the ASEAN-India relations in all areas of
cooperation, particularly cultural and people-to-people exchanges. These
include the projects to re-establish the Nalanda University, to restore the
cultural relics like My Son sanctuary in Viet Nam, the initiative to boost
cooperation in the region defined by two great rivers, the Mekong and
the Ganga, and various measures taken to speed up regional connectivity
and facilitate the movement of people, goods and services in the region
over the past years.
Distinguished participants,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
After 25 years of dialogue relations, ASEAN and India are working
towards a more substantive and reinvigorated relationship that could
tap the full potential and meet the expectation of our peoples. Based on
a solid foundation of shared civilizational heritage, the ASEAN-India
partnership will be driven by our strategic priorities of securing peace,
Remarks 257
stability and prosperity in the region as well as India’s Act East policy
and the ASEAN Vision 2025. For ASEAN, culture and people-to-people
links continue to have a significant role in building a cohesive and
culturally vibrant ASEAN Community.
In that context, I am convinced that with the active participation of
distinguished officials, scholars and academicians today, the Conference
will energize our joint efforts to deepen the ASEAN-India relations
through sharing knowledge, practices and providing valuable inputs and
initiatives to strengthening cultural links as well as trade and maritime
cooperation between Southeast Asia and India.
As the country coordinator for ASEAN-India dialogue relations during
the 2015-2018 period, Viet Nam is looking towards the positive outcomes
of the Conference, particularly specific ideas or proposals to intensify
ASEAN-India cooperative activities, including those in the field of
education, tourism, cultural exchanges and trade. Especially, it would be
much appreciated if our Conference could propose some concrete projects
or activities to be conducted in 2017 when we are commemorating the
25th anniversary of the ASEAN-India Dialogue Relations and the 50th
anniversary of ASEAN.
In this regard, I would like to wish the Conference success. Wish you all
health and happiness in the new year of 2017.
Thank you.
ACT EAST: ASEAN-INDIA
SHARED CULTURAL HERITAGE
ACT EAST:
can be utilized effectively to expand collaboration, beyond
economic and political domains into areas of education, tourism
ASEAN-INDIA
and people to people contact. This book presents historical and
contemporary dimensions between India and Southeast Asia with
particular reference to cultural heritage. One of the recommenda-
tions of this book is to continue our efforts to preserve, protect, and
restore cultural heritage that represents the civilisational bonds SHARED CULTURAL
HERITAGE
between ASEAN and India. The book will serve as a knowledge
product for policymakers, academics, private sector experts and
regional cooperation practitioners; and is a must-read for anyone
interested in the cultural heritage.
AIC
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