Body Image PDF 1 PDF

Relationship between body image and self esteem
A study on relationship between body image and self esteem among

adolescents in Guwahati, ASSAM.
Submitted to
ASSAM DON BOSCO UNIVERSITY
In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for
MASTER OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELLING
2017
BY
Geetashree Bortamuly
DU2015MPC0005
Department Of Psychology and Counselling
Assam Don Bosco University
Tapesia Gardens, Sonapur-782402,
Guwahati, Assam
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis ―A study on relationship between body image and
self-esteem among adolescents in Guwahati submitted by Geetashree Bortamuly (ID-
DU2015MPC0005) to the department of Psychology and Counselling, Assam Don
Bosco University, Guwahati during the period of her study in the academic year 2015-
2017 is a bonafide record of the Research work carried out under my supervision and
guidance.
(Dr. Riju Sharma) (Ms.Neelam Bara)
Director, Department of psychology
School of Humanities and Social science and Counselling

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank God for all the manifold blessings bestowed upon me during the course of this
program.
I would like to convey my profound gratitude to my family and friends for their
unfailing support and encouragement during the course of my research.
It is my radiant sentiment to place on record my best regards, deepest sense of

gratitude to the principals of both the schools, for their permission to conduct my
research in their institutions. I express my deepest thanks to the respondents for their
active participation in my study without whose presence my research would have
been an unaccomplished task.
I am using this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Riju Sharma,

Director of Humanities and Social Science Department, Assam Don Bosco
University, for providing me with all the necessary facilities for the research and for
her moral support all through the journey of learning during this programme.
I remain indebted to my research guide Ms. Neelam Bara for her unfailing guidance
and support, who inspite of being extraordinarily busy with her duties took time out to
hear, guide and keep me on the correct path during my research study. I had an
insightful and enriching learning experience under her competent supervision.
Last but not the least, I chose this moment to thank everyone who have supported me
directly or indirectly through their prayers, advice, encouraging words, constructive
criticism for the success of my study, which were extremely valuable for my study
theoretically and practically.
Thank You Geetashree Bortamuly

Date:
PREFACE
Body image refers to how an individual thinks feels and behaves in relation to their
body and appearance. It is a multidimensional construct consisting of perceptual,
cognitive, affective, and behavioural elements (Wertheim & Paxton, 2011).
Adolescents especially struggle with body image problems. Research shows that body
image can have a wide of psychological effects and physical effects. Body image is
influenced strongly by self-esteem and self evaluation, more so than by external
evaluation by others. Adolescents with negative body image concerns are more likely
to be depressed, anxious, and suicidal than those without intense dissatisfaction over
their appearance.
Based on the objectives of the study, a sample was selected within Guwahati with a
range from 11-19 years combining both male and female respondents. The current
research is a quantitative research. The sampling method in this study is simple
random sampling and the research design is a correlation design. The researcher used
two standardized scale to find out the relationship between body image satisfaction
and self esteem.
The current research contains 5 chapters. The first chapter includes the introduction of
the study. The second chapter contains literature review that was reviewed by the
researcher. The third chapter contains the methodology including sampling procedure,
rationale and objectivity of the study. The fourth chapter presents the analysis and
interpretations. Finally the fifth chapter shows the findings, discussion and the
limitations of the study done.
CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE................................................................................................I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................II
PREFACE.........................................................................................................III
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................IV-VI
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................VII
LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................VIII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE

STUDY...................................................................................................................1
1.1Introduction.....................................................................................................2-4
1.2 Background of the study..................................................................................5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................6
2.1Literature review.............................................................................................7-22
CHAPTER 3RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...................................................23
3.1Definitions..........................................................................................................24
3.2Statement of the problem..................................................................................24
3.3 Research objectives...........................................................................................25
3.4Research hypothesis...........................................................................................25
3.5Significance of the study..................................................................................25-26

3.6Research design...................................................................................................26
3.7Method of the study.........................................................................................27
3.8Methodology of the study…………………………………………………....27
3.9 Population of the study..................................................................................27-28
3.10Nature of data.................................................................................................28
3.11Sample size......................................................................................................28
3.12Sampling method...........................................................................................28-29
3.13Tools of data collection......................................................................................29
3.14Rationale of the study........................................................................................30
CHAPTER4: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION............................31
4.1Introduction..........................................................................................................32
4.2Demographic details of the respondents.......................................................32-34
4.3 Objective wise analysis........................................................................................34
Objective one: To study the body image satisfaction among

adolescents.............................................................................................................34-35
Objective two: To study the level of self esteem among adolescents...............35-36
Objective three: To find out the relationship between body image satisfaction
and the level of self esteem among adolescents..................................................36-37
Objective four and five: To find the difference in body image satisfaction and
level among male and female adolescents...........................................................37-38
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION.....................................................39
5.1Significant findings..................................................................................40
5.1.1Demographic characteristics.................................................................40
5.1.2Body Image ............................................................................................40
5.1.3Self-esteem...............................................................................................41
5.1.4 Relationship with body Image and self-esteem……………………...41
5.2Discussion....................................................................................................42
5.3 Suggestions and recommendations……………………………………...43
5.4Limitations of the study…………………………………………………..43
CONCLUSION...................................................................................................44
REFERENCES...................................................................................................45-49
APPENDICES.....................................................................................................50
LIST OF TABLES
Table1.Age of the respondents...........................................................................32
Table2.Gender of respondents.............................................................................33
Table3.Level of body image satisfaction among adolescents in Guwahati.......34
Table4.Level of self esteem among adolescents.....................................................35
Table5. Correlation between body image satisfaction and the level of self esteem
among adolescents.....................................................................................................36
Table6. Correlation between body image satisfaction and self esteem among
adolescents ..................................................................................................................37
Table7. Difference in body image satisfaction and level among male and female
adolescents...................................................................................................................37
Table8. Independent Sample test..............................................................................38

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure4.2.1Age of the respondents......................................................................33
Figure4.2.2Gender of respondents.......................................................................34
Figure4.3.1Body image satisfaction......................................................................35
Figure 4.3.2Level of self-esteem............................................................................36

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.1INTRODUCTION
Body image refers to how an individual thinks feels and behaves in relation to their
body and appearance. It is a multidimensional construct consisting of perceptual,
cognitive, affective, and behavioural elements (Wertheim & Paxton, 2011). The
concept of body image as a psychological phenomenon was initially established in 1935, by
the Austrian psychiatrist Paul Ferdinand Schilder (1886-1940), who said that the mental
images that individuals have of their own bodies explain the way their bodies are introduced
to them. According to the psychiatrist, one's mental body image is established by senses,
ideas and feelings that, most of the time, are unconscious. This representation is built and
rebuilt throughout life. Body image is a multidimensional dynamic construct that involves
internal biological and psychological factors as well as external cultural and social
determinants.
Negative body image -Negative body image is defined by negative perceptions of

one‘s physical appearance and a degree of investment in appearance that negatively
impacts upon, or interferes with, health and wellbeing.
Positive body image -Positive body image is defined by positive perceptions of one‘s
physical appearance, in spite of any perceived imperfections. This includes feelings of
acceptance, viewing the body as a favourable influence on life and the rejection of
narrowly defined beauty ideals. People with positive body image are likely to attend
to their body‘s needs by participating in healthy behaviours, and their appearance
does not fully determine their self-worth.
Psychologists use the term 'body image' to describe our internalized sense of what we
look like. This can be thought of as a mental representation or map of our body,
against which we judge our external appearance. There is a relatively good match
between what we think we look like (subjective appearance) and how we appear to
other people (objective appearance). To some extent our body image is idealized
(based on how we would like to look). It is also based on a mirror image of our actual
appearance.
Self-esteem is defined as a ‗‗positive or negative attitude toward . . . the self‘‘

(Rosenberg, 1965, p. 30), and can be viewed as a key indicator of psychological well-
being, at least among people in Western cultures (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, &
Vohs, 2003; Oishi, Diener, Lucas, &Suh, 1999). Poor self-esteem may cause eating
disorders and finally lead to body image dissatisfaction (Lawerence & Thelen, 1995).
The individuals who report higher degree of body dissatisfaction and dieting also
showed inferior self-esteem (Lawrence &Thelen, 1995; Tiggeman, 2005).
During adolescence self-perception about their appearance is important to the

development of self-esteem. Physical changes during puberty may cause them to have
both positive and negative feelings towards their body which in turn affects their self-
esteem. Though there are many factors that influence adolescents‘ self-esteem, body
image is one critical factor (Paxton et al. 2006). Adolescents especially struggle with
body image problems. Because adolescents experience significant physical changes in
their bodies during puberty, they are likely to experience highly dynamic perceptions
of body image. Body image is influenced strongly by self-esteem and self-evaluation,
more so than by external evaluation by others. Adolescents with negative body image
concerns are more likely to be depressed, anxious, and suicidal than those without
intense dissatisfaction over their appearance.
Research shows that our body has an effect on how we feel about ourselves, what we
do, whom we meet or marry and influences our career path. Body image can have a
wide of psychological effects and physical effects. There are many factors that lead to
person‘s body image. Some of these includes: family dynamics, mental illness,
biological predispositions and environment causes for obesity or malnutrition and
cultural expectations (example- media and politics).People who are underweight or
overweight can have poor negative image. The idea of body image creates a sense of
insecurity and lack of confidence. Adolescents especially struggle with body image
problems. They feel they need to be thin and toned to be accepted in the society.
Researches show that in appropriate perception of the body image and dissatisfaction
with it can be led to the physical and psychic problems. In this regard, a lot of
researches have shown relationship of this dissatisfaction with anxiety and stress,
cigarette smoking and alcohol usage, nutritional disorders and suicide (Kim 2009).
Continuation of this dissatisfaction leads to depression (Aramats et al., 2003) social
anxiety (Fredaand Gamze, 2004) and descending of the self-esteem (Mirza et al.,
2008). Adolescents may experience negative comments and hurtful teasing about the
way they look from classmates and peers. Although these often come from ignorance,
sometimes they can affect body image and self-esteem.
Body Image and Self-esteem
The perception of appearance and self-worth are linked and perceived appearance is a strong
single predictor of self-esteem among both male and female adolescents (Clay et al., 2005).
According to Erickson‘s theory, issues of self worth become prominent in adolescence when
the major developmental task is to establish identity and coherent sense of self (Seligman,
2006).
Body image dissatisfaction is also associated with negative or low self esteem (Fabian
& Thompson, 1989; Lawrence & Thelen, 1995; Clay et al., 2005; and Folk, Pedersen,
& Cullari, 1993). Mendelson and White (1982) found that in children, as young as 7,
feelings about their body were associated with their self-esteem. McCabe and
Ricciardelli (2005) write that physical appearance is critical for adolescent boy and
girl‘s development of self-confidence.
1.2BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The aim of the researcher is to conduct research on body image and self-esteem
among adolescents in Guwahati. Guwahati is the largest city of Assam and North-
eastern India, a major riverine port city and one of the fastest growing cities in India,
situated on the South Bank of the Brahmaputra River. Dispur, the capital of Assam, is
in the circuit city region located within Guwahati and is the seat of the Assam.
Guwahati lies between the banks of the Brahmaputra River and the foothills of the
Shillong plateau.
Researcher aims to study on adolescent population as it has been found from research
studies that 80-90%adolescent are conscious with their body image. Moreover there
are very few or no earlier studies have been on body image and self-esteem in
Guwahati. Therefore researcher aims to conduct the study in Guwahati among
adolescents. From 2011 census, published on Hindustan Times (26th February 2011),
Assam was home to an estimated 6.5 million adolescents, comprising 21.3 per cent of
the state's population.
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1REVIEW OF LITERATURE
V.Divya and Dr K.Mayuri, 2015.Self esteem is an outcome of many factors, here

the study is conducted to see body Image Perceptions and Its Correlation with
Self Esteem of Adolescents Studying in Engineering Colleges of Hyderabad.
Study contains respondents of 200 adolescents with equal number of boys (100) and
girls (100) as sample size. Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale was used for data collection.
Findings of the study show that self esteem is positively correlated with self
assessment and overall assessment of body perception. Self esteem of adolescent‘s
increases with inclined and has positive perception about their appearance.
Dr Sunetra Kaviraj, Dr. Abhik Sinha, Dr. Nabanita Chakraborty, Dr. Himanish
Roy, Dr. Ronjoy Majumdar and Dr. Murari Mohan Mondal (Sep - Oct.
2013).This study tries to identify the self image perception among the adolescent
girls and the aim is to see the physical activity status of adolescent girls and to
know their body image perception. The study was conducted at the Bagbazar Slum
of Urban Field Practice Area of R.G.Kar Medical College. A total of 107 girls
participated in this study s from 10 to 19 years of age residing in this slum Global
Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) was used for data collection (Metabolic
Equivalents) are used for the analysis of GPAQ data. Study reported that 14.28% of
girls in the age group 10 to 17 years and 67.56% of girls above 17 years had physical
activity. Findings show that there is no adequate physical activity among the
adolescent girls of Bagbazar slum.
Maggie A.Brennan, Christopher E.Lalonde and Jody L. Bain. Psi Chi Journal of
Undergraduate Research, 2010. Here study investigated body image perception
and existence of gender difference. One hundred ninety-seven undergraduate
students completed an online survey that assessed their body image experiences and
self-perceptions i.e. body esteem, body mass index, self-esteem, sociocultural and
situational factors and body image perceptions in sexual contexts. Body Exposure
during Sexual Activities Questionnaire (BESAQ), Body Image Quality of Life
Inventory (BIQLI), Situational Inventory of Body-Image Dysphoria (SIBID-

S),Objectified Body Consciousness scale (OBC), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.
Sociocultura Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire–Revised version
(SATAQ-R) used for data collection. Data analysis compared the responses of male
and female participants. Findings show that women experience negative body image
perceptions in more situations than men. Study reported that women tend to have
lower body esteem scores than men. In this study gender differences were found;
body dissatisfaction was more common and strong in women than men.
Shweta Goswami, Sandeep Sachdeva and Ruchi Sachdeva (2012). Here the study
aims to determine body image satisfaction among newly entrant women students
in a professional institution. A cross-sectional study using body image satisfaction
was undertaken, which also explored relationship with body mass index (BMI) and
other selected co-variables such as socio-demographic details, overall satisfaction in
life, and particularly in academic/professional life, current health status using 5-item
based Likert scale. Height, weight, hip and waist circumference measurement was
carried out using standard protocol. Data collection was carried through personal
interview using pre-designed, pre-tested semi-structured interview schedules. Results
shows that 16.66%, 51.04%, and 32.29% girl students perceived their body image as
fair, good and excellent, respectively while overall 13.54% were dissatisfied with
their body image.
Eivind Meland, Siren Haugland and Hans-Johan Breidablik, 2007.In this article
it is reported that that perceived negative health is prevalent in adolescence, and that
these prevalence rates are highest among girls and older age groups. This article
focuses on relationships between body dissatisfaction and self-rated health. Here
the study examined the relationship between perceived negative health and body
image in early and mid adolescence, focusing on age and gender differences. The
study was done to increase the understanding of lifestyle and health behaviour in the
lives of young people .The study was based on the Norwegian data from the 1997–98
study. Analyses were based on Norwegian data from a World Health Organization. It
was cross-national Survey, Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HSBC).

Sample contains 5026 pupils from the age group of 11, 13 and 15 years. Boys and
girls were equally represented. Findings show that perceived negative health increase
with age, and that girls report negative health than boys. Body dissatisfaction was
common among girls than boys. And the need for body change was reported among
boys.
Jennifer Shroff, Pendley, Lynnda M. Dahlquist and Zoann Dreyer, 1997.Here the
study examine body image and social adjustment among adolescents who had
completed cancer treatment and a healthy comparison group. Questionnaires assessing
body image, social adjustment and videotaped during interview was used for data
collection. Nine female and 12 male adolescent cancer survivors from the age group
of 11 to 21 participated in the study. Findings show that cancer survivors reported
very less social activities. Within the cancer group, adolescents who had been under
treatment longer reported lower self-worth, more social anxiety, and more negative
body image perceptions.
Hailey E. Nielson, Justine J. Reel, Nick A. Galli, Benjamin T. Crookston, and

Maya Miyairi, spring, 2013. Here in this article focuses on body image and
westernization trends among Japanese Adolescents .Here study examined body
image and acculturation among female and male adolescents in Okinawa, Japan.
Study contains 158 participants as sample size. Both male and female represents from
the age group 15 to 18 years in Okinawa. Demographic questionnaire Body-Esteem
Scale Sociocultural Attitudes towards Appearance Questionnaire-3, Self-Identity
Acculturation Scale used for data collection. Japanese female adolescents reported
significantly more body dissatisfaction than male, supporting the study and earlier
research findings related to sex with Japanese participants of a similar age (e.g.,
Nishizawa et al., 2003). Additionally it was found the girls in this study internalized
the thin ideal more than boys. Objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997)
was supported in this study with the thin internalization. Positive relationships were
found between acculturation and body esteem and an inverse relationship was
between media exposure and body esteem, which indicated that media images have
negative impact on the body image of adolescents in Okinawa.
Aaron J. Blashill and Sabine Wilhelm, 2014.Researchers found that depressive
symptoms are common among the U.S. population.Reseachers aim was to examine
the longitudinal relationship between body image distortion and depression
among U.S. males, from adolescence into early adulthood. Data were collected
from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health .Participants were 2,139
males and the average age was 16. Results revealed that boys who were average
weight and viewed themselves as either very underweight or overweight reported
higher levels of depressive symptoms. Researcher reported that the very underweight
distortion group may have been experiencing symptoms of muscle dysmorphia, as
males with muscle dysmorphia typically view their bodies to be smaller than they
actually are (Grieve, 2007; Olivardia, 2001, 2007) and regarding the overweight
distorted group, it is possible that these individuals were experiencing elevated
symptoms of eating pathology, given the overestimation of their own weight.
Findings indicated that distortions in body image are risk factors for elevated
depressive symptoms among adolescent boys.
Lana Peternel and Anita Sujold (2009).Disturbances in eating behaviour imply that
social, cultural and psychological characteristics play a more important role.
Researchers used psychological variables, such as measures of stress, life satisfaction,
self-esteem, psychological well-being and body-image perception and dieting
behaviour were investigated. Aim of the study to examine adolescent eating
behaviour as it relates to body image and psychological well-being (self-esteem,
life-satisfaction and stress) in relation to body mass index; BMI.Sample size
contains 507 high- school students, 234 males and 273 females. Results show that
both boys and girls misperceive their body image, and that they make judgments
about their appearance. Girls are more likely to judge themselves overweight whereas
boys judge themselves as underweight. It is also reported female adolescents are
dieting 2.5 times more than male they also reported the highest level of body
dissatisfaction. Findings indicated that the adolescents who were dieting reported
lower self-esteem, lower life satisfaction and lower body-image satisfaction, higher
rate of stress when compared with non dieters. Study also confirms a strong
relationship between stress and self-esteem with body image and life satisfaction.
Hatami, M.Taib, M. N. M.Djazayery, A. Mojani S. M. and Mejlej, H. F. (2015).
According to this article, body image perception plays an important role in
managing of body weight among adolescents and also mentioned that body image
perception is influenced by peers, parents, media, socioeconomic status, and sex and
body weight. Body image perceptions related to the cultural aspects of a society.
According to this article, there is a lack of research done which shows the relationship
between body image perception, body dissatisfaction and body weight status among
Iranian adolescents. Therefore this study aims to describe body image size perception
and dissatisfaction, and their relationship with body weight status in adolescents.
Sample size contains 1109 students. Figure rating scales were used to assess
perceptions of current and ideal body size and dissatisfaction difference between these
perceptions. Multivariate analyses were used to assess the relationship between the
perceptions and dissatisfaction with body weight status.BMI z score and weight status
were calculated based on the 2007 WHO growth reference charts. Response rate was
97.28%.Findings of the study shows that perceived body image size was associated
with weight status. Body dissatisfaction was also associated with weight status. It is
also mentioned that overweight and obese children more likely to select thinner ideal
body size.
Abamara Nnaemeka C and Agu Solomon A, Feb. 2014. Here in this study
researcher aims to study the relationship between body image and self esteem
among female undergraduate students of behavioural sciences using correlation
design. Participants contain 400 female undergraduate from the departments of Social
Sciences, (Psychology, Sociology and Anthropology, Economics and Political
Science) in Agbani Campus, Enugu State University of Science and technology. It
was hypothesized that there will be a significant relationship between body image and
self-esteem. In this article researcher also mentioned about American psychologist
Abraham Maslow included self-esteem in his hierarchy of need and Carl Rogers
Humanistic Psychology for explaining self esteem. Body Image Questionnaire and
Index of Self Esteem were used for administration of the study. A significant
correlation of -0.32 was obtained at P <.01 between body image and self esteem
which is above a criteria value of 0.30 (Pedhazur, 1997) and this shows it has
confirmed the hypothesis. Findings clearly shows that low self-esteem significantly
correlated with distorted body image and an average degree of perception of body
image correlated with low self-esteem.
Marjorie J. Hogan and Victor C(January 2009).According to this article it is

reported that adolescence is a time of physical changes as both boys and girls
move through puberty and become conscious about their new body shape and
size and thus body image is a major concern of teenagers. In the article researchers
has reported that community surveys suggested that almost half (46%) of teen girls
and 26% of boys are unhappy with their body shape, only 12% and 17% reported
liking their appearance. This article said that family influences play a major role in
adolescent weight concerns. A cohort study of 6770 girls and 5287 boys aged 9 to 14
years revealed that parents influenced the development of concerns about weight and
the initiation of weight control practices. It is also reported that teenagers heavy users
of media television, internet, music videos, magazines and movies. Researchers also
mentioned about a study in 2004 revealed movies like Cinderella or The Little
Mermaid, aimed at teenagers that contain body-image–related themes. Australian
researchers tested 265 primary school girls to determine the importance of appearance
relates to body dissatisfaction. Findings show that exposure to media and peer
influences were negatively related to body esteem.
Daniel Clay, Vivian L. Vignoles and Helga Dittmar(2005).Article mention the

close association between body image and self-esteem is especially problematic
for girls growing up in the context of developed mass consumer societies (Becker,
Burwell, Herzog, Hamburg, & Gilman,2002.Here the study consisted of two parts.
The first used an experimental design, comparing exposure to images of ultra-thin
models, average-size models, or no models (control), with body satisfaction and self-
esteem as dependent variables. The second part used a correlation design, testing the
proposed relationships between the variables. SATAQ (Heinberg et al.1995)and
Rosenberg‘s (1965) self-esteem scale was used for data collection. The sample
consisted of 136 female adolescents aged 11–16.Findings shows that body satisfaction
and self-esteem appeared to decline consistently from age 11to age 16. It is reported
35% of 11-year-old girls scored above the theoretical midpoint of the awareness scale
indicating that they were aware of societal attitudes concerning female attractiveness,
while both internalization of these attitudes and social comparison with media models
were higher among girls of 13.Among 16-year-olds, approximately 65% of girls
scored above the theoretical midpoint of the internalization scale, indicating overall
acceptance of sociocultural attitudes toward appearance and 50% scored above the
theoretical midpoint of social comparison measure. Self esteem was also lower among
older than among younger girls.
M. Brent Donnellan, Kali H. Trzesniewski, Richard W. Robins, Terrie E. Moffitt

and Avshalom Caspi.Here the research explored link between global self-esteem
and externalizing problems such as aggression, antisocial behaviour, and
delinquency. In three studies it is found strong relation between low self-esteem and
externalizing problems. Measures of self-esteem and externalizing problems were
based on self-report, teachers‘ ratings, and parents‘ ratings, and for participants from
different nationalities (United States and New Zealand) and age groups (adolescents
and college students). Results indicate that self-esteem may foretell future
externalizing problems; 11-year-olds with low self-esteem tended to increase in
aggression by age 13. The effect of self-esteem on aggression was independent of
narcissism, an important finding was that individuals who are narcissistic, not low in
self-esteem, are aggressive. Results support the concern (Baumeister et al., 1996)
about the dangers of narcissism but do not support the conclusion that low self
esteems unrelated to externalizing problems.
Deependra Kaji Thapa and Subash Thapa (December 06, 2015).According to the
researchers none of the research has been documented explaining the prevalence and
determinants of eating disorders in Nepal so far. Therefore, this study was carried
out to examine the gender differences in prevalence and determinants of Body
image dissatisfaction (BID) and eating disorder among the Nepalese adolescents.
Study contains adolescents from the age of 15 to 19 years studying at 11th or 12th
grade in private higher secondary schools in Kathmandu district. Results reported that
71% of females had positive BID and 14% of females had negative BID. Negative
BID score (BID<0) indicates that adolescent perceive himself/herself thinner and
want to have a bigger body where as a positive BID score (BID>0) indicates that the
adolescent perceive himself/herself overweight and have desire to be
thinner.Whereas,12% of males had positive BID and 60% had negative BID. To
measure eating disorder, eating attitude test (EAT-26) [13] was used. The prevalence
of eating disorder was 29% in females and 16% in males. It also reported exposure to
media determined BID and increased risk of eating disorder in both females and
males. It is also identified that factors like body esteem also determine BID in
females.
Agam R, Tamir S, Golan M (2015) .This article review explores the impact of
gender roles on adolescents’ self-esteem and body image and the influence of
prevention programs on these two factors when delivered in mixed gender vs.
uni-gender groups. Gender roles influence adolescents’ self-esteem. Boys report
higher self-esteem than girls. While girls tend to develop emotions related to
internalizing problems, boys tend to develop emotions related to externalizing
problems. Body dissatisfaction can cause harmful emotional, psychological and
physiological effects. During adolescents, girls appear to be more vulnerable to the
negative psychological health effects of stress; they present significant higher levels
of adaptation, depression and eating disorder. Boys tend to display higher prevalence
of externalizing behavior problems, aggression, antisocial and delinquency. Gender
differences have been reported among adolescents‘ perceptions, expression of
emotions, and behavior. Article also mention about some studies, gender differences
were found in seeking support, with females using coping strategy to a greater extent
than males. Conflicting results were reported in respect to the impact of prevention
programs on adolescents‘ body image and self-esteem when delivered in mixed
gender groups vs. single-gender groups.
Kelly Marie Picard (May, 2009).Adolescent body image and self esteem is a thesis
submitted to the Graduate school in partial fulfilments of the requirement for the
degree Master of arts in counselling. Here this study aims to determine the effects of
high school athletic participation on female adolescent body image and self-esteem as
measured by Rosenberg‘s Self-Esteem Scale (SES) and Body Image Avoidance
Questionnaire (BIAQ). The study consisted of two adolescent female groups: 47
athletes (20 upperclassmen and 27 underclassmen) and 34 nonathletic (18
upperclassmen and 16 underclassmen).Findings indicates that four independent
variables (athlete, non athlete, upperclassmen, and underclassmen) had mean scores
below the norm indicating a lower self-esteem (―Rosenberg). Findings also show that
the significant difference between athlete and non athlete groups indicated female
adolescents who participate in athletics were likely to use body image avoidance
behaviours. Secondly, the significant difference between upperclassmen and
underclassmen indicates the older the female is then the less likely to use body image
avoidance behaviours.
Singh Mannat M, Parsekar Shradha S and T.V. Bhumika (2016). Here the study
aims to estimate the proportion of adolescents who have concerns about their
body image and to understand the relationship between eating attitudes, media
and famous personalities with body image concerns. Study Consists of 550
students of pre-university colleges of Udupi taluk, Karnataka, India through multi
stage sampling technique. Eating Attitudes Test and Socio-Cultural Attitudes towards
Appearance Questionnaire were used for data collection. Findings show that
participants who perceived themselves to be thin and fat were 29.82% and 32.54%
and one third (31.09%) of the participants had a inclination of developing an eating
disorder. Findings also reported participants influenced by famous personalities found
significantly associated with body image concerns.
Brittany Ballweg (Spring 2014) .Here this research studies two issues that are
becoming more widely spread among children and adolescents: body image
dissatisfaction and eating disorders. This article looks at different types of eating
disorders including anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa as well as muscle
dysmorphia. This article explains the school counsellor‘s role in addressing body
image issues in schools by providing preventative programming ideas and
intervention strategies. Researcher mentioned about a study by Yager and O‘Dea
(2006) confirmed that ―40% of school counsellors did not feel competent in helping
students with eating disorders and 49% reported that they felt only moderately
competent‖. Therefore research aims to educate school counsellors on types of eating
disorders and on common body image disorder. Researcher mentioned prevention
strategies include raising awareness amongst students, teachers, and parents as well as
providing classroom guidance lessons and small group and individual counselling
healthy body image. The research also mention about body image and contributing
factors to an individual‘s body image satisfaction or dissatisfaction and role of school
counsellors. School counsellors play a critical role in assessment, providing
interventions and support, referring when needed, and providing follow-up services
(Carney and Scott, 2012). Most important role of the school counsellor is mentioned
is that to make sure the needs of all students are being met.
Bextiyar Aliyev and Abdullah Turkmen (2014).Here this study aims to determine
how parent, peer and media influences on the perception of body image of pre
adolescent girls and boys in Rize. This study surveyed girls and boys ages 12 to 14
years who live in Rize. The research consists of total 70 students of Mehmet Akif
Ersoy middle school. Each participant fills out the Parents, Peers, and Media
Influences on Body Image Survey. This survey was adapted from The Socio cultural
Influences on Body Image and Body Change Questionnaire developed by McCabe
and Ricciardelli in 2001. Results indicated peers had the largest negative influence
and media had the largest positive influence on body image. Results also revealed the
higher the positive influence, the higher positive self-image. Results also indicated
that the pre adolescent surveyed had a lower reported body image score than the
influence from parents, peers, and media together. This study also mentioned
Hammond‘s study that indicates parents had the greatest positive influence on body
image of 9-11 year old females. This study also corresponds to Hammond‘s study
indicating that both males and females were most positively influenced by mothers.
Andrea Dawn Kinlen (December, 2006).Here this study aims to assess the
relationship of gender and self perceptions to body image dissatisfaction and
eating behaviours in preadolescent girls and boys. The Body Image Silhouettes
were used for measuring body dissatisfaction (BISDIS). Body Image Test (EBBIT)
were used to assess eating behaviours, including the Body Image
Dissatisfaction/Restrictive Eating (BIDRE) factor and the Binge Eating Behaviour
(BEB) factor. The Self-Perceptions Profile for Children (SPPC) was used to assess
perceived social acceptance, athletic competence, physical appearance, and global
self-worth of participants. This study includes three Hypotheses regarding the
relationship of body mass index (BMI) and self-perceptions on the eating behaviours
and body image of preadolescent girls and boys attending public school. Results in the
study reported that 7% of children were in the overweight or obese range, while
approximately 43% were below normal for BMI and about 51% were in the normal
range for BMI. Results also reported that many children wanted to be smaller than
their current size. No gender differences found in the results. Researcher mention that
results were surprising, as much of the research literature indicates greater body
image dissatisfaction and eating disorders symptoms in girls and women than in boys
and men (APA, 2000; Cooper & Fairburn, 1983; Field et al., 1999;Furnham &
Calhan, 1998; Gustafsen-Larson & Terry, 1992; Lawrence & Thelen, 1995;Parkinson
et al., 1998; Teinboon et al., 1994; Thompson, et al., 1997; Tiggeman &Wilson-
Barrett, 1998; Wardle et al., 1995; Wood et al., 1996). Results reported perceived
social acceptance was related to body dissatisfaction and found no significant
relationship between social acceptance and restrictive eating or binge eating
behaviour.
Ryan R.Wagner (May, 2008). This research focuses on the body image concerns
related to male stereotypes and dissatisfaction with body size and shape. Here the
researcher aims to study the body image perceptions of adolescent males. Sample size
consists of thirty-six students from a mid-western middle school .The Body Image
State Scale (BISS) was used to survey the adolescent males. Height and weight was
also collected to find the participants body mass index (BMI) for data analysis using t-
tests and Pearson's correlations. Results reported total mean for the BISS
questionnaire was M = 5.11 and it was found that the participant's body image
concerns were neither extremely satisfied nor dissatisfied, but average. Results shows
that significant negative relationship between scores on the BISS and body mass
index for the students involved in the study. Here researcher also mentioned previous
research on the Adonis Complex, body dysmorphia, and muscle dysmorphia in males
(Darkes, 1995; Pope, 2001; Schnirring, 2000; Oyama, Paltoo, and Greengold, 2007;
Phillips and Castle, 2001; Miller, 2005; Choi and Pitts, 2003; Leone at el., 2005) and
mentioned about the effects of the Adonis Complex, body dysmorphia, and muscle
dysmorphia on body image.
Ellen R. Albertson & Kristin D. Neff & Karen E. Dill-Shackleford (January 25,
2014). Here this study investigated whether a brief 3-week period of self-
compassion meditation training would improve body satisfaction in a
multigenerational group of women. Participants were randomized either to the
meditation intervention group (N=98; Mage=38.42) or to a waitlist control group
(N=130; Mage=36.42)., The Self-compassion Scale (SCS; Neff 2003),Body Shape
Questionnaire (Cooper et al. 1987),Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (McKinley
and Hyde1996). The intervention given to participants for 3 weeks. Researcher used
three different guided self-compassion meditations that are taught in the Mindful self-
Compassion program (Neff and Germer 2013) for the intervention. Findings show
that intervention was effective at increasing self-compassion. Those who were
randomly assigned to listen to the meditation podcasts shows significantly greater
increases in self-compassion (19 %) than those randomly assigned to a waitlist control
group (5 %).Results also shows that compared to the control group, intervention
participants experienced significantly greater reductions in body dissatisfaction, body
shame, and contingent self-worth based on appearance.
Morteza Tarkhan, Mina Esmaeilpour and Taher Tizdast (28 September 2013).
Here the aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the social
anxiety, social self-efficacy and body image in the girl students of the Islamic
Azad University at Tonekabon Branch. Study consists of 240 individuals as the
statistical sample of research by the random-stratum sampling method. The tool used
in this research consists of social anxiety scale (Conor et al., 2000), self-efficacy scale
for the social situations (Gaudiano and Herbert, 2003) and body image test (Fischer,
1970). The statistical analysis by Pearson correlation and multivariable regression
showed that there was a negative and significant relationship between the social
anxiety and body image of the girl students while there was a positive and significant
relationship between the social self efficacy and body image of the girl students.
Results also show that existence of relationship between these two variables can be
due to the higher self-efficacy level in the students.
Michelle E. Chase (December, 2001). Here the study examines the relationship
between identity development and body image dissatisfaction in college females.
Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire—Appearance Scales and the
Tennessee Self Concept Scale were administered to 15 participants. Scores for the
two instruments were correlated to determine whether a relationship exists between
the two constructs with the purpose of possibly developing a new avenue for
treatment of body image dissatisfaction. The results of the data analysis indicate there
are strong positive correlations between scores on the MBSRQ-AS and scores on the
TSCS. Results also indicated a relationship between the variables of BASS (MBSRQ-
-AS) and Social Self (TSCS). It was found that high scores were also present for both
variables. It is reported that women who are satisfied with their bodies tend to believe
they will be better accepted in a social setting.
Camelia Soponaru, Ancuta Bojian and Magdalena Iorga(9 May 2016).Here the
study aims to identify the level of stress among adolescents regarding the body
image and the strategies that they use to cope with it. Two hundred and eighty-two
adolescents in 10th and 11th grade completed three questionnaires: the Adolescent
Stress Questionnaire (ASQ), the Body Image Coping Strategies Inventory (BICSI)
and the Body Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults (BES). Results reported
factors generating stress in adolescents are: money pressure (M = 5.80 ±2.70),
uncertain future (M = 3.02 ±1.00), school/leisure conflicts (M = 2.77 ±0.96), school
performance (M = 2.60 ±0.74), assuming adult responsibilities (M = 2.53 ±1.23),
school attendance (M = 2.52±0.96), romantic relationships (M = 2.51 ±1.04), home

life (M = 2.31 ±0.74), interactions with teachers (M = 2.22 ±0.80) and peer pressure
(M = 2.15 ±0.83).. The most frequently used coping mechanism is positive rational
acceptance (M = 2.52 ±0.64).Finding revealed girls report a level of body
dissatisfaction and stress twice as high as that reported by boys. Girls are more
stressed by home life, peer pressure, an uncertain future, money pressure and adult
responsibilities, while boys obtained higher values in the variable stress generated by
school attendance.
Cheri A. Levinson & Thomas L. Rodebaugh, 2014.Here study examined negative

evaluation fears (FNE & SAA), social anxiety, drive for muscularity, BMI, and
body fat content. Participants consist of 118 undergraduates: Mostly female (n =
73; 62%), mostly white (n = 84; 71%) Mean age of about 19 (M = 19.31, SD = 1.20)
Social Appearance Anxiety Scale, Straight Social Interaction Anxiety Scale , Social
Phobia Scale, Drive for Muscularity Scale, Body Mass Index (BMI) used for data
collection. Findings shows that fear of negative evaluation and social appearance
anxiety had a unique relationship with the health variables over and above other social
fears. Results also show negative evaluation fears may have a specific relationship
with obesity and body image disorders.
Humberto Blanco Vega, Juan Francisco Aguirre Chavez, Judith Margarita

Rodríguez-Villalobos, José René Blanco Ornelas, Héctor Luis Medina
Lopez(October 2014). Here the aim of this research lies on comparing anxiety body
image profiles between male and female university students. A total sample of
2089 freshmen—902 women and 1187 men is from the different degrees offered by
the Autonomous University of Chihuahua, with an average age of 18.23 ±0.74 years.
The Body Image Anxiety Scale (BIAS) was used in the study. Results shows that
women present higher anxiety on body areas related with weight F(1,2087) =
156.702, p < 0.001; while men experience higher levels of anxiety on body areas
related with beauty F (1,2087) = 32.175, p < 0.001.
David B. Sarwer J. Kevin Thompson, Thomas F. Cash (2005).Here this research

has focused on the prevalence and nature of body image dissatisfaction and its
clinical significance. Dissatisfaction with physical appearance appears to be more the
rule than the exception. This article reported based on survey results of 1996
published in Psychology Today most women (56%) and almost half (43%) of men are
dissatisfied with their overall appearance. It is also reported that many obese
individuals have body image concerns, but these concerns are not universal. Studies
also show that there appears to be little relationship between the degree of obesity and
the intensity of the dissatisfaction. The nature of the obesity and its effect on body
size and shape may moderate the relationship with the degree of body image
dissatisfaction. The clinical significance of body image dissatisfaction also warrants
additional study. Among obese women, body image dissatisfaction appears to be
related to lower self-esteem and increased symptoms of depression. Article has also
mention that treatment for body image dissatisfaction in obese people has drawn
heavily from cognitive–behavioural models of psychotherapy. In the last article
reported that the relationship between obesity and body image likely will continue to
generate much research and clinical interest.
Lina A. Ricciardelli , Marita P.McCabe and Sophie Banfield(September 2000).

Here this study examines socio cultural influences affecting both body image and
body change methods in adolescent boys. Twenty boys in grade 7 (aged 12–13) and
twenty boys in grade 9 (aged 14–15) were individually interviewed. The influence of
parents, siblings, friends and the media on both body image and body change methods
was evaluated. Findings shows that one third of the boys, parents, siblings, friends
and the media were perceived to have at least some influence over boys' feelings
about their bodies and body change methods. Feedback from mothers and female
friends reported as having a positive impact on boys' body image whereas feed-back
from fathers and male friends reported as more important in influencing body change
methods. The media was also viewed as contributing to boys' body satisfaction but it
was seen to encourage greater exercise to alter body size and shape.
Hatata H, Awaad M, El sheikh M and Refaat G (January 2009). Here this study
aims to determine the prevalence of Body image dissatisfaction in non clinical
population of high school students at high-risk for an eating disorder and examine the
relationships with psychiatric symptoms, eating disorders beliefs and self esteem. A
cross-sectional study based on self-report was used to screen 416 Egyptian female
adolescents aged from 15-18 years. The assessment tools included: a social
demographic questionnaire, the Body Image Distortion Questionnaire (BIDQ), the
Eating Disorders Belief questionnaire (EDBQ), the Symptom Check List 90-R (SCL-
90-R), and the Self-Esteem Scale (SES). From the results it is found that 28.8% had
low body image satisfaction, 31.7% had average satisfaction and 39.4% had high
satisfaction. Female adolescents with low body image satisfaction showed higher
levels of somatization (30% vs. 12.2%, p=0.000), obsessive compulsive (23.3% vs.
8.1%, p=0.000), depression (20% vs. 13.5%, p=0.09), and anxiety (30% vs. 16.2%,
p=0.002). Body image dissatisfaction was also correlated to negative eating disorder
beliefs (r=-0.11, p=0.025). Besides, there was moderate correlation with low self
esteem (r=-0.53, p=0.000).
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1DEFINITIONS
Theoretical Definition
Adolescence- Emotional, physical, psychological, and social changes of a girl and a

boy. It's the transitional period of development between youth and maturity that
usually occurs between the ages of 12 and 16 for girls and 14 and 18 for boys
(Davidson & McCabe, 2006).
Self-esteem: Self-esteem refers most generally to an individual‘s overall positive

evaluation of the self (Gecas 1982; Rosenberg 1990; Rosenberg et al. 1995).
Body Image: Evaluating one's own body subjectively through linked feelings and
attitudes (Duncan, Woodsfield, O'Neill, & AI-Naked, 2002).
Operational definition:
Adolescence: Adolescence is a period of growing up where physical and

psychological changes occur between ages of 11 to 19years.
Self-esteem: Self-esteem can be defined as positive or negative evaluation of

adolescents self.
Body Image: Adolescents who have positive or negative views of their bodies &
physical appearance.
3.2STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Body image dissatisfaction is common among these adolescents. Body image is

influenced is strongly by self-esteem and self-evaluation among adolescence.
Negative self evaluation leads to body image dissatisfaction, anxiety, creates a sense
of insecurity and lack of confidence. The relationship between self-esteem and body
dissatisfaction among adolescents is fairly strong, the focus on appearance in making
self-evaluations has been implicated in the low levels of self-esteem often observed in
adolescence ,so here the purpose of the research is to study the association between
body image satisfaction, dissatisfaction and self-esteem among adolescence.
3.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1) To study the body image satisfaction among adolescents in Guwahati.
2) To study the level of self-esteem among adolescents.
3) To find out the relationship between body image satisfaction and the level of self
esteem among adolescents.
4) To find the difference in body image satisfaction among male and female
adolescents.
5) To find the difference in level of self-esteem among male and female adolescents.
3.4RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Alternative hypothesis (H1)
-There is significant relationship between body image satisfaction and self esteem.
-There will be difference in self esteem among the males and females.
-There will be difference in body image satisfaction among the males and females.
Null hypothesis (Ho)
-There is no significant relationship between body image satisfaction and self esteem.
-There will be no difference in self esteem among the males and females.
-There will be no difference in body image satisfaction among the males and the
females.
3.5SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Physical development during adolescence plays a role in the emotional and social
development of an adolescent and has an effect on their body image satisfaction. Girls
are usually encouraged to look ―pretty‖ at a very early age to enhance their self-worth
and boys on the other hand are encouraged to be ―strong‖.
A recent Canadian study done by Boyce, Craig, Elgar, Freeman, Janssen, King,
McCuaig Edge, Mclagan, Pickett, Saab (2008) found that 36 % – 50 % of the
adolescents from Grade 6-10 are not satisfied with their body size. The presence of
body image dissatisfaction among adolescents is high. Body image dissatisfaction is
associated with poor self-esteem, eating disorders, obsessive thinking about ones
weight and appearance, onset of poor life style such as smoking and drinking and
many more social problems.
One of the most common external contributors to body dissatisfaction is the media.
People of all ages are bombarded with images through TV, magazines, internet and
advertising. These images often promote unrealistic, unobtainable and highly stylized
appearance ideals which have been fabricated by stylists, art teams and digital
manipulation and cannot be achieved in real life. Those who feel they don‘t measure
up in comparison to these images, can experience intense body dissatisfaction which
is damaging to their psychological and physical wellbeing
Body satisfaction is positively correlated with self-esteem among boys (Cohane &
Pope, 2000). Body image dissatisfaction is also associated with negative or low self
esteem (Fabian & Thompson, 1989; Lawrence & Thelen, 1995; Clay et al., 2005; and
Folk, Pedersen, & Cullari, 1993).
Therefore it is important to study the evaluation of body image and body image
satisfaction because negative evaluation and body dissatisfaction is linked to low self
esteem and self confidence mostly among adolescents.
3.6RESEARCH DESIGN
Researcher proceeds with explanatory research as the current study aims to find out
relationship between body image and self esteem among adolescents. An explanatory
research is conducted in order to identify the extent and nature of cause-and-effect
relationships. Explanatory studies focus on an analysis of a situation or a specific
problem to explain the patterns of relationships between variables.
3.7METHOD OF THE STUDY
Researcher proceeds with quantitative research for current study. Quantitative

research methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical,
mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires,
and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational
techniques. Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and
generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.
Quantitative research is defined by Bryman and Bell (2005, p. 154) that ‗entailing the
collection of numerical data and exhibiting the view of relationship between theory
and research as deductive, a predilection for natural science approach, and as having
an objectivist conception of social reality.
3.8METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
Researcher proceeds with survey method for current study. Survey research is a
commonly used method of collecting information about a population of interest.
There are many different types of surveys, several ways to administer them, and many
methods of sampling. There are two key features of survey research:
Questionnaires- a predefined series of questions used to collect information from

individuals.
Sampling - a technique in which a subgroup of the population is selected to answer

the survey questions; the information collected can be generalized to the entire
population of interest.
3.9 POPULATION OF THE STUDY
Target Area: The study will include adolescents from different schools in Guwahati.
Target population: Adolescents from the age group 11 to 19 years from Guwahati.
Inclusion Criteria-
The participants of the study need to fulfil these criteria to participate:
-Age of the participant should be between 11-19years.
-The participants should be from Guwahati.
Exclusion criteria:
The participants will not be selected if:
-The participants do not belong to the age group of 11-19 years.
-The participants from outside Guwahati are not selected.
3.10NATURE OF DATA
Data are facts or information used in discussing or deciding something. In sum the
term includes facts, figures, letters, symbols, words, charts, and graphs that represent
an idea, object or condition. Data are measured quantities or derived qualitative
values. Data forms the basis for drawing conclusions, taking policy decisions and
formulating and implementing plans.
There are two types of data used for research:
 Primary data: Primary data are information collected by a researcher

specifically for a research assignment.
 Secondary data: Secondary data are the data collected by a party not related to
the research study but collected these data for some other purpose.
3.11SAMPLE SIZE
Researcher administered Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale and BIQ and the Body-Image
Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ) on 76 populations.
3.12SAMPLING METHOD
For the purpose of this current study non probability sampling is selected. The method
of sampling is non probability sampling design.
Non probability sampling design does not follow the theory of probability in the
choice of elements from the sampling population. These designs have pre determined
sample size. For these study random sampling techniques have been used-
Random sampling simple -For the purpose of this study random probability sampling
is selected. Random Sampling is the basic sampling technique where we select a
group of subjects (a sample) for study from a larger group (a population). Each
individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has an
equal chance of being included in the sample.
3.13TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION
Researcher used various quantitative research tools and methods to study relation
between body image and self esteem associated with it-
Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale: Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES), developed by sociologist

Dr. Morris Rosenberg is a self-esteem measure widely used in social-science research.
The RSES is designed similar to social-survey questionnaires. It is a en-item Likert-

type scale with items answered on a four-point scale—from strongly agree to strongly
disagree. Five of the items have positively worded statements and five have
negatively worded ones. The scale measures state self-esteem by asking the
respondents to reflect on their current feelings. The original sample for which the
scale was developed consisted of 5,024 high-school juniors and seniors from 10
randomly selected schools in New York State. The Rosenberg self-esteem scale is
considered a reliable and valid quantitative tool for self-esteem assessment.
BIQ, the Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ) uniquely measures evaluative

body image from the perspective of Self-Discrepancy Theory. It assesses body-image
satisfaction-dissatisfaction by measuring the degree of discrepancy of self-perceived

and idealized physical attributes, while also considering the valence or importance of
each of the physical ideals to the person. Self-ideal discrepancy and ideal importance
are rated for 11 physical attributes (e.g., weight, facial features, muscle
tone/definition, physical strength, overall appearance, etc).
3.14RATIONALE OF THE STUDY
Researcher concerns are to study body image dissatisfaction that leads to esteem
issues among adolescents and the relation between body image dissatisfaction and self
esteem. Body image plays an important role which can be positively and negatively
evaluated. When a person has negative thoughts and feelings about his or her own
body, body dissatisfaction can develop. Body dissatisfaction is an internal process but
can be influenced by several external factors. For example, family, friends,
acquaintances, teachers and the media all have an impact on how a person sees and
feels about themselves and their appearance. Here the research is to draw awareness
among adolescent that because of negative evaluation and dissatisfaction with body
image can lead to feelings of failure, unhealthy dieting, and serious eating disorder.
CHAPTER-4
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.1INTRODUCTION
Analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modelling data with

the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting
decision-making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing
diverse techniques under a variety of names, in different business, science, and social
science domains. The present research has implemented statistical measures.SPSS
statistics 20 has been used to analyse data.
4.2DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS
Table1.Age of the respondents
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
13 1 1.3 1.3 1.3

14 7 9.2 9.2 10.5
15 37 48.7 48.7 59.2

Valid
16 29 38.2 38.2 97.4
17 2 2.6 2.6 100.0
Total 76 100.0 100.0

Figure4.2.1: Age of the respondents
Table1 and figure 4.2.1 shows the age of the respondents and their corresponding
percentage. The researcher was able to reach out to the respondents through the
authorities of schools asking students who fall under the inclusion criteria of the
sample population. The above table and the chart represent the number of respondents
who fall under the of 11 to 19 years of age. It is shown in the figure that the highest
number of respondents falls under the age group of 15 years with a total percentage of
48.7% and the lowest number of respondents falls under the age group of 13 years
with a total percentage of 1.3%.
Table2 Gender of respondents

Gender
Percent
1 38 50.0 50.0 50.0
Valid 2 38 50.0 50.0 100.0
Total 76 100.0 100.0

Figure4.2.2 Gender of respondents

Table 2 and Figure4.2.2 shows the gender of the respondents. Among the total 76
respondents, 50%were males and 50% were females.
4.3 OBJECTIVE WISE ANALYSIS
Objective one: To study the body image satisfaction among adolescents.
Table3: Level of body image satisfaction among adolescents.

Percent
VERY SATISFIED 15 19.7 19.7 19.7
SATISFIED 46 60.5 60.5 80.3

Valid
DISSATIFIED 15 19.7 19.7 100.0
Total 76 100.0 100.0

Figure4.3.1: Body image satisfaction
Table 3 and figure 4.3.1 represents the body image satisfaction, among the total
respondents19.74%falls under the category of very satisfied, 60.53%falls under the
category of satisfied and 19.74%falls under the category of dissatisfied.
Objective two: To study the level of self esteem among adolescents.
Table4: Level of self esteem among adolescents.
Self esteem
Percent
VERY LOW 63 82.9 82.9 82.9
Valid LOW 13 17.1 17.1 100.0
Total 76 100.0 100.0

Figure 4.3.2 Level of self esteem
Table 4 and figure 4.3.2 represents self the level of self- esteem. It is shown in the
figure that among the total respondents 82.89%falls under the category of very low
self esteem and 17.11%falls under the category of low self esteem.
Objective three: To find out the relationship between body image satisfaction
and the level of self esteem among adolescents.
Table5: Correlation between body image satisfaction and the level of self esteem
among adolescents.
Body image satisfaction Self esteem Correlation

Mean Standard Mean Standard .006
deviation deviation
1.92 1.117 23.09 2.791
Table 6: Correlation between body image satisfaction and self esteem among adolescents.
BIQSCORE SE_T
Pearson Correlation 1 .006
BIQSCORE
Sig. (2-tailed) .957
N 76 76
Pearson Correlation .006 1
SE_T Sig. (2-tailed) .957
N 76 76
Table 5 and 6 represents the correlation between body image satisfaction and self
esteem among adolescents. The researcher has calculated and the result is .006 ,which
means it shows positive correlation however not significant as the result of p value of
body image satisfaction and self esteem is .957 which is > than 0.05.Therefore
alternative hypothesis stating there is significant relationship between body image
satisfaction and the high self esteem is not accepted. The above table shows that mean
and standard deviation of body image satisfaction which is 1.92 and 1.117 and also
shows mean and standard deviation of self esteem which is 23.09 and 2.791.
Objective four and five: To find the difference in body image satisfaction and
level of self-esteem among male and female adolescents.
Table7: Difference in body image satisfaction and level of self-esteem among

male and female adolescents.
Group Statistics
Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
1 38 1.81 1.129 .183

BIQSCORE
2 38 2.03 1.108 .180
1 38 23.00 3.222 .523
SE_T
2 38 23.18 2.323 .377
Table8: Independent Sample test.
f Sig. t df Sig(2- Mean

tailed) differen
ce
BIQScore: Equal .345 .552 -.848 74 .399 -.218
variance assumed
Self-esteem: Equal 5.384 0.23 -.286 74 .776 -.184
variance assumed
Table 7 and 8 shows the difference in body image satisfaction and level of self-esteem
among male and female adolescents .From the above table it can be seen that in body
image satisfaction mean of group1 (Male) and 2(Female) is 1.81 and 2.03 .And in self
esteem mean of group1 (Male) and group2 (Female) is 23.00 and 23.18.From the
above results, it can be interpret that females have greater body image satisfaction and
self esteem than males however the mean different is not significant.
CHAPTER 5
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

5.1SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS
This study aimed to find out the relationship between body image and self esteem
among adolescents in Guwahati. In the process, the data collected has been analyzed
and interpreted to find out the said objectives.
5.1.1Demographic characteristics
The findings under the demographic details of the respondents‘ are-
 Total sample size is 76 where 38 were males and 38 females.

 It has been found that that the highest number of respondent‘s falls under the
age group of 15 years with a total percentage of 48.7% and the lowest number
of respondents falls under the age group of 13 years with a total percentage of
1.3%.
5.1.2Body Image
The researcher has used BIQ, the Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ) which
assesses body-image satisfaction-dissatisfaction by measuring the degree of
discrepancy of self-perceived and idealized physical attributes, while also considering
the valence or importance of each of the physical ideals to the person. Self-ideal
discrepancy and ideal importance are rated for 11 physical attributes (e.g., weight,
facial features, muscle tone/definition, physical strength, overall appearance,
etc.Scores obtained was categorized into three levels-very satisfied, satisfied and
very-dissatisfied, dissatisfied.
 Among the 76 total respondents19.74%falls under the category of very

satisfied, 60.53%falls under the category of satisfied and 19.74%falls under
the category of dissatisfied.
 In the Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ), mean of males and females
respondents is 1.81 and 2.03 which shows that the female respondents have
higher body image satisfaction as compared to male respondents.
5.1.3Self-esteem
The researcher has used Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale developed by sociologist Dr.
Morris Rosenberg which assesses self-esteem. It is a ten-item Likert-type scale with
items answered on a four-point scale—from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Five
of the items have positively worded statements and five have negatively worded ones.
Scores was categorized in four levels-very low, very low, high and very high.
 Among the 76 total respondents 82.89%falls under the category of

very low self esteem and 17.11%falls under the category of low self
esteem.
 In Self-esteem Scale mean of males and females is 23.00 and 23.18

which shows that the female respondents have higher body image
satisfaction as compared to male respondents.
5.1.4 Relationship with body Image and self-esteem
 The relationship between body image satisfaction and the level of self esteem
among adolescents and the result of correlation value is .006, which means it
shows positive correlation between body image satisfaction and self-esteem,
 The p value of body image satisfaction and self esteem is .957 which is > than
0.05.Therefore alternative hypothesis stating that there is significant
relationship between body image satisfaction and self esteem is not accepted.
 In the Body-Image Ideals Questionnaire (BIQ), mean of males and females

respondents is 1.81 and 2.03 .And in Self-esteem Scale mean of males and
females is 23.00 and 23.18.
 Females have greater body image satisfaction and self esteem than males
however the mean difference is not significant.
5.2 DISCUSSION
Many studies have been conducted on body image satisfaction, self-esteem but few
have simultaneously investigated the two variables together. The present study only
used the quantitative methodology and in the future qualitative methodology can be
used along with larger sample size. The goal of this study was to investigate the
existence and the relationship between body image satisfaction and self-esteem
among adolescents. The research topic for the participants is‖ A study on
relationship between body image and self esteem among adolescents in
Guwahati”. Reason for choosing the topic is to draw awareness among adolescent
and concerns with body image dissatisfaction that leads to esteem issues among
adolescents and the relation between body image dissatisfaction and self esteem.
It was hypothesized that there will be a significant relationship between body image
satisfaction and self-esteem. Literatures that supports the relationship between body
image satisfaction and self esteem. Body satisfaction is positively correlated with self-
esteem among boys (Cohane & Pope, 2000). Body image dissatisfaction is also
associated with negative or low self esteem (Fabian & Thompson, 1989; Lawrence &
Thelen, 1995; Clay et al., 2005; and Folk, Pedersen, & Cullari, 1993). From the
findings it has been found that body image satisfaction had positive correlation to
self-esteem, however not significant as the result of p value of body image satisfaction
and self esteem is 0.957 which is > than 0.05.Therefore alternative hypothesis stating
there is significant relationship between body image satisfaction and the high self
esteem is not accepted.
It was hypothesized that there will be difference in self esteem among males and
females in the current study, females have greater body image satisfaction and self
esteem than males however the mean difference is not significant. Research
conducted by the Maggie A. Brennan, Christopher E. Lalonde and Jody L. Bain. Psi
Chi Journal of Undergraduate Research, 2010 supports the findings that there is an
existence of gender differences in body image satisfaction and self esteem.
5.3 SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The findings of the present study indicate that body image satisfaction and self-esteem
can impacts adolescent‘s behaviours.
 Conducting awareness program to promote positive body image and self-

esteem among adolescents.
 Counseling can help to facilitate information sessions with regards to the

physiological changes that occur with the onset of puberty and to feel good
about themselves about their body.
 The researcher would like to suggest that in order to promote academic

success, there should be educators training program to understand the need
and overall self-esteem of the students and find ways to promote self-esteem.
 The researcher would suggest to increase the sample size of the study.
 A case study on self-esteem and body image can also be done in order to have
an in-depth understanding of the effect of body image on self esteem.
 Research explores only link between body image and self esteem where as
other aspects of body image can be studied.
5.4LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
 The sample of 76 adolescents in Guwahati is selected for the study. Size of

the sample may not sufficient for representation of the entire population.
 Research is limited to adolescents of Guwahati where there are adolescents in
other parts of Assam.
 Most of the respondents were reluctant to give response.
CONCLUSION
Based on the literature review it was found that no such research has been conducted
in Guwahati, Assam that study issues related to body image. Researcher aimed to
conduct a study in Guwahati to find out the relationship between body image
satisfaction and self esteem associated with body image among adolescents. Physical
changes during puberty may cause them to have both positive and negative feelings
towards their body which in turn affects their self-esteem. Though there are many
factors that influence adolescents‘ self-esteem, body image is one critical factor
(Paxton et al. 2006). Self-esteem and body image perceptions are the terms that are
often used interchangeably to refer to evaluative perceptions of the self and physical
appearance is critical for adolescent boys and girls development of self-confidence
(McCabe and Ricciardelli, 2005). Body image can have a wide of psychological
effects and physical effects people who are underweight or overweight can have poor
negative image. The idea of body image creates body image dissatisfaction, anxiety,
and a sense of insecurity and lack of confidence. The current research is a quantitative
research. The sampling method in this study is simple random sampling and the
research design is a correlation design. The researcher used two standardized scale to
find out the relationship between body image satisfaction and self esteem. From the
present findings, researcher concluded that body image satisfaction had positive
correlation to self-esteem, however not significant and gender differences in body
image satisfaction and self esteem were found among adolescents, however not significant.
REFERENCES
V. Divya & K. Mayuri, ―Body Image Perceptions and Its Correlation with Self
Esteem of Adolescents Studying In Engineering Colleges of Hyderabad‖, The
International Journal of Indian Psychology, Volume 3, Issue 1, No.10, ISSN: 2349-
3429 (p), (October December, 2015)
Sunetra Kaviraj, Abhik Sinha, Nabanita Chakraborty, Himanish Roy, Ronjoy

Majumdar, Murari Mohan Mondal, ―Physical Activity Status and Body Image
Perception of Adolescent Females in A Slum In Kolkata‖, India, IOSR Journal of
Dental and Medical Sciences, IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences Volume
10, Issue 1), PP 11-14, (Sep. - Oct. 2013),.
Maggie A. Brennan, Christopher E. Lalonde, Jody L. Bain, ―Do Gender Differences

Exist?‖, Journal of Undergraduate Research, Body Image Perceptions:Psi Chi Journal
of Undergraduate Research, 2010, Vol. 15, No. 3.
Eivind Meland, Siren Haugland and Hans-Johan Breidablik. Body image and
perceived health in adolescence. Advance Access publication (6 September 2006),
Vol.22 no.3,2007, Pages 342–350
Jennifer Shroff, Pendley, Lynnda M. Dahlquist, and ZoAnn Dreyer, ―Body Image
and Psychosocial Adjustment in Adolescent Cancer Survivors‖, Journal of Paediatric
Psychology, Vol. 22, No. 1, 1997, pp. 29-43
Hailey E. Nielson, Justine J. Reel, Nick A. Galli, Benjamin T. Crookston, and Maya
Miyairi .Body Image and Westernization Trends Among Japanese Adolescents. The
Health Educator, Spring 2013, Vol. 45, No1.
Aaron J. Blashill and Sabine Wilhelm, 2014.Body Image Distortions, Weight, and
Depression in Adolescent Boys: Longitudinal Trajectories into Adulthood Psychology of
Men & Masculinity, 2014. Vol. 15, No. 4,pp 445– 45
Lana Peternel and Anita Sujold(2009).Adolescents Eating Behaviour, Body Image

and Psychological Well-Being. Original scientific paper.Coll. Antropol.33 (2009)1:
pp-205–212.
Monireh Hatami, Mohd Nasir Mohd Taib, Abolghassem Djazayery, Mansooreh Sadat
Mojani and Fariborz Hamidi Mejlej, ―Relationship between body image, body
dissatisfaction and weight status in Iranian adolescents‖, (02 April 2015). Archives of
Obesity, 1:1. Retrieved from http://www.vipoa.org/obesity
Abamara Nnaemeka C and Agu Solomon A., ―Relationship between Body Image and
Self-Esteem among Female Undergraduate Students of Behavioural Sciences‖, IOSR
Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Volume 19, Issue 1, Ver. XII
(Feb. 2014), PP 01-05.
Marjorie J. Hogan and Victor C (January 2009). Strasburger.Body image, eating

disorders, and the media. Adolescent Medicine 19 (2008) 521-546.Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24025314
Daniel Clay, Vivian L. Vignoles,and Helga Dittmar, ―Body Image and Self-Esteem
Among Adolescent Girls: Testing the Influence of Sociocultural Factors‖, Journal of
research on adolescence, 15(4), 451–477.
M. Brent Donnellan, Kali H. Trzesniewski, Richard W. Robins, Terrie E. Moffitt and

Avshalom Caspi.Low Self-Esteem Is Related to Aggression, Antisocial Behavior and
Delinquency. Psychological science, Volume 16—Number 4.
Deependra Kaji Thapa and Subash Thapa, 2015. Gender Differences in Body Image
Dissatisfaction and Eating Disorder among Nepalese Adolescents: a Paradigm Shift
from Fatness to Thinness.iMedPub Journals. Vol. 1 No. 2: 12
Agam R, Tamir S, Golan M (2015) Gender Differences in Respect to Self-Esteem and

Body Image as Well as Response to Adolescents‘ School-Based Prevention Programs.
J Psychol Clin Psychiatry 2(5): 00092.
Kelly Marie Picard May2009.Adolescent Body Image and Self-Esteem.

Retrivedfrom-http://studylib.net/doc/10591211/running-head--adolescent-body-
image-and-self-esteem.
Singh Mannat M, Parsekar Shradha S and T.V. Bhumika, ― Body Image, Eating
Disorders and Role of Media among Indian Adolescents ―, .J. Indian Assoc. Child
Adolescent. Ment. Health 2016; 12(1):9-35
Brittany Ballweg (Spring2014).Combating eating disorder by addressing body image

in high
schools.Retrivedfrom:http://www.winona.edu/counseloreducation/media/school_coun
seling_and_body_image_-_spring_2014_capstone.pdf
Bextiyar Aliyev and Abdullah Turkmen (2014) .Parent, Peer and Media Effect on the
Perception of Body Image in Preadolescent Girls and Boys. Universal Journal of
Psychology 2(7): 224-230, 2014.
Andrea Dawn Kinlen (December, 2006).Self-perceptions and body image in

preadolescent girls and BOYS.Retrivedfrom:http://digital.library.okstate.edu/etd/umi-
okstate-2123.
Ryan R.Wagner( May,2008), ―Body Image Perceptions of Adolescent Males‖,

Retrieved from: http://www2.uwstout.edu/content/lib/thesis/2008/2008wagnerr.pdf
Ellen R. Albertson & Kristin D. Neff & Karen E. Dill-Shackleford (January 25,2014),
―Self-Compassion and Body Dissatisfaction in Women: A Randomized Controlled
Morteza Tarkhan, Mina Esmaeilpour, Taher Tizdast(28 September 2013) ―A study of

the relationship between social anxiety, social self-efficacy and body image in the girl
students of the Islamic Azad University at Tonekabon Branch. European Online
Journal of Natural and Social Sciences 2013; vol.2, No.4, pp. 510-515
a
Michelle E. Chase (December, 2001).Identity development and body image
dissatisfaction in college females (A Research Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Master of Science Degree with a Major in Guidance and
Counseling).
Camelia Soponaru, Ancuta Bojian and Magdalena Iorga (9 May 2016).Gender

differences regarding body image, stress and coping strategies in adolescence. Arch
Med Sci Civil Dis 2016; 1: e36–e42
Cheri A. Levinson & Thomas L. Rodebaugh, ―Social Appearance Anxiety, Fear of

Negative Evaluation, and Health: The Relationship with Obesity and Body Image‖.
(http://selfcompassion.org/wpcontent/uploads/publications/AlbertsonBodyImage.pdf)
Humberto Blanco Vega, Juan Francisco Aguirre Chavez, Judith Margarita Rodríguez-
Villalobos, José René Blanco Ornelas, Héctor Luis Medina Lopez(October 2014), ―
Body Image Anxiety on University Students (Differences between Men and
Women)‖.Open Journal of Medical Psychology, 2014, pp. 348-354
David B. Sarwer J. Kevin Thompson, Thomas F. Cash (2005).Body Image and

Obesity in Adulthood. Psychiatric Clinic North America 28 (2005), pp. 69–87.
Lina A. Ricciardelli , Marita P. McCabe, Sophie Banfield, September 2000, ―Body

image and body change methods in adolescent boys: Role of parents, friends and the
media‖. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Volume 49, Issue 3, Pp. 189–197
Hatata H, Awaad M, El sheikh M, Refaat G, January 2009, ― Body Image

Dissatisfaction and its Relationships with Psychiatric Symptomatology, Eating Beliefs
and Self Esteem in Egyptian Female Adolescents‖, Current Psychiatry [Egypt] Vol.
16 No.1
Sweta Goswami, Sandeep Sachdeva and Ruchi Sachdeva,2012,‖Body image

satisfaction among female students‖. Indian Psychiatry Journal, 21(2)pp-168–172.

Body Image PDF 1 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Body Image PDF 1 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Body Image PDF 1 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Relationship between body image and self esteem

A study on relationship between body image and self esteem among

ASSAM DON BOSCO UNIVERSITY

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for

MASTER OF PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELLING

Department Of Psychology and Counselling

Assam Don Bosco University

Tapesia Gardens, Sonapur-782402,

(Dr. Riju Sharma) (Ms.Neelam Bara)

Director, Department of psychology

School of Humanities and Social science and Counselling

It is my radiant sentiment to place on record my best regards, deepest sense of

I am using this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Riju Sharma,

Thank You Geetashree Bortamuly

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE

1.2 Background of the study..................................................................................5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................6

CHAPTER 3RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...................................................23

3.2Statement of the problem..................................................................................24

3.3 Research objectives...........................................................................................25

3.5Significance of the study..................................................................................25-26

3.9 Population of the study..................................................................................27-28

3.13Tools of data collection......................................................................................29

3.14Rationale of the study........................................................................................30

CHAPTER4: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION............................31

4.2Demographic details of the respondents.......................................................32-34

4.3 Objective wise analysis........................................................................................34

Objective one: To study the body image satisfaction among

Objective two: To study the level of self esteem among adolescents...............35-36

CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION.....................................................39

5.1.2Body Image ............................................................................................40

5.1.4 Relationship with body Image and self-esteem……………………...41

5.3 Suggestions and recommendations……………………………………...43

5.4Limitations of the study…………………………………………………..43

Table1.Age of the respondents...........................................................................32

Table3.Level of body image satisfaction among adolescents in Guwahati.......34

Table4.Level of self esteem among adolescents.....................................................35

Table8. Independent Sample test..............................................................................38

Figure4.2.1Age of the respondents......................................................................33

Figure4.3.1Body image satisfaction......................................................................35

Figure 4.3.2Level of self-esteem............................................................................36

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Negative body image -Negative body image is defined by negative perceptions of

Self-esteem is defined as a ‗‗positive or negative attitude toward . . . the self‘‘

During adolescence self-perception about their appearance is important to the

Body Image and Self-esteem

1.2BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

V.Divya and Dr K.Mayuri, 2015.Self esteem is an outcome of many factors, here

Inventory (BIQLI), Situational Inventory of Body-Image Dysphoria (SIBID-

was cross-national Survey, Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HSBC).

Hailey E. Nielson, Justine J. Reel, Nick A. Galli, Benjamin T. Crookston, and

Marjorie J. Hogan and Victor C(January 2009).According to this article it is

Daniel Clay, Vivian L. Vignoles and Helga Dittmar(2005).Article mention the

M. Brent Donnellan, Kali H. Trzesniewski, Richard W. Robins, Terrie E. Moffitt

school attendance (M = 2.52±0.96), romantic relationships (M = 2.51 ±1.04), home

Cheri A. Levinson & Thomas L. Rodebaugh, 2014.Here study examined negative

Humberto Blanco Vega, Juan Francisco Aguirre Chavez, Judith Margarita

David B. Sarwer J. Kevin Thompson, Thomas F. Cash (2005).Here this research

Lina A. Ricciardelli , Marita P.McCabe and Sophie Banfield(September 2000).